1

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION TO FIBER OPTIC
1.1 Introduction:
In 1880 Alexander Graham Bell and his assistant Charles Sumner Tainted
created a very early precursor to fiber-optic communications, the Photo
phone, at Bell's newly established Volta Laboratory in Washington, D.C. Bell
considered it is the most important invention. The device allowed for the
transmission of sound on a beam of light. On June 3, 1880, Bell conducted the
world's first wireless telephone transmission between two buildings, some
213 meters apart. Due to its use of an atmospheric transmission medium, the
Photo phone would not prove practical until advances in laser and optical
fiber technologies permitted the secure transport of light. The Photo phones
first practical use came in military communication systems many decades
later.[1]

Figure 1.1: Fiber Optic System

Fiber Optic communication systems have become the backbone of the

Internet and telecommunications systems around the world. The fiber Optic
system provides bandwidth measured in hundreds of Giga bits per second.
The super- broad band of optical fiber allows Internet service providers to
offer multiplicity of multimedia applications to consumer and business.
Optical Cable can contain up to several hundred individual fibers with
diameters measured in microns. Optical cable has been installed virtually
world-wide. The optical cables stretched across oceans and continents
connecting networks and allowing data to flow at super high rates around the
world. Fiber Optic communication systems work by transmitting optical
signals over optical fiber. Fiber optic transmission systems all use data links
that consists of a transmitter coupled to one end of a fiber and a receiver
coupled on the other end. Generally Fiber optics systems are configured by
transmitting on one fiber- in one direction and transmitting from the opposite
direction on another fiber to provide full duplex transmission. Semiconductor
LEDs or lasers are used for optical transmitters and receivers use
semiconductor photo detectors.[1]

1.2 Advantages of fiber optic.

1. Extremely high bandwidth No other cable-based data transmission
medium offers the bandwidth that fiber does.
2. Easy to accommodate increasing bandwidth Using many of the recent
generations of fiber optic cabling, new equipment can be added to the inert
fiber cable that can provide vastly expanded capacity over the originally laid
fiber.
3. Resistance to electromagnetic interference Fiber has a very low rate of bit
error, as a result of fiber being so resistant to electromagnetic interference.
Fiber-optic transmission is virtually noise free.
4. Early detection of cable damage and secure transmissions Fiber provides
an extremely secure transmission medium, as there is no way to detect the
data being transmitted by listening in to the electromagnetic energy
leaking through the cable, as is possible with traditional, electron-based
transmissions. By constantly monitoring an optical network and by carefully
measuring the time it takes light to reflect down the fiber, splices in the cable
can be easily detected.
5. Fiber optic has a long life which means that they can propagate signals
properly for approximately 20 years.
6. By using fiber optic in high distance, the fewer repeaters are required
according to use the coaxial cable.

1.3 Disadvantages of Fiber Optics.

1. Installation costs, while dropping, are still high Despite the fact that fiber
installation costs are dropping by as much as 60% a year, installing fiber optic
cabling is still relatively costly.
2. Special test equipment is often required The test equipment typically and
traditionally used for conventional electron-based networking is of no use in a
fiber optic network.
3. Susceptibility to physical damage Fiber is a small and compact cable, and
it is highly susceptible to becoming cut or damaged during installation or
construction activities.
4. Wildlife damage to fiber optic cables Many birds, for example, find the
Kevlar reinforcing material of fiber cable jackets particularly appealing as
nesting material, so they peck at the fiber cable jackets to utilize bits of that
material.

1.4 Main concept.

The main concept of our project is to design single-mode and multi-mode
fiber optic based on MATLAB Simulink.
1.4.1 Multi-Mode Fiber Optic.
A laser bouncing down an acrylic rod, illustrating the total internal reflection
of light in a multi-mode optical fiber.
Fiber with large core diameter (greater than 10 micrometers) may be analyzed
by geometrical optics. Such fiber is called multi-mode fiber, from the
electromagnetic analysis. In a step-index multi-mode fiber, rays of light are
guided along the fiber core by total internal reflection. Rays that meet the
core-cladding boundary at a high angle (measured relative to a line normal to
the boundary), greater than the critical angle for this boundary, are completely
reflected. The critical angle (minimum angle for total internal reflection) is
determined by the difference in index of refraction between the core and
cladding materials. Rays that meet the boundary at a low angle are refracted
from the core into the cladding, and do not convey light and hence
information along the fiber. The critical angle determines the acceptance
angle of the fiber, often reported as a numerical aperture. A high numerical
aperture allows light to propagate down the fiber in rays both close to the axis

and at various angles, allowing efficient coupling of light into the fiber.
However, this high numerical aperture increases the amount of dispersion as
rays at different angles have different path lengths and therefore take different
times to traverse the fiber.[2]
1.4.2 Single-mode fiber.
Fiber with a core diameter less than about ten times the wavelength of the
propagating light cannot be modeled using geometric optics. Instead, it must
be analyzed as an electromagnetic structure, by solution of Maxwell's
equations as reduced to the electromagnetic wave equation. The
electromagnetic analysis may also be required to understand behaviors such
as speckle that occur when coherent light propagates in multi-mode fiber. As
an optical waveguide, the fiber supports one or more confined transverse
modes by which light can propagate along the fiber. Fiber supporting only
one mode is called single-mode or mono-mode fiber. The behavior of largercore multi-mode fiber can also be modeled using the wave equation, which
shows that such fiber supports more than one mode of propagation (hence the
name). The results of such modeling of multi-mode fiber approximately agree
with the predictions of geometric optics, if the fiber core is large enough to
support more than a few modes.[2],[3]
The waveguide analysis shows that the light energy in the fiber is not
completely confined in the core. Instead, especially in single-mode fibers, a
significant fraction of the energy in the bound mode travels in the cladding as
an evanescent wave.
The most common type of single-mode fiber has a core diameter of 810
micrometers and is designed for use in the near infrared. The mode structure
depends on the wavelength of the light used, so that this fiber actually
supports a small number of additional modes at visible wavelengths. Multimode fiber, by comparison, is manufactured with core diameters as small as
50 micrometers and as large as hundreds of micrometers. The normalized
frequency V for this fiber should be less than the first zero of the Bessel
function (approximately 2.405).

1.5 Project out line

The fabrication of optical fibers involves two stages. In the first stage vapor
deposition method is used to make cylindrical perform with the desired
refractive index profile and the relative core-cladding dimensions. A typical
preform is 1-m long with 2 cm diameter. The second stage the preform is
drawn in to a fiber using a precision-feed mechanism that feeds it in to a
furnace at a proper speed. During this process, the relative core-cladding
dimensions are preserved. Both stages preform fabrication and fiber drawing,
involves sophisticated technology to ensure the uniformity of the core size
and the index profile.[4]

CHAPTER TWO
PRINCIPLES OF FIBER OPTIC

2.1 Fiber optic Operation principle

The basic structure of an optical fiber consists of three parts; the core, the
cladding, and the coating or buffer. The basic structure of an optical fiber is
shown in figure below. The core is a cylindrical rod of dielectric material.
Dielectric material conducts no electricity. Light propagates mainly along the
core of the fiber. The core is generally made of glass.
Definitions of Fiber.
Core, Cladding, Coating
An optical fiber is made of three sections:
The core carries the light signals
The cladding keeps the light in the core
The coating protects the cladding

Figure 2.1: Structure of Fiber Optic

How an Optical Fiber Works:

An Optical Fiber works on the principle of Total Internal Reflection Light
rays are reflected and guided down the length of an optical fiber.
The acceptance angle of the fiber determines which light rays will be guided
down the fiber.
Core characteristics:
1. The diameter of the light carrying region of the fiber is the "core diameter".
2. The larger the core, the more rays of light that travel in the core.
3. The larger the core, the more optical power that can be transmitted.
4. The core has a higher index of refraction than the cladding.
5. The difference in the refractive index of the core and the cladding is known
as delta.

Figure 2.2: Fiber Optic Core Size

Numerical Aperture (NA):

1. Measure of the acceptance angle of light that a fiber can support through
total internal reflection.
2. Designed into the fiber by the difference in indices of refraction between
the core and the cladding material.

Ray Tracing in Optical Fiber:

Figure 2.3: Ray Tracing in Optical Fiber

Fiber material composition

1. Corning optical fiber is an amorphous non crystalline material made of
pure fused silica and Germania dopant.
2. Plastic optical fiber is generally made of a polymathic methacrylate
(PMMA).
3. Experimental fibers are made of other materials such as sapphire.
4. Coatings are usually proprietary to the manufacturer but are usually
acrylate or polyimide based.
5. The primary function of coating is to protect the glass fiber from flaws.

Table 1: Comparison of glass and plastic Fiber Optic

Characteristics
-Fiber core diameter, microns

Glass
50-200

Plastic
250-5000

-clad diameter

125-500

450-6000

-Attenuation at 650 nm, dB/km

4.0

150*

-Maximum transmission distance for

1,500

53

Usable spectral range

UV,VIS,IR

VIS

-Numerical aperture

0.1-0.4

0.3-0.65

-Acceptance angle (cone)

35 degrees

60-75 degrees

75% power loss, meters

10

Bend Induced Attenuation:

1. Micro bending:
Small axial bends/bumps along the fiber axis that cause mixing or loss of
power, this can be induced by fiber jacketing, cabling or environment.
2. Macro Bending:
Bends in an optical fiber will shed rays of light. Power is lost at the bend as
shown in this figure.

Figure 2.4: Micro and Macro bending in fiber optic

2.2 Type of fiber optics.

In telecommunication system generally we have two type of fiber optics.

2.2.1 Single Mode.

Single Mode cable is a single stand of glass fiber with a diameter of 8.3 to 10
microns that has one mode of transmission. Single Mode Fiber with a
relatively narrow diameter, through which only one mode will propagate
typically 1310 or 1550nm. Carries higher bandwidth than multimode fiber,
but requires a light source with a narrow spectral width. Synonyms are monomode optical fiber, single-mode fiber, single-mode optical waveguide, unimode fiber.[3],[5]

11

Single-mode fiber gives you a higher transmission rate and up to 50 times

more distance than multimode, but it also costs more. Single-mode fiber has a
much smaller core than multimode. The small core and single light-wave
virtually eliminate any distortion that could result from overlapping light
pulses, providing the least signal attenuation and the highest transmission
speeds of any fiber cable type.
Single-mode optical fiber is an optical fiber in which only the lowest order
bound mode can propagate at the wavelength of interest typically 1300 to
1320nm. [3],[5]

2.2.2 Multi-Mode.
Multimode cable is made of glass fibers, with common diameters in the 50-to100 micron range for the light carry component (the most common size is
62.5). POF is a newer plastic-based cable which promises performance
similar to glass cable on very short runs, but at a lower cost.
Multimode fiber gives you high bandwidth at high speeds over medium
distances. Light waves are dispersed into numerous paths, or modes, as they
travel through the cable's core typically 850 or 1300nm. Typical multimode
fiber core diameters are 50, 62.5, and 100 micrometers. However, in long
cable runs (greater than 3000 feet [914.4 ml), multiple paths of light can cause
signal distortion at the receiving end, resulting in an unclear and incomplete
data transmission.
How do I know what type of fiber I need?
This is based on transmission distance to be covered as well as the overall
budget allowed. If the distance is less than a couple of miles, multimode fiber
will work well and transmission system costs (transmitter and receiver) will
be in the $500 to $800 range. If the distance to be covered is more than 3-5
miles, single mode fiber is the choice. Transmission systems designed for use
with this fiber will typically cost more than $1000 (due to the increased cost
of the laser diode).
What is the difference between multimode and single mode fiber?
Multimode fiber has a relatively large light carrying core, usually 62.5
microns or larger in diameter. It is usually used for short distance
transmissions with LED based fiber optic equipment. Single-mode fiber has a
small light carrying core of 8 to 10 microns in diameter. It is normally used
for long distance transmissions with laser diode based fiber optic transmission
equipment.
No. Multimode equipment will not launch (inject) enough light into a singlemode fiber since the light carrying core of this fiber is only 9 microns in
diameter compared to 62.5 microns in diameter for multimode fiber.

12

Unfortunately you must use single-mode equipment. If the fiber distance is

short however, the cost for replacing the single-mode fiber with multimode
fiber may be more economical than the higher cost for the single-mode
electronics. [3],[5]

2.3 The effect of the core diameter on fiber optics.

The core of a conventional optical fiber is a cylinder of glass or plastic that
runs along the fiber's length. The core is surrounded by a medium with a
lower index of refraction, typically a cladding of a different glass, or plastic.
Light travelling in the core reflects from the core-cladding boundary due
to total internal reflection, as long as the angle between the light and the
boundary is less than the critical angle. As a result, the fiber transmits
all rays that enter the fiber with a sufficiently small angle to the fiber's axis.
The limiting angle is called the acceptance angle, and the rays that are
confined by the core/cladding boundary are called guided rays.
The core is characterized by its diameter or cross-sectional area. In most cases
the core's cross-section should be circular, but the diameter is more rigorously
defined as the average of the diameters of the smallest circle that can be
circumscribed about the core-cladding boundary, and the largest circle that
can be inscribed within the core-cladding boundary. This allows for
deviations from circularity due to manufacturing variation.[6]
Another commonly quoted statistic for core size is the mode field diameter.
This is the diameter at which the intensity of light in the fiber falls to some
specified fraction of maximum (usually 1/e2 13.5%). For single-mode fiber,
the mode field diameter is larger than the physical diameter of the core,
because the light penetrates slightly into the cladding as an evanescent wave.
The three most common core sizes are:

9 m diameter (single-mode)
50 m diameter (multi-mode)
62.5 m diameter (multi-mode)

13

2.4 The effect of wavelength on fiber optic.

Fiber optics is full of jargon but it's important to understand it. One of the
more confusing terms to many is "wavelength." it sounds very scientific, but
it is simply the term used to define what we think of as the color of light.
Light is part of the "electromagnetic spectrum" that also includes X-rays,
Ultraviolet radiation, Microwaves, Radio, TV, Cell phones, and all the other
wireless signals. They are simply electromagnetic radiation of different
wavelengths. We refer to the range of wavelengths of electromagnetic
radiation as a spectrum.
Wavelength and frequency are related, so some radiation is identified by its
wavelength while others are referred to by their frequency. For the radiation
of shorter wavelengths, light, UV and X-rays, for example, we generally refer
to their wavelength to identify them, while the longer wavelengths like Radio,
TV and Microwaves, we refer to by their frequency.
For fiber optics with glass fibers, we use light in the infrared region which has
wavelengths longer than visible light, typically around 850, 1300 and 1550
nm. Why do we use the infrared? Because the attenuation of the fiber is much
less at those wavelengths. The attenuation of glass optical fiber is caused by
two factors, absorption and scattering. Absorption occurs in several specific
wavelengths called water bands due to the absorption by minute amounts of
water vapor in the glass.
Scattering is caused by light
bouncing off atoms or molecules in
the glass. It is strongly a function of
wavelength, with longer wavelengths
having much lower scattering. Have
you ever wondered why the sky is
blue? It's because the light from the
sun is more strongly scattered in the
blue.

14

Figure 2.5: Wavelength of fiber

Fiber optic transmission wavelengths are determined by two factors:

Longer wavelengths in the infrared for lower loss in the glass fiber and at
wavelengths which are between the absorption bands. Thus the normal
wavelengths are 850, 1300 and 1550 nm. Fortunately, we are also able to
make transmitters (lasers or LEDs) and receivers (photo detectors) at these
particular wavelengths.[7],[8],[9]

2.5 The effect of Numerical Aperture on fiber optics.

In optics, the numerical aperture (NA) of an optical system is a dimensionless
number that characterizes the range of angles over which the system can
accept or emit light. By incorporating index of refraction in its definition, NA
has the property that it is constant for a beam as it goes from one material to
another, provided there is no optical power at the interface. The exact
definition of the term varies slightly between different areas of optics.
Numerical aperture is commonly used in microscopy to describe the
acceptance cone of an objective (and hence its light-gathering ability
and resolution), and in fiber optics, in which it describes the range of angles
within which light that is incident on the fiber will be transmitted along
it.[9],[10]

Figure 2.6: Numerical aperture

15

The numerical aperture with respect to a point p depends on the half-angle, 1,

of the maximum cone of light that can enter or exit the lens and the ambient
index of refraction. As a pencil of light goes through a flat plane of glass, its
half-angle changes to 2. Due to Snell's law, the numerical aperture remains
the same:

NA = n1sin1 + n2sin2 . . 1
Where n is the index of refraction of the medium in which the lens is working
(1.00 for Air, 1.33 for pure Water, and typically 1.52 for immersion Oil; see
also list of refractive indices)

2.6 The effect of input power on fiber optic.

Fiber optic cables have played a critical role in long distance communications
for many decades, but in very few applications do they play a useful role in
the transmission of power. The primary reason for this is that the rate at which
a fiber optic cable loses power is significantly higher than the rate at which an
electronic transmission line loses power. High voltage electrical power lines
remain an economical mode of energy transport over a range of a few
thousand kilometers, but if one were to attempt to guide a laser through just
50km of standard single-mode optical fiber, they would find that the power on
the other end of the line has already reduced to 10% of its input.
Power transfer aside, pumping large
quantities of power through an optical
fiber is surprisingly difficult. Even for a
long-haul optical fiber network, it is
advantage to start with a high input
power, as it would improve the signalto-noise (SNR) ratio at the other end,
but if you were to try to send more than
a few Mill watts of power through a
normal single-mode fiber that was 10s
of kilometers long, you would notice
that all of the light turns around and
comes straight back in your direction.
For similar reasons, it is considerably
difficult to create very high power lasers
in general.[10]

16

2.7 Applications.
Optical fiber is used by many telecommunications companies to transmit
telephone signals, Internet communication, and cable television signals. Due
to much lower attenuation and interference, optical fiber has large advantages
over existing copper wire in long-distance and high-demand applications.
However, infrastructure development within cities was relatively difficult and
time-consuming, and fiber-optic systems were complex and expensive to
install and operate. Due to these difficulties, fiber-optic communication
systems have primarily been installed in long-distance applications, where
they can be used to their full transmission capacity, offsetting the increased
cost. Since 2000, the prices for fiber-optic communications have dropped
considerably.[10]
Many other networks use fiber. CCTV often uses fiber for its distance
capability and security, especially in large buildings like airports and
metropolitan networks. Security systems are more secure on fiber. Practically
any network today has a fiber optic option.
Another application of fiber optic is cabling such as designing of networks,
when the connection between LANs and WANs were needed.
As shown in the figure below:

Figure 2.7: Design fiber optic cable inside building

17

CHAPTER THREE
SIMULATION
3.1 Introduction:
In this project the design of fiber optic types has been done with using
MATLAB simulation program, single mode fiber optic, multimode step index
and multimode graded index fiber optic. The design of these types depend
different variables such as core radius ,refractive index, wavelength used and
length of the fiber optic consequently the time delay , attenuation and
received power would be varied due to the length product bandwidth (L*BW)
of the fiber optic used.
3.2 design single mode and multi-mode fiber optic:
In order to design single mode fiber optic, at first, the numerical aperture
(N.A) is calculated for different core refractive index assuming refractive
index difference is 1%.as shown in the table below.
Table 2: Calculation of Numerical aperture

core refractive index

n1=1.43

n1=1.44

n1=1.45

n1=1.46

N.A

0.1688

0.1694

0.1700

0.1706

Secondly the V number or V parameter will be calculated for three variables

core radius (a), wavelength (LA) and the numerical aperture (N.A) as shown
in the table below
Table 3: Normalized Frequency

V parameter

2.4478

3.5481

34.4562

66.9894

N.A

0.1688

0.1694

0.1700

0.1706

a (m)

50

100

LA (m)

1.3

1.5

1.55

1.6

18

After calculating V parameter several important factors can be obtained such

as spot size, mid field diameter (MFD) in addition to the types of modes or
the numbers of the modes. As shown in the table below.
Table 4: midfield Diameter

V parameter

2.4478

3.5481

34.4562

66.9894

a (m)

50

100

spot size (m)

3.2584

4.4684

32.9

65.295

MFD (m)

6.5168

8.9369

65.800

130.59

no. of modes

single mode

single mode

594

2244

step index

graded index

3.3 Transmission characteristics of optical fibers.

The transmission characteristic of most interest is those of attenuation (or
loss). The other characteristic of primary importance is the bandwidth of the
fiber. This is limited by the signal dispersion within the fiber, which
determines the number of bits of information transmitted in a given time
period. Therefore, once the attenuation was reduced to acceptable levels,
attention was directed towards the dispersive properties of fibers Again, this
has led to substantial improvements, giving wideband fiber bandwidths of
many tens of gigahertz over a number of kilometers.
Firstly, Linear scattering losses is has been calculated. Linear scattering may
be categorized into two major types: Rayleigh and Mie scattering. Then from
Rayleigh scattering the loss factor (lambda) is obtained and from loss factor
the attenuation occur to the signal can be determined .finally the output power
can be calculated through the system. As shown in the table below.

Table 5: Transmission characteristic of optical fiber

LA (m)

0.63

1.00

1.30

1.625

L (km)

60

100

200

Gamma R(m-1)

0.0012

1.8950e-004

6.6349e-005

2.7177e-005

Lambda

0.3003

1.1536e-005

0.0013

0.0044

Alpha (dB)

5.2243

49.3793

28.8151

23.6053

19

3.4 Dispersion
Dispersion of the transmitted optical signal causes distortion for both digital
and analog transmission along optical fibers. When considering the major
implementation of optical fiber transmission which involves some form of
digital modulation, then dispersion mechanisms within the fiber cause
broadening of the transmitted light pulses as they travel along the channel.in
order to evaluate the broadening of the pulses within the fiber optic is done by
taking the differences between the first mode arrives the receiver from the last
ones then from this delay time we can evaluating the root mean square of the
received signal and the bandwidth provided by the system with overlap or
without overlap of the transmitted pulses as shown in the table below.
Table 6: Dispersion

core refractive index

n1=1.43

n1=1.44

n1=1.45

n1=1.46

60

100

200

delay (nsec)

47.667

2880

4833.3

9733.3

sigma(nsec)

13.76

831.38

1395.3

2809.8

B no ISI (MHz)

10.49

0.1736

0.10345

0.05137

B with ISI (MHz)

14.534

0.24

0.14334

0.071178

BWL (GHz Km)

14.534

14.433

14.334

14.236

L (km)

Figure 3.1: Design Single mode and multimode by using matlab simulink

20

3.5 Matlab Code:

close all
clear all
clc
k1 = menu('Enter the Refractive Index for Core (range=1.431.47)','1.43','1.44','1.45','1.46')
if k1==1
n1=1.43;
elseif k1==2;
n1=1.44;
elseif k1==3;
n1=1.45;
else
n1=1.46
end
n2=n1-0.01; % input('Enter the refractive index for Cladding 1.44=');
NA=(n1.^2-n2.^2).^0.5
k66 = menu('Enter the wave Length','1535e-9','1540-9e','1545e9','1550e-9','1555e-9','1575e-9','1580e-9','1585e-9','1590e9','1595e-9')
if k66==1
LA=1535e-9;
elseif k66==2;
LA=1540e-9
elseif k66==3;
LA=1545e-9
elseif k66==4;
LA=1550e-9
elseif k66==5;
LA=1555e-9
elseif k66==6;
LA=1575e-9
elseif k66==7;
LA=1580e-9
elseif k66==8;
LA=1585e-9
elseif k66==9;
LA=1590e-9
else
LA=1595e-9
end
k9 = menu('Enter the Core Radius','3e-6','5e-6','50e-6','100e6','200e-6')
if k9==1
a=3e-6;
elseif k9==2;
a=5e-6;
elseif k66==3;
a=50e-6;
elseif k66==4
a=100e-6;
else

21
a=200e-6;
end
k77 = menu('Enter the Length of
Fiber','10^3','20^3','30^3','40^3','50^3','60^3','70^3','80^3','90^3'
)
if k77==1
L=10^3;
elseif k77==2;
L=20^3;
elseif k77==3;
L=30^3;
elseif k77==4;
L=40^3;
elseif k77==5
L=50^3;
elseif k77==6
L=60^3;
elseif k77==7
L=70^3;
elseif k77==8
L=80^3;
elseif k77==9
L=90^3;
end
k9=a
%Numerical Aperature
NA=(n1.^2-n2.^2).^0.5
V=2*pi*a*NA/LA;
%Spot size:
wo=a.*(.65 +1.619*V^1.5+2.879*V^6);
%Mode Field Diameter:
MFD=2*wo;
%the effictive area:
Aeef=pi*wo^2;
%speed of light;
C=3*10^8
%the fractional index:
delta=0.01
%delay difference at the fiber output:
delay=L*n1*delta/(C)
% the rms pulse broading duto intermodal disparssion
rms=L*n1*delta/(3.464*C)
%The maximum Bit Rate
%no over lap
B=1/(2*delay)
%with over lab
B1=0.2/(rms)
%The bandwidth length product crospounding to (C)
Bw=B1*L
%Intensity at MFD:

22
Io=2e-6;
I_wo=0.135*Io;
%The loss due to micro bending loss Multi Mode
alphaMM=0.15;
%The loss due to micro bending loss Singl Mode
alphaSM=2*10^-4*wo^6*LA^-4*alphaMM
%the fractional index:
delta=(n1-n2)/n2;
%Linear Scattering
%Rayleigh Scattering
%Boltizman Constant
k=1.895*10^-28
gamaR=k/(LA^4)
%Transmission loss factor
lembda=exp(-gamaR*L)
%Attenuation per Km
alpha=10*log(1/lembda)
%Non linear Scattering
%Stimulated Brillouin Scattering(SBS)
PB=4.4*10^-3*a^2*LA^2*alpha
%Stimulated Raman Scattering(SRS)
PR=5.9*10^-2*a^2*LA*alpha

%The Rayleigh scattering loss:

alphaI=(0.75+4.5*delta)*LA^-4;
c=2.6*10^-26;
%The self-phase modulation coefficient:
gama=2*pi*c/Aeef*LA;
%attenuation:
%alpha=0.2;
%the maximum input power:
Pin=logm(10)*alpha/100*gama
%The maximum output power:
Pout=Pin-alpha
%[result]_7=[wo MFD Aeef alphaSM delta gama p]
%-----------------------------r1=0.125%input('Enter radius of cladding(suggest 0.125)=');
circle1 = rsmak('circle',r1,[1;1]);
circle1a = rsmak('circle',r1,[3;1]);
rc=k9/r1% input('Enter radius of core as % of R_Cladding(suggest
0.7=70%)=')
r2=a

23
circle2 = rsmak('circle',r2,[1;1]);
circle2a = rsmak('circle',r2,[3;1]);
%r3=0.015;
r3=a;

%input('Enter radius of spot (suggest 0.015)=');

circle3 = rsmak('circle',r3,[1;1]);
circle3a = rsmak('circle',r3,[2.9;1]);
figure(1)
hold on
fnplt(circle1,50), axis ([0 4 0

2])

%fnplt(circle2,50,'r'), axis ([0 4 0

fnplt(circle3,5,'og'), axis ([0 4 0
text(0.25,1.5,'The Spot

2])

2])

lay in centre of fiber')

fnplt(circle1a,50), axis ([0 4 0

2])

% fnplt(circle2a,50,'r'), axis ([0 4 0

fnplt(circle3a,5,'og'), axis ([0 4 0

2])
2])

text(2.3,1.5,'The Spot is shifted ')

%legend('optical fiber cross section',0)
% legend('spot size''b','core''r',1)
title('design optical fiber','fontsize',14)
%figure(2)
%hold on
%plot(alphaSM,'b')

24

CHAPTER FOUR
CONCLUSION

4.1 conclusions:
In table (1)
When increase the value of core refractive index (n1) the value of numerical
aperture will increase and the refractive index of the clad (n2) must be lower
than the refractive index of the core (n1) to achieve the maximum value of the
numerical aperture (NA).
The higher value of (NA) means the good capacitance of the fiber optic which
is useful
= 12 22 . 2
In table (2)
Normalized frequency (V) is a very useful measure of a fiber in same text it is
called the dimensionless fiber parameter (V) summarizes all of the important
characteristics of a fiber in single number
2
=
() . 3

The ideal number for (V) parameter is equal to (2.405), but in practical we get
(2.4478) the v-parameter depend on wave length and radiuses of core
(according to their equation). If we want to remain this value we should
change the number of (a& ) so its single mode step index.
If V parameter existed this range the mode is change to single mode graded
index, multimode step index, multimode graded index.

25

In table (3)
The mode field is defined as the distance between the points where the
strength of the electric field is decayed to 0.37*(1/e) of the peak the mode
field can be considered the effective core of the fiber .the MDF gives the
number that measure the extent of the region that carries the optical signal .
The spot size is used to characterize single mode fiber the diameter of the spot
size (W0) is just the radius of MDF
//w0 is the nominal half width of spot size
We put the normalized frequency (v=2.4478) and the core radius (a=3)
We get the value of spot size will be (3.2584) by its equation
(Spot size=a*na+n1*v)=w0
And the midfield diameter equation (d=2*W0) and the number of modes of
this just only one.
We discuss that this type of fiber will be single mode step index
But for the other types of fiber (graded index &step index multi-mode) we
can calculate its value by this equation
2

Number of modes = 4. 4
So, we know that the value of mid field diameter is a twice the value of the
spot size.
By increasing the value of (a) and (v) the spot size value will be increased too.
Table (4)
Linear scattering is one of the attenuation mechanisms that may be
categorized into two major types:
1. Rayleigh scattering
2. Mie scattering
In Rayleigh scattering must of the attenuation in fiber is caused by light being
scattered by variations (less than 1/10th of the wave length) in the density
= /4 . 5
r: is the Rayleigh scattering coefficient
k: constant proportionality
: is the optical wave length

26

The Rayleigh scattering coefficient is related to the transmission loss factor

(Transmissivity) of the fiber
= () . 6
In this table we discovered that by increasing the length and the number of
splices, the attenuation of the fiber will be increased too (which means that we
have a high loss in the fiber cable)
But we can control this attenuation (alpha) of the cable by increasing the
lambda (la) of the cable and we could achieve good cable for transmission.
For example in the first column we have one kilometer length with the
attenuation of ( =5.2243 dB) and the Lambda (LA=0.63 micrometer) which
is very small and we have no splice on the cable.
And in the second column we have 60km length with 59 splices and the
lambda of (LA=1 micrometer) the attenuation value is (=49.3793dB) which
is very high.
But we see in the last column the attenuation is small (=23.6053dB) with the
respect to length of fiber that was very high (200KM) it's because of the high
value of lambda (LA=1.625 micrometer)
And we can measure the value of output power by the difference between the
input power and the attenuation loss of the fiber cable.
Pout = Pin - dB. 7
TABLE 5
For no over lapping no ISI ( inter symbol interference ) of light pulses down
on an optical fiber link the digital bit rate (BT) must be less than the
reciprocal of the broadened pulse duration (2)
Max bit rate = 1/2
For the existence of a certain amount of sigma overlap on the channel (ISI)
becomes pronounced
Max bit rate =0.2/
Where is rms width value of the pulse.
In this table we discovered that by increasing the value of core refractive
index (n1) and length of the fiber (l) in (km) the value of delay and sigma will
increase.
When we measure the maximum bit rate or (no overlap) the value of bit rate
will decrease.
And for (overlap) the value of bit rate will be decrease too.

27

References:
[1] Fiber-optic communication system, 3rd Ed, By: Govind P.Agrawal
[2] Introduction of fiber optics, 1st Ed, By:Ajoy Ghatak , K. Thyagarajan
[3] Fiber optic communications fundamentals and applications,1st Ed, By:
Shiva Kumar , M. Jamal Deen
[4] Construction of multimode fiber modes using phase masks, By: Alexander
Tulikumwenayo, Scholar work project.
[5] Fiber-Optic Communication Principles and practices, 3rd Ed, by John M.
Senior.
[6] Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_fiber
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Core_(optical_fiber)
[7] Fiber Optic Communications access August 7, 2011
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication.html
[8] Fiber Optic Basics accessed August 8, 2011
http://www.thefoa.org/tech/ref/basic/nets.html
[9] Fiber Optic Communication Systems accessed August 8, 2011
http://www.gatewaycoalition.org/files/NewEH/htmls/Shankar.doc
[10] Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_aperture
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_communication

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