Computer science

Contents
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Main article

1.1

Computer science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.1

History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.2

Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.3

Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.4

Areas of computer science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.5

The great insights of computer science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.6

Academia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.7

Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.8

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.9

Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.11 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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1.1.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Supporting article

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2.1

History of computer science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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2.1.1

Binary logic

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2.1.2

Birth of the computer

2.1.3

Emergence of a discipline

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2.1.4

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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2.1.5

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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2.1.6

Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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2.1.7

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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3.1

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Chapter 1

Main article
1.1 Computer science
Computer science deals with the theoretical foundations
of information and computation, together with practical
techniques for the implementation and application of
these foundations.
Computer science is the scientic and practical approach to computation and its applications. It is the
systematic study of the feasibility, structure, expression, and mechanization of the methodical procedures
(or algorithms) that underlie the acquisition, representation, processing, storage, communication of, and access
to information. An alternate, more succinct denition of
computer science is the study of automating algorithmic
processes that scale. A computer scientist specializes in
the theory of computation and the design of computational systems.[1]

Charles Babbage is credited with inventing the rst mechanical

computer.

Its elds can be divided into a variety of theoretical and

practical disciplines. Some elds, such as computational
complexity theory (which explores the fundamental properties of computational and intractable problems), are
highly abstract, while elds such as computer graphics
emphasize real-world visual applications. Still other elds
focus on challenges in implementing computation. For
example, programming language theory considers various approaches to the description of computation, while
the study of computer programming itself investigates
various aspects of the use of programming language and
complex systems. Humancomputer interaction considers the challenges in making computers and computations
useful, usable, and universally accessible to humans.

1.1.1

ther, algorithms for performing computations have existed since antiquity, even before the development of sophisticated computing equipment. The ancient Sanskrit
treatise Shulba Sutras, or Rules of the Chord, is a book
of algorithms written in 800 BC for constructing geometric objects like altars using a peg and chord, an early precursor of the modern eld of computational geometry.
Blaise Pascal designed and constructed the rst working mechanical calculator, Pascals calculator, in 1642.[2]
In 1673, Gottfried Leibniz demonstrated a digital mechanical calculator, called the Stepped Reckoner.[3] He
may be considered the rst computer scientist and information theorist, for, among other reasons, documenting
the binary number system. In 1820, Thomas de Colmar launched the mechanical calculator industry[note 1]
when he released his simplied arithmometer, which
was the rst calculating machine strong enough and reliable enough to be used daily in an oce environment.
Charles Babbage started the design of the rst automatic mechanical calculator, his Dierence Engine, in
1822, which eventually gave him the idea of the rst
programmable mechanical calculator, his Analytical Engine.[4] He started developing this machine in 1834 and

History

Main article: History of computer science

See also: History of computing and History of informatics
The earliest foundations of what would become computer science predate the invention of the modern digital
computer. Machines for calculating xed numerical tasks
such as the abacus have existed since antiquity, aiding in
computations such as multiplication and division. Fur1

CHAPTER 1. MAIN ARTICLE

program, the Cambridge Diploma in Computer Science,
began at the University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory in 1953. The rst computer science degree program in the United States was formed at Purdue University in 1962.[12] Since practical computers became available, many applications of computing have become distinct areas of study in their own rights.
Although many initially believed it was impossible that
computers themselves could actually be a scientic eld
of study, in the late fties it gradually became accepted
among the greater academic population.[13][14] It is the
now well-known IBM brand that formed part of the computer science revolution during this time. IBM (short
for International Business Machines) released the IBM
704[15] and later the IBM 709[16] computers, which were
widely used during the exploration period of such devices. Still, working with the IBM [computer] was frustrating [] if you had misplaced as much as one letter in
one instruction, the program would crash, and you would
have to start the whole process over again.[13] During
the late 1950s, the computer science discipline was very
much in its developmental stages, and such issues were
commonplace.[14]

Ada Lovelace is credited with writing the rst algorithm intended

for processing on a computer.

in less than two years he had sketched out many of

the salient features of the modern computer".[5] A crucial step was the adoption of a punched card system
derived from the Jacquard loom"[5] making it innitely
programmable.[note 2] In 1843, during the translation of
a French article on the Analytical Engine, Ada Lovelace
wrote, in one of the many notes she included, an algorithm to compute the Bernoulli numbers, which is considered to be the rst computer program.[6] Around 1885,
Herman Hollerith invented the tabulator, which used
punched cards to process statistical information; eventually his company became part of IBM. In 1937, one hundred years after Babbages impossible dream, Howard
Aiken convinced IBM, which was making all kinds of
punched card equipment and was also in the calculator
business[7] to develop his giant programmable calculator,
the ASCC/Harvard Mark I, based on Babbages Analytical Engine, which itself used cards and a central computing unit. When the machine was nished, some hailed it
as Babbages dream come true.[8]
During the 1940s, as new and more powerful computing
machines were developed, the term computer came
to refer to the machines rather than their human
predecessors.[9] As it became clear that computers could
be used for more than just mathematical calculations, the
eld of computer science broadened to study computation
in general. Computer science began to be established
as a distinct academic discipline in the 1950s and early
1960s.[10][11] The worlds rst computer science degree

Time has seen signicant improvements in the usability

and eectiveness of computing technology.[17] Modern
society has seen a signicant shift in the users of computer technology, from usage only by experts and professionals, to a near-ubiquitous user base. Initially, computers were quite costly, and some degree of human aid
was needed for ecient usein part from professional
computer operators. As computer adoption became more
widespread and aordable, less human assistance was
needed for common usage.
Contributions
Despite its short history as a formal academic discipline,
computer science has made a number of fundamental
contributions to science and societyin fact, along with
electronics, it is a founding science of the current epoch
of human history called the Information Age and a driver
of the Information Revolution, seen as the third major
leap in human technological progress after the Industrial
Revolution (17501850 CE) and the Agricultural Revolution (80005000 BC).
These contributions include:
The start of the "digital revolution", which includes
the current Information Age and the Internet.[19]
A formal denition of computation and
computability, and proof that there are computationally unsolvable and intractable problems.[20]
The concept of a programming language, a tool for
the precise expression of methodological information at various levels of abstraction.[21]

1.1. COMPUTER SCIENCE

3
tronic systems and circuits, as well as societies and
social situations (notably war games) along with
their habitats, among many others. Modern computers enable optimization of such designs as complete
aircraft. Notable in electrical and electronic circuit
design are SPICE, as well as software for physical
realization of new (or modied) designs. The latter includes essential design software for integrated
circuits.
Articial intelligence is becoming increasingly important as it gets more ecient and complex. There
are many applications of AI, some of which can be
seen at home, such as robotic vacuum cleaners. It
is also present in video games and on the modern
battleeld in drones, anti-missile systems, and squad
support robots.

1.1.2 Etymology
See also: Informatics Etymology

The German military used the Enigma machine (shown here)

during World War II for communications they wanted kept secret. The large-scale decryption of Enigma trac at Bletchley
Park was an important factor that contributed to Allied victory
in WWII.[18]

In cryptography, breaking the Enigma code was an

important factor contributing to the Allied victory in
World War II.[18]
Scientic computing enabled practical evaluation of
processes and situations of great complexity, as well
as experimentation entirely by software. It also enabled advanced study of the mind, and mapping
of the human genome became possible with the
Human Genome Project.[19] Distributed computing projects such as Folding@home explore protein
folding.
Algorithmic trading has increased the eciency and
liquidity of nancial markets by using articial intelligence, machine learning, and other statistical
and numerical techniques on a large scale.[22] High
frequency algorithmic trading can also exacerbate
volatility.[23]
Computer graphics and computer-generated
imagery have become ubiquitous in modern
entertainment, particularly in television, cinema,
advertising, animation and video games. Even lms
that feature no explicit CGI are usually lmed
now on digital cameras, or edited or post-processed
using a digital video editor.[24][25]

Although rst proposed in 1956,[14] the term computer

science appears in a 1959 article in Communications of
the ACM,[26] in which Louis Fein argues for the creation
of a Graduate School in Computer Sciences analogous to
the creation of Harvard Business School in 1921,[27] justifying the name by arguing that, like management science, the subject is applied and interdisciplinary in nature, while having the characteristics typical of an academic discipline.[26] His eorts, and those of others such
as numerical analyst George Forsythe, were rewarded:
universities went on to create such programs, starting
with Purdue in 1962.[28] Despite its name, a signicant
amount of computer science does not involve the study
of computers themselves. Because of this, several alternative names have been proposed.[29] Certain departments of major universities prefer the term computing science, to emphasize precisely that dierence. Danish scientist Peter Naur suggested the term datalogy,[30] to reect the fact that the scientic discipline revolves around
data and data treatment, while not necessarily involving computers. The rst scientic institution to use the
term was the Department of Datalogy at the University
of Copenhagen, founded in 1969, with Peter Naur being
the rst professor in datalogy. The term is used mainly
in the Scandinavian countries. An alternative term, also
proposed by Naur, is data science; this is now used for
a distinct eld of data analysis, including statistics and
databases.

Also, in the early days of computing, a number of terms

for the practitioners of the eld of computing were suggested in the Communications of the ACMturingineer,
turologist, ow-charts-man, applied meta-mathematician,
and applied epistemologist.[31] Three months later in the
Simulation of various processes, including computa- same journal, comptologist was suggested, followed next
tional uid dynamics, physical, electrical, and elec- year by hypologist.[32] The term computics has also been

4
suggested.[33] In Europe, terms derived from contracted
translations of the expression automatic information
(e.g. informazione automatica in Italian) or information and mathematics are often used, e.g. informatique (French), Informatik (German), informatica (Italian, Dutch), informtica (Spanish, Portuguese), informatika (Slavic languages and Hungarian) or pliroforiki
(, which means informatics) in Greek.
Similar words have also been adopted in the UK (as
in the School of Informatics of the University of Edinburgh).[34] In the U.S., however, informatics is linked
with applied computing, or computing in the context of
another domain.[35]

CHAPTER 1. MAIN ARTICLE

tionally if not across all research.

1.1.3 Philosophy
Main article: Philosophy of computer science
A number of computer scientists have argued for the distinction of three separate paradigms in computer science.
Peter Wegner argued that those paradigms are science,
technology, and mathematics.[38] Peter Denning's working group argued that they are theory, abstraction (modeling), and design.[39] Amnon H. Eden described them as
the rationalist paradigm (which treats computer science
as a branch of mathematics, which is prevalent in theoretical computer science, and mainly employs deductive
reasoning), the technocratic paradigm (which might
be found in engineering approaches, most prominently
in software engineering), and the scientic paradigm
(which approaches computer-related artifacts from the
empirical perspective of natural sciences, identiable in
some branches of articial intelligence).[40]

A folkloric quotation, often attributed tobut almost

certainly not rst formulated byEdsger Dijkstra, states
that computer science is no more about computers than
astronomy is about telescopes.[note 3] The design and deployment of computers and computer systems is generally considered the province of disciplines other than
computer science. For example, the study of computer
hardware is usually considered part of computer engineering, while the study of commercial computer systems and their deployment is often called information
technology or information systems. However, there has
been much cross-fertilization of ideas between the vari- 1.1.4 Areas of computer science
ous computer-related disciplines. Computer science research also often intersects other disciplines, such as Further information: Outline of computer science
philosophy, cognitive science, linguistics, mathematics,
physics, biology, statistics, and logic.
As a discipline, computer science spans a range of topComputer science is considered by some to have a much ics from theoretical studies of algorithms and the limcloser relationship with mathematics than many scientic its of computation to the practical issues of implement[41][42]
disciplines, with some observers saying that computing is ing computing systems in hardware and software.
a mathematical science.[10] Early computer science was CSAB, formerly called Computing Sciences Accreditastrongly inuenced by the work of mathematicians such tion Boardwhich is made up of representatives of the
(ACM), and the
as Kurt Gdel and Alan Turing, and there continues to be Association for Computing Machinery
[43]
IEEE
Computer
Society
(IEEE
CS)
identies
four
a useful interchange of ideas between the two elds in arareas
that
it
considers
crucial
to
the
discipline
of
comeas such as mathematical logic, category theory, domain
puter science: theory of computation, algorithms and data
theory, and algebra.[14]
structures, programming methodology and languages, and
The relationship between computer science and software computer elements and architecture. In addition to these
engineering is a contentious issue, which is further mud- four areas, CSAB also identies elds such as software
died by disputes over what the term software engineer- engineering, articial intelligence, computer networking
ing means, and how computer science is dened.[36] and communication, database systems, parallel computaDavid Parnas, taking a cue from the relationship between tion, distributed computation, humancomputer interacother engineering and science disciplines, has claimed tion, computer graphics, operating systems, and numerthat the principal focus of computer science is studying ical and symbolic computation as being important areas
the properties of computation in general, while the princi- of computer science.[41]
pal focus of software engineering is the design of specic
computations to achieve practical goals, making the two
Theoretical computer science
separate but complementary disciplines.[37]
The academic, political, and funding aspects of computer
science tend to depend on whether a department formed
with a mathematical emphasis or with an engineering emphasis. Computer science departments with a mathematics emphasis and with a numerical orientation consider
alignment with computational science. Both types of departments tend to make eorts to bridge the eld educa-

Main article: Theoretical computer science

Theoretical Computer Science is mathematical and abstract in spirit, but it derives its motivation from practical
and everyday computation. Its aim is to understand the
nature of computation and, as a consequence of this understanding, provide more ecient methodologies. All

1.1. COMPUTER SCIENCE

papers introducing or studying mathematical, logic and linguistics. It is an active research area, with numerous
formal concepts and methods are welcome, provided that dedicated academic journals.
their motivation is clearly drawn from the eld of computing.
Formal methods Main article: Formal methods
Theory of computation Main article:
computation

Theory of

According to Peter Denning, the fundamental question

underlying computer science is, What can be (eciently) automated?"[10] Theory of computation is focused on answering fundamental questions about what
can be computed and what amount of resources are required to perform those computations. In an eort to
answer the rst question, computability theory examines
which computational problems are solvable on various
theoretical models of computation. The second question
is addressed by computational complexity theory, which
studies the time and space costs associated with dierent approaches to solving a multitude of computational
problems.
The famous P = NP? problem, one of the Millennium
Prize Problems,[44] is an open problem in the theory of
computation.
Information and coding theory Main articles:
Information theory and Coding theory
Information theory is related to the quantication of information. This was developed by Claude Shannon to
nd fundamental limits on signal processing operations
such as compressing data and on reliably storing and communicating data.[45] Coding theory is the study of the
properties of codes (systems for converting information
from one form to another) and their tness for a specic application. Codes are used for data compression,
cryptography, error detection and correction, and more
recently also for network coding. Codes are studied for
the purpose of designing ecient and reliable data transmission methods.
Algorithms and data structures Algorithms and data
structures is the study of commonly used computational
methods and their computational eciency.
Programming language theory Main
Programming language theory

article:

Programming language theory is a branch of computer

science that deals with the design, implementation, analysis, characterization, and classication of programming
languages and their individual features. It falls within
the discipline of computer science, both depending on
and aecting mathematics, software engineering, and

Formal methods are a particular kind of mathematically

based technique for the specication, development and
verication of software and hardware systems. The use
of formal methods for software and hardware design is
motivated by the expectation that, as in other engineering
disciplines, performing appropriate mathematical analysis can contribute to the reliability and robustness of a
design. They form an important theoretical underpinning
for software engineering, especially where safety or security is involved. Formal methods are a useful adjunct
to software testing since they help avoid errors and can
also give a framework for testing. For industrial use, tool
support is required. However, the high cost of using formal methods means that they are usually only used in the
development of high-integrity and life-critical systems,
where safety or security is of utmost importance. Formal methods are best described as the application of a
fairly broad variety of theoretical computer science fundamentals, in particular logic calculi, formal languages,
automata theory, and program semantics, but also type
systems and algebraic data types to problems in software
and hardware specication and verication.
Applied computer science
Applied computer science aims at identifying certain
computer science concepts that can be used directly in
solving real world problems.
Articial intelligence Main article: Articial intelligence
Articial intelligence (AI) aims to or is required to
synthesize goal-orientated processes such as problemsolving, decision-making, environmental adaptation,
learning and communication found in humans and animals. From its origins in cybernetics and in the
Dartmouth Conference (1956), articial intelligence research has been necessarily cross-disciplinary, drawing on areas of expertise such as applied mathematics, symbolic logic, semiotics, electrical engineering,
philosophy of mind, neurophysiology, and social intelligence. AI is associated in the popular mind with robotic
development, but the main eld of practical application
has been as an embedded component in areas of software
development, which require computational understanding. The starting-point in the late 1940s was Alan Turing's question Can computers think?", and the question
remains eectively unanswered although the Turing test
is still used to assess computer output on the scale of

CHAPTER 1. MAIN ARTICLE

human intelligence. But the automation of evaluative

and predictive tasks has been increasingly successful as a
substitute for human monitoring and intervention in domains of computer application involving complex realworld data.

constructing mathematical models and quantitative analysis techniques and using computers to analyze and solve
scientic problems. In practical use, it is typically the
application of computer simulation and other forms of
computation to problems in various scientic disciplines.

Computer architecture and engineering Main articles: Computer architecture and Computer engineering

Computer networks Main article: Computer network

Computer architecture, or digital computer organization, is the conceptual design and fundamental operational structure of a computer system. It focuses largely
on the way by which the central processing unit performs internally and accesses addresses in memory.[46]
The eld often involves disciplines of computer engineering and electrical engineering, selecting and interconnecting hardware components to create computers that meet
functional, performance, and cost goals.
Computer performance
Computer performance

analysis Main

article:

Computer performance analysis is the study of work owing through computers with the general goals of improving throughput, controlling response time, using resources eciently, eliminating bottlenecks, and predicting performance under anticipated peak loads.[47]
Computer graphics and visualization Main article:
Computer graphics (computer science)
Computer graphics is the study of digital visual contents,
and involves synthesis and manipulation of image data.
The study is connected to many other elds in computer
science, including computer vision, image processing,
and computational geometry, and is heavily applied in the
elds of special eects and video games.

This branch of computer science aims to manage networks between computers worldwide.

Concurrent, parallel and distributed systems

Main articles: Concurrency (computer science) and
Distributed computing
Concurrency is a property of systems in which several
computations are executing simultaneously, and potentially interacting with each other. A number of mathematical models have been developed for general concurrent computation including Petri nets, process calculi
and the Parallel Random Access Machine model. A distributed system extends the idea of concurrency onto multiple computers connected through a network. Computers within the same distributed system have their own private memory, and information is often exchanged among
themselves to achieve a common goal.

Databases Main article: Database

A database is intended to organize, store, and retrieve
large amounts of data easily. Digital databases are managed using database management systems to store, create,
maintain, and search data, through database models and
query languages.

Computer security and cryptography Main articles:

Software engineering Main article: Software engiComputer security and Cryptography
neering
See also: Computer programming
Computer security is a branch of computer technology,
whose objective includes protection of information from
Software engineering is the study of designing, impleunauthorized access, disruption, or modication while
menting, and modifying software in order to ensure it is of
maintaining the accessibility and usability of the syshigh quality, aordable, maintainable, and fast to build.
tem for its intended users. Cryptography is the practice
It is a systematic approach to software design, involving
and study of hiding (encryption) and therefore decipherthe application of engineering practices to software. Softing (decryption) information. Modern cryptography is
ware engineering deals with the organizing and analyzing
largely related to computer science, for many encryption
of softwareit doesn't just deal with the creation or manand decryption algorithms are based on their computaufacture of new software, but its internal maintenance and
tional complexity.
arrangement. Both computer applications software engineers and computer systems software engineers are proComputational science Computational science (or jected to be among the fastest growing occupations from
scientic computing) is the eld of study concerned with 2008 to 2018.

1.1. COMPUTER SCIENCE

1.1.5

The great insights of computer science

The philosopher of computing Bill Rapaport noted three

Great Insights of Computer Science:[48]

7
Note that the three rules of
Boehms and Jacopinis insight
can be further simplied with the
use of goto (which means it is
more elementary than structured
programming).

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz's, George Boole's, Alan

Turing's, Claude Shannon's, and Samuel Morse's inSee also: Elementary function arithmetic Friedmans
sight: there are only two objects that a computer has
grand conjecture
to deal with in order to represent anything.
All the information about any
computable problem can be represented using only 0 and 1 (or
any other bistable pair that can
ip-op between two easily distinguishable states, such as on/o,
magnetized/de-magnetized,
high-voltage/low-voltage, etc.).

1.1.6 Academia
Further information: List of computer science conferences and Category:Computer science journals

Conferences are important events for computer science

research. During these conferences, researchers from the
See also: Digital physics
public and private sectors present their recent work and
meet. Unlike in most other academic elds, in computer
science, the prestige of conference papers is greater than
Alan Turing's insight: there are only ve actions that that of journal publications.[49][50] One proposed explaa computer has to perform in order to do anything. nation for this is the quick development of this relatively
new eld requires rapid review and distribution of results,
a task better handled by conferences than by journals.[51]
Every algorithm can be expressed
in a language for a computer consisting of only ve basic instructions:
move left one location;
move right one location;
read symbol at current location;
print 0 at current location;
print 1 at current location.

1.1.7 Education

Since computer science is a relatively new eld, it is

not as widely taught in schools and universities as other
academic subjects. For example, in 2014, Code.org
estimated that only 10 percent of high schools in the
United States oered computer science education.[52]
A 2010 report by Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) and Computer Science Teachers AssociaSee also: Turing machine
tion (CSTA) revealed that only 14 out of 50 states have
adopted signicant education standards for high school
computer science.[53] However, computer science edu Corrado Bhm and Giuseppe Jacopini's insight:
cation is growing. Some countries, such as Israel, New
there are only three ways of combining these actions
Zealand and South Korea, have already included com(into more complex ones) that are needed in order
puter science in their respective national secondary edufor a computer to do anything.
cation curriculum.[54][55] Several countries are following
suit.[56][57]
Only three rules are needed to comIn most countries, there is a signicant gender gap
bine any set of basic instructions
in computer science education. For example, in the
into more complex ones:
US about 20% of computer science degrees in 2012
sequence: rst do this, then do
were conferred to women.[58] This gender gap also exthat;
ists in other Western countries.[59] However, in some
selection: IF such-and-such is
parts of the world, the gap is small or nonexistent. In
the case, THEN do this, ELSE
2011, approximately half of all computer science dedo that;
grees in Malaysia were conferred to women.[60] In 2001,
repetition: WHILE such-andwomen made up 54.5% of computer science graduates in
such is the case DO this.
Guyana.[59]

CHAPTER 1. MAIN ARTICLE

1.1.8

See also

Main article: Outline of computer science

Academic genealogy of computer scientists

Association for Computing Machinery
Computer Science Teachers Association
Informatics and Engineering informatics
List of academic computer science departments
List of computer scientists
List of publications in computer science
List of pioneers in computer science
List of unsolved problems in computer science
Outline of software engineering
Technology transfer in computer science
Turing Award
Computer science Wikipedia book

1.1.9

[6] A Selection and Adaptation From Adas Notes found in

Ada, The Enchantress of Numbers, by Betty Alexandra Toole Ed.D. Strawberry Press, Mill Valley, CA.
Archived from the original on 10 February 2006. Retrieved 2006-05-04.
[7] In this sense Aiken needed IBM, whose technology included the use of punched cards, the accumulation of numerical data, and the transfer of numerical data from one
register to another, Bernard Cohen, p.44 (2000)
[8] Brian Randell, p. 187, 1975
[9] The Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) was
founded in 1947.
[10] Denning, Peter J. (2000). Computer Science: The
Discipline (PDF). Encyclopedia of Computer Science.
Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-05-25.
[11] Some EDSAC statistics.
2011-11-19.

Cl.cam.ac.uk.

Retrieved

[12] Computer science pioneer Samuel D. Conte dies at 85.

Purdue Computer Science. July 1, 2002. Retrieved December 12, 2014.
[13] Levy, Steven (1984). Hackers: Heroes of the Computer
Revolution. Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-19195-2.
[14] Tedre, Matti (2014). The Science of Computing: Shaping
a Discipline. Taylor and Francis / CRC Press.
[15] IBM 704 Electronic Data Processing SystemCHM
Revolution. Computerhistory.org. Retrieved 2013-0707.

Notes

[1] In 1851
[2] The introduction of punched cards into the new engine
was important not only as a more convenient form of control than the drums, or because programs could now be of
unlimited extent, and could be stored and repeated without the danger of introducing errors in setting the machine
by hand; it was important also because it served to crystallize Babbages feeling that he had invented something
really new, something much more than a sophisticated calculating machine. Bruce Collier, 1970
[3] See the entry "Computer science" on Wikiquote for the
history of this quotation.

[16] IBM 709: a powerful new data processing system

(PDF). Computer History Museum. Retrieved December
12, 2014.
[17] Timeline of Computer History. Computer History Museum. Retrieved November 24, 2015.
[18] David Kahn, The Codebreakers, 1967, ISBN 0-68483130-9.
[19] Computer Science : Achievements and Challenges circa
2000 (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on
September 11, 2006. Retrieved January 11, 2007.
[20] Constable, R. L. (March 2000). Computer Science:
Achievements and Challenges circa 2000 (PDF).

1.1.10

References

[1] WordNet Search3.1.

Retrieved 2012-05-14.

Wordnetweb.princeton.edu.

[2] Blaise Pascal. School of Mathematics and Statistics

University of St Andrews, Scotland.
[3] A Brief History of Computing.
[4] Science MuseumIntroduction to Babbage. Archived
from the original on 2006-09-08. Retrieved 2006-09-24.
[5] Anthony Hyman (1982). Charles Babbage, pioneer of the
computer.

[21] Abelson, H.; G.J. Sussman with J. Sussman (1996).

Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs (2nd
ed.). MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-01153-0. The computer
revolution is a revolution in the way we think and in the
way we express what we think. The essence of this change
is the emergence of what might best be called procedural
epistemology the study of the structure of knowledge
from an imperative point of view, as opposed to the more
declarative point of view taken by classical mathematical
subjects.
[22] Black box traders are on the march. The Telegraph. August 26, 2006. Archived from the original on June 21,
2008.

1.1. COMPUTER SCIENCE

[23] The Impact of High Frequency Trading on an Electronic

Market. Papers.ssrn.com. doi:10.2139/ssrn.1686004.
Retrieved 2012-05-14.

[40] Eden, A. H. (2007). Three Paradigms of Computer Science (PDF). Minds and Machines. 17 (2): 135167.
doi:10.1007/s11023-007-9060-8.

[24] Maly, Timy. How Digital Filmmakers Produced a Gorgeous Sci-Fi Movie on a Kickstarter Budget. Wired. Retrieved November 24, 2015.

[41] Computing Sciences Accreditation Board (May 28,

1997). Computer Science as a Profession. Archived
from the original on 2008-06-17. Retrieved 2010-05-23.

[25] Matthau, Charles. How Tech Has Shaped Film Making:

The Film vs. Digital Debate Is Put to Rest. Wired. Retrieved November 24, 2015.

[42] Committee on the Fundamentals of Computer Science:

Challenges and Opportunities, National Research Council (2004). Computer Science: Reections on the Field, Reections from the Field. National Academies Press. ISBN
978-0-309-09301-9.

[26] Louis Fine (1959).

The Role of the University in Computers, Data Processing, and Related
Fields. Communications of the ACM. 2 (9): 714.
doi:10.1145/368424.368427.

[43] CSAB Leading Computer Education. CSAB. 2011-0803. Retrieved 2011-11-19.

[27] Stanford University Oral History. Stanford University.

Retrieved May 30, 2013.

[44] Clay Mathematics Institute P = NP Archived October 14,

2013, at the Wayback Machine.

[28] Donald Knuth (1972). George Forsythe and the Development of Computer Science. Comms. ACM. Archived
October 20, 2013, at the Wayback Machine.

[45] P. Collins, Graham (October 14, 2002). Claude E. Shannon: Founder of Information Theory. Scientic American. Retrieved December 12, 2014.

[29] Matti Tedre (2006). The Development of Computer Science: A Sociocultural Perspective (PDF). p. 260. Retrieved December 12, 2014.

[46] A. Thisted, Ronald (April 7, 1997). Computer Architecture (PDF). The University of Chicago.

[30] Peter Naur (1966).

The science of datalogy.
Communications of the ACM. 9 (7): 485.
doi:10.1145/365719.366510.

[47] Wescott, Bob (2013). The Every Computer Performance

Book, Chapter 3: Useful laws. CreateSpace. ISBN
1482657759.
[48] What Is Computation?". bualo.edu.

[31] Weiss, E. A.; Corley, Henry P. T. Communications

of the ACM. Communications of the ACM. 1 (4): 6.
doi:10.1145/368796.368802.

[49] Meyer, Bertrand (April 2009). Viewpoint: Research

evaluation for computer science. Communications of the
ACM. 25 (4): 3134. doi:10.1145/1498765.1498780.

[32] Communications of the ACM 2(1):p.4

[50] Patterson, David (August 1999). Evaluating Computer

Scientists and Engineers For Promotion and Tenure.
Computing Research Association.

[33] IEEE Computer 28(12):p.136

[34] P. Mounier-Kuhn, L'Informatique en France, de la seconde guerre mondiale au Plan Calcul. L'mergence d'une
science, Paris, PUPS, 2010, ch. 3 & 4.
[35]
[36] Tedre, M. (2011). Computing as a Science: A Survey
of Competing Viewpoints. Minds and Machines. 21 (3):
361387. doi:10.1007/s11023-011-9240-4.
[37] Parnas, D. L. (1998). Software engineering programmes are not computer science programmes.
Annals of Software Engineering.
6:
1937.
doi:10.1023/A:1018949113292., p.
19: Rather
than treat software engineering as a subeld of computer
science, I treat it as an element of the set, Civil Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering,
Electrical Engineering, []"
[38] Wegner, P. (October 1315, 1976). Research paradigms
in computer scienceProceedings of the 2nd international
Conference on Software Engineering. San Francisco, California, United States: IEEE Computer Society Press, Los
Alamitos, CA.
[39] Denning, P. J.; Comer, D. E.; Gries, D.; Mulder, M.
C.; Tucker, A.; Turner, A. J.; Young, P. R. (Jan 1989).
Computing as a discipline. Communications of the
ACM. 32: 923. doi:10.1145/63238.63239.

[51] Fortnow, Lance (August 2009). Viewpoint: Time for

Computer Science to Grow Up. Communications of the
ACM. 52 (8): 3335. doi:10.1145/1536616.1536631.
[52] Computer Science: Not Just an Elective Anymore. Education Week. February 25, 2014.
[53] Running On Empty (PDF). October 2010.
[54] A is for algorithm. The Economist. April 26, 2014.
[55] Computing at School International comparisons (PDF).
Retrieved 20 July 2015.
[56] Scott, Michael; Ghinea, Gheorghita (17 April 2013).
Educating Programmers: A Reection on Barriers to Deliberate Practice (pdf). Proceedings of the 2nd HEA Conference on Learning and Teaching in STEM Disciplines.
HEA. pp. 8590. doi:10.11120/stem.hea.2013.0005.
Retrieved March 25, 2016.
[57] Adding Coding to the Curriculum. New York Times.
March 23, 2014.
[58] IT gender gap: Where are the female programmers?".
Retrieved 20 July 2015.
[59] IT gender gap: Where are the female programmers?".
[60] what gender is science (PDF). Retrieved 20 July 2015.

10

CHAPTER 1. MAIN ARTICLE

1.1.11

Further reading

Overview

Knuth, Donald E. (1996). Selected Papers on Computer Science. CSLI Publications, Cambridge University Press.

Tucker, Allen B. (2004). Computer Science Handbook (2nd ed.). Chapman and Hall/CRC. ISBN 158488-360-X.

Collier, Bruce. The little engine that could've: The

calculating machines of Charles Babbage. Garland
Publishing Inc. ISBN 0-8240-0043-9.

Within more than 70 chapters, every one

new or signicantly revised, one can nd any
kind of information and references about computer science one can imagine. [] all in
all, there is absolute nothing about Computer
Science that can not be found in the 2.5
kilogram-encyclopaedia with its 110 survey
articles []. (Christoph Meinel, Zentralblatt
MATH)

Cohen, Bernard (2000). Howard Aiken, Portrait of

a computer pioneer. The MIT press. ISBN 978-02625317-9-5.

van Leeuwen, Jan (1994). Handbook of Theoretical

Computer Science. The MIT Press. ISBN 0-26272020-5.

Tedre, Matti (2014). The Science of Computing:

Shaping a Discipline. CRC Press, Taylor & Francis.
Randell, Brian (1973). The origins of Digital computers, Selected Papers. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 3540-06169-X.
Covering a period from 1966 to 1993, its interest lies not only in the content of each of
these papers still timely today but also in
their being put together so that ideas expressed
at dierent times complement each other
nicely. (N. Bernard, Zentralblatt MATH)

"[] this set is the most unique and possibly

the most useful to the [theoretical computer
science] community, in support both of teaching and research []. The books can be used
by anyone wanting simply to gain an underArticles
standing of one of these areas, or by someone
desiring to be in research in a topic, or by in Peter J. Denning. Is computer science science?,
structors wishing to nd timely information on
Communications of the ACM, April 2005.
a subject they are teaching outside their major areas of expertise. (Rocky Ross, SIGACT
Peter J. Denning, Great principles in computing curNews)
ricula, Technical Symposium on Computer Science
Ralston,
Anthony;
Reilly,
Edwin D.;
Education, 2004.
Hemmendinger, David (2000).
Encyclopedia
of Computer Science (4th ed.). Groves Dictionar Research evaluation for computer science, Inies. ISBN 1-56159-248-X.
formatics Europe report. Shorter journal version: Bertrand Meyer, Christine Choppy, Jan van
Since 1976, this has been the denitive referLeeuwen and Jorgen Staunstrup, Research evaluaence work on computer, computing, and comtion for computer science, in Communications of the
puter science. [] Alphabetically arranged
ACM, vol. 52, no. 4, pp. 3134, April 2009.
and classied into broad subject areas, the entries cover hardware, computer systems, information and data, software, the mathematics of Curriculum and classication
computing, theory of computation, methodologies, applications, and computing milieu.
Association for Computing Machinery. 1998 ACM
The editors have done a commendable job of
Computing Classication System. 1998.
blending historical perspective and practical
reference information. The encyclopedia re Joint Task Force of Association for Computing Mamains essential for most public and academic
chinery (ACM), Association for Information Syslibrary reference collections. (Joe Accardin,
tems (AIS) and IEEE Computer Society (IEEE CS).
Northeastern Illinois Univ., Chicago)
Computing Curricula 2005: The Overview Report.
September 30, 2005.
Edwin D. Reilly (2003). Milestones in Computer Science and Information Technology. Greenwood Pub Norman Gibbs, Allen Tucker. A model curriculum
lishing Group. ISBN 978-1-57356-521-9.
for a liberal arts degree in computer science. ComSelected literature

munications of the ACM, Volume 29 Issue 3, March

1986.

1.1. COMPUTER SCIENCE

1.1.12

11

External links

Computer science at DMOZ

Scholarly Societies in Computer Science
What is Computer Science?
Best Papers Awards in Computer Science since
1996
Photographs of computer scientists by Bertrand
Meyer
EECS.berkeley.edu
Bibliography and academic search engines
CiteSeerx (article): search engine, digital library and
repository for scientic and academic papers with a
focus on computer and information science.
DBLP Computer Science Bibliography (article):
computer science bibliography website hosted at
Universitt Trier, in Germany.
The Collection of Computer Science Bibliographies
(article)
Professional organizations
Association for Computing Machinery
IEEE Computer Society
Informatics Europe
AAAI
AAAS Computer Science
Misc
Computer ScienceStack Exchange:
community-run question-and-answer site
computer science

a
for

What is computer science

Is computer science science?
Computer Science (Software) Must be Considered
as an Independent Discipline.

Chapter 2

Supporting article
2.1 History of computer science

sign has been studied extensively and is understood to be

Turing equivalent. The analytical engine would have had
a memory capacity of less than 1 kilobyte of memory and
The history of computer science began long before a clock speed of less than 10 Hertz .
the modern discipline of computer science that emerged
in the 20th century, and was hinted at in the centuries Considerable advancement in mathematics and electronprior. The progression, from mechanical inventions and ics theory was required before the rst modern computers
mathematical theories towards modern computer con- could be designed.
cepts and machines, led to a major academic eld and
the basis of a massive worldwide industry.[1]
The earliest known tool for use in computation was the
abacus, developed in the period between 27002300
BCE in Sumer. The Sumerians abacus consisted of a
table of successive columns which delimited the successive orders of magnitude of their sexagesimal number
system.[2]:11 Its original style of usage was by lines drawn
in sand with pebbles . Abaci of a more modern design
are still used as calculation tools today.[3]

2.1.1 Binary logic

In 1702, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz developed logic in a

formal, mathematical sense with his writings on the binary numeral system. In his system, the ones and zeros
also represent true and false values or on and o states.
But it took more than a century before George Boole published his Boolean algebra in 1854 with a complete system that allowed computational processes to be matheThe Antikythera mechanism is believed to be the earliest matically modeled .[8]
known mechanical analog computer.[4] It was designed By this time, the rst mechanical devices driven by a bito calculate astronomical positions. It was discovered in nary pattern had been invented. The industrial revolution
1901 in the Antikythera wreck o the Greek island of had driven forward the mechanization of many tasks, and
Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete, and has been this included weaving. Punched cards controlled Joseph
dated to c. 100 BCE. Technological artifacts of similar Marie Jacquard's loom in 1801, where a hole punched
complexity did not reappear until the 14th century, when in the card indicated a binary one and an unpunched spot
mechanical astronomical clocks appeared in Europe.[5]
indicated a binary zero. Jacquards loom was far from beWhen John Napier discovered logarithms for computational purposes in the early 17th century, there followed
a period of considerable progress by inventors and scientists in making calculating tools. In 1623 Wilhelm
Schickard designed a calculating machine, but abandoned
the project, when the prototype he had started building
was destroyed by a re in 1624 . Around 1640, Blaise
Pascal, a leading French mathematician, constructed a
mechanical adding device based on a design described
by Greek mathematician Hero of Alexandria.[6] Then in
1672 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz invented the Stepped
Reckoner which he completed in 1694.[7]

ing a computer, but it did illustrate that machines could

be driven by binary systems .[8]

2.1.2 Birth of the computer

Before the 1920s, computers (sometimes computors) were

human clerks that performed computations. They were
usually under the lead of a physicist. Many thousands
of computers were employed in commerce, government,
and research establishments. Most of these computers
were women. Some performed astronomical calculations
In 1837 Charles Babbage rst described his Analytical for calendars, others ballistic tables for the military.
Engine which is accepted as the rst design for a modern After the 1920s, the expression computing machine recomputer. The analytical engine had expandable mem- ferred to any machine that performed the work of a huory, an arithmetic unit, and logic processing capabili- man computer, especially those in accordance with efties able to interpret a programming language with loops fective methods of the Church-Turing thesis. The thesis
and conditional branching. Although never built, the de- states that a mathematical method is eective if it could
12

2.1. HISTORY OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

13

be set out as a list of instructions able to be followed by a signer of the rst computer algorithm, which had the abilhuman clerk with paper and pencil, for as long as neces- ity to compute Bernoulli numbers. Moreover, Lovelaces
sary, and without ingenuity or insight.
work with Babbage resulted in her prediction of future
Machines that computed with continuous values became computers to not only perform mathematical calculaknown as the analog kind. They used machinery that rep- tions, but also manipulate symbols, mathematical or not.
resented continuous numeric quantities, like the angle of While she was never able to see the results of her work, as
the Analytical Engine was not created in her lifetime,
a shaft rotation or dierence in electrical potential.
her eorts in later years, beginning in the 1940s, did not
Digital machinery, in contrast to analog, were able to ren- go unnoticed.[10]
der a state of a numeric value and store each individual
digit. Digital machinery used dierence engines or relays
Alan Turing and the Turing machine
before the invention of faster memory devices.
The phrase computing machine gradually gave way, after Main articles: Alan Turing and Turing machine
the late 1940s, to just computer as the onset of electronic
digital machinery became common. These computers
were able to perform the calculations that were performed The mathematical foundations of modern computer
science began to be laid by Kurt Gdel with his
by the previous human clerks.
incompleteness theorem (1931). In this theorem, he
Since the values stored by digital machines were not showed that there were limits to what could be proved
bound to physical properties like analog devices, a log- and disproved within a formal system. This led to work
ical computer, based on digital equipment, was able to by Gdel and others to dene and describe these formal
do anything that could be described purely mechanical. systems, including concepts such as mu-recursive funcThe theoretical Turing Machine, created by Alan Turing, tions and lambda-denable functions.
is a hypothetical device theorized in order to study the
In 1936 Alan Turing and Alonzo Church independently,
properties of such hardware.
and also together, introduced the formalization of an
algorithm, with limits on what can be computed, and
a purely mechanical model for computing. This be2.1.3 Emergence of a discipline
came the ChurchTuring thesis, a hypothesis about the
nature of mechanical calculation devices, such as elecCharles Babbage and Ada Lovelace
tronic computers. The thesis claims that any calculation
that is possible can be performed by an algorithm running
Main articles: Charles Babbage and Ada Lovelace
on a computer, provided that sucient time and storage
space are available.
Charles Babbage is often regarded as one of the rst pioneers of computing. Beginning in the 1810s, Babbage In 1936, Alan Turing also published his seminal work on
had a vision of mechanically computing numbers and ta- the Turing machines, an abstract digital computing mables. Putting this into reality, Babbage designed a cal- chine which is now simply referred to as the Universal
culator to compute numbers up to 8 decimal points long. Turing machine. This machine invented the principle of
Continuing with the success of this idea, Babbage worked the modern computer and was the birthplace of the stored
to develop a machine that could compute numbers with program concept that almost all modern day computers
[11]
These hypothetical machines were designed to
up to 20 decimal places. By the 1830s, Babbage had de- use.
formally
determine, mathematically, what can be comvised a plan to develop a machine that could use punched
puted,
taking
into account limitations on computing abilcards to perform arithmetical operations. The machine
ity.
If
a
Turing
machine can complete the task, it is conwould store numbers in memory units, and there would
sidered
Turing
computable or more commonly, Turing
be a form of sequential control. This means that one op[12]
complete.
eration would be carried out before another in such a way
that the machine would produce an answer and not fail. The Los Alamos physicist Stanley Frankel, has described
This machine was to be known as the Analytical En- John von Neumann's view of the fundamental importance
gine, which was the rst true representation of what is of Turings 1936 paper, in a letter:[11]
the modern computer.[9]
Ada Lovelace (Augusta Ada Byron) is credited as the
pioneer of computer programming and is regarded as
a mathematical genius, a result of the mathematically
heavy tutoring regimen her mother assigned to her as a
young girl. Lovelace began working with Charles Babbage as an assistant while Babbage was working on his
Analytical Engine, the rst mechanical computer. During her work with Babbage, Ada Lovelace became the de-

I know that in or about 1943 or 44 von

Neumann was well aware of the fundamental
importance of Turings paper of 1936 Von
Neumann introduced me to that paper and at
his urging I studied it with care. Many people have acclaimed von Neumann as the father of the computer (in a modern sense of the
term) but I am sure that he would never have

14

CHAPTER 2. SUPPORTING ARTICLE

made that mistake himself. He might well be
called the midwife, perhaps, but he rmly emphasized to me, and to others I am sure, that the
fundamental conception is owing to Turing...

Early computer hardware

In 1941, Konrad Zuse developed the worlds rst functional program-controlled computer, the Z3. in 1998,
it was shown to be Turing-complete in principle.[13][14]
Zuse also developed the S2 computing machine, considered the rst process control computer. He founded
one of the earliest computer businesses in 1941, producing the Z4, which became the worlds rst commercial computer. In 1946, he designed the rst high-level
programming language, Plankalkl.[15]

ory with his 1948 paper titled A Mathematical Theory of

Communication, which applied probability theory to the
problem of how to best encode the information a sender
wants to transmit. This work is one of the theoretical
foundations for many areas of study, including data compression and cryptography .
Wiener and cybernetics

From experiments with anti-aircraft systems that interpreted radar images to detect enemy planes, Norbert
Wiener coined the term cybernetics from the Greek word
for steersman. He published Cybernetics in 1948,
which inuenced articial intelligence. Wiener also compared computation, computing machinery, memory devices, and other cognitive similarities with his analysis of
In 1948, the Manchester Baby was completed, it was brain waves.
the worlds rst general purpose electronic digital com- The rst actual computer bug was a moth. It was stuck
puter that also ran stored programs like almost all modern in between the relays on the Harvard Mark II.[17] While
computers.[11] The inuence on Max Newman of Tur- the invention of the term 'bug' is often but erroneously
ings seminal 1936 paper on the Turing Machines and attributed to Grace Hopper, a future rear admiral in the
of his logico-mathematical contributions to the project, U.S. Navy, who supposedly logged the bug on Septemwere both crucial to the successful development of the ber 9, 1945, most other accounts conict at least with
these details. According to these accounts, the actual
Manchester SSEM.[11]
In 1950, Britains National Physical Laboratory com- date was September 9, 1947 when operators led this 'inpleted Pilot ACE, a small scale programmable computer, cident' along with the insect and the notation First
of bug being found (see software bug for
based on Turings philosophy. With an operating speed actual case
[17]
details).
of 1 MHz, the Pilot Model ACE was for some time the
fastest computer in the world.[11][16] Turings design for
ACE had much in common with todays RISC architectures and it called for a high-speed memory of roughly
the same capacity as an early Macintosh computer, which
was enormous by the standards of his day.[11] Had Turings ACE been built as planned and in full, it would
have been in a dierent league from the other early
computers.[11]
Shannon and information theory
Up to and during the 1930s, electrical engineers were
able to build electronic circuits to solve mathematical and
logic problems, but most did so in an ad hoc manner,
lacking any theoretical rigor. This changed with Claude
Elwood Shannon's publication of his 1937 masters thesis, A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits. While taking an undergraduate philosophy class,
Shannon had been exposed to Booles work, and recognized that it could be used to arrange electromechanical
relays (then used in telephone routing switches) to solve
logic problems. This concept, of utilizing the properties
of electrical switches to do logic, is the basic concept that
underlies all electronic digital computers, and his thesis
became the foundation of practical digital circuit design
when it became widely known among the electrical engineering community during and after World War II .

John von Neumann and the von Neumann architecture

Main articles: John von Neumann and Von Neumann
architecture
In 1946, a model for computer architecture was introduced and became known as Von Neumann architecture.
Since 1950, the von Neumann model provided uniformity
in subsequent computer designs. The von Neumann architecture was considered innovative as it introduced an
idea of allowing machine instructions and data to share
memory space. The von Neumann model is composed
of three major parts, the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), the
memory, and the instruction processing unit (IPU). In von
Neumann machine design, the IPU passes addresses to
memory, and memory, in turn, is routed either back to
the IPU if an instruction is being fetched or to the ALU
if data is being fetched.[18]

Von Neumanns machine design uses a RISC (Reduced

instruction set computing) architecture, which means the
instruction set uses a total of 21 instructions to perform
all tasks. (This is in contrast to CISC, complex instruction set computing, instruction sets which have more instructions from which to choose.) With von Neumann
architecture, main memory along with the accumulator
Shannon went on to found the eld of information the- (the register that holds the result of logical operations)[19]

2.1. HISTORY OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

15

are the two memories that are addressed. Operations can [7] Kidwell, Peggy Aldritch; Williams, Michael R. (1992).
The Calculating Machines: Their history and developbe carried out as simple arithmetic (these are performed
ment (PDF). Massachusetts Institute of Technology and
by the ALU and include addition, subtraction, multiplicaTomash Publishers., p.38-42, translated and edited from
tion and division), conditional branches (these are more
Martin, Ernst (1925). Die Rechenmaschinen und ihre Encommonly seen now as if statements or while loops. The
twicklungsgeschichte. Germany: Pappenheim.
branches serve as go to statements), and logical moves
between the dierent components of the machine, i.e., a
[8] Tedre, Matti (2014). The Science of Computing: Shaping
move from the accumulator to memory or vice versa. Von
a Discipline. CRC Press.
Neumann architecture accepts fractions and instructions
as data types. Finally, as the von Neumann architecture is [9] Charles Babbage. Encyclopedia Britannica Online Acaa simple one, its register management is also simple. The
demic Edition. Encyclopedia Britannica In. Retrieved
architecture uses a set of seven registers to manipulate
2013-02-20.
and interpret fetched data and instructions. These regAda Lovelace,
isters include the IR (instruction register), IBR (in- [10] Isaacson, Betsy (2012-12-10).
Worlds First Computer Programmer,
Celestruction buer register), MQ (multiplier quotient regbrated
With
Google
Doodle.
The
Hungton
ister), MAR (memory address register), and MDR
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/12/10/
Post.
(memory data register).[18] The architecture also uses a
google-doodle-ada-lovelace_n_2270668.html.
Reprogram counter (PC) to keep track of where in the
trieved 2013-02-20.
External link in |publisher=
[18]
program the machine is.
(help)

2.1.4

See also

Computer Museum
History of computing
History of computing hardware
History of software
List of computer term etymologies, the origins of
computer science words
List of prominent pioneers in computer science
Timeline of algorithms

[11] The Modern History of Computing. stanford.edu.

[12] Barker-Plummer, David. [<http://plato.stanford.edu/
archives/win2012/entries/turing-machine/>.
Turing
Machines"] Check |url= value (help). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 2013-02-20.
[13] Rojas, R. (1998). How to make Zuses Z3 a universal
computer. IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 20
(3): 5154. doi:10.1109/85.707574.
[14] Rojas, Ral. How to Make Zuses Z3 a Universal Computer.
[15] Talk given by Horst Zuse to the Computer Conservation
Society at the Science Museum (London) on 18 November
2010

History of personal computers

[16] BBC News How Alan Turings Pilot ACE changed
computing. BBC News. May 15, 2010.

2.1.5

References

[1] History of Computer Science. uwaterloo.ca.

[17] The First Computer Bug"" (PDF). CHIPS. United States

Navy. 30 (1): 18. JanuaryMarch 2012.

[2] Ifrah, Georges (2001). The Universal History of Computing: From the Abacus to the Quantum Computer. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-39671-0.

[18] Cragon, Harvey G. (2000). Computer Architecture and

Implementation. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press. pp. 113. ISBN 0-521-65168-9.

[3] Bellos, Alex (2012-10-25). Abacus adds up to number

joy in Japan. The Guardian. London. Retrieved 201306-25.

[19] Accumlator Def. 3. Oxford Dictionaries.

[4] The Antikythera Mechanism Research Project, The Antikythera Mechanism Research Project. Retrieved 200707-01

2.1.6 Further reading

[5] In search of lost time, Jo Marchant, Nature 444,

#7119 (November 30, 2006), pp.
534538,
doi:10.1038/444534a PMID 17136067.
[6] History of Computing Science: The First Mechanical
Calculator. eingang.org.

Ceruzzi, Paul E. (1998). A History of a Modern

Computing. The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-26203255-1.
Tedre, Matti (2014). The Science of Computing:
Shaping a Discipline. Taylor and Francis / CRC
Press. ISBN 978-1-4822-1769-8.

16

2.1.7

CHAPTER 2. SUPPORTING ARTICLE

External links

Copeland, B. Jack. The Modern History of Computing. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Computer History Museum
Computers: From the Past to the Present
The First Computer Bug at the Online Library of
the Naval Historical Center, retrieved February 28,
2006
Bitsavers, an eort to capture, salvage, and archive
historical computer software and manuals from
minicomputers and mainframes of the 1950s,
1960s, 1970s, and 1980s
The Development of Computer Science: A Sociocultural Perspective Matti Tedres Ph.D. Thesis,
University of Joensuu (2006)
Oral history links
Oral history interview with Albert H. Bowker at
Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota.
Bowker discusses his role in the formation of the
Stanford University computer science department,
and his vision, as early as 1956, of computer science
as an academic discipline.
Oral history interview with Joseph F. Traub at
Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota.
Traub discusses why computer science has developed as a discipline at institutions including Stanford, Berkeley, University of Pennsylvania, MIT,
and Carnegie-Mellon.
Oral history interview with Gene H. Golub at
Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota.
Golub discusses his career in computer science at
Stanford University.
Oral history interview with John Herriot at Charles
Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota. Herriot
describes the early years of computing at Stanford
University, including formation of the computer science department, centering on the role of George
Forsythe.
Oral history interview with William F. Miller at
Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota.
Miller contrasts the emergence of computer science
at Stanford with developments at Harvard and the
University of Pennsylvania.
Oral history interview with Alexandra Forsythe
at Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota. Forsythe discusses the career of her husband, George Forsythe, who established Stanford
Universitys program in computer science.

Oral history interview with Allen Newell at Charles

Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota. Newell
discusses his entry into computer science, funding
for computer science departments and research, the
development of the Computer Science Department
at Carnegie Mellon University, including the work
of Alan J. Perlis and Raj Reddy, and the growth of
the computer science and articial intelligence research communities. Compares computer science
programs at Stanford, MIT, and Carnegie Mellon.
Oral history interview with Louis Fein at Charles
Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota. Fein
discusses establishing computer science as an academic discipline at Stanford Research Institute
(SRI) as well as contacts with the University of
CaliforniaBerkeley, the University of North Carolina, Purdue, International Federation for Information Processing and other institutions.
Oral history interview with W. Richards Adrion at
Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota.
Adrion gives a brief history of theoretical computer
science in the United States and NSFs role in funding that area during the 1970s and 1980s.
Oral history interview with Bernard A. Galler at
Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota.
Galler describes the development of computer science at the University of Michigan from the 1950s
through the 1980s and discusses his own work in
computer science.
Michael S. Mahoney Papers at Charles Babbage Institute, University of MinnesotaMahoney was the
preeminent historian of computer science as a distinct academic discipline. Papers contain 38 boxes
of books, serials, notes, and manuscripts related to
the history of computing, mathematics, and related
elds.

Chapter 3

Text and image sources, contributors, and

licenses
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Tek022, Jason Davies, Hellhound, TheVenerableBede, Walkerma, InShaneee, Hu, Katefan0, DoesPHalt, Caesura, Polyphilo, Shinjiman,
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17

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Contributors: Self created from PDB entry 1U04 using the freely available visualization and analysis package VMD raytraced with POV-Ray
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20

CHAPTER 3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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