Steam Engineering Tutorials

These tutorials explain the principles of steam engineering and heat transfer.
They also provide a comprehensive engineering best practice guide covering
all aspects of steam and condensate systems; from the boiler house and
steam distribution system up to the point of use; through the condensate
recovery system and returning to the boiler. Virtually all major applications and
products are discussed.
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2.
3.
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16.

Introduction
Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer
The Boiler House
Flowmetering
Basic Control Theory
Control Hardware: Electric/Pneumatic Actuation
Control Hardware: Self-acting Actuation
Control Applications
Safety Valves
Steam Distribution
Steam Traps and Steam Trapping
Pipeline Ancillaries
Condensate Removal
Condensate Recovery
Desuperheating
Equations

1. Introduction
The introduction of steam as a useful and powerful purveyor of energy. It
discusses the versatile uses and benefits of this ubiquitous vapour; and the
ways in which it is produced and distributed to achieve maximum performance
and economy for the end user.
1.
2.
3.

Steam - The Energy Fluid

Steam and the Organisation
The Steam and Condensate Loop

Top

2. Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer

Properties of various types of steam are considered, along with basic heat
transfer principles and how to calculate consumption rates for process
applications. Entropy is tackled in simple terms, removing unnecessary fears
often associated with the subject.
1.

Engineering Units

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.

What is Steam?
Superheated Steam
Steam Quality
Heat Transfer
Methods of Estimating Steam Consumption
Measurement of Steam Consumption
Thermal Rating
Energy Consumption of Tanks and Vats
Heating with Coils and Jackets
Heating Vats and Tanks by Steam Injection
Steam Consumption of Pipes and Air Heaters
Steam Consumption of Heat Exchangers
Steam Consumption of Plant Items
Entropy - A Basic Understanding
Entropy - Its Practical Use

Top

3. The Boiler House

Various types of boilers and fuels are discussed, alongside the best ways in
which to get the best out of this important part of the steam plant. All
necessary associated boiler equipment is considered, including basic
deaerator and accumulator theory.
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18.

Introduction
Shell Boilers
Water-tube Boilers
Miscellaneous Boiler Types, Economisers and Superheaters
Boiler Ratings
Boiler Efficiency and Combustion
Boiler Fittings and Mountings
Steam Headers and Off-takes
Water Treatment, Storage and Blowdown for Steam Boilers
Water for the Boiler
The Feedtank and Feedwater Conditioning
Controlling TDS in the Boiler Water
Heat Recovery from Boiler Blowdown (TDS control only)
Bottom Blowdown
Water Levels in Steam Boilers
Methods of Detecting Water Level in Steam Boilers
Automatic Level Control Systems
Water Level Alarms

19.
20.
21.
22.

Installation of Level Controls

Testing Requirements in the Boiler House
Pressurised Deaerators
Steam Accumulators

Top

4. Flowmetering
Fluid characteristics and flow theory (including Bernoulli's theorem and
Reynolds' numbers) are introduced and developed to provide basic metering
theory and techniques. Different meter types, instrumentation and installation
practice are also discussed.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Fluids and Flow

Principles of Flowmetering
Types of Steam Flowmeter
Instrumentation
Installation

Top

5. Basic Control Theory

Control theory is discussed from fundamental proportional action to PID
control. The dynamic of the simple control loop is discussed, alongside
practical issues of choosing the best system for the application, and
installation and commissioning issues.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

An Introduction to Controls
Basic Control Theory
Control Loops and Dynamics
Choice and Selection of Controls
Installation and Commissioning of Controls
Computers in Control

Top

6. Control Hardware: Electric/Pneumatic Actuation

Control valve capacities and characteristics are investigated, along with theory
and practical advice on how to size them for water and steam systems.
Actuators, positioners, and controllers are introduced plus their overall effect
on the control loop.
1.

Control Valves

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Control Valve Capacity

Control Valve Sizing for Water Systems
Control Valve Sizing for Steam Systems
Control Valve Characteristics
Control Valve Actuators and Positioners
Controllers and Sensors

Top

7. Control Hardware: Self-acting Actuation

Basic self-acting control theory is discussed, alongside the different types of
direct-acting and pilot-operated valves, controllers, and applications for the
proper selection of temperature and pressure control of steam and water
systems.
1.
2.
3.

Self-acting Temperature Controls

Typical Self-acting Temperature Control Valves and Systems
Self-acting Pressure Controls and Applications

Top

8. Control Applications
A brief summary of, and advice on, temperature, pressure, flow and level
control methods to suit various types of steam applications, with consideration
to surplussing control, differential pressure control, and cascade control and
installation thereof.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Pressure Control Applications

Temperature Control for Steam Applications
Level and Flow Control Applications
Control Installations

Top

9. Safety Valves
Arguably, the most important subject in the generation, distribution and use of
steam. Why are safety valves required? What different types are available and
how are they selected, sized and installed? Other protection devices are also
shown in some detail.
1.
2.
3.

Introduction to Safety Valves

Types of Safety Valve
Safety Valve Selection

4.
5.
6.

Safety Valve Sizing

Safety Valve Installation
Alternative Plant Protection Devices and Terminology

Top

10. Steam Distribution

Efficient distribution gets clean dry steam to apparatus at the right pressure.
Pipe sizing, essential drainage techniques, pipe support and expansion, air
venting, and heat transfer calculations are included to help the system
designer and practitioner.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Introduction to Steam Distribution

Pipes and Pipe Sizing
Steam Mains and Drainage
Pipe Expansion and Support
Air Venting, Heat Losses and a Summary of Various Pipe
Related Standards

Top

11. Steam Traps and Steam Trapping

How steam traps work and why steam traps are necessary. All is explained in
this block, along with the different types, where they are used, and how they
are selected. Air venting theory and applications are touched upon, along with
steam trap maintenance.
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3.
4.
5.
6.

Introduction - Why Steam Traps?

Thermostatic Steam Traps
Mechanical Steam Traps
Thermodynamic Steam Traps
Considerations for Selecting Steam Traps
Selecting Steam Traps - Canteen Equipment; Oil
Transfer/Storage; Hospital Equipment
7.
Selecting Steam Traps - Industrial Dryers
8.
Selecting Steam Traps - Laundries, Presses
9.
Selecting Steam Traps - Process Equipment
10.
Selecting Steam Traps - Space Heating Equipment
11.
Selecting Steam Traps - Steam Mains; Tanks and Vats;
Pressure Reducing Valves
12.
Air Venting Theory
13.
Air Venting Applications
14.
Testing and Maintenance of Steam Traps

15.

Energy Losses in Steam Traps

Top

12. Pipeline Ancillaries

These are often neglected to save costs; but strainers, stop valves, check
valves, separators, gauge glasses and vacuum breakers all have their part to
play in an efficient steam system. This block explains why, and explores the
different types available.
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2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Isolation Valves - Linear Movement

Isolation Valves - Rotary Movement
Check Valves
Strainers
Separators
Gauges, Sight Glasses, Vacuum Breakers

Top

13. Condensate Removal

Proper condensate removal is essential to heat exchanger efficiency and long
service life. An explanation of how heat exchangers operate. It introduces the
subject of stall, and why and how the best trapping device is selected to
maximise system efficiency.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Heat Exchangers and Stall

The Heat Load, Heat Exchanger and Steam Load Relationship
Oversized Heat Exchangers
Example: Selecting the Trap
The Stall Chart - Constant Flow Secondary - Varying Inlet
Temperature - Constant Outlet Temperature
6.
The Stall Chart - Varying Flow Secondary - Constant Inlet
Temperature - Constant Outlet Temperature
7.
The Stall Chart - Constant Flow Secondary - Constant Inlet
Temperature - Varying Outlet Temperature
8.
Practical Methods of Preventing Stall
Top

14. Condensate Recovery

Relaying condensate back to the boiler house reduces costs. Pipe sizing and
layout is discussed for drain lines, discharge lines, and pumped lines. The

effects of lift and backpressure are explained; and how to reduce overall costs
by utilising flash steam.
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2.
3.
4.
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6.

Introduction to Condensate Recovery

Layout of Condensate Return Lines
Sizing Condensate Return Lines
Pumping Condensate from Vented Receivers
Lifting Condensate and Contaminated Condensate
Flash Steam

Top

15. Desuperheating
Why is it necessary to desuperheat steam? What types of desuperheater
exist, where are they used, and how are they installed? Basic types and more
sophisticated types of desuperheater and their applications are discussed in
some detail.
1.
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4.

Basic Desuperheating Theory

Basic Desuperheater Types
Other Types of Desuperheater
Typical Installations

Top

16. Equations
A list of all the equations used in the complete set of Steam Engineering
Tutorials relating to the subject of how to get the best out of the steam and
condensate loop.
1.

Equations

1. Introduction
The introduction of steam as a useful and powerful purveyor of energy. It
discusses the versatile uses and benefits of this ubiquitous vapour; and the
ways in which it is produced and distributed to achieve maximum performance
and economy for the end user.
1. Steam - The Energy Fluid
2. Steam and the Organisation
3. The Steam and Condensate Loop

1.1 Steam - The Energy Fluid

This introductory tutorial describes the many benefits and uses of steam
in industry today.
It is useful to introduce the topic of steam by considering its many uses and
benefits, before entering an overview of the steam plant or any technical
explanations.
Steam has come a long way from its traditional associations with locomotives
and the Industrial Revolution. Steam today is an integral and essential part of
modern technology. Without it, our food, textile, chemical, medical, power,
heating and transport industries could not exist or perform as they do.
Steam provides a means of transporting controllable amounts of energy from
a central, automated boiler house, where it can be efficiently and economically
generated, to the point of use. Therefore as steam moves around a plant it
can equally be considered to be the transport and provision of energy.
For many reasons, steam is one of the most widely used commodities for
conveying heat energy. Its use is popular throughout industry for a broad
range of tasks from mechanical power production to space heating and
process applications.

Fig. 1.1.1
An 18th century steam engine.
Photography courtesy of
Kew Bridge Steam Museum, London

Fig. 1.1.2
A modern packaged steam heat exchange system
used for producing hot water
Top
Steam is efficient and economic to generate
Water is plentiful and inexpensive. It is non-hazardous to health and
environmentally sound. In its gaseous form, it is a safe and efficient energy
carrier. Steam can hold five or six times as much potential energy as an
equivalent
mass
of
water.
When water is heated in a boiler, it begins to absorb energy. Depending on
the pressure in the boiler, the water will evaporate at a certain temperature to
form steam. The steam contains a large quantity of stored energy which will
eventually be transferred to the process or the space to be heated.
It can be generated at high pressures to give high steam temperatures. The
higher the pressure, the higher the temperature. More heat energy is
contained within high temperature steam so its potential to do work is greater.

Fig. 1.1.3
Modern shell boilers are compact and efficient in their design, using
multiple passes and efficient burner technology to transfer a very high
proportion of the energy contained in the fuel to the water, with
minimum emissions.
The boiler fuel may be chosen from a variety of options, including
combustible waste, which makes the steam boiler an environmentally
sound option amongst the choices available for providing heat.
Centralised boiler plant can take advantage of low interruptible gas
tariffs, because any suitable standby fuel can be stored for use when
the gas supply is interrupted.
Highly effective heat recovery systems can virtually eliminate blowdown
costs, return valuable condensate to the boiler house and add to the
overall efficiency of the steam and condensate loop.
The increasing popularity of Combined Heat and Power (CHP) systems
demonstrates the high regard for steam systems in today's environment and
energy-conscious industries.

Top
Steam can easily and cost effectively be distributed to the point of use
Steam is one of the most widely used media to convey heat over distances.
Because steam flows in response to the pressure drop along the line,
expensive
circulating
pumps
are
not
needed.
Due to the high heat content of steam, only relatively small bore pipework is
required to distribute the steam at high pressure. The pressure is then
reduced at the point of use, if necessary. This arrangement makes installation
easier and less expensive than for some other heat transfer fluids.

Overall, the lower capital and running costs of steam generation, distribution
and condensate return systems mean that many users choose to install new
steam systems in preference to other energy media, such as gas fired, hot
water, electric and thermal oil systems.
Top
Steam is easy to control
Because of the direct relationship between the pressure and temperature of
saturated steam, the amount of energy input to the process is easy to control,
simply by controlling the saturated steam pressure. Modern steam controls
are designed to respond very rapidly to process changes.
The item shown in Figure 1.1.4 is a typical two port control valve and
pneumatic actuator assembly, designed for use on steam. Its accuracy is
enhanced
by
the
use
of
a
pneumatic
valve
positioner.
The use of two port valves, rather than the three port valves often necessary
in liquid systems, simplifies control and installation, and may reduce
equipment costs.

Fig. 1.1.4
Typical two port control valve
with a pneumatic actuator and positioner
Top
Energy is easily transferred to the process
Steam provides excellent heat transfer. When the steam reaches the plant,
the condensation process efficiently transfers the heat to the product being
heated.
Steam can surround or be injected into the product being heated. It can fill
any space at a uniform temperature and will supply heat by condensing at a
constant temperature; this eliminates temperature gradients which may be
found along any heat transfer surface - a problem which is so often a feature
of high temperature oils or hot water heating, and may result in quality
problems,
such
as
distortion
of
materials
being
dried.

Because the heat transfer properties of steam are so high, the required heat
transfer area is relatively small. This enables the use of more compact plant,
which is easier to install and takes up less space in the plant. A modern
packaged unit for steam heated hot water, rated to 1200 kW and incorporating
a steam plate heat exchanger and all the controls, requires only 0.7 m floor
space. In comparison, a packaged unit incorporating a shell and tube heat
exchanger would typically cover an area of two to three times that size.
Top
The modern steam plant is easy to manage
Increasingly, industrial energy users are looking to maximise energy efficiency
and minimise production costs and overheads. The Kyoto Agreement for
climate protection is a major external influence driving the energy efficiency
trend, and has led to various measures around the globe, such as the Climate
Change Levy in the UK. Also, in today's competitive markets, the organisation
with the lowest costs can often achieve an important advantage over rivals.
Production costs can mean the difference between survival and failure in the
marketplace.
Ways of increasing energy efficiency include monitoring and charging energy
consumption to relevant departments. This builds an awareness of costs and
focuses management on meeting targets. Variable overhead costs can also
be minimised by ensuring planned, systematic maintenance; this will
maximise process efficiency, improve quality and cut downtime.
Most steam controls are able to interface with modern networked
instrumentation and control systems to allow centralised control, such as in
the case of a SCADA system or a Building/Energy Management System. If the
user wishes, the components of the steam system can also operate
independently (standalone).

Fig. 1.1.5
A modern boiler house package
With proper maintenance a steam plant will last for many years, and the
condition of many aspects of the system is easy to monitor on an automatic
basis. When compared with other systems, the planned management and
monitoring of steam traps is easy to achieve with a trap monitoring system,
where any leaks or blockages are automatically pinpointed and immediately
brought
to
the
attention
of
the
engineer.

This can be contrasted with the costly equipment required for gas leak
monitoring, or the time-consuming manual monitoring associated with oil or
water systems.

Fig. 1.1.6
Just some of the products manufactured
using steam as an essential part of the process
In addition to this, when a steam system requires maintenance, the relevant
part of the system is easy to isolate and can drain rapidly, meaning that
repairs
may
be
carried
out
quickly.
In numerous instances, it has been shown that it is far less expensive to bring
a long established steam plant up to date with sophisticated control and
monitoring systems, than to replace it with an alternative method of energy
provision, such as a decentralised gas system. The case studies refered to in
Tutorial
1.2
provide
real
life
examples.
Todays state-of-the-art technology is a far cry from the traditional perception of
steam as the stuff of steam engines and the Industrial Revolution. Indeed,
steam is the preferred choice for industry today. Name any well known
consumer brand, and in nine cases out of ten, steam will have played an
important part in production.
Top
Steam is flexible

Fig. 1.1.7
Clean steam pipeline equipment
used in pharmaceutical process plant
Not only is steam an excellent carrier of heat, it is also sterile, and thus
popular for process use in the food, pharmaceutical and health industries. It is
also
widely
used
in
hospitals
for
sterilisation
purposes.
The industries within which steam is used range from huge oil and
petrochemical plants to small local laundries. Further uses include the
production of paper, textiles, brewing, food production, curing rubber, and
heating
and
humidification
of
buildings.
Many users find it convenient to use steam as the same working fluid for both
space heating and for process applications. For example, in the brewing
industry, steam is used in a variety of ways during different stages of the
process, from direct injection to coil heating.

Fig. 1.1.8
These brewing processes all use steam
Steam is also intrinsically safe - it cannot cause sparks and presents no fire
risk. Many petrochemical plants utilise steam fire-extinguishing systems. It is
therefore ideal for use in hazardous areas or explosive atmospheres.
Top
Other methods of distributing energy
The alternatives to steam include water and thermal fluids such as high
temperature oil. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages, and will
be best suited to certain applications or temperature bands.

Compared to steam, water has a lower potential to carry heat, consequently

large amounts of water must be pumped around the system to satisfy process
or space heating requirements. However, water is popular for general space
heating applications and for low temperature processes (up to 120C) where
some
temperature
variation
can
be
tolerated.
Thermal fluids, such as mineral oils, may be used where high temperatures
(up to 400C) are required, but where steam cannot be used. An example
would include the heating of certain chemicals in batch processes. However
thermal fluids are expensive, and need replacing every few years - they are
not suited to large systems. They are also very 'searching' and high quality
connections
and
joints
are
essential
to
avoid
leakage.
Different media are compared in Table 1.1.1, which follows. The final choice of
heating medium depends on achieving a balance between technical, practical
and financial factors, which will be different for each user.
Broadly speaking, for commercial heating and ventilation, and industrial
systems, steam remains the most practical and economic choice.

Table 1.1.1
Comparison of heating media with steam
Top
The benefits of steam - a summary:

Table 1.1.2 Steam benefits

Steam and the Organisation

The benefits of steam are viewed differently by individuals according to

their role and priorities. This tutorial explains the issues of most
importance to chief executives, managers and operators and how steam
can address these issues.

The benefits described are not of interest to all steam users. The benefits of
steam, as a problem solver, can be subdivided according to different
viewpoints within a business. They are perceived differently depending on
whether you are a chief executive, a manager or at operating level.
The questions these people ask about steam are markedly different.
Top
Chief executive
The highest level executive is concerned with the best energy transfer solution
to meet the strategic and financial objectives of the organisation.
If a company installs a steam system or chooses to upgrade an existing
system, a significant capital investment is required, and the relationship with
the system, and the system provider, will be long and involved.
Chief executives and senior management want answers to the following
questions:
Q. What kind of capital investment does a steam system represent ?
A steam system requires only small bore pipes to satisfy a high heat
requirement. It does not require costly pumps or balancing, and only two port
valves are required.

Fig 1.2.1
This means the system is simpler and less expensive than, for example, a
high temperature hot water system. The high efficiency of steam plant means

it is compact and makes maximum use of space, something which is often at

a
premium
within
plant.
Furthermore, upgrading an existing steam system with the latest boilers and
controls typically represents 50% of the cost of removing it and replacing it
with a decentralised gas fired system.
Q. How will the operating and maintenance costs of a steam system
affect overhead costs ?
Centralised boiler plant is highly efficient and can use low interruptible tariff
fuel rates. The boiler can even be fuelled by waste, or form part of a state-ofthe-art
Combined
Heat
and
Power
plant.
Steam equipment typically enjoys a long life - figures of thirty years or more of
low
maintenance
life
are
quite
usual.
Modern steam plant, from the boiler house to the steam using plant and back
again, can be fully automated. This dramatically cuts the cost of manning the
plant.
Sophisticated energy monitoring equipment will ensure that the plant remains
energy
efficient
and
has
a
low
manning
requirement.
All these factors in combination mean that a steam system enjoys a low
lifetime cost.
Q. If a steam system is installed, how can the most use be made of it ?
Steam has a range of uses. It can be used for space heating of large areas,
for
complex
processes
and
for
sterilisation
purposes.
Using a hospital as an example, steam is ideal because it can be generated
centrally at high pressure, distributed over long distances and then reduced in
pressure at the point of use. This means that a single high pressure boiler can
suit the needs of all applications around the hospital, for example, heating of
wards, air humidification, cooking of food in large quantities and sterilisation of
equipment.
It is not as easy to cater for all these needs with a water system.
Q. What if needs change in the future ?
Steam systems are flexible and easy to add to. They can grow with the
company and be altered to meet changing business objectives.
Q. What does using steam say about the company ?
The use of steam is environmentally responsible. Companies continue to
choose steam because it is generated with high levels of fuel efficiency.
Environmental controls are increasingly stringent, even to the extent that
organisations have to consider the costs and methods of disposing of plant
before it is installed. All these issues are considered during the design and
manufacture of steam plant.
Top

Management level
A manager will consider steam as something that will provide a solution to a
management problem, as something that will benefit and add value to the
business. The manager's responsibility is to implement initiatives ordered by
senior executives. A manager would ask "How will steam enable successful
implementation
of
this
task
?"
Managers tend to be practical and focused on completing a task within a
budget. They will choose to use steam if they believe it will provide the
greatest amount of practicality and expediency, at a reasonable cost.
They are less concerned with the mechanics of the steam system itself. A
useful perspective would be that the manager is the person who wants the
finished product, without necessarily wanting to know how the machinery that
produces it is put together.
Managers need answers to the following questions:
Q. Will steam be right for the process ?
Steam serves many applications and uses. It has a high heat content and
gives up its heat at a constant temperature. It does not create a temperature
gradient along the heat transfer surface, unlike water and thermal oils, which
means that it may provide more consistent product quality. As steam is a pure
fluid, it can be injected directly into the product or made to surround the
product being heated. The energy given to the process is easy to control
using two port valves, due to the direct relationship between temperature and
pressure.

Fig. 1.2.2
Q. If a steam system is installed, how can the most use be made of it ?
Steam has a wide variety of uses. It can be used for space heating over large
areas,
and
for
many
complex
manufacturing
processes.
On an operational level, condensate produced by a manufacturing process
can be returned to the boiler feedtank. This can significantly reduce the boiler
fuel and water treatment costs, because the water is already treated and at a
high
temperature.
Lower pressure steam can also be produced from the condensate in a flash
vessel, and used in low pressure applications such as space heating.
Q. What does steam cost to produce ?
Water is plentiful and inexpensive, and steam boilers are highly efficient
because they extract a large proportion of the energy contained within the

fuel. As mentioned previously, central boiler plant can take advantage of low
interruptible fuel tariffs, something which is not possible for decentralised gas
systems which use a constant supply of premium rate fuel.
Flash steam and condensate can be recovered and returned to the boiler or
used
on
low
pressure
applications
with
minimal
losses.
Steam use is easy to monitor using steam flowmeters and SCADA compatible
products.
For real figures, see 'The cost of raising steam', later in this Tutorial.
In terms of capital and operating costs, it was seen when answering the
concerns of the chief executive that steam plant can represent value for
money in both areas.
Q. Is there enough installation space ?
The high rates of heat transfer enjoyed by steam means that the plant is
smaller and more compact than water or thermal oil plant. A typical modern
steam to hot water heat exchanger package rated to 1 200 kW occupies only
0.7 m floor space. Compare this to a hot water calorifier which may take up a
large part of a plant room.
Q. Not wishing to think too much about this part of the process, can a
total solution be provided ?
Steam plant can be provided in the form of compact ready-to-install packages
which are installed, commissioned and ready to operate within a very short
period of time. They offer many years of trouble-free operation and have a low
lifetime cost.
Top
Technical personnel/operators
At the operating level, the day-to-day efficiency and working life of individuals
can be directly affected by the steam plant and the way in which it operates.
These individuals want to know that the plant is going to work, how well it will
work, and the effect this will have on their time and resources.
Technical personnel/operators need answers to the following questions:
Q. Will it break down ?
A well designed and maintained steam plant should have no cause to break
down. The mechanics of the system are simple to understand and designed to
minimise maintenance. It is not unusual for items of steam plant to enjoy 30 or
40 years of trouble-free life.
Q. When maintenance is required, how easy is it ?
Modern steam plant is designed to facilitate rapid easy maintenance with
minimum downtime. The modern design of components is a benefit in this
respect. For example, swivel connector steam traps can be replaced by
undoing two bolts and slotting a new trap unit into place. Modern forged
steam and condensate manifolds incorporate piston valves which can be

maintained

in-line

with

simple

handheld

tool.

Sophisticated monitoring systems target the components that really need

maintenance, rather than allowing preventative maintenance to be carried out
unnecessarily on working items of plant. Control valve internals can simply be
lifted out and changed in-line, and actuators can be reversed in the field.
Mechanical pumps can be serviced, simply by removing a cover, which has all
the internals attached to it. Universal pipeline connectors allow steam traps to
be
replaced
in
minutes.
An important point to note is that when maintenance of the system is required,
a steam system is easy to isolate and will drain rapidly, meaning that repairs
can be quickly actioned. Any minor leaks that do occur are non-toxic. This is
not always the case with liquid systems, which are slower and more costly to
drain, and may include toxic or difficult to handle thermal fluids.
Q. Will it look after itself ?
A steam system requires maintenance just like any other important part of the
plant, but thanks to today's modern steam plant design, manning and
maintenance requirements and the lifetime costs of the system are low. For
example, modern boiler houses are fully automated. Feedwater treatment and
heating burner control, boiler water level, blowdown and alarm systems are all
carried out by automatic systems. The boiler can be left unmanned and only
requires
testing
in
accordance
with
local
regulations.
Similarly, the steam plant can be managed centrally using automatic controls,
flowmetering and monitoring systems. These can be integrated with a SCADA
system.
Manning requirements are thus minimised.
Top
Industries and processes which use steam:

Table 1.2.1
Steam users
Top
Interesting uses for steam:

Shrink-wrapping meat.

Depressing the caps on food jars.

Exploding corn to make cornflakes.

Dyeing tennis balls.

Repairing underground pipes (steam is used to expand and seal a

foam which has been pumped into the pipe. This forms a new lining for
the pipe and seals any cracks).

Keeping chocolate soft, so it can be pumped and moulded.

Making drinks bottles look attractive but safe, for example tamperproof, by heat shrinking a film wrapper.

Drying glue (heating both glue and materials to dry on a roll).

Making condoms.

Making bubble wrap.

Peeling potatoes by the tonne (high pressure steam is injected into a

vessel full of potatoes. Then it is quickly depressurised, drawing the
skins off).

Heating swimming pools.

Making instant coffee, milk or cocoa powder.

Moulding tyres.

Ironing clothes.

Making carpets.

Corrugating cardboard.

Ensuring a high quality paint finish on cars.

Washing milk bottles.

Washing beer kegs.

Drying paper.

Ensuring medicines and medical equipment are sterile.

Cooking potato chips.

Sterilising wheelchairs.

Cooking pieces of food, for example seafood, evenly in a basket using

injected steam for heat, moisture and turbulence at the same time.

Cooking large vats of food by direct injection or jacket heating.

and hundreds more.

Top
The cost of raising steam
In today's industry, the cost of supplying energy is of enormous interest. Table
1.2.2 shows provisional industrial fuel prices for the United Kingdom, obtained
from a recent Digest of UK Energy Statistics, which were available in 2001.

Table 1.2.2
UK fuel prices - 2001 (provisional)
The cost of raising steam based on the above costs
All figures exclude the Climate Change Levy (which came into force in April
2001) although the oil prices do include hydrocarbon oil duty.
The cost of raising steam is based on the cost of raising one tonne (1 000 kg)
of steam using the fuel types listed and average fuel cost figures.

Table 1.2.3
UK steam costs - 2001 (provisional)
Top
Boiler efficiency
A modern steam boiler will generally operate at an efficiency of between 80
and 85%. Some distribution losses will be incurred in the pipework between
the boiler and the process plant equipment, but for a system insulated to
current standards, this loss should not exceed 5% of the total heat content of
the steam. Heat can be recovered from blowdown, flash steam can be used
for low pressure applications, and condensate is returned to the boiler
feedtank. If an economiser is fitted in the boiler flue, the overall efficiency of a
centralised steam plant will be around 87%.

Fig. 1.2.3
This is lower than the 100% efficiency realised with an electric heating system
at the point of use, but the typical running costs for the two systems should be
compared. It is clear that the cheapest option is the centralised boiler plant,
which can use a lower, interruptible gas tariff rather than the full tariff gas or
electricity, essential for a point of use heating system. The overall efficiency of

electricity generation at a power station is approximately 30 to 35%, and this

is
reflected
in
the
unit
charges.
Components within the steam plant are also highly efficient. For example,
steam traps only allow condensate to drain from the plant, retaining valuable
steam for the process. Flash steam from the condensate can be utilised for
lower pressure processes with the assistance of a flash vessel.
The following pages introduce some real life examples of situations in which a
steam user had, initially, been poorly advised and/or had access to only poor
quality or incomplete information relating to steam plant. In both cases, they
almost made decisions which would have been costly and certainly not in the
best
interests
of
their
organisation.
Some identification details have been altered.
Case study: UK West Country hospital considers replacing their steam
system
In one real life situation in the mid 1990's, a hospital in the West of England
considered replacing their aged steam system with a high temperature hot
water system, using additional gas fired boilers to handle some loads.
Although new steam systems are extremely modern and efficient in their
design, older, neglected systems are sometimes encountered and this user
needed to take a decision either to update or replace the system.
The financial allocation to the project was 2.57 million over three years,
covering
professional
fees
plus
VAT.
It was shown, in consultation with the hospital, that only 1.2 million spent
over ten years would provide renewal of the steam boilers, pipework and a
large number of calorifiers. It was also clear that renewal of the steam system
would require a much reduced professional input. In fact, moving to high
temperature hot water (HTHW) would cost over 1.2 million more than
renewing
the
steam
system.
The reasons the hospital initially gave for replacing the steam system
were:

With a HTHW system, it was thought that maintenance and operating

costs would be lower.

The existing steam plant, boilers and pipework needed replacing

anyway.

Maintenance costs for the steam system were said to include insurance of
calorifiers, steam trap maintenance, reducing valves and water treatment
plant,
also
replacement
of
condensate
pipework.
Operating costs were said to include water treatment, make-up water,
manning of the boiler house, and heat losses from calorifiers, blowdown and
traps.

The approximate annual operating costs the hospital was using for HTHW
versus steam, are given in the Table 1.2.4.

Table 1.2.4
Operating costs
Additional claims in favour of individual gas fired boilers were given as:

No primary mains losses.

Smaller replacement boilers.

No stand-by fuel requirement.

The costings set out above made the HTHW system look like the more
favourable
option
in
terms
of
operating
costs.
The new HTHW system would cost 1 953 000 plus 274 600 per annum in
operating and maintenance costs. This, in effect, meant decommissioning a
plant and replacing it at a cost in excess of 2 million, to save just over 130
000
a
year.
The following factors needed to be taken into account:

The 130 000 saving using HTHW is derived from 406 400 - 274
600. The steam fuel cost can be reduced to the same level as for
HTHW by using condensate return and flash steam recovery. This
would reduce the total by 65 000 to 341 400.

The largest savings claimed were due to the elimination of manned

boilers. However, modern boiler houses are fully automated and there
is no manning requirement.

The 37 000 reduction in maintenance costs looked very optimistic

considering that the HTHW solution included the introduction of 16 new
gas fired boilers, 4 new steam generators and 9 new humidifiers. This
would have brought a significant maintenance requirement.

The steam generators and humidifiers had unaccounted for fuel

requirements and water treatment costs. The fuel would have been
supplied at a premium rate to satisfy the claim that stand-by fuel was
not needed. In contrast, centralised steam boilers can utilise low cost
alternatives at interruptible tariff.

The savings from lower mains heat losses (eliminated from mains-free
gas fired boilers) were minimal against the total costs involved, and
actually offset by the need for fuel at premium tariff.

The proposal to change appeared entirely motivated by weariness with

the supposed low efficiency calorifiers - however on closer inspection it
can be demonstrated that steam to water calorifiers are 84% efficient,
and the remaining 16% of heat contained in the condensate can almost
all be returned to the boiler house. Gas fired hot water boilers struggle
to reach the 84% efficiency level even at full-load. Unused heat is just
sent up the stack. Hot water calorifiers are also much larger and more
complicated, and the existing plant rooms were unlikely to have much
spare room.

A fact given in favour of replacing the steam system was the high cost
of condensate pipe replacement. This statement tells us that corrosion
was taking place, of which the commonest cause is dissolved gases,
which can be removed physically or by chemical treatment. Removing
the system because of this is like replacing a car because the ashtrays
are full !

A disadvantage given for steam systems was the need for insurance
inspection of steam/water calorifiers. However, HTHW calorifiers also
require inspection !

A further disadvantage given was the need to maintain steam pressure

reducing valves. But water systems contain three port valves with a
significant maintenance requirement.

The cost of make-up water and water treatment for steam systems was
criticised. However, when a steam system requires maintenance, the
relevant part can be easily isolated and quickly drained with few losses
(this minimises downtime). In contrast, a water system requires whole
sections to be cooled and then drained off. It must then be refilled and
purged of air after maintenance. HTHW systems also require chemical
treatment, just like steam systems.

Presented with these explanations, the hospital realised that much of the
evidence they had been basing their decision on was biased and incomplete.
The hospital engineering team reassessed the case, and decided to retain
their steam plant and bring it up to date with modern controls and equipment,
saving a considerable amount of money.
Top
Trace heating
Trace heating is a vital element in the reliable operation of pipelines and
storage/process vessels, across a broad range of industries.
A steam tracer is a small steam pipe which runs along the outer surface of a
(usually) larger process pipe. Heat conductive paste is often used between
the tracer and the process pipe. The two pipes are then insulated together.
The heat provided from the tracer (by conduction) prevents the contents of the

larger process pipe from freezing (anti-frost protection for water lines) or
maintains the temperature of the process fluid so that it remains easy to
pump.
Tracing is commonly found in the oil and petrochemical industries, but also in
the food and pharmaceutical sectors, for oils, fats and glucose. Many of these
fluids can only be pumped at temperatures well above ambient. In chemical
processing, a range of products from acetic acid through to asphalt, sulphur
and zinc compounds may only be moved through pipes if maintained at a
suitable
temperature.
For the extensive pipe runs found in much of process industry, steam tracing
remains the most popular choice. For very short runs or where no steam
supply is available, electrical tracing is often chosen, although hot water is
also used for low temperature requirements. The relative benefits of steam
and electric tracing are summarised in Table 1.2.5.

Table 1.2.5
The relative merits of steam and electric trace heating
Case study: UK oil refinery uses steam tracing for 4 km pipeline
In 1998, a steam trace heating system was installed at one of the UK's largest
oil refineries.
Background
The oil company in question is involved in the export of a type of wax product.
The wax has many uses, such as insulation in electric cabling, as a resin in
corrugated paper and as a coating used to protect fresh fruit.
The wax has similar properties to candle wax. To enable it to be transported
any distance in the form of a liquid, it needs to be maintained at a certain
temperature. The refinery therefore required a pipeline with critical tracing.
The project required the installation of a 200 mm diameter product pipeline,
which would run from a tank farm to a marine terminal out at sea - a pipeline

of

some

km

in

length.

The project began in April 1997, installation was completed in August 1998,
and the first successful export of wax took place a month later.
Although the refinery management team was originally committed to an
electric trace solution, they were persuaded to look at comparative design
proposals and costings for both electric and steam trace options.
The wax application
The key parameter for this critical tracing application was to provide tight
temperature control of the product at 80C, but to have the ability to raise the
temperature to 90C for start-up or re-flow conditions. Other critical factors
included the fact that the product would solidify at temperatures below 60C,
and
spoil
if
subjected
to
temperatures
above
120C.
Steam was available on site at 9 bar g and 180C, which immediately
presented problems of excessive surface temperatures if conventional
schedule 80 carbon steel trace pipework were to be used. This had been
proposed by the contractor as a traditional steam trace solution for the oil
company.
The total tracer tube length required was 11.5 km, meaning that the
installation of carbon steel pipework would be very labour intensive,
expensive and impractical. With all the joints involved it was not an attractive
option.
However, today's steam tracing systems are highly advanced technologically.
Spirax Sarco and their partner on the project, a specialist tracing firm, were
able to propose two parallel runs of insulated copper tracer tube, which
effectively put a layer of insulation between the product pipe and the steam
tracer. This enabled the use of steam supply at 9 bar g, without the potential
for hot spots which could exceed the critical 120C product limitation.
The installation benefit was that as the annealed ductile steam tracer tubing
used was available in continuous drum lengths, the proposed 50 m runs
would have a limited number of joints, reducing the potential for future leaks
from
connectors.
This

provided

reliable,

low

maintenance

solution.

After comprehensive energy audit calculations, and the production of

schematic installation drawings for costing purposes, together with some
careful engineering, the proposal was to use the existing 9 bar g distribution
system with 15 mm carbon steel pipework to feed the tracing system, together
with strainers and temperature controls. Carbon steel condensate pipework
was used together with lightweight tracing traps which minimised the need for
substantial
fabricated
supports.
The typical tracer runs would be 50 m of twin isolated copper tracer tubing,

installed at the 4 and 8 o'clock positions around the product pipe, held to the
product pipeline with stainless steel strap banding at 300 mm intervals.
The material and installation costs for steam trace heating were about 30%
less than the electric tracing option. In addition, ongoing running costs for the
steam system would be a fraction of those for the electrical option.
Before the oil company management would commit themselves to a steam
tracing system, they not only required an extended product warranty and a
plant performance guarantee, but also insisted that a test rig should be built to
prove the suitability of the self-acting controlled tracer for such an arduous
application.
Spirax Sarco were able to assure them of the suitability of the design by
referral to an existing installation elsewhere on their plant, where ten selfacting controllers were already installed and successfully working on the trace
heating
of
pump
transfer
lines.
The oil company was then convinced of the benefits of steam tracing the wax
product line and went on to install a steam tracing system.
Further in-depth surveys of the 4 km pipeline route were undertaken to enable
full installation drawings to be produced. The company was also provided with
on-site training for personnel on correct practices and installation procedures.

Fig. 1.2.4
After installation the heat load design was confirmed and the product was
maintained
at
the
required
80C.
The oil company executives were impressed with the success of the project
and chose to install steam tracing for another 300 m long wax product line in
preference to electric tracing, even though they were initially convinced that
electric tracing was the only solution for critical applications.

The Steam and Condensate Loop

How is steam generated, distributed, controlled and used? How is the
condensate recycled? A basic overview of a steam system
This Tutorial is intended to give a brief, non-technical overview of the steam
plant. It offers an overall explanation of how the different parts of the steam
plant relate to each other - and represents useful reading for anyone who is
unfamiliar with the topic, prior to progressing to the next Block, or, indeed,
before undertaking any form of detailed study of steam theory or steam plant
equipment.
Top
The boiler house
The boiler
The boiler is the heart of the steam system. The typical modern packaged
boiler is powered by a burner which sends heat into the boiler tubes.
The hot gases from the burner pass backwards and forwards up to 3 times
through a series of tubes to gain the maximum transfer of heat through the
tube surfaces to the surrounding boiler water. Once the water reaches
saturation temperature (the temperature at which it will boil at that pressure)
bubbles of steam are produced, which rise to the water surface and burst. The
steam is released into the space above, ready to enter the steam system. The
stop or crown valve isolates the boiler and its steam pressure from the
process or plant.

Fig. 1.3.1
Typical heat path through a smoke tube shell boiler

If steam is pressurised, it will occupy less space. Steam boilers are usually
operated under pressure, so that more steam can be produced by a smaller
boiler and transferred to the point of use using small bore pipework. When
required, the steam pressure is reduced at the point of use.
As long as the amount of steam being produced in the boiler is as great as
that leaving the boiler, the boiler will remain pressurised. The burner will
operate to maintain the correct pressure. This also maintains the correct
steam temperature, because the pressure and temperature of saturated
steam
are
directly
related.
The boiler has a number of fittings and controls to ensure that it operates
safely, economically, efficiently and at a consistent pressure.
Feedwater
The quality of water which is supplied into the boiler is important. It must be at
the correct temperature, usually around 80C, to avoid thermal shock to the
boiler, and to keep it operating efficiently. It must also be of the correct quality
to avoid damage to the boiler.

Fig. 1.3.2
A sophisticated feedtank system where
the water is being heated by steam injection
Ordinary untreated potable water is not entirely suitable for boilers and can
quickly cause them to foam and scale up. The boiler would become less
efficient and the steam would become dirty and wet. The life of the boiler
would
also
be
reduced.
The water must therefore be treated with chemicals to reduce the impurities it
contains.
Both feedwater treatment and heating take place in the feedtank, which is
usually situated high above the boiler. The feedpump will add water to the
boiler when required. Heating the water in the feedtank also reduces the
amount of dissolved oxygen in it. This is important, as oxygenated water is
corrosive.

Blowdown
Chemical dosing of the boiler feedwater will lead to the presence of
suspended solids in the boiler. These will inevitably collect in the bottom of the
boiler in the form of sludge, and are removed by a process known as bottom
blowdown. This can be done manually - the boiler attendant will use a key to
open a blowdown valve for a set period of time, usually twice a day.
Other impurities remain in the boiler water after treatment in the form of
dissolved solids. Their concentration will increase as the boiler produces
steam and consequently the boiler needs to be regularly purged of some of its
contents to reduce the concentration. This is called control of total dissolved
solids (TDS control). This process can be carried out by an automatic system
which uses either a probe inside the boiler, or a small sensor chamber
containing a sample of boiler water, to measure the TDS level in the boiler.
Once the TDS level reaches a set point, a controller signals the blowdown
valve to open for a set period of time. The lost water is replaced by feedwater
with a lower TDS concentration, consequently the overall boiler TDS is
reduced.
Level control
If the water level inside the boiler were not carefully controlled, the
consequences could be catastrophic. If the water level drops too low and the
boiler tubes are exposed, the boiler tubes could overheat and fail, causing an
explosion. If the water level becomes too high, water could enter the steam
system
and
upset
the
process.
For this reason, automatic level controls are used. To comply with legislation,
level control systems also incorporate alarm functions which will operate to
shut down the boiler and alert attention if there is a problem with the water
level. A common method of level control is to use probes which sense the
level of water in the boiler. At a certain level, a controller will send a signal to
the feedpump which will operate to restore the water level, switching off when
a predetermined level is reached. The probe will incorporate levels at which
the pump is switched on and off, and at which low or high level alarms are
activated. Alternative systems use floats.

Fig.
1.3.3
Typical boiler level control/alarm configuration
It is a legal requirement in most countries to have two independent low level
alarm systems.
Top
The flow of steam to the plant
When steam condenses, its volume is dramatically reduced, which results in a
localised reduction in pressure. This pressure drop through the system
creates
the
flow
of
steam
through
the
pipes.
The steam generated in the boiler must be conveyed through the pipework to
the point where its heat energy is required. Initially there will be one or more
main pipes or steam mains which carry steam from the boiler in the general
direction of the steam using plant. Smaller branch pipes can then distribute
the
steam
to
the
individual
pieces
of
equipment.
Steam at high pressure occupies a lower volume than at atmospheric
pressure. The higher the pressure, the smaller the bore of pipework required
for distribution of a given mass of steam.

Fig. 1.3.4
Cut section of a strainer
Steam quality
It is important to ensure that the steam leaving the boiler is delivered to the
process in the right condition. To achieve this the pipework which carries the
steam around the plant normally incorporates strainers, separators and steam
traps.
A strainer is a form of sieve in the pipeline. It contains a mesh through which
the steam must pass. Any passing debris will be retained by the mesh. A
strainer should regularly be cleaned to avoid blockage. Debris should be
removed from the steam flow because it can be very damaging to plant, and
may also contaminate the final product.

Fig. 1.3.5
Cut section of a separator showing operation

The steam should be as dry as possible to ensure it is carrying heat

effectively. A separator is a body in the pipeline which contains a series of
plates or baffles which interrupt the path of the steam. The steam hits the
plates, and any drops of moisture in the steam collect on them, before
draining
from
the
bottom
of
the
separator.
Steam passes from the boiler into the steam mains. Initially the pipework is
cold and heat is transferred to it from the steam. The air surrounding the pipes
is also cooler than the steam, so the pipework will begin to lose heat to the air.
Insulation fitted around the pipe will reduce this heat loss considerably.
When steam from the distribution system enters the steam using equipment
the steam will again give up energy by: a) warming up the equipment and b)
continuing to transfer heat to the process. As steam loses heat, it turns back
into water. Inevitably the steam begins to do this as soon as it leaves the
boiler. The water which forms is known as condensate, which tends to run to
the bottom of the pipe and is carried along with the steam flow. This must be
removed from the lowest points in the distribution pipework for several
reasons:

Condensate does not transmit heat effectively. A film of condensate

inside plant will reduce the efficiency with which heat is transferred.

When air dissolves into condensate, it becomes corrosive.

Accumulated condensate can cause noisy and damaging

waterhammer.

Inadequate drainage leads to leaking joints.

A device known as a steam trap is used to release condensate from the

pipework whilst preventing the steam from escaping from the system. It can
do this in several ways:

A float trap uses the difference in density between steam and

condensate to operate a valve. As condensate enters the trap, a float is
raised and the float lever mechanism opens the main valve to allow
condensate to drain. When the condensate flow reduces the float falls
and closes the main valve, thus preventing the escape of steam.

Thermodynamic traps contain a disc which opens to condensate and

closes to steam.

In bimetallic thermostatic traps, a bimetallic element uses the difference

in temperature between steam and condensate to operate the main
valve.

In balanced pressure thermostatic traps, a small liquid filled capsule

which is sensitive to heat operates the valve.

Once the steam has been employed in the process, the resulting condensate
needs to be drained from the plant and returned to the boiler house. This
process will be considered later in this Tutorial.

Pressure reduction
As mentioned before, steam is usually generated at high pressure, and the
pressure may have to be reduced at the point of use, either because of the
pressure limitations of the plant, or the temperature limitations of the process.
This is achieved using a pressure reducing valve.
Top
Steam at the point of use
A large variety of steam using plant exists. A few examples are described
below:

Jacketed pan - Large steel or copper pans used in the food and other
industries to boil substances - anything from prawns to jam. These
large pans are surrounded by a jacket filled with steam, which acts to
heat up the contents.

Autoclave - A steam-filled chamber used for sterilisation purposes, for

example medical equipment, or to carry out chemical reactions at high
temperatures and pressures, for example the curing of rubber.

Heater battery - For space heating, steam is supplied to the coils in a

heater battery. The air to be heated passes over the coils.

Process tank heating - A steam filled coil in a tank of liquid used to

heat the contents to the desired temperature.

Vulcaniser - A large receptacle filled with steam and used to cure

rubber.

Corrugator - A series of steam heated rollers used in the corrugation

process in the production of cardboard.

Heat exchanger - For heating liquids for domestic/industrial use.

Control of the process

Any steam using plant will require some method to control the flow of steam. A
constant flow of steam at the same pressure and temperature is often not
what is required - a gradually increasing flow will be needed at start-up to
gently warm the plant, and once the process reaches the desired
temperature,
the
flow
must
be
reduced.
Control valves are used to control the flow of steam. The actuator, see Figure
1.3.6, is the device that applies the force to open or close the valve. A sensor
monitors conditions in the process, and transmits information to the controller.
The controller compares the process condition with the set value and sends a
corrective signal to the actuator, which adjusts the valve setting.

Fig. 1.3.6
A pneumatically operated two port control valve
A variety of control types exist:
Pneumatically actuated valves - Compressed air is applied to a
diaphragm in the actuator to open or close the valve.

Electrically actuated valves - An electric motor actuates the valve.

Self-acting - There is no controller as such - the sensor has a liquid fill

which expands and contracts in response to a change in process
temperature. This action applies force to open or close the valve.

Top
Condensate removal from plant
Often, the condensate which forms will drain easily out of the plant through a
steam trap. The condensate enters the condensate drainage system. If it is
contaminated, it will probably be sent to drain. If not, the valuable heat energy
it contains can be retained by returning it to the boiler feedtank. This also
saves
on
water
and
water
treatment
costs.
Sometimes a vacuum may form inside the steam using plant. This hinders
condensate drainage, but proper drainage from the steam space maintains
the effectiveness of the plant. The condensate may then have to be pumped
out.
Mechanical (steam powered) pumps are used for this purpose. These, or
electric powered pumps, are used to lift the condensate back to the boiler
feedtank.

A mechanical pump, see Figure 1.3.7, is shown draining an item of plant. As

can be seen, the steam and condensate system represents a continuous
loop.
Once the condensate reaches the feedtank, it becomes available to the boiler
for recycling.

F
ig. 1.3.7
Condensate recovery and return
Energy monitoring
In today's energy conscious environment, it is common for customers to
monitor
the
energy
consumption
of
their
plant.
Steam flowmeters are used to monitor the consumption of steam, and used to
allocate costs to individual departments or items of plant.

2. Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer

Properties of various types of steam are considered, along with basic heat
transfer principles and how to calculate consumption rates for process
applications. Entropy is tackled in simple terms, removing unnecessary fears
often associated with the subject.
1. Engineering Units
An overview of the units of measurement used in the Steam and
Condensate Loop including temperature, pressure, density, volume,
heat, work and energy.
2. What is Steam?
The properties of steam explained here, including the ability of steam
under pressure to carry, and then give up, large amounts of energy.
Topics include saturated steam tables, dryness fraction and flash
steam.
3. Superheated Steam
An explanation of the properties and uses of superheated steam (such
as for electricity generation). Including explanations of the Rankine and
Carnot thermodynamic cycles, superheated steam tables and the
Mollier (H-S) chart.
4. Steam Quality
Steam should be available at the point of use in the correct quantity, at
the correct pressure, clean, dry and free from air and other
incondensable gases. This tutorial explains why this is necessary, and
how steam quality is assured.
5. Heat Transfer

Steam is often generated to provide heat transfer to a process. Modes

of heat transfer (conduction, convection, radiation) within or between
media are explained, together with calculations and other issues such
as heat transfer barriers.
6. Methods of Estimating Steam Consumption
How to calculate steam requirements for flow and non-flow
applications. Including warm-up, heat losses and running loads.
7. Measurement of Steam Consumption
Methods of measuring steam consumption, from the very basic to
sophisticated flow metering, are explained in this tutorial.

8. Thermal Rating
Design ratings for items of plant can be both helpful and misleading, as
changing any factor can alter the predicted heat output. Also, how to
calculate steam load requirements from the kW rating.
9. Energy Consumption of Tanks and Vats
The heating of liquids in tanks and vats is an important requirement in
process industries. There are many types of tank with different uses.
Determination of heat requirements, heat transfer and heat loss
calculations are all covered in this tutorial.
10. Heating with Coils and Jackets
Indirect heating of fluids is covered in this tutorial including layouts,
control and drainage of coils and jackets, and heat transfer
calculations.
11. Heating Vats and Tanks by Steam Injection
Direct steam injection involves the discharge of steam bubbles into a
liquid at a lower temperature to transfer heat. This tutorial explains the
process and the methods used, including the relevant heat transfer
calculations.
12. Steam Consumption of Pipes and Air Heaters
Steam will condense and give up its enthalpy of evaporation on the
walls of any pipe or tube at a lower temperature. It is not usually
possible or necessary to calculate steam consumption exactly. This
tutorial allows satisfactory estimates to be made for most practical
purposes.
13. Steam Consumption of Heat Exchangers
Different types of heat exchanger are explained and compared in this
tutorial, together with steam consumption calculations and other issues
such as the relevance of the starting load.
14. Steam Consumption of Plant Items
The steam consumption of other common plant items, including heater
batteries, calorifiers, drying cylinders, presses and tracer lines.
15. Entropy - A Basic Understanding
Entropy is a concept some find difficult to grasp, but in truth it does not
deserve such notoriety. Look upon Entropy as a road map that
connects thermodynamic situations. This tutorial hopes to shed some
light on this subject, by approaching it from first principles.
16. Entropy - Its Practical Use
Entropy can be used to understand thermodynamic applications from
first principles. This tutorial gives practical examples of how this can be
done.

2.1 Engineering Units

An overview of the units of measurement used in the Steam and
Condensate Loop including temperature, pressure, density, volume,
heat, work and energy.
Throughout the engineering industries, many different definitions and units
have been proposed and used for mechanical and thermal properties.
The problems this caused led to the development of an agreed international
system of units (or SI units: Systme International d'Units). In the SI system
there are seven well-defined base units from which the units of other
properties can be derived, and these will be used throughout the Steam
Engineering
Tutorials.
The SI base units include length (in metres), mass (in kilograms), time (in
seconds) and temperature (in kelvin). The first three will hopefully need no
further explanation, while the latter will be discussed in more detail later.
The other SI base units are electric current (in amperes), amount of
substance (in moles) and luminous intensity (in candela). These may be
familiar to readers with a background in electronics, chemistry and physics
respectively, but have little relevance to steam engineering nor the contents of
these
tutorials.
Table 2.1.1 shows the derived units that are relevant to this subject, all of
which should be familiar to those with any general engineering background.
Some of these quantities have been assigned special names after famous
pioneers in the development of science and engineering.

Table 2.1.1
Named quantities in derived SI units
There are many other quantities that have been derived from SI base units,
which will also be of significance to anyone involved in steam engineering.
These are provided in Table 2.1.2.

Table 2.1.2
Other quantities in derived SI units
Dot notation
This convention is used to identify a compound unit incorporating rate, for
example:
m

=
Mass
(e.g.
= Mass flow per time unit (e.g. kg/h) = Mass flowrate

kg)

Multiples and submultiples

Table 2.1.3 gives the SI prefixes that are used to form decimal multiples and
submultiples of SI units. They allow very large or very small numerical values
to be avoided. A prefix attaches directly to the name of a unit, and a prefix
symbol
attaches
directly
to
the
symbol
for
a
unit.
In summary: one thousand metres may be shown as 1 km, 1000 m or 10 m.

Table 2.1.3
Multiples and submultiples used with SI units
Special abbreviations used in steam flowmetering applications
For historical reasons, International Standard ISO 5167 (supersedes BS
1042) which refers to flowmetering, use the following abbreviations in Table
2.1.4.

Table 2.1.4
Symbols used in flowmetering applications
STP - Standard temperature and pressure
These are the standard conditions for measurement of the properties of
matter. The standard temperature is the freezing point of pure water, 0C or
273.15K. The standard pressure is the pressure exerted by a column of
mercury (symbol Hg) 760 mm high, often designated 760 mm Hg. This
pressure is also called one atmosphere and is equal to 1.01325 x 10 6 dynes
per square centimetre, or approximately 14.7 lb per square inch. The density
(mass per volume) of a gas is usually reported as its value at STP. Properties
that cannot be measured at STP are measured under other conditions;
usually the values obtained are then mathematically extrapolated to their
values at STP.
Symbols
Table 2.1.5 shows the symbols and typical units used in the Steam
Engineering Tutorials.

Table 2.1.5

Symbols and units of measure used in

the Steam Engineering Tutorials
Subscripts used with properties
When using enthalpy, entropy and internal energy, subscripts as shown below
are
used
to
identify
the
phase,
for
example:
Subscript f =

Fluid

or

liquid

state,

for

example

h f:

liquid

enthalpy

Subscript fg = Change of state liquid to gas, for example h fg: enthalpy of

evaporation
Subscript g =

Total,

for

example

h g:

total

enthalpy

Note that, by convention, the total heat in superheated steam is signified by h.

It is also usual, by convention, to signify sample quantities in capital letters,
whilst
unit
quantities
are
signified
in
lower
case
letters.
For
Total enthalpy in a sample of superheated
Specific enthalpy of superheated steam - h kJ/kg

steam

example:
- H kJ

Top
Temperature
The temperature scale is used as an indicator of thermal equilibrium, in the
sense that any two systems in contact with each other with the same value
are in thermal equilibrium.
The Celsius (C) scale
This is the scale most commonly used by the engineer, as it has a convenient
(but arbitrary) zero temperature, corresponding to the temperature at which
water will freeze.
The absolute or K (kelvin) scale
This scale has the same increments as the Celsius scale, but has a zero
corresponding to the minimum possible temperature when all molecular and
atomic motion has ceased. This temperature is often referred to as absolute
zero
(0
K)
and
is
equivalent
to
-273.16C.
The two scales of temperature are interchangeable, as shown in Figure 2.1.1
and expressed in Equation 2.1.1.

Fig. 2.1.1
Comparison of absolute and gauge pressures
Equation 2.1.1
The SI unit of temperature is the kelvin, which is defined as 1 273.15 of the
thermodynamic temperature of pure water at its triple point (0C). An
explanation
of
triple
point
is
given
in
Tutorial
2.2.
Most thermodynamic equations require the temperature to be expressed in
kelvin. However, temperature difference, as used in many heat transfer
calculations, may be expressed in either C or K. Since both scales have the
same increments, a temperature difference of 1C has the same value as a
temperature difference of 1 K.
Top
Pressure
The SI unit of pressure is the pascal (Pa), defined as 1 newton of force per
square metre (1 N/m). As Pa is such a small unit the kPa (1 kilonewton/m) or
MPa (1 Meganewton/m) tend to be more appropriate to steam engineering.
However, probably the most commonly used metric unit for pressure
measurement in steam engineering is the bar. This is equal to 10 5 N/m, and
approximates to 1 atmosphere. This unit is used throughout these tutorials.
Other units often used include lb/in (psi), kg/cm, atm, in H 2O and mm Hg.
Conversion factors are readily available from many sources.

Fig. 2.1.2
Comparison of absolute and gauge pressures
Absolute pressure (bar a)
This is the pressure measured from the datum of a perfect vacuum i.e. a
perfect vacuum has a pressure of 0 bar a.
Gauge pressure (bar g)
This is the pressure measured from the datum of the atmospheric pressure.
Although in reality the atmospheric pressure will depend upon the climate and
the height above sea level, a generally accepted value of 1.013 25 bar a (1
atm) is often used. This is the average pressure exerted by the air of the
earth's
atmosphere
at
sea
level.
Gauge

pressure

Absolute

pressure

Atmospheric

pressure

Pressures above atmospheric will always yield a positive gauge pressure.

Conversely a vacuum or negative pressure is the pressure below that of the
atmosphere. A pressure of -1 bar g corresponds closely to a perfect vacuum.
Differential pressure
This is simply the difference between two pressures. When specifying a
differential pressure, it is not necessary to use the suffixes 'g' or 'a' to denote
either gauge pressure or absolute pressure respectively, as the pressure
datum
point
becomes
irrelevant.
Therefore, the difference between two pressures will have the same value
whether these pressures are measured in gauge pressure or absolute
pressure, as long as the two pressures are measured from the same datum.

Density and specific volume

The density of a substance can be defined as its mass (m) per unit volume
(V). The specific volume (v g) is the volume per unit mass and is therefore the
inverse of density. In fact, the term 'specific' is generally used to denote a
property of a unit mass of a substance (see Equation 2.1.2).

Equation 2.1.2
Where:
= Density(kg/m)
m = Mass (kg)
V = Volume(m)
vg = Specific volume (m/kg)
The SI units of density () are kg/m, whilst conversely the units of specific
volume
(vg)
are
m/kg.
Another term used as a measure of density is specific gravity. It is a ratio of
the density of a substance (s) and the density of pure water (w) at standard
temperature and pressure (STP). This reference condition is usually defined
as being at atmospheric pressure and 0C. Sometimes it is said to be at 20C
or 25C and is referred to as normal temperature and pressure (NTP).
Equation 2.1.3
The density of water at these conditions is approximately 1 000 kg/m.
Therefore substances with a density greater than this value will have a
specific gravity greater than 1, whereas substances with a density less than
this
will
have
a
specific
gravity
of
less
than
1.
Since specific gravity is a ratio of two densities, it is a dimensionless variable
and has no units. Therefore in this case the term specific does not indicate it
is a property of a unit mass of a substance. The specific gravity is also
sometimes known as the relative density of a substance.
Top
Heat, work and energy
Energy is sometimes described as the ability to do work. The transfer of
energy by means of mechanical motion is called work. The SI unit for work
and
energy
is
the
joule,
defined
as
1
N
m.
The amount of mechanical work done can be determined by an equation
derived
from
Newtonian
mechanics:
Work

Force

Displacement

It can also be described as the product of the applied pressure and the
displaced
volume:

Work = Applied pressure x Displaced volume

Example 2.1.1
An applied pressure of 1 Pa (or 1 N/m) displaces a volume of 1 m. How
much
work
has
been
done
?
Work

done

N/m

(or

J)

The benefits of using SI units, as in the above example, is that the units in the
equation actually cancel out to give the units of the product.
The experimental observations of J. P. Joule established that there is an
equivalence between mechanical energy (or work) and heat. He found that
the same amount of energy was required to produce the same temperature
rise in a specific mass of water, regardless of whether the energy was
supplied
as
heat
or
work.
The total energy of a system is composed of the internal, potential and kinetic
energy. The temperature of a substance is directly related to its internal
energy (ug). The internal energy is associated with the motion, interaction and
bonding of the molecules within a substance. The external energy of a
substance is associated with its velocity and location, and is the sum of its
potential
and
kinetic
energy.
The transfer of energy as a result of the difference in temperature alone is
referred to as heat flow. The watt, which is the SI unit of power, can be defined
as
1
J/s
of
heat
flow.
Other units used to quantify heat energy are the British Thermal Unit (Btu: the
amount of heat to raise 1 lb of water by 1F) and the kilocalorie (the amount of
heat to raise 1 kg of water by 1C). Conversion factors are readily available
from numerous sources.
Specific enthalpy
This is the term given to the total energy, due to both pressure and
temperature, of a fluid (such as water or steam) at any given time and
condition. More specifically it is the sum of the internal energy and the work
done
by
an
applied
pressure
(as
in
Example
2.1.1).
The basic unit of measurement is the joule (J). Since one joule represents a
very small amount of energy, it is usual to use kilojoules (kJ) (1 000 Joules).
The specific enthalpy is a measure of the total energy of a unit mass, and its
units are usually kJ/kg.
Specific heat capacity
The enthalpy of a fluid is a function of its temperature and pressure. The
temperature dependence of the enthalpy can be found by measuring the rise
in temperature caused by the flow of heat at constant pressure. The constantpressure heat capacity cp, is a measure of the change in enthalpy at a

particular

temperature.

Similarly, the internal energy is a function of temperature and specific volume.

The constant-volume heat capacity c v, is a measure of the change in internal
energy
at
a
particular
temperature
and
constant
volume.
Because the specific volumes of solids and liquids are generally smaller, then
unless
the
pressure
is extremely high, the work done by an applied pressure can be neglected.
Therefore, if the enthalpy can be represented by the internal energy
component alone, the constant-volume and constant-pressure heat capacities
can
be
said
to
be
equal.
Therefore

for,

solids

and

liquids:

cp

cv

Another simplification for solids and liquids assumes that they are
incompressible, so that their volume is only a function of temperature. This
implies that for incompressible fluids the enthalpy and the heat capacity are
also
only
functions
of
temperature.
The specific heat capacity represents the amount of energy required to raise 1
kg by 1C, and can be thought of as the ability of a substance to absorb heat.
Therefore the SI units of specific heat capacity are kJ/kg K (kJ/kg C). Water
has a very large specific heat capacity (4.19 kJ/kg C) compared with many
fluids, which is why both water and steam are considered to be good carriers
of
heat.
The amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of a substance
can be determined from Equation 2.1.4.
Equation 2.1.4
Where:
Q = Quantity of energy (kJ)
m = Mass of the substance(kg)
cp = Specific heat capacity of the substance (kJ/kgC)
T = Temperature rise of the substance (C)
This equation shows that for a given mass of substance, the temperature rise
is linearly related to the amount of heat provided, assuming that the specific
heat capacity is constant over that temperature range.
Example 2.1.2
Consider a quantity of water with a volume of 2 litres, which is raised from a
temperature
of
20C
to
70C.
At atmospheric pressure, the density of water is approximately 1 000 kg/m.
As there are 1 000 litres in 1 m, then the density can be expressed as 1 kg
per litre (1 kg/l). Therefore the mass of the water is 2 kg.
The specific heat capacity for water can be taken as 4.19 kJ/kg C over low

ranges

of

temperature.

Therefore: Q = 2 kg x 4.19 kJ/kg C x (70 - 20)C = 419 kJ

If the water was then cooled to its original temperature of 20C, it would also
provide this amount of energy in the cooling application.
Entropy (S)
Entropy is a measure of the degree of disorder within a system. The greater
the degree of disorder, the higher the entropy. The SI units of entropy are
kJ/kg
K
(kJ/kg
C).
In a solid, the molecules of a substance arrange themselves in an orderly
structure. As the substance changes from a solid to a liquid, or from a liquid to
a gas, the arrangement of the molecules becomes more disordered as they
begin to move more freely. For any given substance the entropy in the gas
phase is greater than that of the liquid phase, and the entropy in the liquid
phase
is
more
than
in
the
solid
phase.
One characteristic of all natural or spontaneous processes is that they
proceed towards a state of equilibrium. This can be seen in the second law of
thermodynamics, which states that heat cannot pass from a colder to a
warmer
body.
A change in the entropy of a system is caused by a change in its heat content,
where the change of entropy is equal to the heat change divided by the
average absolute temperature, Equation 2.1.5.
Equation 2.1.5
When unit mass calculations are made, the symbols for entropy and enthalpy
are written in lower case, Equation 2.1.6.
Equation 2.1.6
To look at this in further detail, consider the following examples:
Example 2.1.3
A process raises 1 kg of water from 0 to 100C (273 to 373 K) under
atmospheric conditions.
Specific enthalpy at 0C (hf)
= 0 kJ/kg (from steam tables)
Specific enthalpy of water at 100C (hf) = 419 kJ/kg (from steam tables)
Calculate
the
change
in
specific

entropy

Since this is a change in specific entropy of water, the symbol 's' in Equation
2.1.6 takes the suffix 'f' to become sf.

Example 2.1.4
A process changes 1 kg of water at 100C (373 K) to saturated steam at
100C
(373
K)
under
atmospheric
conditions.
Calculate

the

change

in

specific

entropy

of

evaporation

Since this is the entropy involved in the change of state, the symbol 's' in
Equation
2.1.6
takes
the
suffix
' fg'
to
become
sfg.
Specific enthalpy of evaporation of steam at 100C (373 K) (h fg) = 2 258 kJ/kg
(from
steam
tables)
Specific enthalpy of evaporation of water at 100C (373 K) (h fg) = 0 kJ/kg
(from steam tables)

The total change in specific entropy from water at 0C to saturated steam at

100C is the sum of the change in specific entropy for the water, plus the
change of specific entropy for the steam, and takes the suffix ' g' to become the
total change in specific entropy sg.

Example 2.1.5
A process superheats 1 kg of saturated steam at atmospheric pressure to
150C (423 K). Determine the change in entropy.

Equation 2.1.6

As the entropy of saturated water is measured from a datum of 0.01C, the

entropy of water at 0C can, for practical purposes, be taken as zero. The total
change in specific entropy in this example is based on an initial water
temperature of 0C, and therefore the final result happens to be very much
the same as the specific entropy of steam that would be observed in steam
tables at the final condition of steam at atmospheric pressure and 150C.
Entropy is discussed in greater detail in Tutorial 2.15, Entropy - A Basic
Understanding, and in Tutorial 2.16, Entropy - Its Practical Use.

2.2 What is Steam?

The properties of steam explained here, including the ability of steam
under pressure to carry, and then give up, large amounts of energy.
Topics include saturated steam tables, dryness fraction and flash steam.
A better understanding of the properties of steam may be achieved by
understanding the general molecular and atomic structure of matter, and
applying
this
knowledge
to
ice,
water
and
steam.
A molecule is the smallest amount of any element or compound substance
still possessing all the chemical properties of that substance which can exist.
Molecules themselves are made up of even smaller particles called atoms,
which define the basic elements such as hydrogen and oxygen.
The specific combinations of these atomic elements provide compound
substances. One such compound is represented by the chemical formula

H2O, having molecules made up of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of
oxygen.
The reason water is so plentiful on the earth is because hydrogen and oxygen
are amongst the most abundant elements in the universe. Carbon is another
element of significant abundance, and is a key component in all organic
matter.
Most mineral substances can exist in the three physical states (solid, liquid
and vapour) which are referred to as phases. In the case of H 2O, the terms
ice, water and steam are used to denote the three phases respectively.
The molecular structure of ice, water, and steam is still not fully understood,
but it is convenient to consider the molecules as bonded together by electrical
charges (referred to as the hydrogen bond). The degree of excitation of the
molecules determines the physical state (or phase) of the substance.
Top
Triple point
All the three phases of a particular substance can only coexist in equilibrium
at a certain temperature and pressure, and this is known as its triple point.
The triple point of H2O, where the three phases of ice, water and steam are in
equilibrium, occurs at a temperature of 273.16 K and an absolute pressure of
0.006 112 bar. This pressure is very close to a perfect vacuum. If the pressure
is reduced further at this temperature, the ice, instead of melting, sublimates
directly into steam.
Top
Ice
In ice, the molecules are locked together in an orderly lattice type structure
and can only vibrate. In the solid phase, the movement of molecules in the
lattice is a vibration about a mean bonded position where the molecules are
less
than
one
molecular
diameter
apart.
The continued addition of heat causes the vibration to increase to such an
extent that some molecules will eventually break away from their neighbours,
and the solid starts to melt to a liquid state. At atmospheric pressure, melting
occurs at 0C. Changes in pressure have very little effect on the melting
temperature, and for most practical purposes, 0C can be taken as the
melting point. However, it has been shown that the melting point of ice falls by
0.0072C for each additional atmosphere of pressure. for example, a pressure
of 13.9 bar g would be needed to reduce the melting temperature by 0.1C.
Heat that breaks the lattice bonds to produce the phase change while not
increasing the temperature of the ice, is referred to as enthalpy of melting or
heat of fusion. This phase change phenomenon is reversible when freezing

occurs with the same amount of heat being released back to the
surroundings.
For most substances, the density decreases as it changes from the solid to
the liquid phase. However, H2O is an exception to this rule as its density
increases upon melting, which is why ice floats on water.
Top
Water
In the liquid phase, the molecules are free to move, but are still less than one
molecular diameter apart due to mutual attraction, and collisions occur
frequently. More heat increases molecular agitation and collision, raising the
temperature of the liquid up to its boiling temperature.
Enthalpy of water, liquid enthalpy or sensible heat (hf) of water
This is the heat energy required to raise the temperature of water from a
datum
point
of
0C
to
its
current
temperature.
At this reference state of 0C, the enthalpy of water has been arbitrarily set to
zero. The enthalpy of all other states can then be identified, relative to this
easily
accessible
reference
state.
Sensible heat was the term once used, because the heat added to the water
produced a change in temperature. However, the accepted terms these days
are
liquid
enthalpy
or
enthalpy
of
water.
At atmospheric pressure (0 bar g), water boils at 100C, and 419 kJ of energy
are required to heat 1 kg of water from 0C to its boiling temperature of
100C. It is from these figures that the value for the specific heat capacity of
water (cp) of 4.19 kJ/kg C is derived for most calculations between 0C and
100C.
Top
Steam
As the temperature increases and the water approaches its boiling condition,
some molecules attain enough kinetic energy to reach velocities that allow
them to momentarily escape from the liquid into the space above the surface,
before
falling
back
into
the
liquid.
Further heating causes greater excitation and the number of molecules with
enough energy to leave the liquid increases. As the water is heated to its
boiling point, bubbles of steam form within it and rise to break through the
surface.
Considering the molecular structure of liquids and vapours, it is logical that the
density of steam is much less than that of water, because the steam
molecules are further apart from one another. The space immediately above
the water surface thus becomes filled with less dense steam molecules.

When the number of molecules leaving the liquid surface is more than those
re-entering, the water freely evaporates. At this point it has reached boiling
point or its saturation temperature, as it is saturated with heat energy.
If the pressure remains constant, adding more heat does not cause the
temperature to rise any further but causes the water to form saturated steam.
The temperature of the boiling water and saturated steam within the same
system is the same, but the heat energy per unit mass is much greater in the
steam.
At atmospheric pressure the saturation temperature is 100C. However, if the
pressure is increased, this will allow the addition of more heat and an increase
in
temperature
without
a
change
of
phase.
Therefore, increasing the pressure effectively increases both the enthalpy of
water, and the saturation temperature. The relationship between the
saturation temperature and the pressure is known as the steam saturation
curve (see Figure 2.2.1).

Fig. 2.2.1
Steam saturation curve
Water and steam can coexist at any pressure on this curve, both being at the
saturation temperature. Steam at a condition above the saturation curve is
known as superheated steam:

Temperature above saturation temperature is called the degree of

superheat of the steam.

Water at a condition below the curve is called sub-saturated water.

If the steam is able to flow from the boiler at the same rate that it is produced,
the addition of further heat simply increases the rate of production. If the
steam is restrained from leaving the boiler, and the heat input rate is
maintained, the energy flowing into the boiler will be greater than the energy
flowing out. This excess energy raises the pressure, in turn allowing the
saturation temperature to rise, as the temperature of saturated steam
correlates to its pressure.
Enthalpy of evaporation or latent heat (hfg)
This is the amount of heat required to change the state of water at its boiling
temperature, into steam. It involves no change in the temperature of the
steam/water mixture, and all the energy is used to change the state from
liquid
(water)
to
vapour
(saturated
steam).

The old term latent heat is based on the fact that although heat was added,
there was no change in temperature. However, the accepted term is now
enthalpy
of
evaporation.
Like the phase change from ice to water, the process of evaporation is also
reversible. The same amount of heat that produced the steam is released
back to its surroundings during condensation, when steam meets any surface
at
a
lower
temperature.
This may be considered as the useful portion of heat in the steam for heating
purposes, as it is that portion of the total heat in the steam that is extracted
when the steam condenses back to water.
Enthalpy of saturated steam, or total heat of saturated steam
This is the total energy in saturated steam, and is simply the sum of the
enthalpy of water and the enthalpy of evaporation.
Equation 2.2.1
Where:
hg = Total enthalpy of saturated steam (Total heat) (kJ/kg)
hf = Liquid enthalpy (Sensible heat) (kJ/kg)
hfg = Enthalpy of evaporation (Latent heat) (kJ/kg)
The enthalpy (and other properties) of saturated steam can easily be
referenced using the tabulated results of previous experiments, known as
steam tables.
Top
The saturated steam tables
The steam tables list the properties of steam at varying pressures. They are
the results of actual tests carried out on steam. Table 2.2.1 shows the
properties of dry saturated steam at atmospheric pressure - 0 bar g.

Table 2.2.1
Properties of saturated steam at atmospheric pressure
Example 2.2.1
At atmospheric pressure (0 bar g), water boils at 100C, and 419 kJ of energy
are required to heat 1 kg of water from 0C to its saturation temperature of
100C. Therefore the specific enthalpy of water at 0 bar g and 100C is 419
kJ/kg, as shown in the steam tables (see Table 2.2.2).
Another 2 257 kJ of energy are required to evaporate 1 kg of water at 100C
into 1 kg of steam at 100C. Therefore at 0 bar g the specific enthalpy of
evaporation is 2 257 kJ/kg, as shown in the steam tables (see Table 2.2.2).

However, steam at atmospheric pressure is of a limited practical use. This is

because it cannot be conveyed under its own pressure along a steam pipe to
the
point
of
use.
Note: Because of the pressure/volume relationship of steam, (volume is
reduced as pressure is increased) it is usually generated in the boiler at a
pressure of at least 7 bar g. The generation of steam at higher pressures
enables the steam distribution pipes to be kept to a reasonable size.
As the steam pressure increases, the density of the steam will also increase.
As the specific volume is inversely related to the density, the specific volume
will
decrease
with
increasing
pressure.
Figure 2.2.2 shows the relationship of specific volume to pressure. This
highlights that the greatest change in specific volume occurs at lower
pressures, whereas at the higher end of the pressure scale there is much less
change in specific volume.

Fig. 2.2.2
Steam pressure/specific volume relationship
The extract from the steam tables shown in Table 2.2.2 shows specific
volume,
and
other
data
related
to
saturated
steam.
At 7 bar g, the saturation temperature of water is 170C. More heat energy is
required to raise its temperature to saturation point at 7 bar g than would be
needed if the water were at atmospheric pressure. The table gives a value of
721 kJ to raise 1 kg of water from 0C to its saturation temperature of 170C.
The heat energy (enthalpy of evaporation) needed by the water at 7 bar g to
change it into steam is actually less than the heat energy required at
atmospheric pressure. This is because the specific enthalpy of evaporation
decreases
as
the
steam
pressure
increases.
However, as the specific volume also decreases with increasing pressure, the
amount of heat energy transferred in the same volume actually increases with
steam pressure.

Table 2.2.2
Extract from the saturated steam tables
Top
Dryness fraction
Steam with a temperature equal to the boiling point at that pressure is known
as dry saturated steam. However, to produce 100% dry steam in an industrial
boiler designed to produce saturated steam is rarely possible, and the steam
will
usually
contain
droplets
of
water.
In practice, because of turbulence and splashing, as bubbles of steam break
through the water surface, the steam space contains a mixture of water
droplets
and
steam.
Steam produced in any shell-type boiler (see Block 3), where the heat is
supplied only to the water and where the steam remains in contact with the
water surface, may typically contain around 5% water by mass.
If the water content of the steam is 5% by mass, then the steam is said to be
95%
dry
and
has
a
dryness
fraction
of
0.95.
The actual enthalpy of evaporation of wet steam is the product of the dryness
fraction () and the specific enthalpy (h fg) from the steam tables. Wet steam
will have lower usable heat energy than dry saturated steam.
Equation 2.2.2
Therefore:
Equation 2.2.3
Because the specfic volume of water is several orders of magnitude lower
than that of steam, the droplets of water in wet steam will occupy negligible
space. Therefore the specific volume of wet steam will be less than dry steam:
Equation 2.2.4
Where vg is the specific volume of dry saturated steam.
Example 2.2.2
Steam at a pressure of 6 bar g having a dryness fraction of 0.94 will only
contain 94% of the enthalpy of evaporation of dry saturated steam at 6 bar g.
The following calculations use figures from steam tables:

The steam phase diagram

The data provided in the steam tables can also be expressed in a graphical
form. Figure 2.2.3 illustrates the relationship between the enthalpy and
temperature of the various states of water and steam; this is known as a
phase diagram.

Fig. 2.2.3
Temperature enthalpy phase diagram
As water is heated from 0C to its saturation temperature, its condition follows
the saturated water line until it has received all of its liquid enthalpy, h f, (A - B).
If further heat continues to be added, the water changes phase to a
water/vapour mixture and continues to increase in enthalpy while remaining at
saturation
temperature
,hfg,
(B- C).
As the water/vapour mixture increases in dryness, its condition moves from
the saturated liquid line to the saturated vapour line. Therefore at a point
exactly halfway between these two states, the dryness fraction () is 0.5.
Similarly, on the saturated steam line the steam is 100% dry.
Once it has received all of its enthalpy of evaporation, it reaches the saturated
steam line. If it continues to be heated after this point, the pressure remains
constant but the temperature of the steam will begin to rise as superheat is
imparted
(C - D).
The saturated water and saturated steam lines enclose a region in which a
water/vapour mixture exists - wet steam. In the region to the left of the
saturated water line only water exists, and in the region to the right of the

saturated

steam

line

only

superheated

steam

exists.

The point at which the saturated water and saturated steam lines meet is
known as the critical point. As the pressure increases towards the critical point
the enthalpy of evaporation decreases, until it becomes zero at the critical
point. This suggests that water changes directly into saturated steam at the
critical
point.
Above the critical point the steam may be considered as a gas. The gaseous
state is the most diffuse state in which the molecules have an almost
unrestricted motion, and the volume increases without limit as the pressure is
reduced.
The critical point is the highest temperature at which water can exist. Any
compression at constant temperature above the critical point will not produce
a
phase
change.
Compression at constant temperature below the critical point however, will
result in liquefaction of the vapour as it passes from the superheated region
into
the
wet
steam
region.
The critical point occurs at 374.15C and 221.2 bar a for steam. Above this
pressure the steam is termed supercritical and no well-defined boiling point
applies.
Top
Flash steam
The term 'flash steam' is traditionally used to describe steam issuing from
condensate receiver vents and open-ended condensate discharge lines from
steam traps. How can steam be formed from water without adding heat?
Flash steam occurs whenever water at high pressure (and a temperature
higher than the saturation temperature of the low-pressure liquid) is allowed to
drop to a lower pressure. Conversely, if the temperature of the high-pressure
water is lower than the saturation temperature at the lower pressure, flash
steam cannot be formed. In the case of condensate passing through a steam
trap, it is usually the case that the upstream temperature is high enough to
form flash steam. See Figure 2.2.4.

Fig. 2.2.4
Flash steam formed because T1 > T2
Consider a kilogram of condensate at 5 bar g and a saturation temperature of
159C passing through a steam trap to a lower pressure of 0 bar g. The

amount of energy in one kilogram of condensate at saturation temperature at

5 bar g is 671 kJ. In accordance with the first law of thermodynamics, the
amount of energy contained in the fluid on the low-pressure side of the steam
trap must equal that on the high-pressure side, and constitutes the principle of
conservation
of
energy.
Consequently, the heat contained in one kilogram of low-pressure fluid is also
671 kJ. However, water at 0 bar g is only able to contain 419 kJ of heat,
subsequently there appears to be an imbalance of heat on the low-pressure
side of 671 - 419 = 252 kJ, which, in terms of the water, could be considered
as
excess
heat.
This excess heat boils some of the condensate into what is known as flash
steam and the boiling process is called flashing. Therefore, the one kilogram
of condensate which existed as one kilogram of liquid water on the high
pressure side of the steam trap now partly exists as both water and steam on
the
low-pressure
side.
The amount of flash steam produced at the final pressure (P 2) can be
determined using Equation 2.2.5:

Equation 2.2.5
Where:
P1 = Initial pressure
P2 = Final pressure
hf = Liquid enthalpy (kJ/kg)
hfg = Enthalpy of evaporation (kJ/kg)
Example 2.2.3 The case where the high pressure condensate
temperature is higher than the low pressure saturation
temperature
Consider a quantity of water at a pressure of 5 bar g, containing 671 kJ/kg of
heat energy at its saturation temperature of 159C. If the pressure was then
reduced down to atmospheric pressure (0 bar g), the water could only exist at
100C and contain 419 kJ/kg of heat energy. This difference of 671 - 419 =
252 kJ/kg of heat energy, would then produce flash steam at atmospheric
pressure.

The proportion of flash steam produced can be thought of as the ratio of the
excess energy to the enthalpy of evaporation at the final pressure.
Example 2.2.4 The case where the high pressure condensate
temperature is lower than the low pressure saturation temperature
Consider the same conditions as in Example 2.2.3, with the exception that the
high-pressure condensate temperature is at 90C, that is, sub-cooled below

the atmospheric saturation temperature of 100C. Note: It is not usually

practical for such a large drop in condensate temperature from its saturation
temperature (in this case 159C to 90C); it is simply being used to illustrate
the point about flash steam not being produced under such circumstances.
In this case, the sub-saturated water table will show that the liquid enthalpy of
one kilogram of condensate at 5 bar g and 90C is 377 kJ. As this enthalpy is
less than the enthalpy of one kilogram of saturated water at atmospheric
pressure (419 kJ), there is no excess heat available to produce flash steam.
The condensate simply passes through the trap and remains in a liquid state
at the same temperature but lower pressure, atmospheric pressure in this
case. See Figure 2.2.5.

Fig. 2.2.5
No flash steam formed because T1 < T2
The vapour pressure of water at 90C is 0.7 bar absolute. Should the lower
condensate pressure have been less than this, flash steam would have been
produced.
The principles of conservation of energy and mass between two process
states
The principles of the conservation of energy and mass allow the flash steam
phenomenon
to
be
thought
of
from
a
different
direction.
Consider

the

conditions

in

Example

2.2.3.

1 kg of condensate at 5 bar g and 159C produces 0.112 kg of flash steam at

atmospheric pressure. This can be illustrated schematically in Figure 2.2.6.
The total mass of flash and condensate remains at 1 kg.

Fig. 2.2.6
The principle of energy conservation between two process states
The principle of energy conservation states that the total energy in the lowerpressure state must equal the total energy in the higher-pressure state.
Therefore, the amount of heat in the flash steam and condensate must equal
that
in
the
initial
condensate
of
671
kJ.
Steam tables give the following information:

Total enthalpy of saturated water at atmospheric pressure (hf)

= 419 kJ/kg
Total enthalpy in saturated steam at atmospheric pressure (hg)
= 2 675 kJ/kg
Therefore, at the lower pressure state of 0 bar g,
Total enthalpy in the water = 0.888 kg x 419 kJ / kg
= 372 kJ (A)
Total enthalpy in the steam = 0.112 kg x 2 675 kJ / kg
= 299 kJ (B)
Total enthalpy in condensate and steam at the lower pressure = A + B = 671 kJ
Therefore, according to the steam tables, the enthalpy expected in the lowerpressure state is the same as that in the higher-pressure state, thus proving
the principle of conservation of energy.
2.3 Superheated Steam
An explanation of the properties and uses of superheated steam (such
as for electricity generation). Including explanations of the Rankine and
Carnot thermodynamic cycles, superheated steam tables and the Mollier
(H-S) chart.
If the saturated steam produced in a boiler is exposed to a surface with a
higher temperature, its temperature will increase above the evaporating
temperature.
The steam is then described as superheated by the number of temperature
degrees through which it has been heated above saturation temperature.
Superheat cannot be imparted to the steam whilst it is still in the presence of
water, as any additional heat simply evaporates more water. The saturated
steam must be passed through an additional heat exchanger. This may be a
second heat exchange stage in the boiler, or a separate superheater unit. The
primary heating medium may be either the hot flue gas from the boiler, or may
be separately fired.

Fig. 2.3.1
Steam and force on a turbine blade
Superheated steam has its applications in, for example, turbines where the
steam is directed by nozzles onto a rotor. This causes the rotor to turn. The
energy to make this happen can only have come from the steam, so logically
the steam has less energy after it has gone through the turbine rotor. If the
steam was at saturation temperature, this loss of energy would cause some of
the steam to condense.
Turbines have a number of stages; the exhaust steam from the first rotor will
be directed to a second rotor on the same shaft. This means that saturated
steam would get wetter and wetter as it went through the successive stages.
Not only would this promote waterhammer, but the water particles would
cause severe erosion within the turbine. The solution is to supply the turbine

with superheated steam at the inlet, and use the energy in the superheated
portion to drive the rotor until the temperature/pressure conditions are close to
saturation;
and
then
exhaust
the
steam.
Another very important reason for using superheated steam in turbines is to
improve
thermal
efficiency.
The thermodynamic efficiency of a heat engine such as a turbine, may be
determined using one of two theories:

The Carnot cycle, where the change in temperature of the steam

between the inlet and outlet is compared to the inlet temperature.

The Rankine cycle, where the change in heat energy of the steam
between the inlet and outlet is compared to the total energy taken from
the steam.

Example 2.3.1
A turbine is supplied with superheated steam at 90 bar a/450C.
The exhaust is at 0.06 bar a (partial vacuum) and 10% wet.
Saturated
temperature
=
36.2C.
Note: The values used for the temperature and energy content in the
following examples are from steam tables.

Equation 2.3.1
2.3.1.1 Determine the Carnot efficiency (C)

Equation 2.3.2
2.3.1.2 Determine the Rankine efficiency (R)

Examination of the figures for either of the cycles indicates that to

achieve high efficiency:

The temperature or energy at the turbine inlet should be as high as

possible. This means as high a pressure and temperature as is
practically possible.
Superheated steam is the simplest way of providing this.

The temperature or energy in the exhaust must be as low as possible.

This means as low a pressure and temperature as is practically
possible, and is usually achieved by a condenser on the turbine
exhaust.

Notes:

The figures calculated in Examples 2.3.1.1 and 2.3.1.2 are for

thermodynamic efficiency, and must not be confused with mechanical
efficiency.

Although the efficiency figures appear to be very low, they must not be
viewed in isolation, but rather used to compare one type of heat engine
with another. For example, gas turbines, steam engines and diesel
engines.

Top
Superheated steam tables
The superheated steam tables display the properties of steam at various
pressures in much the same way as the saturated steam tables. However,
with superheated steam there is no direct relationship between temperature
and pressure. Therefore at a particular pressure it may be possible for
superheated steam to exist at a wide range of temperatures.
In general, saturated steam tables give gauge pressure, superheated steam
tables give absolute pressure.

Table 2.3.1
Extract from superheated steam tables
Example 2.3.2
How much more heat does superheated steam with a temperature of 400C
and a pressure of 1.013 bar a (0 bar g) have than saturated steam at the
same pressure?
hg for saturated steam at 1.013 bar a = 2 676 kJ/kg (from saturated steam tables)
hg for steam at 1.013 bar a and 400C = 3 278 kJ/kg (from superheated steam tables)

Enthalpy in the superheat

= 3 278 kJ/kg - 2 676 kJ/kg:
Enthalpy in the superheat
= 602 kJ/kg
This may sound a useful increase in energy, but in fact it will actually make life
more difficult for the engineer who wants to use steam for heating purposes.
From the energy in the superheat shown, the specific heat capacity can be
determined by dividing this value by the temperature difference between
saturation temperature (100C) and the superheated steam temperature
(400C):

However, unlike the specific heat capacity of water, the specific heat capacity
for superheated steam varies considerably with pressure and temperature
and
cannot
be
taken
as
a
constant.
The value of 2.0 kJ/kg C given above is therefore only the mean specific heat
capacity over the specified temperature range for that pressure.
There is no direct relationship between temperature, pressure and the specific
heat capacity of superheated steam. There is, however, a general trend
towards an increase in specific heat capacity with increasing pressure at low
degrees of superheat, but this is not always the case.
Typical value range: 2.0 kJ/kg C at 125C and 1.013 bar a (0 bar g)
3.5 kJ/kg C at 400C and 120 bar a.
Can superheated steam be used in process heat exchangers and other
heating processes?
Although not the ideal medium for transferring heat, superheated steam is
sometimes used for process heating in many steam plants around the world,
especially in the HPIs (Hydrocarbon Processing Industries) which produce oils
and petrochemicals. This is more likely to be because superheated steam is
already available on site for power generation, being the preferred energy
source for turbines, rather than because it has any advantage over saturated
steam for heating purposes. To be clear on this point, in most cases, saturated
steam should be used for heat transfer processes, even if it means
desuperheating the steam to do so. HPIs often desuperheat steam to within
about ten degrees of superheat. This small degree of superheat is removed
readily in the first part of the heating surface. Greater amounts of superheat
are more difficult, and often uneconomic to deal with and (for heating
purposes)
are
best
avoided.
There are quite a few reasons why superheated steam is not as suitable for
process
heating
as
saturated
steam:
Superheated steam has to cool to saturation temperature before it can
condense to release its enthalpy of evaporation. The amount of heat given up
by the superheated steam as it cools to saturation temperature is relatively

small

in

comparison

to

its

enthalpy

of

evaporation.

If the steam has only a few degrees of superheat, this small amount of heat is
quickly given up before it condenses. However, if the steam has a large
degree of superheat, it may take a relatively long time to cool, during which
time
the
steam
is
releasing
very
little
energy.
Unlike saturated steam, the temperature of superheated steam is not uniform.
Superheated steam has to cool to give up heat, whilst saturated steam
changes phase. This means that temperature gradients over the heat transfer
surface
may
occur
with
superheated
steam.
In a heat exchanger, use of superheated steam can lead to the formation of a
dry wall boiling zone, close to the tube sheet. This dry wall area can quickly
become scaled or fouled, and the resulting high temperature of the tube wall
may
cause
tube
failure.
This clearly shows that in heat transfer applications, steam with a large
degree of superheat is of little use because it:

Gives up little heat until it has cooled to saturation temperature.

Creates temperature gradients over the heat transfer surface as it cools

to saturation temperature.

Provides lower rates of heat transfer whilst the steam is superheated.

Requires larger heat transfer areas.

So, superheated steam is not as effective as saturated steam for heat transfer
applications. This may seem strange, considering that the rate of heat transfer
across a heating surface is directly proportional to the temperature difference
across it. If superheated steam has a higher temperature than saturated
steam at the same pressure, surely superheated steam should be able to
impart more heat? The answer to this is 'no'. This will now be looked at in
more
detail.
It is true that the temperature difference will have an effect on the rate of heat
transfer across the heat transfer surface, as clearly shown by Equation 2.5.3.
Equation 2.5.3
Where:
= Heat transferred per unit time (W)
U = Overall thermal transmittance (heat transfer coefficient) (W/m2C)
A = Heat transfer area (m2)
T = Temperature difference between primary and secondary fluid (C)
Equation 2.5.3 also shows that heat transfer will depend on the overall heat
transfer
coefficient
'U',
and
the
heat
transfer
area
'A'.
For any single application, the heat transfer area might be fixed. However, the
same cannot be said of the 'U' value; and this is the major difference between
saturated and superheated steam. The overall 'U' value for superheated

steam will vary throughout the process, but will always be much lower than
that for saturated steam. It is difficult to predict 'U' values for superheated
steam, as these will depend upon many factors, but generally, the higher the
degree
of
superheat,
the
lower
the
'U'
value.
Typically, for a horizontal steam coil surrounded with water, 'U' values might
be as low as 50 to 100 W/m2)C for superheated steam but 1 200 W/m 2)C for
saturated
steam,
as
depicted
in
Figure
2.3.2.
For steam to oil applications, the 'U' values might be considerably less,
perhaps as low as 20 W/m 2)C for superheated steam and 150 W/m 2)C for
saturated
steam.
In a shell and tube heat exchanger, 100 W/m 2)C for superheated steam and
500 W/m2)C for saturated steam can be expected. These figures are typical;
actual figures will vary due to other design and operational considerations.

Figure 2.3.2
Typical U values for superheated
and saturated steam coils in water
Although the temperature of superheated steam is always higher than
saturated steam at the same pressure, its ability to transfer heat is therefore
much lower. The overall effect is that superheated steam is much less
effective at transferring heat than saturated steam at the same pressure. The
next
Section
'Fouling'
gives
more
detail.
Not only is superheated steam less effective at transferring heat, it is very
difficult to quantify using Equation 2.5.3, = U A T, as the temperature of the
steam will fall as it gives up its heat while passing along the heating surface.
Predicting the size of heat transfer surfaces utilising superheated steam is
difficult and complex. In practice, the basic data needed to perform such
calculations is either not known or empirically obtained, putting their reliability
and
accuracy
in
doubt.
Clearly, as superheated steam is less effective at transferring heat than
saturated steam, then any heating area using superheated steam would have
to be larger than a saturated steam coil operating at the same pressure to
deliver
the
same
heat
flowrate.

If there is no choice but to use superheated steam, it is not possible to

maintain steam in its superheated state throughout the heating coil or heat
exchanger, since as it gives up some of its heat content to the secondary fluid,
it cools towards saturation temperature. The amount of heat above saturation
is quite small compared with the large amount available as condensation
occurs.
The steam should reach saturation relatively soon in the process; this allows
the steam to condense to produce higher heat transfer rates and result in a
higher overall 'U' value for the whole coil, see Figure 2.3.3.
To help to enable this, superheated steam used for heat transfer purposes
should not hold more than about 10C of superheat.

Figure 2.3.3
Less superheat allows the steam to condense
in the major part of the coil thus increasing
the overall U value approaching that of saturated steam.
If this is so, it is relatively easy and practical to design a heat exchanger or a
coil with a heating surface area based upon saturated steam at the same
pressure, by adding on a certain amount of surface area to allow for the
superheat. Using this guideline, the first part of a coil will be used purely to
reduce the temperature of superheated steam to its saturation point. The rest
of the coil will then be able to take advantage of the higher heat transfer ability
of the saturated steam. The effect is that the overall 'U' value may not be
much less than if saturated steam were supplied to the coil.
From practical experience, if the extra heating area needed for superheated
steam is 1% per 2C of superheat, the coil (or heat exchanger) will be large
enough. This seems to work up to 10C of superheat. It is not recommended
that superheated steam above 10C of superheat be used for heating
purposes due to the probable disproportionate and uneconomic size of the
heating surface, the propensity for fouling by dirt, and the possibility of product
spoilage by the high and uneven superheat temperatures.
Fouling
Fouling is caused by deposits building up on the heat transfer surface adding
a resistance to heat flow. Many process liquids can deposit sludge or scale on
heating surfaces, and will do so at a faster rate at higher temperatures.

Further, superheated steam is a dry gas. Heat flowing from the steam to the
metal wall must pass through the static films adhering to the wall, which resist
heat
flow.
By contrast, the condensation of saturated steam causes the movement of
steam towards the wall, and the release of large quantities of latent heat right
at the condensing surface. The combination of these factors means that the
overall heat transfer rates are much lower where superheated steam is
present, even though the temperature difference between the steam and the
secondary fluid is higher.
Example 2.3.3 Sizing a tube bundle for superheated steam
Superheated steam at 3 bar g with 10C of superheat (154C) is to be used
as the primary heat source for a shell and tube process heat exchanger with a
heating load of 250 kW, heating an oil based fluid from 80C to 120C (making
the arithmetic mean secondary temperature (T AM) 100C). Estimate the area
of
primary
steam
coil
required.
(Arithmetic mean temperature differences are used to keep this calculation
simple; in practice, logarithmic mean temperatures would be used for greater
accuracy. Please refer to Tutorial 2.5 'Heat Transfer' for details on arithmetic
and
logarithmic
mean
temperature
differences).
First, consider the coil if it were heated by saturated steam at 3 bar g
(144C).
The 'U' value for saturated steam heating oil via a new carbon steel coil is
taken to be 500 W/m2C.

Other applications using superheated steam

All the above applies when steam is flowing through a relatively narrow
passage, such as the tubes in a shell and tube heat exchanger or the plates in
a
plate
heat
exchanger.
In some applications, perhaps a drying cylinder in a paper machine,
superheated steam is admitted to a greater volume, when its velocity
plummets to very small values. Here, the steam near the wall of the cylinder
quickly drops in temperature to near saturation and condensation begins. The
heat flow through the wall is then the same as if the cylinder were supplied
with saturated steam. Superheat is present only within the 'core' in the steam
space and has no discernible effect on heat transfer rates.
There are instances where the presence of superheat can actually reduce the
performance of a process, where steam is being used as a process material.
One such process might involve moisture being imparted to the product from
the steam as it condenses, such as, the conditioning of animal feedstuff
(meal) prior to pelletising. Here the moisture provided by the steam is an
essential part of the process; superheated steam would over-dry the meal and
make pelletising difficult.
The effects of reducing steam pressure
In addition to the use of an additional heat exchanger (generally called a
'superheater'), superheat can also be imparted to steam by allowing it to
expand to a lower pressure as it passes through the orifice of a pressure
reducing valve. This is termed a throttling process with the lower pressure
steam having the same enthalpy (apart from a small amount lost to friction in
passing through the valve) as the upstream high pressure steam. However,
the temperature of the throttled steam will always be lower than that of the
supply
steam.
The state of the throttled steam will depend upon:

The pressure of the supply steam.

The state of the supply steam.

The pressure drop across the valve orifice.

For supply steam below 30 bar g in the dry saturated state, any drop in
pressure will produce superheated steam after throttling. The degree of
superheat will depend on the amount of pressure reduction.
For supply steam above 30 bar g in the dry saturated state, the throttled
steam might be superheated, dry saturated, or even wet, depending on the
amount of pressure drop. For example, dry saturated steam at 60 bar g would
have to be reduced to approximately 10.5 bar g to produce dry saturated
steam. Any less of a pressure drop will produce wet steam, while any greater
pressure
drop
would
produce
superheated
steam.
Equally, the state of the supply steam at any pressure will influence the state
of the throttled steam. For example, wet steam at a pressure of 10 bar g and

0.95 dryness fraction would need to be reduced to 0.135 bar g to produce dry
saturated steam. Any less of a pressure drop would produce wet steam while
any greater pressure drop would superheat the throttled steam.
Example 2.3.4 Increasing the dryness of wet steam with a control valve
Steam with a dryness fraction () of 0.95 is reduced from 6 bar g to 1 bar g,
using
a
pressure
reducing
valve.
Determine the steam conditions after the pressure reducing valve.

This quantity of heat energy is retained by the steam as the pressure is

reduced to 1 bar g.

As the actual enthalpy of the steam at 1 bar g is less than the enthalpy of dry
saturated steam at 1 bar g, then the steam is not superheated and still retains
a proportion of moisture in its content.

Since the total enthalpy after the pressure reducing valve is less than the total
enthalpy of steam at 1 bar g, the steam is still wet.
Example 2.3.5 Superheat created by a control valve
Steam with a dryness fraction of 0.98 is reduced from 10 bar g down to 1 bar
g using a pressure reducing valve (as shown in Figure 2.3.4).

Determine

the

degree

of

superheat

after

the

valve.

As in the previous example (2.3.3), the specific enthalpy of dry saturated

steam
(hg)
at
1
bar
g
is
2
706.7
kJ/kg.
The actual total enthalpy of the steam is greater than the total enthalpy (h g) of
dry saturated steam at 1 bar g. The steam is therefore not only 100% dry, but
also
has
some
degree
of
superheat.
The excess energy = 2 741.7 - 2 706.7 = 35 kJ/kg, and this is used to raise
the temperature of the steam from the saturation temperature of 120C to
136C.

Fig. 2.3.4
The creation of superheat by pressure reduction
The degree of superheat can be determined either by using superheated
steam tables, or by using a Mollier chart.
Top
The Mollier chart
The Mollier chart is a plot of the specific enthalpy of steam against its specific
entropy (sg).

Fig. 2.3.5
Enthalpy - entropy or Mollier chart for steam
Figure 2.3.5 shows a simplified, small scale version of the Mollier chart. The
Mollier chart displays many different relationships between enthalpy, entropy,
temperature, pressure and dryness fraction. It may appear to be quite
complicated, due to the number of lines:

Constant enthalpy lines (horizontal).

Constant entropy lines (vertical).

The steam saturation curve across the centre of the chart divides it into
a superheated steam region, and a wet steam region. At any point
above the saturation curve the steam is superheated, and at any point
below the saturation curve the steam is wet. The saturation curve itself
represents the condition of dry saturated steam at various pressures.

Constant pressure lines in both regions.

Constant temperature lines in the superheat region.

Constant dryness fraction () lines in the wet region.

A perfect expansion, for example within a steam turbine or a steam engine, is

a constant entropy process, and can be represented on the chart by moving
vertically downwards from a point representing the initial condition to a point
representing
the
final
condition.
A perfect throttling process, for example across a pressure reducing valve, is
a constant enthalpy process. It can be represented on the chart by moving
horizontally from left to right, from a point representing the initial condition to a
point
representing
the
final
condition.
Both these processes involve a reduction in pressure, but the difference lies in
the
way
in
which
this
is
achieved.
The two examples shown in Figure 2.3.6 illustrate the advantage of using the
chart to analyse steam processes; they provide a pictorial representation of
such processes. However, steam processes can also be numerically
represented by the values provided in the superheated steam tables.

Fig
. 2.3.6 Examples of expansion and throttling
Example 2.3.6 Perfect isentropic expansion resulting in work
Consider the perfect expansion of steam through a turbine. Initially the pressure is 50
bar a, the temperature is 300C, and the final pressure is 0.04 bar a.
As the process is a perfect expansion, the entropy remains constant. The final
condition can then be found by dropping vertically downwards from the initial
condition to the 0.04 bar a constant pressure line (see Figure 2.3.7).

At the initial condition, the entropy is approximately 6.25 kJ/kg C. If this line is
followed vertically downwards until 0.04 bar a is reached, the final condition of the
steam can be evaluated. At this point the specific enthalpy is 1 890 kJ/kg, and the
dryness
fraction
is
0.72
(see
Figure
2.3.7).
The final condition can also be determined by using the superheated steam tables.

Fig.

2.3.7

Enthalpy - entropy or Mollier chart for steam - Example

Since the entropy of dry saturated steam at 0.04 bar a (8.473 kJ/kgC) is
greater than the entropy of the superheated steam at 50 bar a/300C (6.212
kJ/kgC), it follows that some of the dry saturated steam must have
condensed
to
maintain
the
constant
entropy.
As the entropy remains constant, at the final condition:

These answers correspond closely with the results obtained using the Mollier chart.
The small difference in value between the two sets of results is to be expected,
considering the inaccuracies involved in reading off a chart such as this.

2.4 Steam Quality

Steam should be available at the point of use in the correct quantity, at
the correct pressure, clean, dry and free from air and other
incondensable gases. This tutorial explains why this is necessary, and
how steam quality is assured.
Steam should be available at the point of use:

In the correct quantity

At the correct temperature and pressure

Free from air and incondensable gases

Clean

Dry

Correct quantity of steam

The correct quantity of steam must be made available for any heating process
to ensure that a sufficient heat flow is provided for heat transfer.
Similarly, the correct flowrate must also be supplied so that there is no product
spoilage or drop in the rate of production. Steam loads must be properly
calculated and pipes must be correctly sized to achieve the flowrates
required.
Correct pressure and temperature of steam
Steam should reach the point of use at the required pressure and provide the
desired temperature for each application, or performance will be affected. The
correct sizing of pipework and pipeline ancillaries will ensure this is achieved.
However, even if the pressure gauge is correctly displaying the desired
pressure, the corresponding saturation temperature may not be available if
the steam contains air and/or incondensable gases.
Air and other incondensable gases
Air is present within the steam supply pipes and equipment at start-up. Even if
the system were filled with pure steam the last time it was used, the steam
would condense at shutdown, and air would be drawn in by the resultant
vacuum.
When steam enters the system it will force the air towards either the drain
point, or to the point furthest from the steam inlet, known as the remote point.
Therefore steam traps with sufficient air venting capacities should be fitted to
these drain points, and automatic air vents should be fitted to all remote
points.

However, if there is any turbulence the steam and air will mix and the air will
be carried to the heat transfer surface. As the steam condenses, an insulating
layer of air is left behind on the surface, acting as a barrier to heat transfer.
Fig. 2.4.1
Steam process equipment with an
automatic air vent and strainers
Steam and air mixtures
In a mixture of air and steam, the presence of air will cause the temperature to
be lower than expected. The total pressure of a mixture of gases is made up
of the sum of the partial pressures of the components in the mixture.
This is known as Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures. The partial pressure is the
pressure exerted by each component if it occupied the same volume as the
mixture:
Equ
ation 2.4.1
Note: This is a thermodynamic relationship, so all pressures must be
expressed in bar a.
Example 2.4.1
Consider a steam/air mixture made up of steam and air by volume. The
total
pressure
is
4
bar
a.
Determine the temperature of the mixture:

Therefore the steam only has an effective pressure of 3 bar a as opposed to

its apparent pressure of 4 bar a. The mixture would only have a temperature
of 134C rather than the expected saturation temperature of 144C.
This phenomena is not only of importance in heat exchange applications
(where the heat transfer rate increases with an increase in temperature
difference), but also in process applications where a minimum temperature
may be required to achieve a chemical or physical change in a product. For
instance, a minimum temperature is essential in a steriliser in order to kill
bacteria.
Other sources of air in the steam and condensate loop
Air can also enter the system in solution with the boiler feedwater. Make-up
water and condensate, exposed to the atmosphere, will readily absorb
nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide: the main components of atmospheric
air. When the water is heated in the boiler, these gases are released with the
steam
and
carried
into
the
distribution
system.
Atmospheric air consists of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and 0.03% carbon
dioxide, by volume analysis. However, the solubility of oxygen is roughly twice
that of nitrogen, whilst carbon dioxide has a solubility roughly 30 times greater

than

oxygen!

This means that 'air' dissolved in the boiler feedwater will contain much larger
proportions of carbon dioxide and oxygen: both of which cause corrosion in
the
boiler
and
the
pipework.
The temperature of the feedtank is maintained at a temperature typically no
less than 80C so that oxygen and carbon dioxide can be liberated back to the
atmosphere, as the solubility of these dissolved gases decreases with
increasing
temperature.
The concentration of dissolved carbon dioxide is also kept to a minimum by
demineralising and degassing the make-up water at the external water
treatment
stage.
The concentration of dissolved gas in the water can be determined using
Henry's Law. This states that the mass of gas that can be dissolved by a given
volume of liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas.
This is only true however if the temperature is constant, and there is no
chemical reaction between the liquid and the gas.
Cleanliness of steam
Layers of scale found on pipe walls may be either due to the formation of rust
in older steam systems, or to a carbonate deposit in hard water areas. Other
types of dirt which may be found in a steam supply line include welding slag
and badly applied or excess jointing material, which may have been left in the
system when the pipework was initially installed. These fragments will have
the effect of increasing the rate of erosion in pipe bends and the small orifices
of
steam
traps
and
valves.
For this reason it is good engineering practice to fit a pipeline strainer (as
shown in Figure 2.4.2). This should be installed upstream of every steam trap,
flowmeter, pressure reducing valve and control valve.

Fig. 2.4.2
A pipeline strainer
Steam flows from the inlet A through the perforated screen B to the outlet C.
While steam and water will pass readily through the screen, dirt will be
arrested. The cap D can be removed, allowing the screen to be withdrawn and
cleaned
at
regular
intervals.
When strainers are fitted in steam lines, they should be installed on their sides
so that the accumulation of condensate and the problem of waterhammer can
be avoided. This orientation will also expose the maximum strainer screen
area
to
the
flow.
A layer of scale may also be present on the heat transfer surface, acting as an
additional barrier to heat transfer. Layers of scale are often a result of either:

Incorrect boiler operation, causing impurities to be carried over from the

boiler in water droplets.

Incorrect water treatment in the boiler house.

The rate at which this layer builds up can be reduced by careful attention to
the boiler operation and by the removal of any droplets of moisture.
Dryness of steam
Incorrect chemical feedwater treatment and periods of peak load can cause
priming and carryover of boiler feedwater into the steam mains, leading to
chemical and other material being deposited on to heat transfer surfaces.
These deposits will accumulate over time, gradually reducing the efficiency of
the
plant.
In addition to this, as the steam leaves the boiler, some of it must condense
due to heat loss through the pipe walls. Although these pipes may be well
insulated,
this
process
cannot
be
completely
eliminated.
The overall result is that steam arriving at the plant is relatively wet, and the
droplets of moisture carried along with the steam can erode pipes, fittings and

valves

especially

if

velocities

are

high.

It has already been shown that the presence of water droplets in steam
reduces the actual enthalpy of evaporation, and also leads to the formation of
scale
on
the
pipe
walls
and
heat
transfer
surface.
The droplets of water entrained within the steam can also add to the resistant
film of water produced as the steam condenses, creating yet another barrier
to
the
heat
transfer
process.
A separator in the steam line will remove moisture droplets entrained in the
steam flow, and also any condensate that has gravitated to the bottom of the
pipe.
In the separator shown in Figure 2.4.3 the steam is forced to change direction
several times as it flows through the body. The baffles create an obstacle for
the heavier water droplets, while the lighter dry steam is allowed to flow freely
through
the
separator.
The moisture droplets run down the baffles and drain through the bottom
connection of the separator to a steam trap. This will allow condensate to
drain from the system, but will not allow the passage of any steam.

Fig. 2.4.3
A steam separator
Waterhammer
As steam begins to condense due to heat losses in the pipe, the condensate
forms droplets on the inside of the walls. As they are swept along in the steam
flow, they then merge into a film. The condensate then gravitates towards the
bottom of the pipe, where the film begins to increase in thickness.
The build up of droplets of condensate along a length of steam pipework can

eventually form a slug of water (as shown in Figure 2.4.4), which will be
carried at steam velocity along the pipework (25 - 30 m/s).

Fig. 2.4.4
Formation of a solid slug of water
This slug of water is dense and incompressible, and when travelling at high
velocity,
has
a
considerable
amount
of
kinetic
energy.
The laws of thermodynamics state that energy cannot be created or
destroyed,
but
simply
converted
into
a
different
form.
When obstructed, perhaps by a bend or tee in the pipe, the kinetic energy of
the water is converted into pressure energy and a pressure shock is applied
to
the
obstruction.
Condensate will also collect at low points, and slugs of condensate may be
picked up by the flow of steam and hurled downstream at valves and pipe
fittings.
These low points might include a sagging main, which may be due to
inadequate pipe support or a broken pipe hanger. Other potential sources of
waterhammer include the incorrect use of concentric reducers and strainers,
or inadequate drainage before a rise in the steam main. Some of these are
shown
in
Figure
2.4.5.
The noise and vibration caused by the impact between the slug of water and
the
obstruction,
is
known
as
waterhammer.
Waterhammer can significantly reduce the life of pipeline ancillaries. In severe
cases the fitting may fracture with an almost explosive effect. The
consequence may be the loss of live steam at the fracture, creating a
hazardous
situation.
The installation of steam pipework is discussed in detail in Block 9, Steam
Distribution.

Fig. 2.4.5
Potential sources of waterhammer

Heat Transfer
Steam is often generated to provide heat transfer to a process. Modes of
heat transfer (conduction, convection, radiation) within or between
media are explained, together with calculations and other issues such
as heat transfer barriers.
In a steam heating system, the sole purpose of the generation and distribution
of steam is to provide heat at the process heat transfer surface. If the required
heat input rate and steam pressure are known, then the necessary steam
consumption rate may be determined. This will allow the size of the boiler and
the steam distribution system to be established.
Top
Modes of heat transfer
Whenever a temperature gradient exists, either within a medium or between
media, the transfer of heat will occur. This may take the form of either
conduction, convection or radiation.
Conduction
When a temperature gradient exists in either a solid or stationary fluid
medium, the heat transfer which takes place is known as conduction. When
neighbouring molecules in a fluid collide, energy is transferred from the more
energetic to the less energetic molecules. Because higher temperatures are
associated with higher molecular energies, conduction must occur in the
direction
of
decreasing
temperature.
This phenomenon can be seen in both liquids and gases. However, in liquids
the molecular interactions are stronger and more frequent, as the molecules
are closer together. In solids, conduction is caused by the atomic activity of
lattice
vibrations
as
explained
in
Tutorial
2.2.
The equation used to express heat transfer by conduction is known as

Fourier's Law. Where there is a linear temperature distribution under steadystate conditions, for a one-dimensional plane wall it may be written as:
Equation 2.5.1
Where:
= Heat transferred per unit time (W)
k = Thermal conductivity of the material (W/m K or W/mC)
A = Heat transfer area (m)
T = Temperature difference across the material (K or C)
= Material thickness (m)
Example 2.5.1
Consider a plane wall constructed of solid iron with a thermal conductivity of
70 W/mC, and a thickness of 25 mm. It has a surface area of 0.3 m by 0.5 m,
with a temperature of 150C on one side and 80C on the other.
Determine the rate of heat transfer:

The thermal conductivity is a characteristic of the wall material and is

dependent on temperature. Table 2.5.1 shows the variation of thermal
conductivity with temperature for various common metals.

Table 2.5.1
Thermal conductivity (W/m C)
Considering the mechanism of heat transfer in conduction, in general the
thermal conductivity of a solid will be much greater than of a liquid, and the
thermal conductivity of a liquid will be greater than of a gas. Air has a
particularly low thermal conductivity and this is why insulating materials often
have lots of air spaces.
Convection
The transfer of heat energy between a surface and a moving fluid at different
temperatures is known as convection. It is actually a combination of the
mechanisms of diffusion and the bulk motion of molecules.
Near the surface where the fluid velocity is low, diffusion (or random molecular

motion) dominates. However, moving away from the surface, bulk motion
holds an increasing influence. Convective heat transfer may take the form of
either forced convection or natural convection. Forced convection occurs
when fluid flow is induced by an external force, such as a pump or an agitator.
Conversely, natural convection is caused by buoyancy forces, due to the
density differences arising from the temperature variations in the fluid.
The transfer of heat energy caused by a phase change, such as boiling or
condensing, is also referred to as a convective heat transfer process.
The equation for convection is expressed by Equation 2.5.2 which is a
derivation of Newton's Law of Cooling:
Equation 2.5.2
Where:
= Heat transferred per unit time (W)
A = Heat transfer area of the surface (m)
h = Convective heat transfer coefficient of the process (W/m K or W/mC)
T = Temperature difference between the surface and the bulk fluid (K or C)
Example 2.5.2
Consider a plane surface 0.4 m by 0.9 m at a temperature of 20C.
A fluid flows over the surface with a bulk temperature of 50C.
The convective heat transfer coefficient (h) is 1 600 W/mC.
Determine the rate of heat transfer:

Radiation
The heat transfer due to the emission of energy from surfaces in the form of
electromagnetic waves is known as thermal radiation. In the absence of an
intervening medium, there is a net heat transfer between two surfaces of
different temperatures. This form of heat transfer does not rely on a material
medium, and is actually most efficient in a vacuum.
Top
The general heat transfer equation
In most practical situations, it is very unusual for all energy to be transferred
by one mode of heat transfer alone. The overall heat transfer process will
usually be a combination of two or more different mechanisms.
The general equation used to calculate heat transfer across a surface used in
the design procedure and forming a part of heat exchange theory is:
Equation 2.5.3
Where:

= Heat transferred per unit time (W (J/s))

U = Overall heat transfer coefficient (W/m K or W/mC)
A = Heat transfer area (m)
T = Temperature difference between the primary and secondary fluid (K or C)
Note:
will be a mean heat transfer rate ( M) if T is a mean temperature difference
(T LM or T AM).
The overall heat transfer coefficient (U)
This takes into account both conductive and convective resistance between
two fluids separated by a solid wall. The overall heat transfer coefficient is the
reciprocal of the overall resistance to heat transfer, which is the sum of the
individual
resistances.
The overall heat transfer coefficient may also take into account the degree of
fouling in the heat transfer process. The deposition of a film or scale on the
heat transfer surface will greatly reduce the rate of heat transfer. The fouling
factor represents the additional thermal resistance caused by fluid impurities,
rust formation or other reactions between the fluid and the wall.
The magnitude of the individual coefficients will depend on the nature of the
heat transfer process, the physical properties of the fluids, the fluid flowrates
and
the
physical
layout
of
the
heat
transfer
surface.
As the physical layout cannot be established until the heat transfer area has
been determined, the design of a heat exchanger is by necessity, an iterative
procedure. A starting point for this procedure usually involves selecting typical
values for the overall heat transfer coefficient of various types of heat
exchanger.
An accurate calculation for the individual heat transfer coefficients is a
complicated procedure, and in many cases it is not possible due to some of
the parameters being unknown. Therefore, the use of established typical
values of overall heat transfer coefficient will be suitable for practical
purposes.
Temperature difference T
Newton's law of cooling states that the heat transfer rate is related to the
instantaneous temperature difference between the hot and the cold media. In
a heat transfer process, this temperature difference will vary either with
position or with time. The general heat transfer equation was thus developed
as an extension to Newton's law of cooling, where the mean temperature
difference is used to establish the heat transfer area required for a given heat
duty.
Mean temperature difference T M
The determination of the mean temperature difference in a flow type process
like a heat exchanger will be dependent upon the direction of flow. The
primary and secondary fluids may flow in the same direction (parallel flow/cocurrent flow), in the opposite direction (countercurrent flow), or perpendicular
to each other (crossflow). When saturated steam is used the primary fluid

temperature can be taken as a constant, because heat is transferred as a

result of a change of phase only. The result is that the temperature profile is
no
longer
dependent
on
the
direction
of
flow.
However, as the secondary fluid passes over the heat transfer surface, the
highest rate of heat transfer occurs at the inlet and progressively decays
along its travel to the outlet. This is simply because the temperature difference
between the steam and secondary fluid reduces with the rise in secondary
temperature.
The resulting temperature profile of the steam and secondary fluid is typically
as shown in Figure 2.5.1.

Fig. 2.5.1
Product temperature rise (LMTD)
The rise in secondary temperature is non-linear and is best represented by a
logarithmic calculation. For this purpose the mean temperature difference
chosen is termed the Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference or LMTD or
T LM.
An easier (but less accurate) way to calculate the mean temperature
difference is to consider the Arithmetic Mean Temperature Difference or AMTD
or T AM. This considers a linear increase in the secondary fluid temperature
and for quick manual calculations, will usually give a satisfactory
approximation of the mean temperature difference to be used in Equation
2.5.3. The AMTD temperature profile is shown in Figure 2.5.2.

Fig. 2.5.2
Product temperature rise (AMTD)
The arithmetic mean temperature difference (AMTD):

Where:
T p1 = Primary fluid in temperature
T p2 = Primary fluid out temperature
T s1 = Secondary fluid in temperature
T s2 = Secondary fluid out temperature
For steam, where the temperature of the primary fluid (steam) remains
constant, this equation may be simplified to:
Equation 2.5.4
Where:
T s = Steam temperature (C)
T 1 = Secondary fluid in temperature (C)
T 2 = Secondary fluid out temperature (C)
Because there is no temperature change on the steam side, the AMTD
normally provides a satisfactory analysis of the heat transfer process, which is
easy
to
manipulate
in
manual
calculations.
However, a log mean temperature difference can also be used, which
accounts for the non-linear change in temperature of the secondary fluid.
The log mean temperature difference (LMTD):
For steam, where the temperature of the primary fluid (steam) remains
constant, this equation may be simplified to:

Equation 2.5.5

Where:
T s = Steam temperature (C)
T 1 = Secondary fluid in temperature (C)
T 2 = Secondary fluid out temperature (C)
ln = A mathematical function known as 'natural logarithm'
Both Equations 2.5.4 and 2.5.5 assume that there is no change in the specific
heat capacity or the overall heat transfer coefficient, and that there are no
heat
losses.
In reality the specific heat capacity may change as a result of temperature
variations. The overall heat transfer coefficient may also change because of
variations in fluid properties and flow conditions. However, in most
applications the deviations will be almost negligible and the use of mean
values
will
be
perfectly
acceptable.
In many cases the heat exchange equipment will be insulated from its
surroundings, but the insulation will not be 100% efficient. Therefore, the
energy transferred between the steam and the secondary fluid may not
represent all of the heat lost from the primary fluid.
Example 2.5.3
Steam at 2 bar g is used to heat water from 20C to 50C.
The saturation temperature of steam at 2 bar g is 134C.
Determine the arithmetic and the log mean temperature differences:

In this example the AMTD and the LMTD have a similar value. This is
because the secondary fluid temperature rise is small in comparison with the
temperature difference between the two fluids.
Example 2.5.4
Consider a pressurised process fluid tank, which is heated from 10C to
120C using steam at 4.0 bar g. The saturation temperature of steam at 4.0
bar
g
is
152C.
Determine the arithmetic and log mean temperature differences:

Because the secondary fluid temperature rise is large in comparison with the
temperature difference between the two fluids, the discrepancy between the
two
results
is
more
significant.
By using the AMTD rather than the LMTD, the calculated heat transfer area
would be almost 15% smaller than that required.
Top
Barriers to heat transfer
The metal wall may not be the only barrier in a heat transfer process. There is
likely to be a film of air, condensate and scale on the steam side. On the
product side there may also be baked-on product or scale, and a stagnant film
of
product.
Agitation of the product may eliminate the effect of the stagnant film, whilst
regular cleaning on the product side should reduce the scale.
Regular cleaning of the surface on the steam side may also increase the rate
of heat transfer by reducing the thickness of any layer of scale, however, this
may not always be possible. This layer may also be reduced by careful
attention to the correct operation of the boiler, and the removal of water
droplets carrying impurities from the boiler.

Fig. 2.5.3
Heat transfer layers
Filmwise condensation
The elimination of the condensate film, is not quite as simple. As the steam
condenses to give up its enthalpy of evaporation, droplets of water may form
on the heat transfer surface. These may then merge together to form a

continuous film of condensate. The condensate film may be between 100 and
150 times more resistant to heat transfer than a steel heating surface, and
500 to 600 times more resistant than copper.
Dropwise condensation
If the droplets of water on the heat transfer surface do not merge immediately
and no continuous condensate film is formed, 'dropwise' condensation occurs.
The heat transfer rates which can be achieved during dropwise condensation,
are generally much higher than those achieved during filmwise condensation.
As a larger proportion of the heat transfer surface is exposed during dropwise
condensation, heat transfer coefficients may be up to ten times greater than
those
for
filmwise
condensation.
In the design of heat exchangers where dropwise condensation is promoted,
the thermal resistance it produces is often negligible in comparison to other
heat transfer barriers. However, maintaining the appropriate conditions for
dropwise condensation have proved to be very difficult to achieve.
If the surface is coated with a substance that inhibits wetting, it may be
possible to maintain dropwise condensation for a period of time. For this
purpose, a range of surface coatings such as Silicones, PTFE and an
assortment of waxes and fatty acids are sometimes applied to surfaces in a
heat exchanger on which condensation is to be promoted. However, these
coatings will gradually lose their effectiveness due to processes such as
oxidation or fouling, and film condensation will eventually predominate.
As air is such a good insulator, it provides even more resistance to heat
transfer. Air may be between 1 500 and 3 000 times more resistant to heat
flow than steel, and 8 000 to 16 000 more resistant than copper. This means
that a film of air only 0.025 mm thick may resist as much heat transfer as a
wall of copper 400 mm thick! Of course all of these comparative relationships
depend
on
the
temperature
profiles
across
each
layer.
Figure 2.5.4 illustrates the effect this combination of layers has on the heat
transfer process. These barriers to heat transfer not only increase the
thickness of the entire conductive layer, but also greatly reduce the mean
thermal
conductivity
of
the
layer.
The more resistant the layer to heat flow, the larger the temperature gradient
is likely to be. This means that to achieve the same desired product
temperature, the steam pressure may need to be significantly higher.
The presence of air and water films on the heat transfer surfaces of either
process or space heating applications is not unusual. It occurs in all steam
heated
process
units
to
some
degree.
To achieve the desired product output and minimise the cost of process steam
operations, a high heating performance may be maintained by reducing the
thickness of the films on the condensing surface. In practice, air will usually

have the most significant effect on heat transfer efficiency, and its removal
from the supply steam will increase heating performance.

Fig. 2.5.4
Temperature gradients across heat transfer layers
Top
Defining the overall heat transfer coefficient (U value)
The five main most commonly related terms associated with the subject of
heat transfer are:
1. Heat flowrate
(W)
2. Thermal conductivity k (W / mC)
3. Thermal resistivity
r (mC / W)
4. Thermal resistance
R (m C / W)
5. Thermal transmittance U (W / m C)
The following text in this Tutorial describes them and how they are related to
each
other.
The traditional method for calculating heat transfer across a plane wall
considers the use of an overall heat transfer coefficient 'U', or more correctly,
the overall thermal transmittance between one side of the wall and the other.
U values are quoted for a wide range and combination of materials and fluids
and are usually influenced by empirical data and operating experience. The
previously mentioned films of condensate, air, scale, and product either side
of the metal wall can have a significant effect on the overall thermal
transmittance and because of this, it is worth considering the whole issue of
heat transfer across a simple plane wall and then a multi-layer barrier.
Heat transfer by conduction through a simple plane wall
A good way to start is by looking at the simplest possible case, a metal wall
with uniform thermal properties and specified surface temperatures.

Fig. 2.5.5
Conductive heat transfer through a plane wall
T 1 and T 2 are the surface temperatures either side of the metal wall, of
thickness L; and the temperature difference between the two surfaces is T.
Ignoring the possible resistance to heat flow at the two surfaces, the process
of heat flow through the wall can be derived from Fourier's law of conduction
as
shown
in
Equation
2.5.1.
The term 'barrier' refers to a heat resistive film or the metal wall of a heat
exchanger.
Equation 2.5.1
Where:
= Heat transferred per unit time (W)
A = Heat transfer area (m)
k = Thermal conductivity of the barrier (W / m K or W / mC)
T = Temperature difference across the barrier (K or C)
= Barrier thickness (m)
It is possible to rearrange Equation 2.5.1 into Equation 2.5.6.
Equation 2.5.6
Where:
= Heat transferred per unit time (W)
A = Heat transfer area (m)
T = Temperature difference across the barrier (C)
= Barrier thickness / material thermal conductivity

It can be seen from their definitions in Equation 2.5.6 that

is the thickness
of the barrier divided by its inherent property of thermal conductivity. Simple

arithmetic dictates that if the length () of the barrier increases, the value
will increase, and if the value of the barrier conductivity (k) increases, then the
value of
will decrease. A characteristic that would behave in this fashion is
that of thermal resistance. If the length of the barrier increases, the resistance
to heat flow increases; and if the conductivity of the barrier material increases
the resistance to heat flow decreases. It can be concluded that the term
in
Equation 2.5.6 relates to the thermal resistance of a barrier of known length.
The results of simple electrical theory parallel the equations appertaining to
heat flow. In particular, the concept of adding resistances in series is possible,
and is a useful tool when analysing heat transfer through a multi-layer barrier,
as
will
be
seen
in
a
later
section
of
this
tutorial.
Equation 2.5.6 can now be restated in terms of thermal resistance, where:

as shown in Equation 2.5.7

Equation 2.5.7
Where:
= Heat transferred per unit time (W)
A = Heat transfer area (m)
T = Temperature difference across the barrier (C)
R = Thermal resistance of the barrier (m C / W)
Thermal resistance denotes a characteristic of a particular barrier, and will
change
in
accordance
to
its
thickness
and
conductivity.
In contrast, the barrier's ability to resist heat flow does not change, as this is a
physical property of the barrier material. This property is called 'thermal
resistivity'; it is the inverse of thermal conductivity and is shown in Equation
2.5.8.
Equation 2.5.8
Where:
r = Thermal resistivity (mC / W)
k = Thermal conductivity (W / mC)

Relating the overall resistance to the overall U value

The usual problem that has to be solved in heat transfer applications is the
rate of heat transfer, and this can be seen from the general heat transfer
formula, Equation 2.5.3.
Equation 2.5.3
Where:
U
=

The

overall

thermal

transmittance

(W

C)

By comparing Equations 2.5.3 and 2.5.7, it must be true that:

and therefore,
Equation 2.5.9
Therefore, U value (thermal transmittance) is the inverse of resistance.
Heat flow through a multi-layer barrier
As seen in Figure 2.5.4, a practical application would be the metal wall of a
heat exchanger tube or plate which uses steam on one side to heat water on
its other. It can also be seen that various other barriers are present slowing
down the heat flow, such as an air film, a condensate film, a scale film, and a
stationary film of secondary water immediately adjacent to the heating
surface.
These films can be thought of as 'fouling' the flow of heat through the barrier,
and consequently these resistances are considered by heat exchanger
designers
as
'fouling
factors'.
All of these films, in addition to the resistance of the metal wall, constitute a
resistance to heat flow and, as in an electrical circuit, these resistances can
be
added
to
form
an
overall
resistance.
Therefore:

Equation 2.5.10
Where:
R1 = Resistance of the air film
R2 = Resistance of the condensate film

R3 = Resistance of the scale film on the steam side

R4 = Resistance of the of the metal wall
R5 = Resistance of the scale film on the water side
R6 = Resistance of the product film
As resistance is
as shown in Equation 2.5.6, then Equation 2.5.10 can be
rewritten as Equation 2.5.11:

Equation 2.5.11

Table 2.5.2
Typical thermal conductivities of various materials
The thermal conductivities will alter depending on the film material (and
temperature). For instance, air roughly has thirty times greater resistance to
heat flow than water. For this reason, it is relatively more important to remove
air from the steam supply before it reaches the heat exchanger, than to
remove water in the form of wet steam. Of course, it is still sensible to remove
wet
steam
at
the
same
time.
The resistance of air to steel is roughly two thousand times more, and the
resistance of air to copper is roughly twenty thousand times more. Because of
the high resistances of air and water to that of steel and copper, the effect of
small thicknesses of air and water on the overall resistance to heat flow can
be
relatively
large.
There is no point in changing a steel heat transfer system to copper if air and

water films are still present; there will be little improvement in performance, as
will
be
proven
in
Example
2.5.5.
Air and water films on the steam side can be eradicated by good engineering
practice simply by installing a separator and float trap set in the steam supply
prior the control valve. Scale films on the steam side can also be reduced by
fitting
strainers
in
the
same
line.
Scale on the product side is a little more difficult to treat, but regular cleaning
of heat exchangers is sometimes one solution to this problem. Another way to
reduce scaling is to run heat exchangers at lower steam pressures; this
reduces the steam temperature and the tendency for scale to form from the
product, especially if the product is a solution like milk.
Example 2.5.5
Consider a steam to water heat exchanger where the air film, condensate film
and scale on the steam side is 0.2 mm thick; on the water side, the water and
scale films are 0.05 mm and 0.1 mm thick respectively.
The thickness of the steel walled heating surface is 6 mm.

From

Table 2.5.3
The resistance of the barriers including steel tube
Equation

2.5.6:

1. Calculate the overall U value (U 1) from the conditions shown in Table

2.5.3

Equation 2.5.11

2. Remove the air and the condensate from the steam supply
Now consider the same heat exchanger where the air and condensate have
been
removed
by
a
separator
in
the
steam
supply.
Calculate U2

It can be seen from U2 that by fitting a separator in the steam supply to this
heat exchanger, and assuming that all air and condensate has been removed
from the steam, the thermal transmittance is more than 11 times greater than
the
original
value.
3. Remove
the scale on the steam and water sides
Now consider reducing the scale on the steam side by fitting a strainer in the
steam line, and reducing the scale on the water side by operating at a lower
steam pressure.

The thermal transmittance has increased another fourfold by eradicating the

scale.
4. Revert to the original conditions but change from steel tube to copper
tube of the same thickness.

Table 2.5.4
The resistance of the barriers including copper tube

It can be seen that the greater conductivity offered by the copper over the
steel has made very little difference to the overall thermal transmittance of the
heat exchanger, due to the dominating effect of the air and other fouling
factors.
Please note that, in practice, other factors will influence the overall U value,
such as the velocities of the steam and water passing through the heat
exchanger tubes or plates, and the combination of heat transfer by convection
and
radiation.
Also, it is unlikely that the fitting of a separator and strainer will completely
eradicate the presence of air, wet steam, and scale from inside a heat
exchanger. The above calculations are only being shown to highlight the
effects of these on heat transfer. However, any attempt to remove such
barriers from the system will generally prove successful, and is virtually
guaranteed to increase heat transfer in steam heating plant and equipment as
soon
as
this
is
done.
Rather than having to calculate individual resistances of film barriers, Tables
exist showing overall U values for different types of heat exchange application
such as steam coil heating of water or oil. These are documented in Tutorial
2.10,
'Heating
with
coils
and
jackets'.
U values for heat exchangers vary considerably due to factors such as design
('shell and tube' or 'plate and frame' construction), material of construction,
and the type of fluids involved in the heat transfer function.

Methods of Estimating Steam Consumption

How to calculate steam requirements for flow and non-flow applications.
Including warm-up, heat losses and running loads.
The optimum design for a steam system will largely depend on whether the
steam consumption rate has been accurately established. This will enable
pipe sizes to be calculated, while ancillaries such as control valves and steam
traps can be sized to give the best possible results. The steam demand of the
plant can be determined using a number of different methods:

Calculation - By analysing the heat output on an item of plant using

heat transfer equations, it may be possible to obtain an estimate for the
steam consumption. Although heat transfer is not an exact science and
there may be many unknown variables, it is possible to utilise previous
experimental data from similar applications. The results acquired using
this method are usually accurate enough for most purposes.

Measurement - Steam consumption may be determined by direct

measurement, using flowmetering equipment. This will provide
relatively accurate data on the steam consumption for an existing plant.
However, for a plant which is still at the design stage, or is not up and
running, this method is of little use.

Thermal rating - The thermal rating (or design rating) is often

displayed on the name-plate of an individual item of plant, as provided
by the manufacturers. These ratings usually express the anticipated
heat output in kW, but the steam consumption required in kg/h will
depend on the recommended steam pressure.

A change in any parameter which may alter the anticipated heat output,
means that the thermal (design) rating and the connected load (actual steam
consumption) will not be the same. The manufacturer's rating is an indication
of the ideal capacity of an item and does not necessarily equate to the
connected load.
Calculation
In most cases, the heat in steam is required to do two things:

To produce a change in temperature in the product, that is providing a

'heating up' component.

To maintain the product temperature as heat is lost by natural causes

or by design, that is providing a 'heat loss' component.

In any heating process, the 'heating up' component will decrease as the
product temperature rises, and the differential temperature between the
heating coil and the product reduces. However, the heat loss component will
increase as the product temperature rises and more heat is lost to the
environment
from
the
vessel
or
pipework.
The total heat demand at any time is the sum of these two components.
The equation used to establish the amount of heat required to raise the

temperature of a substance (Equation 2.1.4, from Tutorial 2.1), can be

developed to apply to a range of heat transfer processes.
Equation 2.1.4
Where:
Q = Quantity of energy (kJ)
m = Mass of the substance (kg)
cp = Specific heat capacity of the substance (kJ/kg C )
T = Temperature rise of the substance (C)
In its original form this equation can be used to determine a total amount of
heat energy over the whole process. However, in its current form, it does not
take into account the rateof heat transfer. To establish the rates of heat
transfer, the various types of heat exchange application can be divided into
two broad categories:

Non-flow type applications - where the product being heated is a fixed

mass and a single batch within the confines of a vessel.

Flow type applications - where a heated fluid constantly flows over the
heat transfer surface.

Top
Non-flow type applications
In non-flow type applications the process fluid is held as a single batch within
the confines of a vessel. A steam coil situated in the vessel, or a steam jacket
around the vessel, may constitute the heating surface. Typical examples
include hot water storage calorifiers as shown in Figure 2.6.1 and oil storage
tanks where a large circular steel tank is filled with a viscous oil requiring heat
before
it
can
be
pumped.
Some processes are concerned with heating solids; typical examples are tyre
presses,
laundry
ironers,
vulcanisers
and
autoclaves.
In some non-flow type applications, the process heat up time is unimportant
and ignored. However, in others, like tanks and vulcanisers, it may not only be
important but crucial to the overall process.

Fig. 2.6.1
Hot water storage - a non-flow application
Consider two non-flow heating processes requiring the same amount of heat
energy but different lengths of time to heat up. The heat transfer rates would
differ while the amounts of total heat transferred would be the same.
The mean rate of heat transfer for such applications can be obtained by
modifying Equation 2.1.4 to Equation 2.6.1:
Equation 2.6.1
Where:
= Mean heat transfer rate (kW (kJ/s)
m = Mass of the fluid (kg)
cp = Specific heat capacity of the fluid (kJ/kg C)
T = Increase in fluid temperature (C)
t = Time for the heating process (seconds)
Example 2.6.1
Calculating the mean heat transfer rate in a non-flow application.
A quantity of oil is heated from a temperature of 35C to 120C over a period
of 10 minutes (600 seconds). The volume of the oil is 35 litres, its specific
gravity is 0.9 and its specific heat capacity is 1.9 kJ/kg C over that
temperature
range.
Determine

the

rate

of

heat

transfer

required:

As the density of water at Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP) is 1 000

kg/m

Equation 2.6.1 can be applied whether the substance being heated is a solid,
a liquid or a gas. However, it does not take into account the transfer of heat
involved
when
there
is
a
change
of
phase.
The quantity of heat provided by the condensing of steam can be determined
by Equation 2.6.2:
Equation 2.6.2
Where:
Q = Quantity of heat (kJ)
ms = Mass of steam (kg)
hfg = Specific enthalpy of evaporation of steam (kJ/kg)
It therefore follows that the steam consumption can be determined from the
heat transfer rate and vice-versa, from Equation 2.6.3:
Equation 2.6.3
Where:
= Mean heat transfer rate (kW or kJ/s)
s = Mean steam consumption (kg/s)
hfg = Specific enthalpy of evaporation of steam (kJ/kg)
If it is assumed at this stage that the heat transfer is 100% efficient, then the
heat provided by the steam must be equal to the heat requirement of the fluid
to be heated. This can then be used to construct a heat balance, in which the
heat
energy
supplied
and
required
are
equated:
Primary side =

= Secondary side
Equation 2.6.4

Where:
s

hfg

= Mean steam consumption rate (kg/s)

= Specific enthalpy of evaporation of steam (kJ/kg)

= Mean heat transfer rate (kW (kJ/s))

m = Mass of the secondary fluid (kg)
cp = Specific heat capacity of the secondary fluid (kJ/kg C)
T = Temperature rise of the secondary fluid (C)
t = Time for the heating process
Example 2.6.2
A tank containing 400 kg of kerosene is to be heated from 10C to 40C in 20
minutes (1 200 seconds), using 4 bar g steam. The kerosene has a specific
heat capacity of 2.0 kJ/kg C over that temperature range. hfg at 4.0 bar g is 2
108.1 kJ/kg. The tank is well insulated and heat losses are negligible.
Determine the steam flowrate

In some non-flow type applications, the length of time of the batch process
may not be critical, and a longer heat up time may be acceptable. This will
reduce the instantaneous steam consumption and the size of the required
plant equipment.
Top
Flow type applications
Typical examples include shell and tube heat exchangers, see Figure 2.6.2
(also referred to as non-storage calorifiers) and plate heat exchangers,
providing hot water to heating systems or industrial processes. Another
example would be an air heater battery where steam gives up its heat to the
air that is constantly passing through.

Fig 2.6.2
Non-storage calorifier
Figure 2.6.3 provides a typical temperature profile in a heat exchanger with a
constant secondary fluid flowrate. The condensing temperature (T s) remains
constant throughout the heat exchanger. The fluid is heated from T 1 at the
inlet valve to T 2 at the outlet of the heat exchanger.

Fig. 2.6.3
Typical temperature profile in a heat exchanger
For a fixed secondary flowrate, the required heat load ( ) is proportional to the
product temperature rise (T). Using Equation 2.6.1:
Equation 2.6.1

As flowrate is mass flow per unit time, the secondary flowrate is depicted in
equation 2.6.1 as:

This can be represented by , where

and is shown in equation 2.6.5.

is the secondary fluid flowrate in kg/s,

Equation 2.6.5
Where:
= Mean heat transfer rate (kW)
= Mean secondary fluid flowrate (kg/s)
cp = Specific heat capacity of the secondary fluid (kJ/kg K) or (kJ/kgC)
T = Temperature rise of the secondary fluid (K or C)
A heat balance equation can be constructed for flow type applications where
there
is
a
continuous
flow
of
fluid:
Primary side = = Secondary side
Equation 2.6.6
Where:
Mean steam consumption rate (kg/s)
s =
hfg = Specific enthalpy of evaporation of steam (kJ/kg)
= Mean heat transfer rate (kW (kJ/s))
= Mass flowrate of the secondary fluid (kg/s)
cp = Specific heat capacity of the secondary fluid (kJ/kg C)
T = Temperature rise of the secondary fluid (C)
Mean steam consumption
The mean steam consumption of a flow type application like a process heat
exchanger or heating calorifier can be determined from Equation 2.6.6, as
shown in Equation 2.6.7.
Equation 2.6.7
Where:
= Mean steam consumption rate (kg/s)
= Mass flowrate of the secondary fluid (kg/s)
cp = Specific heat capacity of the secondary fluid (kJ/kg C)
T = Temperature rise of the secondary fluid (C)
hfg = Specific enthalpy of evaporation of steam (kJ/kg)
Equally, the mean steam consumption can be determined from Equation 2.6.6
as shown in Equation 2.6.8.
s

Equation 2.6.8
But as the mean heat transfer is, itself, calculated from the mass flow, the
specific heat, and the temperature rise, it is easier to use Equation 2.6.7.

Example 2.6.3
Dry saturated steam at 3 bar g is used to heat water flowing at a constant rate
of
1.5
l/s
from
10C
to
60C.
hfg at 3 bar g is 2 133.4 kJ/kg, and the specific heat of water is 4.19 kJ/kg C
Determine

the

steam

flowrate:

As 1 litre of water has a mass of 1 kg, the mass flowrate = 1.5 kg/s
Equation 2.6.7

At start-up, the inlet temperature, T 1 may be lower than the inlet temperature
expected at the full running load, causing a higher heat demand. If the warmup time is important to the process, the heat exchanger needs to be sized to
provide this increased heat demand. However, warm-up loads are usually
ignored in flow type design calculations, as start-ups are usually infrequent,
and the time it takes to reach design conditions is not too important. The heat
exchanger heating surface is therefore usually sized on the running load
conditions.
In flow type applications, heat losses from the system tend to be considerably
less than the heating requirement, and are usually ignored. However, if heat
losses are large, the mean heat loss (mainly from distribution pipework)
should be included when calculating the heating surface area.
Warm-up and heat loss components
In any heating process, the warm-up component will decrease as the product
temperature rises, and the differential temperature across the heating coil
reduces. However, the heat loss component will increase as the product and
vessel temperatures rise, and more heat is lost to the environment from the
vessel or pipework. The total heat demand at any time is the sum of these two
components.
If the heating surface is sized only with consideration of the warm-up
component, it is possible that not enough heat will be available for the process
to reach its expected temperature. The heating element, when sized on the
sum of the mean values of both these components, should normally be able
to
satisfy
the
overall
heat
demand
of
the
application.
Sometimes, with very large bulk oil storage tanks for example, it can make
sense to maintain the holding temperature lower than the required pumping
temperature, as this will reduce the heat losses from the tank surface area.
Another method of heating can be employed, such as an outflow heater, as
shown in Figure 2.6.4.

Fig. 2.6.4
An outflow heater
Heating elements are encased in a metal shroud protruding into the tank and
designed such that only the oil in the immediate vicinity is drawn in and
heated to the pumping temperature. Heat is therefore only demanded when
oil is drawn off, and since the tank temperature is lowered, lagging can often
be dispensed with. The size of outflow heater will depend on the temperature
of the bulk oil, the pumping temperature and the pumping rate.
Adding materials to open topped process tanks can also be regarded as a
heat loss component which will increase thermal demand. These materials will
act as a heat sink when immersed, and they need to be considered when
sizing
the
heating
surface
area.
Whatever the application, when the heat transfer surface needs calculating, it
is first necessary to evaluate the total mean heat transfer rate. From this, the
heat demand and steam load may be determined for full load and start-up.
This will allow the size of the control valve to be based on either of these two
conditions, subject to choice.

Measurement of Steam Consumption

Methods of measuring steam consumption, from the very basic to
sophisticated flow metering, are explained in this tutorial.
By a steam flowmeter
The use of a steam flowmeter may be used to directly measure the steam
usage of an operational item of plant. This may be used to monitor the results
of energy saving schemes and to compare the efficiency of one item of plant
with another. The steam can then be costed as a raw material at any stage of
the production process, so that the cost of individual product lines may be
determined.
It is only in comparatively rare cases that a meter cannot measure steam flow.
Care should be taken, however, to ensure that the prevailing steam pressure
is considered and that no other calibration factor has been overlooked.

Steam flowmetering is discussed in detail in Block 4.

Fig. 2.7.1
Typical steam flowmeter installation
Top
By a condensate pump
A less accurate method of estimating the steam consumption is by
incorporating a counter into the body of a positive displacement pump used to
pump condensate from the process. Each discharge stroke is registered, and
an estimate of the capacity of each stroke is used to calculate the amount of
steam condensed over a given time period.

Fig. 2.7.2
Positive displacement pump with cycle counter
A purpose built electronic pump monitor can be used which enables this to be
carried out automatically, converting the pump into a condensate meter. The
electronic pump monitor can be read locally or can return digital data to a
central monitoring system. If the pump is draining a vented receiver, a small
allowance has to be made for flash steam losses.
Top
By collecting the condensate
Steam consumption can also be established directly, by measuring the mass
of condensate collected in a drum over a period of time. This may provide a
more accurate method than using theoretical calculations if the flash steam
losses (which are not taken into account) are small, and can work for both

non-flow and flow type applications. However, this method cannot be used in
direct steam injection applications, humidification or sterilisation processes,
where
it
is
not
possible
to
collect
the
condensate.
Figure 2.7.3 shows a test being carried out on a jacketed pan. In this case an
empty oil drum and platform scales are shown, but smaller plant can be tested
just as accurately using a bucket and spring balance. This method is quite
easy to set up and can be relied upon to give accurate results.

Fig.
2.7.3
Equipment for measurement of steam consumption
The drum is first weighed with a sufficient quantity of cold water. Steam is then
supplied to the plant, and any condensate is discharged below the water level
in the container to condense any flash steam. By noting the increase in weight
over time, the mean steam consumption can be determined.
Although this method gives the mean rate of steam consumption, if the weight
of condensate is noted at regular intervals during the test, the corresponding
steam consumption rates can be calculated. Any obvious peaks will become
apparent and can be taken into account when deciding on the capacity of
associated equipment. It is important to note that the test is conducted with
the condensate discharging into an atmospheric system. If the test is being
used to quantify steam consumption on plant that would otherwise have a
condensate back pressure, the steam trap capacity must relate to the
expected
differential
pressure.
Care must also be taken to ensure that only condensate produced during the
test run is measured. In the case of the boiling pan shown, it would be wise to
drain the jacket completely through the drain cock before starting the test. At
the end, drain the jacket again and add this condensate to that in the
container
before
weighing.
The test should run for as long as possible in order to reduce the effect of
errors of measurement. It is always advisable to run three tests under similar
conditions and average the results in order to get a reliable answer. Discard
any results that are widely different from the others and, if necessary, run

further

tests.

If the return system includes a collecting tank and pump, it may be possible to
stop the pump for a period and measure condensate volume by carefully
dipping the tank before and after a test period. Care must be taken here,
particularly if the level change is small or if losses occur due to flash steam.

Thermal Rating
Design ratings for items of plant can be both helpful and misleading, as
changing any factor can alter the predicted heat output. Also, how to
calculate steam load requirements from the kW rating.
Some items of manufactured plant are supplied with information on thermal
output. These design ratings can be both helpful and misleading. Ratings will
usually involve raising a stated amount of air, water or other fluid through a
given temperature rise, using steam at a specified pressure. They are
generally published in good faith with a reasonable allowance for fouling of
the
heat
transfer
surface.
It must be clear that changing any factor at all will alter the predicted heat
output and thereby the steam consumption. A secondary fluid which is colder
than specified will increase the demand, while steam at less than the specified
pressure
will
reduce
the
ability
to
transfer
heat.
Temperature and pressure can often be measured easily so that corrections
can be applied. However, flowrates of air, water and other fluids may be far
more difficult to measure. Undetected fanbelt slip or pump impeller wear can
also lead to discrepancies, while lower than expected resistances applied to
pumps and fans can cause flowrates to be higher than the design values.
A more common source of error arises from the assumption that the
manufacturer's rating equates to actual load. A heat exchanger may be
capable of meeting or exceeding a given duty, but the connected load may
often only be a fraction of this. Clearly it is useful to have information on the
thermal rating of plant, but care must be taken when relating this to an actual
heat
load.
If the load is quoted in kW, and the steam pressure is given, then steam
flowrate may be determined as shown in Equation 2.8.1:

Equation 2.8.1

Fig. 2.8.1
Typical heat exchanger manufacturers name-plate

Energy Consumption of Tanks and Vats

The heating of liquids in tanks and vats is an important requirement in
process industries. There are many types of tank with different uses.
Determination of heat requirements, heat transfer and heat loss
calculations are all covered in this tutorial.
The heating of liquids in tanks is an important requirement in process
industries such as the dairy, metal treatment and textile industries. Water may
need to be heated to provide a hot water utility; alternatively, a liquid may
need to be heated as part of the production process itself, whether or not a
chemical reaction is involved. Such processes may include boiler feedtanks,
wash tanks, evaporators, boiling pans, coppers, calandrias and reboilers.
Tanks are often used for heating processes, of which there are two major
categories:

Totally enclosed tanks, such as those used for storing fuel oil, and
where heat load calculations are generally straightforward.

Open topped tanks, where heat load calculations may be complicated

by the introduction of articles and materials, or by evaporative losses.

Open and closed tanks are used for a large number of process
applications:

Boiler feedtanks - The boiler feedtank is at the heart of any steam

generation system. It provides a reservoir of returned condensate and
treated make-up water, for feeding the boiler. One reason for heating
the water is to reduce oxygen entering the boiler, with (theoretically) 0
ppm oxygen at 100C.
Boiler feedtanks are normally operated at between 80C and 90C.

Hot water tanks - Hot water is required for a number of processes in

industry. It is often heated in simple, open or closed tanks which use
steam as the heating medium.
The operating temperature can be anywhere between 40C and 85C
depending on the application.

Degreasing tanks - Degreasing is the process where deposits of

grease and cooling oil are removed from metal surfaces, after
machining and prior to the final assembly of the product.
In a degreasing tank, the material is dipped into a solution, which is
heated by coils to a temperature of between 90C and 95C.

Metal treatment tanks - Metal treatment tanks, which are sometimes

called vats, are used in a number of different processes:

To remove scale or rust.

To apply a metallic coating to surfaces.

The treatment temperatures typically range from 70C to 85C.

Oil storage tanks - Storage tanks are required to hold oils which
cannot be pumped at ambient temperatures, such as heavy fuel oil for
boilers. At ambient temperatures, heavy oil is very thick and must be
heated to 30C - 40C in order to reduce its viscosity and allow it to be
pumped. This means that all heavy oil storage tanks need to be
provided with heating to facilitate pumping.
Heating tanks used in process industries - Heating tanks are used
by a number of process industries, see Table 2.9.1.

Table 2.9.1
Process industries which use heating tanks
In some applications the process fluid may have achieved its working
temperature, and the only heat requirement may be due to losses from the
solid surface of the walls and/or the losses from the liquid surface.
This Tutorial will deal with the calculations which determine the energy
requirements of tanks: the following two Tutorials (2.10 and 2.11) will deal with
how
this
energy
may
be
provided.
When determining the heat requirement of a tank or vat of process fluid,
the total heat requirement may consist of some or all of a number of key
components:

The heat required to raise the process fluid temperature from cold to its
operating temperature.

The heat required to raise the vessel material from cold to its operating
temperature.

The heat lost from the solid surface of the vessel to the atmosphere.

The heat lost from the liquid surface exposed to the atmosphere.

The heat absorbed by any cold articles dipped into the process fluid.

However, in many applications only some of the above components will be

significant. For example, in the case of a totally enclosed well-insulated bulk
oil storage tank, the total heat requirement may be made up almost entirely of
the heat required
to
raise
the
temperature
of the fluid.
Items 1 and 2, the energy required to raise the temperature of the liquid and
the vessel material, and item 5, the heat absorbed by any cold articles dipped
into the process fluid, can be found by using the Equation 2.6.1. Generally,
data can be accurately defined, and hence the calculation of the heat
requirement is straightforward and precise.

Equation 2.6.1
Items 3 and 4, the heat losses from the vessel and liquid surfaces can be
determined
by
using
Equation
2.5.3.
However, heat loss calculations are much more complex, and usually
empirical data, or tables based on several assumptions have to be relied
upon. It follows that heat loss calculations are less accurate.

Equation 2.5.3
Heat loss from the solid surface of the vessel to the atmosphere
Heat will only be transferred provided there is a difference in temperature
between
the
surface
and
the
ambient
air.
Figure 2.9.1 provides some typical overall heat transfer coefficients for heat
transfer from bare steel flat surfaces to ambient air. If the bottom of the tank is
not exposed to ambient air, but is positioned flat on the ground, it is usual to
consider this component of the heat loss to be negligible, and it may safely be
ignored.

For 25 mm of insulation, the U value should be multiplied by a factor of

0.2.

For 50 mm of insulation, the U value should be multiplied by a factor of

0.1.

The overall heat transfer coefficients provided in Figure 2.9.1 are for 'still air'
conditions only.

Fig
. 2.9.1
Typical overall heat transfer coefficients
from flat steel surfaces
Table 2.9.2 shows multiplication factors which need to be applied to these
values if an air velocity is being taken into account. However, if the surface is
well insulated, the air velocity is not likely to increase the heat loss by more
than 10% even in exposed conditions.

Table 2.9.2
Effect on heat transfer with air movement
Velocities of less than 1 m/s can be considered as sheltered conditions, whilst
5 m/s may be thought of as a gentle breeze (about 3 on the Beaufort scale),
10 m/s a fresh breeze (Beaufort 5), and 16 m/s a moderate gale (Beaufort 7).
For bulk oil storage tanks, the overall heat transfer coefficients quoted in Table
2.9.3 may be used.

Table 2.9.3
Overall heat transfer coefficients for oil tanks
Water tanks: heat loss from the water surface to the atmosphere
Figure 2.9.2 relates heat loss from a water surface to air velocity and surface
temperature. In this chart 'still' air is considered to have a velocity of 1 m/s,
tanks in sheltered positions outdoors consider velocities at about 4 m/s, whilst
tanks in exposed positions outdoors are considered with velocities at about 8
m/s.
This chart provides the heat loss in W/m rather than the units of the overall
heat transfer coefficient of W/mC. This means that this value must be
multiplied by the surface area to provide a rate of heat transfer, as the water
to air temperature difference has already been taken into account.
Heat losses from the water surface, as shown in Figure 2.9.2 are not
significantly affected by the humidity of the air. The full range of humidities
likely to be encountered in practice is covered by the thickness of the curve.
However, the graph considers heat losses with an air temperature of 15.6C
and 55% air humidity. Different conditions to these can be calculated from
the Calculators on
this
website.
To determine the heat loss from the chart, the water surface temperature must
be selected from the top scale. A line should then be projected vertically
downwards to the (bold) heat loss curve. For indoor tanks a line should be
projected horizontally from the intersection to the left-hand scale.
For outdoor tanks a horizontal line should be projected either left or right until
it intersects the required location, either sheltered or exposed. A projection
vertically downwards will then reveal the heat loss on the bottom scale.
In most cases, the heat loss from the liquid surface is likely to be the most
significant heat loss element. Where practical, heat loss can be limited by
covering the liquid surface with a layer of polystyrene spheres which provide
an insulating 'blanket'. Any solution to reduce heat losses becomes even more
important when tanks are located outside in exposed positions as portrayed
by the graph in Figure 2.9.2.

Fig. 2.9.2
Heat loss from water surfaces
Example 2.9.1
For
the
tank
Part

1. The

mean

shown
heat

in

transfer

Figure
rate

2.9.3,

required

during

Part 2. The maximum heat transfer rate required during operation.

determine:
start-up.

Fig. 2.9.3
The tank is unlagged and open topped and is situated on a concrete
floor inside a factory.
It is 3 m long by 3 m wide by 2 m high.
Tank total surface area = 24 m (excluding base).
Heat transfer coefficient from tank/air, U1 = 11 W/mC.
The tank is /3 full of a weak acid solution (cp = 3.9 kJ/kgC) which has
the same density as water (1 000 kg/m)

The tank is fabricated from 15 mm mild steel plate.

(Density = 7 850 kg/m, cp = 0.5 kJ/kgC)

The tank is used on alternate days, when the solution needs to be

raised from the lowest considered ambient temperature of 8C to 60C
in 2 hours, and remain at that temperature during the day.

When the tank is up to temperature, a 500 kg steel article is to be

dipped every 20 minutes without the tank overflowing. (c p = 0.5
kJ/kgC)

Part 1 Determine the mean heat transfer rate required during start-up
(start-up)

This is the sum of:

A1. Heating the liquid

M (liquid)

A2. Heating the tank material

M (tank)

A3. Heat losses from the sides of the tank

A4. Heat losses from the liquid surface
Part 1.1 Heating the liquid

M (liquid)

M (sides)

M (surface)

Equation 2.6.1

Equation 2.5.3
Where:
T is the mean temperature difference T

Part 2 Determine the running load, that is the maximum heat transfer
rate required during operation (operation)

In operating conditions, the liquid and tank (A1 and A2, from Part 1)
are already up to operating temperature, so the heating components =
0.

In operating conditions, the heat losses from the liquid and tank (A3
and A4, from Part 1) will be greater. This is because of the greater
difference between the liquid and tank temperatures and the
surroundings.

Immersing the article in the liquid is clearly the objective of the process,
so this heat load must be calculated and added to the running load
heat losses.

Part 2.1 Heat losses from tank sides

Equation 2.5.3
Where:

Equation 2.6.1

Note that the operational energy requirement (59 kW) is significantly

less than the start-up energy requirement (367 kW). This is typical, and,
where possible, the start-up period may be extended. This will have the
effect of reducing the maximum energy flowrate and has the benefits of
levelling demand on the boiler, and making less demand on the
temperature
control
system.
For tanks that are to operate continuously, it is often only necessary to
calculate the operating requirements i.e. the Part 2 calculations.

Heating with Coils and Jackets

Indirect heating of fluids is covered in this tutorial including layouts,
control and drainage of coils and jackets, and heat transfer calculations.
Vessels can be heated in a number of different ways. This tutorial will deal
with indirect heating. In these systems, the heat is transferred across a heat
transfer surface. Options include:

Submerged steam coils - A widely used form of heat transfer involves

the installation inside a tank of a steam coil immersed in a process
fluid.

Steam jackets - Steam circulates in the annular space between a

jacket and the vessel walls, and heat is transferred through the wall of
the vessel.

Submerged steam coils

The use of tank coils is particularly common in marine applications where
cargoes of crude oil, edible oils, tallow and molasses are heated in deep
tanks. Many of these liquids are difficult to handle at ambient temperatures
due to their viscosity. Steam heated coils are used to raise the temperature of
these liquids, lowering their viscosity so that they become easier to pump.

Tank coils are also extensively used in electroplating and metal treatment.
Electroplating involves passing articles through several process tanks so that
metallic coatings can be deposited on to their surfaces. One of the first stages
in this process is known as pickling, where materials such as steel and copper
are treated by dipping them in tanks of acid or caustic solution to remove any
scale or oxide (e.g. rust) which may have formed.
Steam coil sizing
Having determined the energy required (in Tutorial 2.9), and with knowledge
of the steam pressure/temperature in the coil, the heat transfer surface may
be determined using Equation 2.5.3:
Equation 2.5.3
The heat transfer area calculated is equivalent to the surface area of the coil,
and will enable an appropriate size and layout to be specified.
Determining the 'U' value
To calculate the heat transfer area, a value for the overall heat transfer
coefficient, U, must be chosen. This will vary considerably with the thermal
and transport properties of both fluids and a range of other conditions.
On the product side of the coil a thermal boundary layer will exist in which
there is a temperature gradient between the surface and the bulk fluid. If this
temperature difference is relatively large, then the natural convective currents
will be significant and the heat transfer coefficient will be high.
Assisted circulation (such as stirring) that will induce forced convection, will
also result in higher coefficients. As convection is partially dependent on the
bulk motion of the fluid, the viscosity (which varies with temperature) also has
an
important
bearing
on
the
thermal
boundary
layer.
Additional variations can also occur on the steam side of the coil, especially
with long lengths of pipe. The coil inlet may have a high steam velocity and
may be relatively free from water. However, further along the length of the coil
the steam velocity may be lower, and the coil may be running partially full of
water. In very long coils, such as those sometimes found in seagoing tankers
or in large bulk storage tanks, a significant pressure drop occurs along the
length of the coil. To acheive the mean coil temperature, an average steam
pressure of approximately 75% of the inlet pressure may be used. In extreme
cases the average pressure used may be as low as 40% of the inlet pressure.
Another variable is the coil material itself. The thermal conductivity of the coil
material may vary considerably. However, overall heat transfer is governed to
a large extent by the heat resistant films, and the thermal conductivity of the
coil material is not as significant as their combined effect. Table 2.10.1
provides typical overall heat transfer coefficients for various conditions of
submerged steam coil application. 'U' values for steam pressures between 2
bar g and 6 bar g should be found by interpolation of the data in the table.

The range of figures shown in Table 2.10.1 demonstrates the difficulty in

providing definitive 'U' values. Customary figures at the higher end of the
scale will apply to installations that are supplied with clean dry steam, small
coils and good condensate drainage. The lower end is more applicable to
poor quality steam, long coils and poor condensate drainage.
The recommended overall heat transfer coefficients will apply to typical
conditions and installations. These recommended rates are empirically
derived, and will generally ensure that a generous safety margin applies to the
coil
sizing.
In the case of fluids other than water, the heat transfer coefficient will vary
even more widely due to the way in which viscosity varies with temperature.
However, the values shown in Table 2.10.2 will serve as a guide for some
commonly encountered substances, while Table 2.10.3 gives typical surface
areas of pipes per metre length.

Example 2.10.1
Continuing

from

Example

2.9.1

determine:

Part 1. The average steam mass flowrate during start-up. (Mean heat load =

367

kW)

Part

2. The

Part

3. A

heat
recommended

transfer
coil

area

required.

surface

area.

Part 4. The maximum steam mass flowrate with the recommended heat
transfer
area.
Part 5. A recommendation for installation, including coil diameter and layout.
The following additional information has been provided:

Steam pressure onto the control valve = 2.6 bar g (3.6 bar a).

A stainless steel steam coil provides heat.

Heat transfer coefficient from steam/coil/liquid, U = 650 W/mC

Part 1 Calculate the average steam mass flowrate during start-up

Steam pressure onto the control valve = 2.6 bar g (3.6 bar a)
Critical pressure drop (CPD) will occur across the control valve during startup, therefore the minimum steam pressure in the heating coil should be taken
as 58% of upstream absolute pressure. An explanation of this is given in
Block 5.

Part 2 Calculate the heat transfer area required.

Part

recommendation

for

coil

surface

area

Because of the difficulties in providing accurate 'U' values, and to allow for
future fouling of the heat exchange surface, it is usual to add 10% to the
calculated heat transfer area.

Part 4 The maximum steam mass flowrate with the recommended heat
transfer
area
Maximum heat transfer (and hence steam demand) will occur when the
temperature difference between the steam and the process fluid is at its
maximum, and should take into consideration the extra pipe area allowed for
fouling.
(a)

Consider

the

Using Equation 2.5.3:

maximum
= UAT

heating

capacity

of

the

coil

(coil)

(b) Steam flowrate to deliver 519 kW

Part 5 A recommendation for installation, including coil diameter and

layout
(a) Determine coil diameter and length

From Table 2.10.3, a 100 mm pipe has a surface area of 0.358 m/m run. This
application will require:

It may be difficult to accommodate this length of large bore heating pipe to

install
in
a
3
m

3
m
tank.
One solution would be to run a bank of parallel pipes between steam and
condensate manifolds, set at different heights to encourage condensate to run
to the lower (condensate) manifold. The drain line must fall from the bottom of
the condensate manifold down to the steam trap (or pump-trap). See Figure
2.10.1 for a suggested layout.

Fig. 2.10.1
Possible layout of coils in a rectangular tank
Note the steam supply is situated at one end of its manifold, whilst the trap set
is at the other end. This will help steam to flow and push condensate through
the
coils.
In the application, the steam and condensate headers would each be 2.8 m
long. As the condensate manifold is holding condensate, the heat from it will
be small compared to the steam manifold and this can be ignored in the
calculation.
The steam manifold should be 100 mm diameter as determined by the
previous velocity calculation. This will provide a heating area of:
2.8 m x 0.358 m/m = 1.0 m
Consequently 7 m - 1 m = 6 m of heat transfer area is still required, and
must
be
provided
by
the
connecting
pipes.
Arbitrarily selecting 32 mm pipe as a good compromise between robustness
and workability:

The lengths of the connecting pipes are 2.5 m.

CHECK
It is necessary to confirm the steam velocity through the connecting tubes:
On the basis of proportionality of heat transfer area, the steam header will
condense:

This leaves 86% of the 850 kg/h = 731 kg/h of steam which must pass
through the 18 connecting pipes and also into the lower (condensate)
manifold.

Other steam coil layouts

The design and layout of the steam coil will depend on the process fluid being
heated. When the process fluid to be heated is a corrosive solution, it is
normally recommended that the coil inlet and outlet connections are taken
over the lip of the tank, as it is not normally advisable to drill through the
corrosion resistant linings of the tank side. This will ensure that there are no
weak points in the tank lining, where there is a risk of leakage of corrosive
liquids. In these cases the coil itself may also be made of corrosion resistant
material such as lead covered steel or copper, or alloys such as titanium.
However, where there is no danger of corrosion, lifts over the tank structure
should be avoided, and the steam inlet and outlet connections may be taken
through the tank side. The presence of any lift will result in waterlogging of a
proportion of the coil length, and possibly waterhammer, noise and leaking
pipework.
Steam heating coils should generally have a gradual fall from the inlet to the
outlet to ensure that condensate runs toward the outlet and does not collect in
the
bottom
of
the
coil.
Where a lift is unavoidable, it should be designed to include a seal
arrangement at the bottom of the lift and a small bore dip pipe, as shown in
Figure 2.10.2.

Fig. 2.10.2
Tank with a rising discharge pipe
The seal arrangement allows a small amount of condensate to collect to act
as a water seal, and prevents the occurrence of steam locking. Without this
seal, steam can pass over any condensate collecting in the bottom of the
pipe, and close the steam trap at the top of the riser.
The condensate level would then rise and form a temporary water seal,
locking the steam between the bottom of the riser and the steam trap. The
steam trap remains closed until the locked steam condenses, during which
time
the
coil
continues
to
waterlog.
When the locked steam condenses and the steam trap opens, a slug of water
is discharged up the riser. As soon as the water seal is broken, steam will
enter the rising pipe and close the trap, while the broken column of water falls
back
to
lie
at
the
bottom
of
the
heating
coil.
The small bore dip pipe will only allow a very small volume of steam to
become locked in the riser. It enables the water column to be easily
maintained without steam bubbling through it, ensuring there is a steady and
continuous
condensate
flow
to
the
outlet.
When the seal is ultimately broken, a smaller volume of water will return to the
heating coil than with an unrestricted large bore riser, but as the water seal
arrangement requires a smaller volume of condensate to form a water seal, it
will
immediately
re-form.
If the process involves articles being dipped into the liquid, it may not be
convenient to install the coil at the bottom of the tank - it may be damaged by
the objects being immersed in the solution. Also, during certain processes,
heavy deposits will settle at the bottom of the tank and can quickly cover the
heating
surface,
inhibiting
heat
transfer.
For these reasons side hung coils are often used in the electroplating industry.

In such cases serpentine or plate-type coils are arranged down the side of a
tank, as shown in Figure 2.10.3. These coils should also have a fall to the
bottom with a water seal and a small bore dip-pipe. This arrangement has the
advantage that it is often easier to install, and also easier to remove for
periodic cleaning if required.

Fig. 2.10.3
Side hung coils
If articles are to be dipped into the tank, it may not be possible to use any sort
of agitator to induce forced convection and prevent temperature gradients
occurring throughout the tank. Whether bottom or side coils are used, it is
essential that they are arranged with adequate coverage so that the heat is
distributed
evenly
throughout
the
bulk
of
the
liquid.
The diameter of the coil should provide sufficient length of coil for good
distribution. A short length of coil with a large diameter may not provide
adequate temperature distribution. However a very long continuous length of
coil may experience a temperature gradient due to the pressure drop from
end
to
end,
resulting
in
uneven
heating
of
the
liquid.
Whilst the next two headings, 'Sizing the control valve' and 'The
condensate removal device' are included in this Tutorial, the new reader
should refer to later Tutorials for full and comprehensive information,
before attempting sizing and selection of equipment.
Control valve arrangement
The control valve set may be either one or two valves in parallel. A single
control valve, large enough to cope with the maximum flowrate encountered
at start-up, may be unable to control flow accurately at the minimum expected
flowrate. This could cause erratic temperature control. An alternative is to fit
two temperature control valves in parallel:

One valve (running valve) sized to control at the lower flowrate.

A second valve (starting valve) to pass the difference between the

capacity of the first valve, and the maximum flowrate.

The starting valve would have a set-point slightly lower than the running valve,
so it would close first, leaving the running valve to control at low loads.
Sizing the control valve
The control valve set (either one valve or two valves in parallel).
The coil has been sized on mean heat transfer values. However, it may be
better to size the control valve to supply the maximum (start-up) load. With
large coils in tanks, this will help to maintain a degree of steam pressure
throughout the length of the coil when the steam is turned on, helping to push
condensate through the coil to the steam trapping device. If the control valve
were sized on mean values, steam pressure in the coil at start-up will tend to
be lower and the coil may flood.
Using one valve
Continuing with Example 2.10.1 the maximum steam load is 850 kg/h and the
coil is designed to deliver this at a pressure of 1.1 bar g. A steam valve sizing
chart would show that a K v of about 20 is required to pass 850 kg/h of steam
with a pressure of 2.6 bar g at the inlet of the control valve, and Critical
Pressure Drop (CPD) across the valve. (Tutorial 6.4 will show how the valve
size
can
be
determined
by
calculation).
A DN40 control valve with a larger Kvs of 25 would therefore need to be
selected
for
the
application.
If one valve is to be used, this valve must ensure the maximum heat load is
catered for, while maintaining the required steam pressure in the coil to assist
the drainage of condensate from it at start-up. However, for reasons
previously
explained,
two
valves
may
be
better.
The running load is 52 kW and with the coil running at 1.1 bar g, the running
steam load:

The steam valve sizing chart shows a K v of 2 is required to pass 85 kg/h with
3.6
bar
upstream,
operating
at
critical
pressure
drop.
A DN15 KE type valve (K vs = 4) and a DN25 piston actuated valve (K vs = 18.6)
operating together will cater for the start-up load. When approaching the
control temperature, the larger valve would be set to shut down, allowing the
smaller valve to give good control.
The condensate removal device
The selection and sizing of the condensate removal device will be very much
influenced by the condensate backpressure. For the purpose of this example,
it is assumed the backpressure is atmospheric pressure. The device should
be sized so it is able to satisfy both of the following conditions:

Pass 850 kg/h of condensate with 1.1 bar g in the coil, i.e. the full-load
condition.

Pass the condensate load when steam pressure in the coil equals the
condensate backpressure, i.e. the stall load condition.

If the steam trap is only sized on the first condition, it is possible that it may
not pass the stall load (the condition where the product approaches its
required temperature and the control valve modulates to reduce steam
pressure). The stall load may be considerable. With respect to non-flow type
applications such as tanks, this may not be too serious from a thermal
viewpoint because the contents of the tank will almost be at the required
temperature,
and
have
a
huge
reservoir
of
heat.
Any reduction in heat transfer at this part of the heating process may therefore
have
little
immediate
effect
on
the
tank
contents.
However, condensate will back up into the coil and waterhammer will occur,
along with its associated symptoms and mechanical stresses. Tank coils in
large circular tanks tend to be of robust construction, and are often able to
withstand such stresses. Problems can however occur in rectangular tanks
(which tend to be smaller), where vibration in the coil will have more of an
effect on the tank structure. Here, the energy dissipated by the waterhammer
causes vibration, which can be detrimental to the life of the coil, the tank, and
the
steam
trap,
as
well
as
creating
unpleasant
noise.
With respect to flow-type applications such as plate heat exchangers, a failure
to consider the stall condition will usually have serious implications. This is
mainly due to the small volume in the heat exchanger.
For heat exchangers, any unwanted reduction in the heating surface area,
such as that caused by condensate backing up into the steam space, can
affect the flow of heat through the heating surface. This can cause the control
system to become erratic and unstable, and processes requiring stable or
accurate
control
can
suffer
with
poor
performance.
If heat exchangers are oversized, sufficient heating surface may remain when
condensate backs up into the steam space, and reduction of thermal
performance may not always occur. However, with heat exchangers not
designed to cope with the effects of waterlogging, this can lead to corrosion of
the heating surface, inevitably reducing the service life of the exchanger.
Waterlogging can, in some applications, be costly. Consider a waterlogging air
heater frost coil. Cold air at 4C flowing at 3 m/s can soon freeze condensate
locked in the coils, resulting in premature and unwarranted failure. Proper
drainage of condensate is essential to maintain the service life of any heat
exchanger
and
air
heater.
Steam traps are devices which modulate to allow varying amounts of
condensate to drain from applications under varying conditions. Float traps
are steam traps designed to modulate and release condensate close to steam
temperature, offering maximum plant performance, maximum plant life, and

maximum

return

on

plant

investment.

When stall conditions occur, and a steam trap cannot be used, an automatic
pump-trap or pump and trap in combination will ensure correct condensate
drainage at all times, thus maximising the thermal capability and lifetime costs
of the plant.
Steam jackets
The most commonly used type of steam jacket consists simply of an outer
cylinder surrounding the vessel, as shown in Figure 2.10.4. Steam circulates
in the outer jacket, and condenses on the wall of the vessel. Jacketed vessels
may also be lagged, or may contain an internal air space surrounding the
jacket. This is to ensure that as little steam as possible condenses on the
outer jacket wall, and that the heat is transferred inwards to the vessel.

Fig.
2.10.4
A conventional jacketed vessel
The heat transfer area (the vessel wall surface area), can be calculated in the
same manner as with a steam coil, using Equation 2.5.3 and the overall heat
transfer
coefficients
provided
in
Table
2.10.4.
Although steam jackets may generally be less thermally efficient than
submerged coils, due to radiation losses to the surroundings, they do allow
space for the vessels to be agitated so that heat transfer is promoted. The U
values listed in Table 2.10.4. are for moderate non-proximity agitation.
Commonly the vessel walls are made from stainless steel or glass lined
carbon steel. The glass lining will offer an additional corrosion resistant layer.
The size of the steam jacket space will depend on the size of the vessel, but
typically the width may be between 50 mm and 300 mm.

Heating Vats and Tanks by Steam Injection

Direct steam injection involves the discharge of steam bubbles into a
liquid at a lower temperature to transfer heat. This tutorial explains the
process and the methods used, including the relevant heat transfer
calculations.
Heating Vats and Tanks by Steam Injection
Direct steam injection involves the discharge of a series of steam bubbles into
a liquid at a lower temperature. The steam bubbles condense and give up
their
heat
to
the
surrounding
liquid.
Heat is transferred by direct contact between the steam and the liquid,
consequently this method is only used when dilution and an increase in liquid
mass is acceptable. Therefore, the liquid being heated is usually water. Direct
steam injection is seldom used to heat solutions in which a chemical reaction
takes place, as the dilution of the solution would reduce the reaction rate and
lower
the
productivity.
Direct steam injection is the most widely used method for boiler feedtank
heating throughout industry. This method is often chosen because of its
simplicity. No heat transfer surface or steam trap set is required, and there is
no need to consider the condensate return system.
Steam consumption calculations
During direct steam injection, heat is transferred in a different manner to
indirect heat exchange. As the heat is not transferred across a surface, and
the steam mixes freely with the process fluid being heated, the amount of
usable heat in the steam must be calculated in a different way. This can be
found using Equation 2.11.1:
Equation 2.11.1
Where:
s

= Mean steam flowrate (kg/s)

= Mean heat transfer rate kW (kJ/s)

Specific enthalpy of steam (taken at the pressure supplying the control valve)
hg =
(kJ/kg)
T = Final temperature of the water (C)
cp = Specific heat capacity of water (kJ/kg C)
Equation 2.11.1 shows that steam injection utilises all of the enthalpy of
evaporation (or latent heat) and a proportion of the liquid enthalpy contained
in the steam. The actual proportion of the liquid enthalpy used will depend on
the temperature of the water at the end of the injection process.
One major difference between indirect heating and direct steam injection, is
that the volume (and mass) of the process fluid is increased as steam is
added,
by
the
amount
of
steam
injected.
Another difference is that, when calculating the steam flowrate to a steam coil,
the pressure in the coil is considered, but for steam injection, the pressure
before
the
control
valve
is
considered.
In some cases (where the liquid surface is not at the overflow pipe level), this
will increase the head of liquid over the injector as time progresses. However,
this increase is likely to be small and is rarely taken into account in
calculations.
Factors influencing the heat transfer rate
In Equation 2.11.1, the steam consumption rate is directly related to the heat
requirement. Unless the steam injection system is designed so that all
conditions are conducive to maximum heat transfer, the steam bubbles may
simply break the surface of the liquid and escape to the atmosphere; some of
the heat contained in the steam will be lost to atmosphere and the actual heat
transfer rate
to
the
water
will
be
less than anticipated.
In the case of a submerged coil, the maximum heat transfer rate at the start of
the warm-up period will depend on the maximum steam flowrate allowed
through the control valve and its associated pipework, and the maximum heat
output
allowed
by
the
coil
surface
area.
During direct steam injection, it might be expected that the maximum heat
transfer rate at the very start of the warm-up period is dependent on the
maximum flowrate through the control valve, and the pipe or injector itself.
However, as implied above, it will also depend on other factors such as:

Size of the steam bubble - Condensation of a steam bubble will

depend on the heat transfer across the surface of the bubble. To
ensure that the steam bubble is completely condensed, the surface
area/volume ratio must be as large as possible. Smaller bubbles have
a greater surface area per unit volume than larger bubbles, so it is
desirable to produce very small bubbles. The differential pressure
(between the steam pipe and the point where the steam is discharged
into the water) as the bubble emerges will also affect the size of the
steam bubble. The specific volume of steam will increase as the

pressure is reduced, so that a drop in pressure will increase the size of

the steam bubble as it escapes into the liquid. Even if the steam bubble
is emitted from a very small hole, the bubble may increase significantly
in size if the steam pressure is high. Consequently, a lower pressure in
the sparge pipe is better.

Head of liquid over the injection point - The head of liquid over the
injection point will create a backpressure so that the differential
pressure will be less than the steam pressure. If the head of liquid is
large and the steam pressure in the sparge pipe is low, there may only
be a very small change in pressure so that the size of the bubbles
formed is kept to a minimum.
A greater head of liquid over the point of injection will give the steam
bubbles maximum opportunity to condense before they reach the
surface.

Velocity of the bubble - The velocity of the bubble at the point of

injection will also depend on the difference between the steam
pressure and the liquid head. It is desirable to keep this differential
pressure as low as possible, so that bubble velocities are also as low
as possible and the bubbles are given the maximum time to condense
before they reach the surface.

Temperature of the liquid - The rate at which the steam will condense
is directly proportional to the temperature difference between the steam
and the liquid being heated. As with all heat transfer processes, the
rate of heat exchange is directly proportional to the temperature
differential.
It is always advisable to ensure that the temperature of the liquid is
correctly controlled and is kept to the minimum required for the
application, so that the maximum heat transfer rate is maintained and
there is no wastage of energy.

Top
Sparge pipes
This is simply a pipe mounted inside the tank, with the holes drilled at regular
positions (typically 4 o'clock and 8 o'clock) when viewed from the end, equally
spaced along the length of the pipe, and with the end blanked off. The steam
exits the pipe through the holes as small bubbles, which will either condense
as intended or reach the surface of the liquid (see Figure 2.11.1).
Sparge pipes are inexpensive to make and easy to install, but are prone to
cause high levels of vibration and noise. A much more effective method is to
use a properly designed steam injector.

Fig. 2.11.1
Sparge hole orientation
Example 2.11.1 - Determine the steam load to heat a tank of water by
steam injection

Fi
g. 2.11.4
The tank used in Example 2.9.1
These calculations (steps 1 to 5) are based on Examples 2.9.1 and 2.10.1 as
far as heat losses are concerned, but with the tank containing water (c p = 4.19
kJ/kg C), instead of weak acid solution and the water being heated by steam
injection
rather
than
a
steam
coil.
Step 1 - find the energy required to heat up 12 000 kg of water from 8C to
60C in 2 hours by using Equation 2.6.1:
Equation 2.6.1

Where:
= Mean heat transfer rate to heat the water (kW)
m = 12 000 kg
cp = 4.19 kJ/kg C
T = 60 - 8 = 52C
t = 2 hours x 3 600 = 7 200 seconds

Steam is supplied to the control valve at 2.6 bar g. In order to calculate the
mean steam flowrate, it is necessary to determine the total enthalpy in the
steam (hg) at this pressure. It can be seen from Table 2.11.1 (an extract from
steam tables) that the total enthalpy of steam (h g) at 2.6 bar g is 2733.89
kJ/kg.

Table 2.11.1
Extract from steam tables
Step 2 - find the mean steam flowrate to heat the water by using Equation
2.11.1:

Equation 2.11.1
Where:
= Mean steam flowrate to heat the water in the tank (kg/s)
= (water) = Mean heat transfer rate to heat the water = 363 kW
hg = Total enthalpy in the steam supplying the control valve = 2733.89 kJ/kg
T = Final water temperature = 60C
cp = Specific heat of water = 4.19 kJ/kg C
Therefore, from Equation 2.11.1;
s

Step 3 - find the mean steam flowrate to heat the tank material (steel). From
Example 2.9.1, the mean heat transfer rate for the tank material = (tank) = 14
kW

The mean steam flowrate to heat the tank material is calculated by again
using Equation 2.11.1:

Equation 2.11.1
Where:
= Mean steam flowrate to heat the tank material (kg/s)
= (tank) = Mean heat transfer rate to heat the tank material = 14 kW
hg = Total enthalpy in the steam supplying the control valve = 2733.89 kJ/kg
T = Final tank temperature = 60C
cp = Specific heat of the tank material (steel) = 0.5 kJ/kg C
Therefore, from Equation 2.11.1
s

Step 4 - find the mean steam flowrate to make up for the heat losses from the
tank during warm-up. From Example 2.9.1:
The mean heat losses from the tank and water surface =

(sides)

(surface)

The heat losses from the tank and water surface = 7 kW + 8 kW

The heat losses from the tank and water surface = 15 kW
Whilst it is reasonable to accept that the steam's liquid enthalpy will contribute
to the rise in temperature of the water and the tank material, it is more difficult
to accept how the steam's liquid enthalpy would add to the heat lost from the
tank due to radiation. Therefore, the equation to calculate the steam used for
heat losses (Equation 2.11.2) considers only the enthalpy of evaporation in
the steam at atmospheric pressure.

Equation 2.11.2
Where:
= Mean steam flowrate to provide the heat losses from the tank (kg/s)
= (sides) + (surface) (kW)
2256.7 = Enthalpy of evaporation at atmospheric pressure (kJ/kg)
Therefore, from Equation 2.11.2;
s

Step 5 - Determine the steam load to heat a tank of water by steam injection.
The total mean steam flowrate can be calculated as follows:

It is important to remember with steam injection systems that the final mass of
liquid is equal to the mass of cold liquid, plus the mass of steam added.
In this example, the process started with 12 000 kg of water. During the
required heat-up period of 2 hours steam has been injected at the rate of 569
kg/h. The mass of liquid has therefore, increased by 2 h x 569 kg/h = 1 138
kg.
The
12

final
000

kg

mass
+

of
138

the
kg

liquid
13

138

is:
kg

The additional 1 144 kg of condensate has a volume of about 1 144 litres

(1.44 m) and will also have increased the water level by:
Clearly, the process tank needs to have sufficient space above the starting
water level to allow for this increase. For safety, an overflow should always be
included in the tank construction where steam injection is involved.
Alternatively, if the process requirement had been to finish with a mass of 12
000 kg, the mass of water at the beginning of the process would be:
Top
Steam injectors
A more effective alternative to the sparge pipe is the steam injector as shown
in Figure 2.11.6. The injector draws in cold liquid and mixes it with steam
inside the injector, distributing heated liquid to the tank.
The engineered design of the injector body is more sophisticated than the
simple sparge pipe, and allows steam at higher pressures to be used. A
turbulent zone is created within the body of the injector, which ensures that
thorough mixing of the steam and liquid occurs, even at relatively high
pressures. This has the effect of agitating and circulating the liquid so that a
constant temperature is maintained throughout the tank, without temperature
stratification
or
cold
spots.
These injectors are more compact than sparge pipes, consequently any
interference with objects that may be dipped in the tank can be avoided. They
are more robust and generally quieter than sparge pipes, although noise
problems may still be encountered if not installed correctly.

Noises pertaining to steam injectors

When using high pressure steam injectors three distinct noise levels are
produced under the following conditions:

Normal running - Where steam pressures at the injector inlet are

above 2 bar g, the noise produced during normal running conditions
can be described as a soft roar.
Noise is caused by the condensation of steam inside the discharge
tube, as it mixes with recirculating water drawn through the holes into
the casting body. Under normal conditions the discharge from the
injector tube is approximately 10C hotter than the incoming water.
This type of noise increases with steam pressure, water temperature
and the number of injectors, but it is rarely objectionable at steam
pressures below 8 bar g. Although strong circulation of the tank
contents occurs at pressures above 8 bar g, little vibration should be
experienced.

Incomplete condensation - This is characterised by a soft bumping

noise and is sometimes accompanied by heavy vibration. It occurs
when the liquid temperature is too high (usually above 90C). When the
liquid is too hot the injector becomes less efficient and a proportion of
the steam escapes from the discharge tube.
At higher steam pressures, condensation of the steam may cause
vibration, which is not recommended for atmospheric tanks. However,
in cylindrical pressure vessels of a robust design, this may not cause
any problems.

Low flowrates - When the steam pressure at the inlet to the injector
falls below 1.5 bar g, a distinctive crackling can be heard. Under these
conditions steam is unable to give up its enthalpy of evaporation before
it leaves the injector tube.
At low flowrates the steam is travelling at a lower velocity than in the
other modes of operation, and collapsing steam bubbles are found on
the body casting and in the connecting pipework, inducing cavitation.
This noise is often considered objectionable, and may be found if the
steam injector system has been oversized.
Noise may also be caused by poor installation of the injector. The sides
of a rectangular tank may be made from fairly flexible panels.
Connecting an injector to the middle of a flexible panel may induce
vibration and noise. It may often be better to mount the injector nearer
the corner of the tank where the structure is stiffer.

Example 2.11.2
Based on data from Example 2.11.1, propose a steam injection system.
Required

steam

injection

rate

569

kg/h

The steam injection pressure = 1.0 bar

The largest injector (IN40M) has a capacity of 400 kg/h at 1.0 bar, so this
application will require:
Ideally, because of the low pressures involved, the injectors would be installed
at
opposite
ends
of
the
tank
to
give
good
mixing.
An alternative would be to use higher pressure steam. This would allow the
use of just one, smaller injector, reducing costs and still providing good
mixing.
Top
Alternative method of calculating injected steam load
The previous method used in this Tutorial to calculate the mean steam
flowrate requires the mean heat load to be calculated first. This is depicted by
Equation 2.11.1:

Equation 2.11.1
Where:
=

Mean

heat

transfer

rate

(kW)

If the mean heat transfer rate is not known, another method can be used to
determine the mean steam flowrate. This requires the use of a heat balance
as
described
below.
It should be noted that both methods return exactly the same result, so
whichever is used depends upon the user's choice.
Calculating the mean steam flowrate by means of a heat balance
A heat balance is considered where the initial heat content in the water plus
the heat added by the steam equals the final heat content. The heat balance
equation for the water in the tank is shown in Equation 2.11.4:
Equation 2.11.3
Where:
m
h1
ms
hg

= Initial mass of water in the tank (kg)

= The heat in the water at the initial temperature (kJ/kg)
= The mass of steam to be injected to raise the water temperature (kg)
= The total enthalpy of the steam onto the control valve (kJ/kg)

h2 = The heat in the water at the final temperature (kJ/kg)

Mass
of
steam
to
be
injected
The mass of steam to be injected can be determined more directly from
Equation 2.11.4, which is developed from Equation 2.11.3.

Equation 2.11.4
Where:
ms = The mass of steam to be injected (kg)
m = Initial mass of water in the tank (kg)
h2 = The heat in the water at the final temperature (kJ/kg)
h1 = The heat in the water at the initial temperature (kJ/kg)
hg = The total enthalpy of the steam upstream of the control valve (kJ/kg)
Example 2.11.3
Consider the same conditions as that in Example 2.11.1.

Conducting a heat balance on the water in the tank by using Equation

2.11.4:
Equation 2.11.4
Where:
ms
m
h2
h1
hg

= The mass of steam to be injected to raise the water temperature (kg)

= 12 000 kg
= 251.4 kJ/kg
= 33.5 kJ/kg
= 2 733.9 kJ/kg

Conducting a heat balance on the tank material

Using the heat balance Equation 2.11.4 with regard to the steel tank.

Equation 2.11.4
Where:
ms
m
h2
h1
hg

= Mass of steam to be injected to raise the tank temperature

= 3 886 kg
= 30 kJ/kg
= 4 kJ/kg
= 2 733.9 kJ/kg

The heat losses from the sides of the tank and the water surface are the same
as previously calculated, that is 24 kg/h.

This is the same result as that obtained previously in this Tutorial from
Equations 2.11.1 and 2.11.2, and proves that either method can be used to
calculate the mean steam flowrate to heat the tank and its contents.

Steam Consumption of Pipes and Air Heaters

Steam will condense and give up its enthalpy of evaporation on the
walls of any pipe or tube at a lower temperature. It is not usually
possible or necessary to calculate steam consumption exactly. This
tutorial allows satisfactory estimates to be made for most practical
purposes.
Steam will condense and give up its enthalpy of evaporation on the walls of
any pipe or tube exposed to ambient air. In some cases, such as steam
mains, heat transfer is minimised by the lagging of the pipes. In other cases
such as air heater batteries, heat transfer may be promoted by the use of fins
on
the
outside
of
the
pipes.
It is not usually possible or necessary to calculate steam consumption exactly.
The examples in this Tutorial allow sufficient estimates to be made for most
practical purposes.
Steam mains
In any steam system, the condensation of steam caused by the pipe itself
must be taken into account. The rate of condensation will be at its highest
during the warming up period, and it is this that should govern the size of
steam traps used for mains drainage. With the steam main in use, there will
also be a smaller (but continual) heat loss from the pipe. Both of these
components can be calculated as the 'warming up load' and the 'running load'.
Warm-up load
Heat will initially be required to bring the cold pipe up to working temperature.
It is good practice to do this slowly for safety reasons, the pipes also benefit
from reduced thermal and mechanical stress. This will result in fewer leaks,
lower maintenance costs, and a longer life for the pipe. Slow warm-up can be
achieved by fitting a small valve in parallel with the main isolating valve,
(Figure 2.12.1). The valve can be sized depending on the warm-up time
required. Automating the warm-up valve to open slowly on large pipes can
improve
safety.
A single main isolating valve can be used successfully, but, as it will be sized
to pass the pipeline design flow requirements, it will be oversized during the
warm-up period and will consequently operate very close to its seat at this
time. A separator placed before the valve will ensure the steam passing
through
is
dry,
protecting
the
trim
from
premature
wear.

The time taken to warm up any steam main should be as long as possible
within acceptable limits to minimise mechanical pipework stress, optimise
safety and reduce start-up loads.

Fi
g. 2.12.1
Automatic warm-up valve in a Bypass
If 10 minutes can be taken instead of 5 minutes, the initial steam flowrate will
be reduced by half. A warm-up time of 20 minutes will reduce the warm-up
load
even
further.
The steam flowrate required to bring a pipework system up to operating
temperature is a function of the mass and specific heat of the material, the
temperature increase, the enthalpy of evaporation of the steam used, and the
allowable
time.
This may be expressed by Equation 2.12.1:

Equation 2.12.1
Where:
s

W
Ts
T amb
cp
hfg
t

= Mean rate of condensation of steam (kg/h)

= Total weight of pipe plus flanges and fittings (kg)
= Steam temperature (C)
= Ambient temperature (C)
= Specific heat of pipe material (kJ/kgC)
= Enthalpy of evaporation at operating pressure (kJ/kg)
= Time for warming up (minutes)

Note: The constant 60 and time in minutes gives the solution in kg/h.

Table 2.12.1
Typical specific heat capacities of metal pipes
Example 2.12.1 Heat losses from a steam pipeline
A system consists of 100 m of 100 mm carbon steel main, which includes 9
pairs
of
PN40
flanged
joints,
and
one
isolating
valve.
cp for

steel

0.49

kJ/kgC

The ambient/starting temperature is 20C and the steam pressure is 14.0 bar
g, 198C from steam tables (see Table 2.12.2).

Table 2.12.2
Extract from steam tables
Determine:
Part 1 - The warm-up condensing rate for a warm-up time of 30 minutes.
Part 2 - The running load if the insulation thickness is 75 mm.
Part 1 - Calculate the warm-up load

Equation 2.12.1
To find W, find the mass of the various steam main items from Table 2.12.3.
100
100
100

mm
mm
mm

steel
flanges

to

stop

main
PN40
valve

=
=
=

16.1

16.0
44.0

kg

kg/m
per

kg

pair
each

Therefore: W = (100 x 16.1) + (9 x 16) + (1 x 44) = 1 798 kg

So, the mean warming up load:

Note: This condensing rate will be used to select an appropriate warm-up

control
valve.
When selecting steam traps, this condensing rate should be multiplied by a
factor of two to allow for the lower steam pressure that will occur until warmup is completed, then divided by the number of traps fitted to give the required
capacity of each trap.

Part

Table 2.12.3
Typical weights of steel pipe, flanges and bolts,
and isolating valves in kg
2
Running

load

Steam will condense as heat is lost from the pipe to the environment: The rate
of condensation depends on the following factors:

The steam temperature.

The ambient temperature.

The efficiency of the lagging.

Table 2.12.4 gives typical heat emission rates expected from unlagged steel
pipes in still air at 20C.

Table 2.12.4
Heat emission from unlagged steel pipes
freely exposed in air at 20 C (W/m)
Distribution mains will normally be lagged however, and is obviously an
advantage if flanges and other items of pipeline equipment are lagged too. If
the main is flanged, each pair of flanges will have approximately the same
surface
area
as
300
mm
of
pipe
of
the
same
size.
The rate of heat transfer increases when a heat transfer surface is subjected
to air movement. In these cases, the multiplication factors, as shown in Table
2.12.5,
should
be
considered.
If finned or corrugated tubing is fitted, then the maker's figures for heat
emission
should
always
be
used.
In everyday terms, air velocities up to 4 or 5 m/s (approximately 10 mph)
represent a gentle breeze, between 5 and 10 m/s (approximately 10 - 20 mph)
a strong breeze. Typical air duct velocities are around 3 m/s, in comparison.

Table 2.12.5
Approximate increase in emission due to air movement
over pipes with a high emissivity
Note: Exact figures are difficult to determine, as many factors are involved.
The factors in Table 2.12.5 are derived and give a rough indication of how

much the figures in Table 2.12.4 should be multiplied. Pipes subjected to air
movement up to around 1 m/s can be thought of as being in still air, and heat
losses are fairly constant up to this point. As a guide, painted pipes will have a
high emissivity, oxidised steel a medium emissivity, and polished stainless
steel
a
low
emissivity.
The reduction in heat losses will depend on the type and thickness of the
lagging material used, and on its general condition. For most practical
purposes, the lagging of steam lines will reduce the heat emissions in Table
2.12.4 by the insulation factors (f) shown in Table 2.12.6. Note that these
factors are nominal values only. For specific calculations, consult the
insulation manufacturer.

Table 2.12.6
Insulation factors (f)
The heat loss from insulated mains can be expressed as follows in Equation
2.12.2:

Equation 2.12.2
Where:
= Rate of condensation (kg/h)
= Heat emission rate from Table 2.12.4 (W/m)
L = Effective length of pipe allowing for flanges and fittings (m)
f = Insulation factor (from Table 2.12.6)
s

hfg = Enthalpy of evaporation at operating pressure (kJ/kg)

Note: f
=
1.0
if
the
main
is
The factor 3.6 in Equation 2.12.2 provides a

not
insulated.
solution in kg/h

Determine
the
length,
L:
Assuming an allowance equivalent to 0.3 m for each pair of flanges, and 1.2
m for each stop valve, the total effective length (L) of the steam main in this
example
is:
L
L

100

(9
=

0.3)

+
103

(1

1.2)
m

Determine
the
heat
emission
rate, :
The temperature of the steam at 14.0 bar gauge is 198C and, with the
ambient temperature 20C, the temperature difference is 178C.
From Table 2.12.4: Heat loss for a 100 mm pipe 1 374 W/m
Determine
the
insulation
factor,
f:
The insulation factor for 75 mm insulation on 100 mm pipe at 14 bar g (from
Table 2.12.6) is approximately 0.07.

As can be seen from this example, the warm-up load of 161 kg/h (see
Example 2.12.1, Part 1) is substantially greater than the running load of 18.3
kg/h, and, in general, steam traps sized on the warm-up duty will automatically
cater
for
the
running
load.
If the steam line above was unlagged or the lagging was damaged, the
running load would have been approximately fourteen times greater.
With an uninsulated pipe, or a poorly insulated pipe, always compare the
running and warm-up loads. The higher load should be used to size the steam
traps, as described above. Ideally, the quality of insulation should be
improved.
Note: When calculating warming up losses, it is sensible to consider the
correct pipe specification, as pipe weights can vary between different pipe
standards.
Air heating
The density and specific heat of air changes slightly with temperature. For
most practical purposes, when heating air for HVAC and process applications
with the approach mentioned below, a nominal figure of 1.3 kJ/mC can be
used for specific heat and 1.3 kg/m for density.

Air heating pipes

Heated air is required for many applications including:

Space heating.

Ventilation.

Process applications.

Fig. 2.12.2
Finned tube
The equipment required often consists of a matrix of tubes filled with steam,
installed across an air stream. As the air passes over the tubes, heat is
transferred from the steam to the air. Often, in order to minimise the size and
mass of the equipment, and allow it to be installed in confined spaces with
reduced support works, and to limit the cost, the rate of heat transfer from the
tubes to the air is increased by the addition of fins to the outer wall of the tube.
This has the effect of increasing the heat transfer area available, and thus
reducing the amount of piping required. Figure 2.12.2 shows an example of a
finned
tube.
Broadly, air heaters may be divided into two categories:

Unit heaters.

Air heater batteries.

Unit heaters
These consist of a heater battery and fan in one compact casing (Figure
2.12.3). The primary medium (steam) condenses in the heater battery, and air
is warmed as it blows across the coils and is discharged into the space.
Unit heaters can be arranged to have fresh air inlet ducting, but more often
operate with recirculated air.

Fig.
2.12.3
Unit heater
The warm air can be discharged vertically downwards or horizontally. Steam
pressure, mounting heights, the type of discharge and leaving temperatures
are all inter-related and the manufacturer's data should be consulted before
selecting the unit heater. Most units are available with low, medium or high
speed fans which affect the rated output, and again the manufacturer's data
should be consulted, as the noise levels on high speed may be unacceptable.
Air heater batteries
These are really larger and more sophisticated versions of unit heaters, see
Figure 2.12.4. They are available in many configurations including roof
mounted, or horizontal types, and a fan and filter may also be incorporated.
They are usually integrated into a ducted air system.

Adjustable louvres may be provided to adjust the ratio of fresh to

recirculated air.

A number of heater banks may be incorporated to provide frost

protection.

Fig. 2.12.4
Ducted air system with air heater batteries
Manufacturers of unit heaters and air heater batteries usually give the output
of their heaters in kW at a working pressure. From this, the condensing rate

can be calculated by dividing the heat output by the enthalpy of evaporation of

steam at this pressure. The solution will be in kg/s; multiplying by 3 600
(seconds
in
an
hour)
will
give
the
solution
in
kg/h.
Thus a 44 kW unit heater working at 3.5 bar g (h fg = 2 120 kJ/kg from steam
tables) will condense:

Note: The constant 3 600 is included in the formula to give flowrate in kg/h
rather
than
kg/s.
If the manufacturer's figures are not available but the following are known:

The volumetric flowrate of air being heated.

The temperature rise of the air being heated.

The steam pressure in the heater.

Then the approximate rate of condensation can be calculated using Equation

2.12.3:

Equation 2.12.3
Where:
= Rate of steam condensation (kg/h)
= Volumetric flowrate of air being heated (m/s)
T = Air temperature rise (C)
cp = Specific heat of air at constant pressure (1.3 kJ/mC)
hfg = Enthalpy of evaporation of steam in the coils (kJ/kg)
Note: The constant 3 600 gives the solution in kg/h rather than kg/s.
s

Horizontal pipes assembled into coils with several rows of pipes one above
the other, and relying upon natural convection, become less effective as the
number of pipes is increased. When calculating the rate of condensation for
such coils, the figures given in Table 2.12.5 should be multiplied by the
emission
factors
in
Table
2.12.7.
Vertically installed heating pipes are also less effective than horizontal pipes.
The condensation rate of such pipes can be determined by multiplying the
figures
in
Table
2.12.4
by
the
factors
in
Table
2.12.6.
Table 2.12.7 can also be used to find the rate of condensation in horizontal
pipes used for heating still air. In this instance use the Equation 2.12.4:

Equation 2.12.4
Where:
= Rate of steam condensation (kg/h)
= Heat emission from Table 2.12.4 (W/m)
L = Effective length of pipe (metres)
hfg = Enthalpy of evaporation at the working pressure (kJ/kg)
Note: The constant 3.6 has been included in the equation to give
s

in kg/h.

Table 2.12.7
Approximate reduction in emission
of banked horizontal pipes

Table 2.12.8
Approximate reduction in emission
of banked vertical pipes
Effects of air flowrate
When a fan is used to increase the flow of air over pipe coils, the rate of
condensation will increase. The figures for heat emission from bare steel
pipes (Table 2.12.4), can be used when multiplied in accordance with the
factors in Tables 2.12.5, 2.12.7 and 2.12.8 where appropriate.
If finned tubing is being considered, then the makers figures for heat emission
should be used in all cases.
Example 2.12.2 Calculate the steam load on an air heater battery
An air heater battery raises the temperature of air flowing at 2.3 m / s from
18C
to
82C
(T = 64C) with steam at 3.0 bar g in the coils.

Table 2.12.9
Extract from steam tables
The rating of the battery is unknown, but the condensing rate of steam can be
calculated using Equation 2.12.3:

Equation 2.12.3
Where:
s

= Rate of condensation (kg/h)

= Air flowrate 2.3 m/s

T = Air temperature 82 - 18C = 64C
cp = Specific heat of air at constant pressure (1.3 kJ/mC)
hfg = Enthalpy of evaporation of steam in the coils 2 133 kJ/kg (from steam tables)
Note: The constant 3 600 is included in the equation to give flowrate in kg/h
rather than kg/s.

Steam Consumption of Heat Exchangers

Different types of heat exchanger are explained and compared in this
tutorial, together with steam consumption calculations and other issues
such as the relevance of the starting load.
The term heat exchanger strictly applies to all types of equipment in which
heat transfer is promoted from one medium to another. A domestic radiator,
where hot water gives up its heat to the ambient air, may be described as a
heat exchanger. Similarly, a steam boiler where combustion gases give up
their heat to water in order to achieve evaporation, may be described as a
fired
heat
exchanger.
However, the term is often more specifically applied to shell and tube heat
exchangers or plate heat exchangers, where a primary fluid such as steam is
used to heat a process fluid. A shell and tube heat exchanger used to heat
water for space heating (using either steam or water) is often referred to as a
non-storage calorifier. (A storage calorifier, as shown in Figure 2.13.1, is
constructed differently, it usually consists of a hot water storage vessel with a
primary heating coil inside).

Fig. 2.13.1
A storage calorifier installation
Manufacturers often provide a thermal rating for their heat exchangers in kW,
and from this the steam consumption may be determined, as for air heater
batteries. However, heat exchangers (particularly shell and tube) are
frequently too large for the systems which they are required to serve.
A non-storage calorifier (as shown in Figure 2.13.2) will normally be selected
from a standard range of sizes, and may often have a much larger capacity
than the design figure. For the hot water heating of buildings there may also
be certain safety factors included in the heat load calculations.
Plate heat exchangers may also be chosen from a standard range of sizes if
the units are brazed or welded. However, there is more flexibility in the sizing
of gasketed plate heat exchangers, where plates can often be added or
removed to achieve the desired heat transfer area. In many cases, plate heat
exchangers are oversized simply to reduce the pressure drop for the
secondary
fluid.
On existing plant, an indication of actual load may be obtained if the flow and
return temperatures and the pumping rate are known. However, it is important
to note that throughput as given on the pump maker's plate will probably
relate to a pressure head, which may or may not be present in practice.

Fig. 2.13.2
A Non-storage calorifier installation
Steam consumption calculations for heat exchangers
Shell and tube heat exchangers and plate heat exchangers are typical
examples of flow type applications. Therefore, when determining the steam
consumption for these applications, Equation 2.6.5 should be used.
The start-up load may be ignored if it occurs rarely, or if the time taken to
reach full-load output is not too important. Heat exchangers are more often
sized on the full running load, with the possible addition of safety factors.
Heat losses are rarely taken into account with these flow type applications, as
they are significantly less than the full running load. Shell and tube heat
exchangers are usually lagged to prevent heat loss, and to prevent possible
injury to personnel. Plate heat exchangers tend to be more compact and have
a much smaller surface area exposed to the ambient air, in relation to the size
of the unit.
Example 2.13.1
Determine the heat load and steam load of the following non-storage
heating
calorifier
A heating calorifier is designed to operate at full-load with steam at 2.8 bar g
in
the
primary
steam
space.
The secondary water flow and return temperatures are 82C and 71C
respectively,
at
a
pumped
water
rate
of
7.2
kg/s.
cp for water = 4.19 kJ/kgC

Table 2.13.1
Extract from steam tables
Part
1
Determine
the
The full-load may be calculated using Equation 2.6.5:

heat

load

Equation 2.6.5
Where:
= Quantity of heat energy (kW) kJ/s)
= Secondary fluid flowrate = 7.2 kg/s
cp = Specific heat capacity of the water = 4.19 kJ/kgC
T = Temperature rise of the substance (82 - 71) = 11C
= 7.2 kg/s 4.19 kJ/kgC 11C
= 332 kW
Part
2
Determine
the
steam
load
The full-load condensing rate can be determined using the left hand side of
the heat balance Equation 2.6.6:
Equation 2.6.6
Where:
= Steam consumption (kg/s)
hfg = Specific enthalpy of evaporation (kJ/kg)
= Heat transfer rate (kW)
Rearranging: a 332 kW calorifier working at 2.8 bar g (h fg = 2 139 kJ/kg from
steam tables) will condense:
s

Plate heat exchangers

A plate heat exchanger consists of a series of thin corrugated metal plates
between which a number of channels are formed, with the primary and
secondary fluids flowing through alternate channels. Heat transfer takes place
from the primary fluid steam to the secondary process fluid in adjacent

channels across the plate. Figure 2.13.3 shows a schematic representation of

a plate heat exchanger.

Fig. 2.13.3
Schematic diagram of a plate heat exchanger
A corrugated pattern of ridges increases the rigidity of the plates and provides
greater support against differential pressures. This pattern also creates
turbulent flow in the channels, improving heat transfer efficiency, which tends
to make the plate heat exchanger more compact than a traditional shell and
tube heat exchanger. The promotion of turbulent flow also eliminates the
presence of stagnant areas and thus reduces fouling. The plates will usually
be coated on the primary side, in order to promote the dropwise condensation
of
steam.
The steam heat exchanger market was dominated in the past by the shell and
tube heat exchanger, whilst plate heat exchangers have often been favoured
in the food processing industry and used water heating. However, recent
design advances mean that plate heat exchangers are now equally suited to
steam
heating
applications.
A plate heat exchanger may permit both the condensing and sub-cooling of
condensate within a single unit. If the condensate is drained to an
atmospheric receiver, by reducing the condensate temperature, the amount of
flash steam lost to the atmosphere through the receiver vent is also reduced.
This can eliminate the need for a separate sub-cooler or flash steam recovery
system.
Although a nominal heat transfer area may theoretically be calculated using
Equation 2.5.3, plate heat exchangers are proprietary designs and will
normally be specified in consultation with the manufacturers.
Gasketed plate heat exchangers (plate and frame heat exchangers)
In a gasketed plate heat exchanger the plates are clamped together in a
frame, and a thin gasket (usually a synthetic polymer) seals each plate around
the edge. Tightening bolts fitted between the plates are used to compress the
plate pack between the frame plate and the pressure plate. This design allows
easy dismantling of the unit for cleaning, and allows the capacity of the unit to
be modified by the simple addition or removal of plates.

The use of gaskets gives a degree of flexibility to the plate pack, offering
some resistance to thermal fatigue and sudden pressure variations. This
makes some types of gasketed plate heat exchanger an ideal choice as a
steam heater for instantaneous hot water supply, where the plates will be
exposed
to
a
certain
amount
of
thermal
cycling.
The limitation in the use of the gasketed plate heat exchanger lies in the
operating temperature range of the gaskets, which places a restriction on the
steam pressure that may be used on these units.
Brazed plate heat exchangers
In a brazed plate heat exchanger all the plates are brazed together (normally
using copper or nickel) in a vacuum furnace. It is a development of the
gasketed plate heat exchanger, and was developed to provide more
resistance to higher pressures and temperatures at a relatively low cost.
However, unlike the gasketed unit, the brazed plate heat exchanger cannot be
dismantled. If cleaning is required it must be either back-flushed or chemically
cleaned. It also means that these units come in a standard range of sizes,
consequently
oversizing
is
common.
While the brazed heat exchanger has a more robust design than the gasketed
type, it is also more prone to thermal fatigue due to its more rigid construction.
Any sudden or frequent changes in temperature and load should therefore be
avoided, and greater attention should be paid to the control on the steam side
to
avoid
thermal
stress.
Brazed heat exchangers are more suitable (and primarily used) for
applications where temperature variations are slow, such as in space heating.
They may also successfully be used with secondary fluids which expand
gradually, such as thermal oil.
Welded plate heat exchangers
In a welded plate heat exchanger the plate pack is held together by welded
seams between the plates. The use of laser welding techniques allows the
plate pack to be more flexible than a brazed plate pack, enabling the welded
unit to be more resistant to pressure pulsation and thermal cycling. The high
temperature and pressure operating limits of the welded unit mean that these
heat exchangers normally have a higher specification, and are more suited to
heavy duty process industry applications. They are often used where a high
pressure or temperature performance is required, or when viscous media
such as oil and other hydrocarbons are to be heated.
Shell and tube heat exchangers
The shell and tube heat exchanger is probably the most common method of
providing indirect heat exchange in industrial process applications. A shell and
tube heat exchanger consists of a bundle of tubes enclosed in a cylindrical
shell. The ends of the tubes are fitted into tube sheets, which separate the
primary
and
the
secondary
fluids.
Where condensing steam is used as the heating medium, the heat exchanger

is usually horizontal with condensation taking place inside the tubes. Subcooling may also be used as a means to recover some extra heat from the
condensate in the heat exchanger. However, if the degree of sub-cooling
required is relatively large it is often more convenient to use a separate
condensate cooler.
Steam heated non-storage calorifiers
A common design for a steam to water non-storage calorifier is shown in
Figure 2.13.4. This is known as a 'one shell pass two tube pass' type of shell
and tube heat exchanger and consists of a U-tube bundle fitted into a fixed
tube sheet.

Fig. 2.13.4
Schematic diagram of a shell and tube heat exchanger
It is said to have 'one shell pass' because the secondary fluid inlet and outlet
connections are at different ends of the heat exchanger, consequently the
shell side fluid passes the length of the unit only once. It is said to have two
tube passes because the steam inlet and outlet connections are at the same
end of the exchanger, so that the tube-side fluid passes the length of the unit
twice.
A pass partition (also called a partition plate or a feather plate) divides up the
exchanger header, so that the tube-side fluid is diverted down the U-tube
bundle
rather
than
straight
through
the
header.
This is a comparatively simple and inexpensive design because only one tube
sheet is required, but it is limited in use to relatively clean fluids as the tubes
are more difficult to clean. Note; it is more difficult to replace a tube with these
types
of
heat
exchanger.
Baffles are usually provided in the shell, to direct the shell-side fluid stream
across the tubes, improving the rate of heat transfer, and to support the tubes.

Starting from cold

As mentioned in Tutorial 2.7, the start-up load can often be ignored if it
seldom occurs or if the time taken to reach full-load output is not critical. For
this reason, control valves and heat exchangers will often be found to be
sized
on
full-load
plus
the
usual
safety
factors.
With systems that shut down at night and weekends, secondary water
temperature can be low at start-up on a cold winter morning, and condensing
rates in heating calorifiers will be higher than the full-load condition.
Consequently, pressure in the steam space may be considerably below the
pressure at which the heat exchanger normally operates, until the secondary
inlet
temperature
rises
to
its
design
figure.
From a thermal viewpoint, this may not pose a problem - the system simply
takes longer to heat up. However, if the designer has not taken this situation
into consideration, an inadequate steam trapping and condensate removal
system can cause condensate to accumulate in the steam space.
This can cause:

Internal corrosion.

Mechanical stress due to distortion.

Noise, due to waterhammer.

These will cause problems for heat exchangers not designed to withstand
such conditions.
Estimating heating loads
Buildings - A practical, subjective method to estimate a heating load is to look
at the building itself. Calculations can be complicated, involving factors such
as the number of air changes and heat transfer rates through cavity walls,
windows and roofs. However, a reasonable estimate can usually be obtained
by taking the total building volume and simply allowing 30 - 40 W/m of space
up to 3 000 m, and 15 - 30 W/m if above 3 000 m. This will give a
reasonable estimate of the heating load when the outside temperature is
around
a
design
condition
of
-1C.
A practical way to establish steam consumption for an existing installation is to
use an accurate reliable steam flowmeter.
Example 2.13.2 Determine the design rating of a heating calorifier from
actual measured conditions
The design rating of a heating calorifier is unknown, but the steam load is
measured at 227 kg/h when the outside temperature is 7C and the inside
temperature
is
19C,
a
difference
of
12C.
The calorifier is also designed to provide 19C inside temperature when the
outside
temperature
is
-1C,
a
difference
of
20C.
The steam load at the design condition can be estimated simply by the ratio of
the temperature differences:

Hot water storage calorifiers

Hot water storage calorifiers are designed to raise the temperature of the
entire contents from cold to the storage temperature within a specified period.
The mean rate at which steam is condensed during the heat up or recovery
period can be calculated using Equation 2.13.1.
Equation 2.13.1
Where:
= Mean rate of condensation (kg/h)
m = Mass of water heated (kg)
cp = Specific heat of water (kJ/kgC)
T = Temperature rise (C)
hfg = Enthalpy of evaporation of steam (kJ/kg)
t = Recovery time (hours)
Example 2.13.2 Calculate the mean steam load of a storage calorifier
A storage calorifier has a capacity of 2 272 litres (2 272 kg), and is designed
to raise the temperature of this water from 10C to 60C in hour with steam
at
2
bar
g.
s

cp for water = 4.19 kJ/kg C

Table 2.13.2
Extract from steam tables
What is the mean rate at which steam is condensed?
Equation 2.13.1
Where:
m
T
hfg
t

= 2 272 kg
= 60C - 10C = 50C
= 2 163 kJ/kg
= hour

This mean value can be used to size the control valve. However, when the
temperature of water may be at its lowest value, for example 10C, the high
condensing rate of steam may be more than the fully open control valve can
pass, and the coil will be starved of steam. The pressure in the coil will drop
significantly, with the net effect of reducing the capacity of the steam trapping
device. If the trapping device is wrongly sized or selected, condensate may
back up into the coil, reducing its ability to transfer heat and achieve the
required heat up time. Waterhammer may result, causing severe noise and
mechanical stresses to the coil. However, if condensate is not allowed to back
up into the coil the system should still maintain the correct heat up time.
The solution is to ensure proper condensate drainage. This could be achieved
either by a steam trap or automatic pump-trap depending on the system
needs. (Refer to Tutorial 13.1 - Condensate Removal from Heat Exchangers).
Other shell and tube steam heaters
In other heat exchangers using steam an internal floating head may be used,
which is generally more versatile than the fixed head of the U-tube
exchangers. They are more suitable for use on applications with higher
temperature differences between the steam and secondary fluid. As the tube
bundle can be removed they can be cleaned more easily. The tube-side fluid
is often directed to flow through a number of passes to increase the length of
the
flow
path.
Exchangers are normally built with between one and sixteen tube passes, and
the number of passes is selected to achieve the designed tube-side velocity.
The tubes are arranged into the number of passes required by dividing up the
header using a number of partition plates. Two shell passes are occasionally
created by fitting a longitudinal shell-side baffle down the centre of the
exchanger, where the temperature difference would be unsuitable for a single
pass. Divided flow and split flow arrangements are also used where the
pressure drop rather than the heat transfer rate is the controlling factor in the
design,
to
reduce
the
shell-side
pressure
drop.
Steam may also be used to evaporate (or vaporise) a liquid, in a type of shell
and tube heat exchanger known as a reboiler. These are used in the
petroleum industry to vaporise a fraction of the bottom product from a
distillation column. These tend to be horizontal, with vaporisation in the shell
and condensation in the tubes (see Figure 2.13.5).

Fig.
2.13.5
A kettle reboiler
In forced circulation reboilers the secondary fluid is pumped through the
exchanger, whilst in thermosyphon reboilers natural circulation is maintained
by differences in density. In kettle reboilers there is no circulation of the
secondary fluid, and the tubes are submerged in a pool of liquid.

Table 2.13.3
Typical heat transfer coefficients for some
shell and tube heat exchangers
Although it is desirable to achieve dropwise condensation in all these
applications, it is often difficult to maintain and is unpredictable. To remain
practical, design calculations are generally based on the assumption of
filmwise
condensation.
The heat transfer area for a shell and tube heat exchanger may be estimated
using Equation 2.5.3. Although these units will also normally be specified in
consultation with the manufacturers, some typical overall heat transfer
coefficients where steam is used as the heating medium (and which include
an allowance for fouling) are provided in Table 2.13.3, as a guide.
Corrugated tube heat exchangers
One evolution in the design of the traditional shell and tube heat exchanger, is
the recent development of the corrugated tube heat exchanger. This is a

single passage fixed plate heat exchanger with a welded shell, and rectilinear
corrugated tubes that are suitable for low viscosity fluids. In a similar manner
to the plate heat exchangers, the corrugated tubes promote turbulent
operating conditions that maximise heat transfer and reduce fouling. Like the
traditional shell and tube heat exchangers, these units are commonly installed
horizontally. However, in the corrugated tube heat exchanger the steam
should always be on the shell side.
Spiral heat exchangers
Spiral heat exchangers share many similar characteristics with shell and tube
and plate heat exchangers and are used on many of the same applications.
They consist of fabricated metal sheets that are cold worked and welded to
form a pair of concentric spiral channels, which are closed by gasketed endplates
bolted
to
an
outer
case.
Turbulence in the channels is generally high, with identical flow characteristics
being obtained for both fluids. They are also relatively easy to clean and can
be used for very heavy fouling fluids and slurries. The use of only a single
pass for both fluids, combined with the compactness of the unit, means that
pressure drops across the connections are usually quite low.

Fig. 2.13.6
Corrugated tube heat exchangers

Steam Consumption of Plant Items

The steam consumption of other common plant items, including heater
batteries, calorifiers, drying cylinders, presses and tracer lines.
The examples in the following sections within this Tutorial are a revision of
previously mentioned equipment, and indicate the steam consumption of
other common plant items.
Top

Heater batteries

Fig.
2.14.1
Typical air heater battery installation
Most manufacturers of unit heaters and air heater batteries give the output of
their equipment in kW. The condensing rate may be determined from this by
dividing the equipment rating (in kW) by the enthalpy of evaporation of the
steam at the operating pressure (in kJ/kg) to give a steam flowrate in kg/s.
Multiplying the result by 3 600 will give kg/h.

Equation 2.8.1
Thus a unit heater rated at 44 kW when supplied with steam at 3.5 bar g (h fg =
2 210 kJ/kg) will condense:

If the manufacturer's figures are not available, but the following is known:

The volumetric air flowrate.

The temperature rise.

The steam pressure.

Then the condensing rate can be determined by using Equation 2.12.3:

Equation 2.12.3
Where:
s

= Condensing rate (kg/h)

= Volumetric air flowrate (m/s)

T = Temperature rise (C)

cp = Specific heat of air at constant pressure (kJ/mC)
hfg = Enthalpy of evaporation at operating steam pressure (kJ/kg)
Note: The
factor
3
600
gives
the
answer

in

kg/h

Without more formal data, the following figures may be used as an

approximation:
Density of air
1.3 kg/m
Specific heat of air cp (by volume) 1.3 kJ/mC
Specific heat of air cp (by mass) 1.0 kJ/kgC
Example 2.14.1
An air heater designed to raise air temperature from -5 to 30C is fitted in a
duct
2
m
x
2
m.
The air velocity in the duct is 3 m/s, steam is supplied to the heater battery at
3 bar g, and the specific heat of air is taken as 1.3 kJ/mC.
Determine the steam condensing rate (

Top
Heating calorifiers

):

Fig.
2.14.2
Typical heating calorifier installation
As with air heaters, most heating calorifier manufacturers will usually provide
a rating for their equipment, and the steam consumption may be determined
by dividing the kW rating by the enthalpy of steam at the operating pressure to
produce a result in kg/s (see Equation 2.8.1). However, calorifiers are
frequently too large for the systems they serve because:

The initial heat load calculations on the building they serve will have
included numerous and over-cautious safety factors.

The calorifier itself will have been selected from a standard range, so
the first size up from the calculated load will have been selected.

The calorifier manufacturer will have included his own safety factor on
the equipment.

An estimate of the actual load at any point in time may be obtained if the flow
and return temperatures and the pumping rate are known. Note however that
the pressure head on the discharge side affects the throughput of the pump,
and this may or may not be constant.
Example 2.14.2
4 l/s of low temperature hot water (flow/return = 82/71C) is pumped around a
heating
system.
Determine
the
heat
output:
Heat output = Water flowrate x specific heat of water x temperature change
Heat

output

Heat

4
output

l/s

4.19
=

kJ/kgC

x
184

(82

71C)
kW

An alternative method of estimating the load on a heating calorifier is to

consider the building being heated. The calculations of heat load can be
complicated by factors including:

Air changes.

Heat transfer rates through walls, windows and roofs.

However, a reasonable estimate may be obtained by taking the volume of the

building and allowing a heating capacity of 30 W/m. This will give the running
load for an inside temperature of about 20C when the outside temperature is
about
-1C.
Typical flow and return temperatures for:

Low temperature hot water (LTHW) systems are 82C and 71C (T =
11C).

Medium temperature hot water (MTHW) systems are 94C and 72C
(T = 22C).

Figures for high temperature hot water (HTHW) systems vary considerably,
and must be checked for each individual application.
Example 2.14.3
The steam flow to a heating calorifier has been measured as 227 kg/h when
the outside temperature is 7C and the inside temperature is 18C.
If the outside temperature falls to -1C, and the inside temperature is 19C,
determine the approximate steam flowrate. This can be calculated by
proportionality.

Top
Hot water storage calorifiers
Hot water storage calorifiers are designed to raise the temperature of their
entire contents from cold to storage temperature within a specified time
period.

Fig. 2.14.3
Typical hot water storage calorifier installation
Typical UK values are:

Cold water temperature 10C

Hot water temperature 60C

Heat

up

time

(also

referred

to

as

'recovery

time')

hour.

The mass of water to be heated may be determined from the volume of the
vessel.
(For water, density = 1 000 kg/m, and specific heat (cp) = 4.19 kJ/kgC).
Example 2.14.4
A storage calorifier comprises of a cylindrical vessel, 1.5 m diameter and 2 m
high. The contents of the vessel are to be heated to 60C in 1 hour.
The incoming water temperature is 10C, and the steam pressure is 7 bar g.
Determine the steam flowrate:

Top
Drying cylinders

Drying cylinders vary significantly in layout and application and, consequently,

in
steam
consumption.
Apart from wide variations in size, steam pressure, and running speed,
cylinders may be drained through the frame of the machines, as in textile can
dryers, or by means of a blow-through system in the case of high speed paper
machines. Conversely, film dryers and slow speed paper machines may use
individual steam traps on each cylinder. Demand will vary from small standing
losses from a cylinder drying sized cotton thread, to the heavy loads at the
wet end of a paper machine or in a film dryer.

Fig. 2.14.4
Drying cylinders
Because of this, accurate figures can only be obtained by measurement.
However, certain trusted formulae are in use, which enable steam
consumption
to
be
estimated
within
reasonable
limits.
In the case of textile cylinder drying machines, counting the number of
cylinders and measuring the circumference and width of each will lead to the
total heating surface area. The two ends of each cylinder should be included
and 0.75 m per cylinder should be added to cover doll heads and frames
except where individual trapping is used. The radiation loss from the machine,
while standing, measured in kg of steam per hour, can be estimated by
multiplying the total area by a factor of 2.44. The running load in kg per hour
will be obtained by using a factor of 8.3. (In imperial units the area will be
measured in square feet and the corresponding factors will be 0.5 and 1.7
respectively). This is based on a machine drying piece goods at a rate of 64 to
73 metres per minute, (70 to 80 yards per minute), but by making allowances,
it can be used for machines working under different conditions.
Where the amount of moisture to be removed is known, steam consumption
can be calculated using the empirical Equation 2.14.1, assuming that the wet
and dry weights of the material being handled are known.

Equation 2.14.1

Where:
= Mass flowrate of steam (kg/h)
Ww = Throughput of wet material (kg/h
Wd = Throughput of dry material (kg/h)
T 2 = Temperature of material leaving the machine (C)
T 1 = Temperature of material entering the machine (C)
hfg = Enthalpy of evaporation of steam in cylinders (kJ/kg)
The factors in the equation above are empirically derived constants:
s

1.5

Factor

applied

to

cylinder

dryers.

2 550 = Average water enthalpy + enthalpy of evaporation required to

evaporate
moisture.
1.26

Average

specific

heat

of

material.

Drying cylinders tend to have a heavy start-up load due to the huge volume of
the steam space and the mass of metal to be heated, and a factor of three
times the running load should be allowed in sizing steam traps. It must also be
remembered that air can cause particular difficulties, such as prolonged
warming up times and uneven surface temperature. Special provision must
therefore be made for venting air from the cylinders.
Top
Presses
Presses, like drying cylinders, come in all shapes, sizes and working
pressures, and are used for many purposes, such as moulding plastic
powders, preparing laminates, producing car tyres (see Figure 2.14.4), and
manufacturing plywood. They sometimes also incorporate a cooling cycle.
Clearly, it would be difficult to calculate steam loads with any accuracy and the
only
way
of
getting
credible
results
is
by
measurement.
This type of equipment may be 'open', allowing a radiation loss to
atmosphere, or 'closed', when the two heating surfaces are in effect insulated
from each other by the product. Although some heat is absorbed by the
product, the net result is that the steam consumption is much the same
whether the plant is working or standing idle, although fluctuations will occur
during opening and closing.

Fig. 2.14.5
Tyre press
Steam consumption can sometimes be estimated using the basic heat
transfer Equation 2.5.3:
Equation 2.5.3
Where:
= Heat transferred per unit time (W)
U = Overall heat transfer coefficient (W/m K or W/m C)
A = Heat transfer area (m)
T = Temperature difference between the steam and the product (K or C)
The U values shown in Figure 2.9.1 may sometimes be used. They can give
reasonable results in the case of large platen presses but are less accurate
when small numbers of intricately shaped moulds are considered, mainly due
to
the
difficulty
of
estimating
the
surface
area.
A feature of this type of plant is the small steam space, and a relatively high
steam load when warming up from cold. To account for this and the load
fluctuations, steam traps should be sized with a factor of 2 times the running
load. Temperature control can be very accurate using pilot operated direct
acting reducing valves, giving a constant and consistent steam pressure
corresponding to the required surface temperature. These are sized simply on
the designed steam load.
Top
Tracer lines

Pipelines carrying viscous fluids are frequently maintained at an elevated

temperature by means of steam tracers. These usually consist of one or more
small bore steam lines running alongside the product line, the whole being
covered
in
insulation.
In theory, the exact calculation of steam consumption is difficult, as it depends
on:

The degree of contact between the two lines, and whether heat
conducting pastes are used.

The temperature of the product.

The length, temperature and pressure drop along the tracer lines.

The ambient temperature.

Wind speed.

The emissivity of the cladding.

Fig. 2.14.6
A steam tracer

Fig. 2.14.7
Jacketed pipeline

Fig. 2.14.8
Heated sampling point
In practice, it is usually safe to assume that the tracer line simply replaces
radiation losses from the product line itself. On this basis, the steam
consumption of the tracer line may be taken as a running load being equal to
the
radiation
loss
from
the
product
lines.
Table 2.14.1 provides heat losses from insulated pipes with either 50 or 100
mm of insulation.

Table 2.14.1
Typical heat losses from insulated pipes (W/m)
with wind speed of 10 m/s (36 km/h)
Once the heat loss has been determined, steam consumption can be
calculated using Equation 2.12.4:

Equation 2.12.4

Where:
= Steam demand (kg/h)
= Heat loss from Table 2.14.1 (W/m)
L = Length of traced product line (m)
hfg = Enthalpy of evaporation at operating pressure (kJ/kg)
Note: The factor 3.6 gives the answer in kg/h
s

Example 2.14.5
A 50 m long x 200 mm pipe contains a liquid product at 120C. The ambient
temperature is 20C, the pipe has 50 mm of insulation, and steam is supplied
at 7 bar g to the tracer(s). Determine the steam consumption:
Pipe

length

(L)

50

Temperature difference between product and ambient = 120C - 20C =

100C
Heat loss per metre from the pipe ( = 97 W/m (from Figure 2.14.1)
hfg of steam at 7 bar g = 2 048 kJ/kg (steam tables)

For jacketed lines, the heat loss may be assumed to be the same as that from
a steam main which has a diameter equal to that of the jacket; also taking any
insulation
into
account.
When sizing the steam traps, a factor of 2 times the running load should be
used to cover start-up conditions, but any temperature control valve can be
sized to handle the design load only.
Sizing
the
tracer
line
Example 2.14.5 calculates the steam tracer load on the basis of the heat loss
from
the
pipe.
In practice, the tracer line will not be exactly sized to match this heat loss.
Table 2.14.2 shows the useful heat output from 15 mm and 20 mm steel and
copper tracer lines operating at different pressures alongside product lines at
different temperatures. The Table accounts for heat losses from the tracer
lines to the surrounding air through the insulation.

Table 2.14.2
Useful heat outputs from
steel and copper tracer lines
In Example 2.14.5, the heat loss from the pipe was 97 W/m. The tracer line
has to be able to supply at least this rate of heat transfer.
Table 2.14.2 shows that, by interpolation, the useful heat output from a 15 mm
steel tracer line is 33 W/m for a product temperature of 120C and a steam
pressure
of
5
bar
g.
The number of tracers required to maintain the product temperature of 120C
are therefore:

Therefore three 15mm steel tracer lines will be required for this application as
shown in Figure 2.14.9.

Fig. 2.14.9
Three 15 mm tracer lines fitted
to a 200 mm process pipe

Entropy - A Basic Understanding

Entropy is a concept some find difficult to grasp, but in truth it does not
deserve such notoriety. Look upon Entropy as a road map that connects
thermodynamic situations. This tutorial hopes to shed some light on this
subject, by approaching it from first principles.
What is entropy?
In some ways, it is easier to say what it is not! It is not a physical property of
steam like pressure or temperature or mass. A sensor cannot detect it, and it
does not show on a gauge. Rather, it must be calculated from things that can
be measured. Entropy values can then be listed and used in calculations; in
particular, calculations to do with steam flow, and the production of power
using
turbines
or
reciprocating
engines.
It is, in some ways, a measure of the lack of quality or availability of energy,
and of how energy tends always to spread out from a high temperature
source to a wider area at a lower temperature level. This compulsion to
spread out has led some observers to label entropy as 'time's arrow'. If the
entropy of a system is calculated at two different conditions, then the condition
at which the entropy is greater occurs at a later time. The increase of entropy
in the overall system always takes place in the same direction as time flows.
That may be of some philosophical interest, but does not help very much in
the calculation of actual values. A more practical approach is to define entropy
as energy added to or removed from a system, divided by the mean absolute
temperature
over
which
the
change
takes
place.
To see how this works, perhaps it is best to start off with a diagram showing
how the enthalpy content of a kilogram of water increases as it is heated to
different
pressures
and
evaporated
into
steam.
Since the temperature and pressure at which water boils are in a fixed
relationship to each other, Figure 2.15.1 could equally be drawn to show
enthalpy against temperature, and then turned so that temperature became
the vertical ordinates against a base of enthalpy, as in Figure 2.15.2.

Fig.
2.15.1
The enthalpy/pressure diagram

Fig. 2.15.2
The temperature/enthalpy diagram
Lines of constant pressure originate on the saturated water line. The
horizontal distance between the saturated water line and the dry saturated
steam line represents the amount of latent heat or enthalpy of evaporation,
and is called the evaporation line; (enthalpy of evaporation decreases with
rising pressure). The area to the right of the dry saturated steam line is the
superheated steam region, and lines of constant pressure now curve upwards
as
soon
as
they
cross
the
dry
saturated
steam
line.
A variation of the diagram in Figure 2.15.2, that can be extremely useful, is
one in which the horizontal axis is not enthalpy but instead is enthalpy divided
by the mean temperature at which the enthalpy is added or removed. To
produce such a diagram, the entropy values can be calculated. By starting at
the origin of the graph at a temperature of 0C at atmospheric pressure, and
by adding enthalpy in small amounts, the graph can be built. As entropy is
measured in terms of absolute temperature, the origin temperature of 0C is
taken as 273.15 K. The specific heat of saturated water at this temperature is
4.228 kJ/kg K. For the purpose of constructing the diagram in Figure 2.15.3
the base temperature is taken as 273 K not 273.15 K.
By assuming a kilogram of water at atmospheric pressure, and by adding

4.228 kJ of energy, the water temperature would rise by 1 K from 273 K to 274
K. The mean temperature during this operation is 273.5 K, see Figure 2.15.3.

Fig. 2.15.3
The cumulative addition of 4.228 kJ of energy to water from 0C

This value represents the change in enthalpy per degree of temperature rise
for one kilogram of water and is termed the change in specific entropy. The
metric
units
for
specific
entropy
are
therefore
kJ/kg
K.
This process can be continued by adding another 4.228 kJ of energy to
produce a series of these points on a state point line. In the next increment,
the temperature would rise from 274 K to 275 K, and the mean temperature is
274.5 K.

It can be seen from these simple calculations that, as the temperature

increases, the change in entropy for each equal increment of enthalpy
reduces slightly. If this incremental process were continuously repeated by
adding more heat, it would be noticed that the change in entropy would
continue to decrease. This is due to each additional increment of heat raising
the temperature and so reducing the width of the elemental strip representing
it. As more heat is added, so the state point line, in this case the saturated
water
line,
curves
gently
upwards.
At 373.14 K (99.99C), the boiling point of water is reached at atmospheric
pressure, and further additions of heat begin to boil off some of the water at
this constant temperature. At this position, the state point starts to move
horizontally across the diagram to the right, and is represented on Figure
2.15.4 by the horizontal evaporation line stretching from the saturated water
line to the dry saturated steam line. Because this is an evaporation process,
this added heat is referred to as enthalpy of evaporation.

At atmospheric pressure, steam tables state that the amount of heat added to
evaporate 1 kg of water into steam is 2256.71 kJ. As this takes place at a
constant temperature of 373.14 K, the mean temperature of the evaporation
line
is
also
373.14
K.
The change in specific entropy from the water saturation line to the steam
saturation line is therefore:

The diagram produced showing temperature against entropy would look

something like that in Figure 2.15.4, where:

1 is the saturated water line.

2 is the dry saturated steam line.

3 are constant dryness fraction lines in the wet steam region.

4 are constant pressure lines in the superheat region.

Fig. 2.15.4
The temperature - entropy diagram
What use is the temperature - entropy diagram (or T - S diagram)?
One potential use of the T - S diagram is to follow changes in the steam
condition during processes occurring with no change in entropy between the
initial and final state of the process. Such processes are termed Isentropic
(constant
entropy).
Unfortunately, the constant total heat lines shown in a T - S diagram are
curved, which makes it difficult to follow changes in such free and unrestricted
expansions as those when steam is allowed to flow through and expand after
a control valve. In the case of a control valve, where the velocities in the
connecting upstream and downstream pipes are near enough the same, the
overall process occurs with constant enthalpy (isenthalpic). In the case of a
nozzle, where the final velocity remains high, the overall process occurs with
constant
entropy.
To follow these different types of processes, a new diagram can be drawn
complete with pressures and temperatures, showing entropy on the horizontal
axis, and enthalpy on the vertical axis, and is called an enthalpy - entropy
diagram, or H - S diagram, Figure 2.15.5.

F
ig. 2.15.5
The H - S diagram
The H - S diagram is also called the Mollier diagram or Mollier chart, named
after Dr. Richard Mollier of Dresden who first devised the idea of such a
diagram
in
1904.
Now, the isenthalpic expansion of steam through a control valve is simply
represented by a straight horizontal line from the initial state to the final lower
pressure to the right of the graph, see Figure 2.15.6; and the isentropic
expansion of steam through a nozzle is simply a line from the initial state
falling vertically to the lower final pressure, see Figure 2.15.7.

F
ig. 2.15.6
Isenthalpic expansion, as through a control valve

F
ig. 2.15.7
Isentropic expansion, as through a nozzle
An isentropic expansion of steam is always accompanied by a decrease in
enthalpy, and this is referred to as the 'heat drop' (H) between the initial and
final condition. The H values can be simply read at the initial and final points
on the Mollier chart, and the difference gives the heat drop. The accuracy of
the
chart
is
sufficient
for
most
practical
purposes.
As a point of interest, as the expansion through a control valve orifice is an
isenthalpic process, it is assumed that the state point moves directly to the
right; as depicted in Figure 2.15.6. In fact, it does not do so directly. For the
steam to squeeze through the narrow restriction it has to accelerate to a
higher speed. It does so by borrowing energy from its enthalpy and converting
it to kinetic energy. This incurs a heat drop. This part of the process is
isentropic; the state point moves vertically down to the lower pressure.
Having passed through the narrow restriction, the steam expands into the
lower pressure region in the valve outlet, and eventually decelerates as the
volume of the valve body increases to connect to the downstream pipe. This
fall in velocity requires a reduction in kinetic energy which is mostly reconverted back into heat and re-absorbed by the steam. The heat drop that
caused the initial increase in kinetic energy is reclaimed (except for a small
portion lost due to the effects of friction), and on the H - S chart, the state
point moves up the constant pressure line until it arrives at the same enthalpy
value
as
the
initial
condition.
The path of the state point is to be seen in Figure 2.15.8, where pressure is
reduced from 5 bar at saturation temperature to 1 bar via, for example, a
pressure reducing valve. Steam's enthalpy at the upstream condition of 5 bar
is 2748 kJ/kg.

Fi
g. 2.15.8
The actual path of the state point
in a control valve expansion
It is interesting to note that, in the example dicussed above and shown in
Figure 2.15.8, the final condition of the steam is above the saturation line and
is therefore superheated. Whenever such a process (commonly called a
throttling process) takes place, the final condition of the steam will, in most
cases, be drier than its initial condition. This will either produce drier saturated
steam or superheated steam, depending on the respective positions of the
initial and final state points. The horizontal distance between the initial and
final state points represents the change in entropy. In this example, although
there was no overall change in enthalpy (ignoring the small effects of friction),
the entropy increased from about 6.8 kJ/kg K to about 7.6 kJ/kg K.
Entropy always increases in a closed system
In any closed system, the overall change in entropy is always positive, that is,
it will always increase. It is worth considering this in more detail, as it is
fundamental to the concept of entropy. Whereas energy is always conserved
(the first law of thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or
destroyed), the same cannot be said about entropy. The second law of
thermodynamics says that whenever energy is exchanged or converted from
one form to another, the potential for energy to do work gets less. This really
is what entropy is all about. It is a measure of the lack of potential or quality of
energy; and once that energy has been exchanged or converted, it cannot
revert back to a higher state. The ultimate truth of this is that it is nature's duty
for all processes in the Universe to end up at the same temperature, so the
entropy of the Universe is always increasing.
Example 2.15.1
Consider a teapot on a kitchen table that has just been filled with a certain
quantity of water containing 200 kJ of heat energy at 100C (373 K) from an
electric kettle. Consider next that the temperature of the air surrounding the
mug is at 20C, and that the amount of heat in the teapot water would be 40

kJ at the end of the process. The second law of thermodynamics also states
that heat will always flow from a hot body to a colder body, and in this
example, it is certain that, if left for sufficient time, the teapot will cool to the
same temperature as the air that surrounds it. What are the changes in the
entropy
values
for
the
overall
process?
For the teapot:

Because the heat is lost from the teapot, convention states that its change in
entropy
is
negative.
For
Initial

the
air

temperature

air:
=

293

(20C)

At the end of the process, the water in the teapot would have lost 160 kJ and
the air would have gained 160 kJ; however, the air temperature would not
have changed because of its large volume, therefore:

Because the heat is received by the air, convention states that its change in
enthalpy
is
positive.
Therefore:

Practical applications - Heat exchangers

In a heat exchanger using saturated steam in the primary side to heat water
from 20C to 60C in the secondary side, the steam will condense as it gives
up its heat. This is depicted on the Mollier chart by the state point moving to
the left of its initial position. For steady state conditions, dry saturated steam
condenses at constant pressure, and the steam state point moves down the
constant pressure line as shown in Figure 2.15.9.
Example 2.15.2
This example considers steam condensing from saturation at 2 bar at 120C
with an entropy of 7.13 kJ/kg K, and an enthalpy of about 2700 kJ/kg. It can
be seen that the state point moves from right to left, not horizontally, but by
following the constant 2 bar pressure line. The chart is not big enough to show
the whole condensing process but, if it were, it would show that the steam's
final state point would rest with an entropy of 1.53 kJ/kg K and an enthalpy of
504.8 kJ/kg, at 2 bar and 120C on the saturated water line.

Fi
g. 2.15.9
The initial path of the state point
for condensing steam
It can be seen from Figure 2.15.9 that, when steam condenses, the state point
moves down the evaporation line and the entropy is lowered. However, in any
overall system, the entropy must increase, otherwise the second law of
thermodynamics is violated; so how can this decrease in entropy be
explained?
As for the teapot in the Example 2.15.1, this decrease in entropy only reflects
what is happening in one part of the system. It must be remembered that any
total system includes its surroundings, in Example 2.15.2, the water, which
receives
the
heat
imparted
by
the
steam.
In Example 2.15.2, the water receives exactly the same amount of heat as the
steam imparts (it is assumed there are no heat losses), but does so at a lower

temperature than the steam; so, as entropy is given by enthalpy/temperature,

dividing the same quantity of heat by a lower temperature means a greater
gain in entropy by the water than is lost by the steam. There is therefore an
overall gain in the system entropy, and an overall spreading out of energy.

Table 2.15.1
Relative densities/specific heat capacities
of various solids

Table 2.15.2
Relative densities/specific heat capacities
of various liquids

Table 2.15.3
Specific heat capacities of gases and vapours

Entropy - Its Practical Use

Entropy can be used to understand thermodynamic applications from
first principles. This tutorial gives practical examples of how this can be
done.
Practical use of entropy
It can be seen from Tutorial 2.15 that entropy can be calculated. This would
be laborious in practice, consequently steam tables usually carry entropy
values, based on such calculations. Specific entropy is designated the letter 's'
and usually appears in columns signifying specific values for saturated liquid,
evaporation, and saturated steam, sf, sfg and sg respectively. These values
may equally be found in charts, and both Temperature - Entropy (T - S) and
Enthalpy - Entropy (H - S) charts are to be found, as mentioned in Tutorial
2.15. Each chart has particular use in specific circumstances.
The T - S chart is often used to determine the properties of steam during its
expansion through a nozzle or an orifice. The seat of a control valve would be
a
typical
example.
To understand how a T - S chart is applied, it is worth sketching such a chart
and plotting the steam properties at the start condition, reading these from the
steam tables.
Example 2.16.1
Steam is expanded from 10 bar a and a dryness fraction of
through a nozzle, and no heat is removed or supplied during
process. Calculate the final condition of the steam at the
Specific
entropy
values
quoted
are
in
units

0.9 to 6 bar a
this expansion
nozzle outlet?
of
kJ/kgC.

At 10 bar a, steam tables state that for dry saturated steam:

As no heat is added or removed during the expansion, the process is

described as being adiabatic and isentropic, that is, the entropy does not
change. It must still be 6.1413 kJ/kgC at the very moment it passes the throat
of the nozzle.

By knowing that this process is isentropic, it has been possible to calculate the
dryness fraction at the outlet condition. It is now possible to consider the outlet
condition in terms of specific enthalpy (units are in kJ/kg).

It can be seen that the specific enthalpy of the steam has dropped in passing
through the nozzle from 2576.25 to 2489.30 kJ/kg, that is, a heat drop of
86.95
kJ/kg.
This seems to contradict the adiabatic principle, which stipulates that no
energy is removed from the process. But, as seen in Tutorial 2.15, the
explanation is that the steam at 6 bar a has just passed through the nozzle
throat at high velocity, consequently it has gained kinetic energy. As energy

cannot be created or destroyed, the gain in kinetic energy in the steam is at

the
expense
of
its
own
heat
drop.
The above entropy values in Example 2.16.1 can be plotted on a T - S
diagram, see Figure 2.16.1.

Fig.
2.16.1
The T - S diagram for Example 2.16.1
Further investigation of kinetic energy in steam
What is the significance of being able to calculate the kinetic energy of
steam? By knowing this value, it is possible to predict the steam velocity and
therefore the mass flow of steam through control valves and nozzles.
Kinetic energy is proportional to mass and the square of the velocity.
It can be further shown that, when incorporating Joule's mechanical
equivalent of heat, kinetic energy can be written as Equation 2.16.1:

Equation 2.16.1
Where:
E
m
u
g
J

= Kinetic energy (kJ)

= Mass of the fluid (kg)
= Velocity of the fluid (m/s)
= Acceleration due to gravity (9.80665 m/s)
= Joule's mechanical equivalent of heat (101.972 m kg/kJ)

By transposing Equation 2.16.1 it is possible to find velocity as shown by

Equation 2.16.2:

Equation 2.16.2
For each kilogram of steam, and by using Equation 2.16.2

As the gain in kinetic energy equals the heat drop, the equation can be written
as shown by Equation 2.16.3:
Equation 2.16.3
Where:
h

Heat

drop

in

kJ/kg

By calculating the adiabatic heat drop from the initial to the final condition, the
velocity of steam can be calculated at various points along its path; especially
at the throat or point of minimum pass area between the plug and seat in a
control
valve.
This could be used to calculate the orifice area required to pass a given
amount of steam through a control valve. The pass area will be greatest when
the valve is fully open. Likewise, given the valve orifice area, the maximum
flowrate through the valve can be determined at the stipulated pressure drop.
See Examples 2.16.2 and 2.16.3 for more details.
Example 2.16.2
Consider the steam conditions in Example 2.16.1 with steam passing through
a control valve with an orifice area of 1 cm. Calculate the maximum flow of
steam
under
these
conditions.
The downstream steam is at 6 bar a, with a dryness fraction of 0.8718.
Specific volume of dry saturated steam at 6 bar a (sg) equals 0.3156 m/kg.
Specific volume of saturated steam at 6 bar a and a dryness fraction of
0.8718 equals 0.3156 m/kg x 0.8718 which equates to 0.2751 m/kg.
The heat drop in Example 2.16.1 was 86.95 kJ/kg, consequently the velocity
can be calculated using Equation 2.16.3:
Equation 2.16.3

The mass flow is calculated using Equation 2.16.4:

Equation
2.16.4
An orifice area of 1 cm equals 0.0001 m

Point of interest
Thermodynamic textbooks will usually quote Equation 2.16.3 in a slightly
different way as shown in Equation 2.16.5:
Equation 2.16.5
Where:
u = Velocity of the fluid in m/s
h = Heat drop in J/kg
2 = Constant of proportionality incorporating the gravitational constant 'g'
Considering the conditions in Example 2.16.3:

This velocity is exactly the same as that calculated from Equation 2.16.3, and
the user is free to practise either equation according to preference.
The above calculations in Example 2.16.2 could be carried out for a whole
series of reduced pressures, and, if done, would reveal that the flow of
saturated steam through a fixed opening increases quite quickly at first as the
downstream
pressure
is
lowered.
The increases in flow become progressively smaller with equal increments of
pressure drops and, with saturated steam, these increases actually become

zero when the downstream pressure is 58% of the absolute upstream

pressure. (If the steam is initially superheated, CPD will occur at just below
55%
of
the
absolute
upstream
pressure).
This is known as the 'critical flow' condition and the pressure drop at this point
is referred to as critical pressure drop (CPD). After this point has been
reached, any further reduction of downstream pressure will not give any
further
increase
in
mass
flow
through
the
opening.
In fact if, for saturated steam, the curves of steam velocity (u) and sonic
velocity (s) were drawn for a convergent nozzle (Figure 2.16.2), it would be
found that the curves intersect at the critical pressure. P1 is the upstream
pressure, and P is the pressure at the throat.

Fig. 2.16.2
Steam and acoustic velocities through a nozzle
The explanation of this, first put forward by Professor Osborne Reynolds
(1842 - 1912) of Owens College, Manchester, UK, is as follows:
Consider steam flowing through a tube or nozzle with a velocity u, and let s be
the speed of sound (sonic velocity) in the steam at any given point, s being a
function of the pressure and density of the steam. Then the velocity with which
a disturbance such as, for example, a sudden change of pressure P, will be
transmitted back through the flowing steam will be s - u.
Referring to Figure 2.16.2, let the final pressure P at the nozzle outlet be 0.8
of its inlet pressure P1. Here, as the sonic velocity s is greater than the steam
velocity u, s - u is clearly positive. Any change in the pressure P would
produce
a
change
in
the
rate
of
mass
flow.
When the pressure P has been reduced to the critical value of 0.58 P1, s - u
becomes zero, and any further reduction of pressure after the throat has no
effect on the pressure at the throat or the rate of mass flow.
When the pressure drop across the valve seat is greater than critical pressure
drop, the critical velocity at the throat can be calculated from the heat drop in

the steam from the upstream condition to the critical pressure drop condition,
using Equation 2.16.5.
Top
Control valves
The relationship between velocity and mass flow through a restriction such as
the orifice in a control valve is sometimes misunderstood.
Pressure drop greater than critical pressure drop
It is worth reiterating that, if the pressure drop across the valve is equal to or
greater than critical pressure drop, the mass flow through the throat of the
restriction is a maximum and the steam will travel at the speed of sound (sonic
velocity) in the throat. In other words, the critical velocity is equal to the local
sonic
velocity,
as
described
above.
For any control valve operating under critical pressure drop conditions, at any
reduction in throat area caused by the valve moving closer to its seat, this
constant velocity will mean that the mass flow is simultaneously reduced in
direct proportion to the size of the valve orifice.
Pressure drop less than critical pressure drop
For a control valve operating such that the downstream pressure is greater
than the critical pressure (critical pressure drop is not reached), the velocity
through the valve opening will depend on the application.
Pressure reducing valves
If the valve is a pressure reducing valve, (its function is to achieve a constant
downstream pressure for varying mass flowrates) then, the heat drop remains
constant whatever the steam load. This means that the velocity through the
valve opening remains constant whatever the steam load and valve opening.
Constant
upstream
steam
conditions
are
assumed.
It can be seen from Equation 2.16.4 that, under these conditions, if velocity
and specific volume are constant, the mass flowrate through the orifice is
directly proportional to the orifice area.

Equation
2.16.4
Temperature control valves
In the case of a control valve supplying steam to a heat exchanger, the valve
is required to reduce the mass flow as the heat load falls. The downstream
steam pressure will then fall with the heat load, consequently the pressure
drop and heat drop across the valve will increase. Thus, the velocity through
the
valve
must
increase
as
the
valve
closes.
In this case, Equation 2.16.4 shows that, as the valve closes, a reduction in
mass flow is not directly proportional to the valve orifice, but is also modified
by the steam velocity and its specific volume.

Example 2.16.3
Find the critical velocity of the steam at the throat of the control valve for
Example 2.16.2, where the initial condition of the steam is 10 bar a and 90%
dry, and assuming the downstream pressure is lowered to 3 bar a.

The velocity of the steam through the throat of the valve can be calculated
using Equation 2.16.5:
Equation 2.16.5

The critical velocity occurs at the speed of sound, consequently 430 m/s is the
sonic velocity for the Example 2.16.3.

Noise in control valves

If the pressure in the outlet of the valve body is lower than the critical
pressure, the heat drop at a point immediately after the throat will be greater
than at the throat. As velocity is directly related to heat drop, the steam
velocity will increase after the steam passes the throat of the restriction, and
supersonic
velocities
can
occur
in
this
region.
In a control valve, steam, after exiting the throat, is suddenly confronted with a
huge increase in space in the valve outlet, and the steam expands suddenly.
The kinetic energy gained by the steam in passing through the throat is
converted back into heat; the velocity falls to a value similar to that on the
upstream side of the valve, and the pressure stabilises in the valve outlet and
connecting
pipework.
For the reasons mentioned above, valves operating at and greater than
critical pressure drop will incur sonic and supersonic velocities, which will tend
to produce noise. As noise is a form of vibration, high levels of noise will not
only cause environmental problems, but may actually cause the valve to fail.
This can sometimes have an important bearing when selecting valves that are
expected
to
operate
under
critical
flow
conditions.
It can be seen from previous text that the velocity of steam through control
valve orifices will depend on the application of the valve and the pressure
drop across it at any one time.
Reducing noise in control valves
There are some practical ways to deal with the effects of noise in control
valves.
Perhaps the simplest way to overcome this problem is to reduce the working
pressure across the valve. For instance, where there is a need to reduce
pressure, by reducing pressure with two valves instead of one, both valves
can share the total heat drop, and the potential for noise in the pressure
reducing
station
can
be
reduced
considerably.
Another way to reduce the potential for noise is by increasing the size of the
valve body (but retaining the correct orifice size) to help ensure that the
supersonic velocity will have dissipated by the time the flow impinges upon
the
valve
body
wall.
In cases where the potential for noise is extreme, valves fitted with a noise
attenuator
trim
may
need
to
be
used.
Steam velocities in control valve orifices will reach, typically, 500 m/s. Water
droplets in the steam will travel at some slightly lower speed through a valve
orifice, but, being incompressible, these droplets will tend to erode the valve
and
its
seat
as
they
squeeze
between
the
two.
It is always sensible to ensure that steam valves are protected from wet steam
by fitting separators or by providing adequate line drainage upstream of them.

Top
Summing up of Tutorials 2.15 and 2.16
The T - S diagram, shown in Figure 2.16.1, and reproduced below in Figure
2.16.3, shows clearly that the steam becomes wetter during an isentropic
expansion (0.9 at 10 bar a to 0.8718 at 6 bar a) in Example 2.16.1.

Fig.
2.16.3
A T-S diagram showing wetter steam
from an isentropic expansion
At first, this seems strange to those who are used to steam getting drier or
becoming superheated during an expansion, as happens when steam passes
through,
for
example,
a
pressure
reducing
valve.
The point is that, during an adiabatic expansion, the steam is accelerating up
to high speed in passing through a restriction, and gaining kinetic energy. To
provide this energy, a little of the steam condenses (if saturated steam), (if
superheated, drops in temperature and may condense) providing heat for
conversion
into
kinetic
energy.
If the steam is flowing through a control valve, or a pressure reducing valve,
then somewhere downstream of the valve's seat, the steam is slowed down to
something near its initial velocity. The kinetic energy is destroyed, and must
reappear as heat energy that dries out or superheats the steam depending on
the
conditions.
The T - S diagram is not at all convenient for showing this effect, but the
Mollier diagram (the H - S diagram) can do so quite clearly.
The Mollier diagram can depict both an isenthalpic expansion as experienced
by a control valve, (see Figure 2.15.6) by moving horizontally across the
graph to a lower pressure; and an isentropic expansion as experienced by
steam passing through a nozzle, (see Figure 2.15.7) by moving horizontally
down to a lower pressure. In the former, the steam is usually either dried or
superheated,
in
the
latter,
the
steam
gets
wetter.

This perhaps begs the question, 'How does the steam know if it is to behave
in an isenthalpic or isentropic fashion?' Clearly, as the steam accelerates and
rushes through the narrowest part of the restriction (the throat of a nozzle, or
the adjustable gap between the valve and seat in a control valve) it must
behave
the
same
in
either
case.
The difference is that the steam issuing from a nozzle will next meet a turbine
wheel and gladly give up its kinetic energy to turn the turbine. In fact, a nozzle
could be thought of as a device to convert heat energy into kinetic energy for
this
very
purpose.
In a control valve, instead of doing such work, the steam simply slows down in
the valve outlet passages and its connecting pipework, when the kinetic
energy appears as heat energy, and unwittingly goes on its way to give up this
heat
at
a
lower
pressure.
It can be seen that both the T - S diagram and H - S diagram have their uses,
but neither would have been possible had the concept of entropy not been
utilised.