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UNIT III
VLSI CIRCUIT DESIGN PROCESSES
In this chapter we will be studying how to get the schematic into stick diagrams or layouts.
MOS circuits are formed on four basic layers:
N-diffusion
P-diffusion
Polysilicon
Metal
These layers are isolated by one another by thick or thin silicon dioxide insulating
layers. Thin oxide mask region includes n-diffusion / p-diffusion and transistor channel.
Stick diagrams:
Stick diagrams may be used to convey layer information through the use of a color code.
For example:
n-diffusion --green
poly -- red
blue -- metal
yellow --implant
black --contact areas

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Encodings for NMOS process:

Figure shows the way of representing different layers in stick diagram notation and
mask layout using nmos style.
Figure1 shows when a n-transistor is formed: a transistor is formed when a green line
(n+ diffusion) crosses a red line (poly) completely. Figure also shows how a depletion
mode transistor is represented in the stick format.

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Encodings for CMOS process:

Figure 2 shows when a n-transistor is formed: a transistor is formed when a green line
(n+ diffusion) crosses a red line (poly) completely.
Figure 2 also shows when a p-transistor is formed: a transistor is formed when a yellow
line(p+ diffusion) crosses a red line (poly) completely.

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Encoding for BJT and MOSFETs:

There are several layers in an nMOS chip:

a p-type substrate
paths of n-type diffusion
a thin layer of silicon dioxide
paths of polycrystalline silicon
a thick layer of silicon dioxide
paths of metal (usually aluminium) a further thick layer of silicon dioxide with contact cuts
through the silicon dioxide where connections are required.
The three layers carrying paths can be considered as independent conductors that only
interact where polysilicon crosses diffusion to form a transistor. These tracks can be drawn
as stick diagrams with
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diffusion in green
polysilicon in red
metal in blue
using black to indicate contacts between layers and yellow to mark regions of implant in the
channels of depletion mode transistors. With CMOS there are two types of diffusion: n-type
is drawn in green and p-type in brown.
These are on the same layers in the chip and must not meet. In fact, the method of
fabrication required that they be kept relatively far apart.
Modern CMOS processes usually support more than one layer of metal. Two are common
and three or more are often available. Actually, these conventions for colors are not
universal; in particular, industrial (rather than academic) systems tend to use red for diffusion
and green for polysilicon. Moreover, a shortage of
colored pens normally means that
both types of diffusion in CMOS are colored green and the polarity indicated by drawinga
circle round p-type transistors or
simply inferred
from the context. Colorings for
multiple layers of metal are even
less standard.
There are three ways that an nMOS inverter might bedrawn:

Figure 4 shows schematic, stick diagram and corresponding layout of nMOS depletion
load inverter

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Figure 7 shows the stick diagram nMOS implementation of the function f=[(xy)+z]

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Figure 8: stick diagram of CMOS NAND and NOR

Figure 8 shows the stick diagram CMOS NOR and NAND, where we can see that the p
diffusion line never touched the n diffusion directly, it is always joined using a blue color
metal line.
NMOS and CMOS Design style:
In the NMOS style of representing the sticks for the circuit, we use only NMOS transistor, in
CMOS we need to differentiate n and p transistor, that is usually by the color or in
monochrome diagrams we will have a demarcation line. Above the demarcation line are the
p transistors and below the demarcation are the n transistors.
Following stick shows CMOS circuit example in monochrome where we utilize the
demarcation line.

Figure 9 shows the stick diagram of dynamic shift register using CMOS style. Here the
output of the TG is connected as the input to the inverter and the same chain continues

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depending the number of bits.

Design Rules:
Design rules include width rules and spacing rules. Mead and Conway developed a set of
simplified scalable -based design rules, which are valid for a range of fabrication
technologies. In these rules, the minimum feature size of a technology is characterized as 2
. All width and spacing rules are specified in terms of the parameter . Suppose we have
design rules that call for a minimum width of 2 , and a minimum spacing of 3 . If
we select a 2 um technology (i.e., = 1 um), the above rules
are translated to a
minimum width of 2 um and a minimumspacing of 3 um. On the other
hand, if a 1 um
technology (i.e., = 0.5 um) is selected, then the same width and spacing rules are now
specified as 1 um and 1.5 um, respectively.

Figure 10 shows the design rule n diffusion, p diffusion, poly, metal1 and metal 2. The n
and p diffusion lines is having a minimum width of 2and a minimum spacing of 3.
Similarly we are showing for other layers.

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Figure shows the design rule for the transistor, and it also shows that the poly should extend
for a minimum of 2beyond the diffusion boundaries.(gate over hang distance)
What is Via?
It is used to connect higher level metals from metal1 connection. The cross section and
layout view given figure 13 explain via in a betterway.

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Figure shows the design rules for contact cuts and Vias. The design rule for contact
is minimum 2x2and same is applicable for a Via.

Buried contact: The contact cut is made down each layer to be joined and it is shown
in figure 14.

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Butting contact: The layers are butted together in such a way the two contact cuts become
contiguous. We can better under the buttingcontact from figure 15.

CMOS LAMBDA BASED DESIGN RULES:

Till now we have studied the design rules wrt only NMOS , what are the rules to be followed
if we have the both p and n transistor on the same chip will be made clear with the diagram.
Figure 16 shows the rules to be followed in CMOS well processes to accommodate both n
and p transistors.

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Orbit 2m CMOS process:

In this process all the spacing between each layersand dimensions will be in terms
micrometer. The 2m here represents the feature size. All the design rules what ever we have
seen will not have lambda instead it will have the actual dimension in micrometer.
In one way lambda based design rules are better compared micrometer based design
rules, that is lambda based rules are feature size independent.
Figure 17 shows the design rule for BiCMOS process using orbit 2um process.

The following is the example stick and layout for 2way selector with enable (2:1 MUX).

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Scaling of MOS Circuits:

1.What is Scaling?
Proportional adjustment of the dimensions of an electronic device while maintaining
the electrical properties of the device, results in a device either larger or smallerthan
the un-scaled device. Then Which way do we scale the devices for VLSI?
BIG and SLOW or SMALLand FAST? What do we gain?
2.Why Scaling?...
Scale the devices and wires down, Make the chips fatter functionality, intelligence,
memory and faster, Make more chips per wafer increased yield, Make the end user
Happy by giving more for less and therefore, make MORE MONEY!!
3.FoM for Scaling
Impact of scaling is characterized in terms of several indicators:
Minimum feature size
Number of gates on one chip
Power dissipation
Maximum operational frequency
Die size
Production cost
Many of the FoMs can be improved by shrinking the dimensions of transistors and
interconnections. Shrinking the separation between features transistors and wires
Adjusting doping levels and supply voltages.

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Technology Scaling :
Goals of scaling the dimensions by 30%:
Reduce gate delay by 30% (increase operating frequency by
43%) Double transistor density
Reduce energy per transition by 65% (50% power savings @ 43% increase in frequency)
Die size used to increase by 14% per generation
Technology generation spans 2-3 years
Figure1 to Figure 5 illustrates the technology scaling in terms of minimum feature
size, transistor count, prapogation delay, power dissipation and density and technology
generations.
Scaling Models
Full Scaling (Constant Electrical Field)
Ideal model dimensions and voltage scale together by the same scale factor Fixed Voltage
Scaling
Most common model until recently only the dimensions scale, voltages remain
constant General Scaling
Most realistic for todays situation voltages and dimensions scale with different factors
Scaling Factors for Device Parameters
Device scaling modeled in terms of generic scaling factors: 1/and 1/
1/: scaling factor for supply voltage VDD, and gate oxide thickness D
1/: linear dimensions both horizontal and vertical dimensions
Why is the scaling factor for gate oxide thickness different from other linear horizontal
and vertical dimensions? Consider the cross sectionof the device as in Figure 6,various
parameters derived are as follows.

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Implications of Scaling :
Improved Performance
Improved Cost
Interconnect Woes
Power Woes
Productivity Challenges
Physical Limits
Physical Limits :
Will Moores Law run out of steam?
Cant build transistors smaller than an atom
Many reasons have been predicted for end of scaling
Dynamic power
Sub-threshold leakage, tunneling
Short channel effects
Fabrication costs
Electro-migration

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Interconnect delay
Rumors of demise have been exaggerated
8. Limitations of Scaling
Effects, as a result of scaling down- which eventually become severe enough to
prevent further miniaturization.
Substrate doping
Depletion width
Limits of miniaturization
Limits of interconnect and contact resistance
Limits due to sub threshold currents
Limits on logic levels and supply voltage due to noise
Limits due to current density

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