NAVIGATION

Great Circle Sailing

Great Circle Sailing is used for long ocean passages. For this purpose,
the earth is considered a perfect spherical shape; therefore, the
shortest distance between two points on its surface is the arc of the
great circle containing two points. As the track is the circle, so the
course is constantly changing, and the track must be broken down
into a series of short rhumb lines at frequent intervals that can be
used to sail on the Mercator chart. Doing this, the navigator would
use the Gnomonic charts combined with the Mercator charts to draw
the sailing track.

Procedure to use
Gnomonic and
Mercator Charts for
Great Circle Sailing

EQ
P
PA
PB

Equator AB
Great circle track
Pole




Great circle initial course
Polar distance of A
Great circle final course
Polar distance of B

1. Plot departure and destination positions on the gnomonic chart;

join two positions, since the great circle appears as a straight
line on the gnomonic chart.

2. C
 hoose the specific interval meridian along the track where the
course will be changed. Then plot the positions of intersection
of the track and the meridian chosen on the Mercator chart.
3. Join all the plotted positions on the Mercator chart by a series of
rhumb lines; the course and distance between each position can
be solved by the plane sailing method.

As the great circle track line is plotted on the gnomonic chart, the
vertex and the chosen intermediate positions can be read off directly
from the chart. However, this is not as accurate as the calculation
which will be shown later in this section.
CAPT. KHAN

THE SHIP OFFICERS HANDBOOK

NAVIGATION
Great circle distance
=
cos AB cosPAcosPB + sinPAsinPBcosP
=
sinLat.A sinLat.B + cosLat.A cosLat.B cosD.long.AB

=
DAB cos 1 ( sinLat.A sinLat.B + cosLat.A cosLat.B cosD.Long.AB )
Initial
course
=
cos

cosPB cosPAcos AB sinLat B sinLat A cosDAB

=
sinPAsin AB
cosLat A sinDAB

sinLat.B sinLat.A cosDAB

=cos 1

cosLat.A sinDAB

The initial course also can be calculated by following formulas:

cosLat.B sinD.Long.AB
=sin 1

sinDAB

or

sinD. Long.AB
=tan 1

cosLat.A tanLat.B sinLat.A cosD. Long.AB

=
Final
course
cos

cosPA cosPBcos AB sinLat A sinLat B cosDAB

=
sinPBsin AB
cosLat B sinDAB

sinLat A sinLat B cosDAB

B = arccos

cosLat B sinDAB

The final course also can be calculated by following formulas:

cosLat.A sinD.Long.AB
=sin 1

sinD AB

or

sinD. Long.AB
=tan 1

cosLat.B tanLat.A sinLat.B cosD. Long.AB

The great circle calculations of initial and final courses result in

quadrantal notation as cardinal compass. Corrected quadrant must
be named in order to avoid mistakes when converting into threefigure notation (0-360).

CAPT. KHAN

THE SHIP OFFICERS HANDBOOK

NAVIGATION
Rules to name
Initial and Final
Courses of a Great
Circle
Summary

The initial course always has same name as the initial latitude and
east or west direction of the course. The final course always has the
opposite name from final latitude unless initial position and final
position are in different hemispheres, when the final will have same
name as final latitude and east or west direction of the course.
Direction of course: Easterly
Final
Latitude

Initial
Latitude

North

South

North

Initial course: NE

Initial course: SE

South

Initial course: NE

Initial course: SE

Final course: SE
Final course: SE

Final course: NE
Final course: NE

Direction of course: Westerly

Final
Latitude

Initial
Latitude

North

South

North

Initial course: NW

Initial course: SW

South

Initial course: NW

Initial course: SW

Final course: SW
Final course: SW

Final course: NW
Final course: NW

Initial and final courses can also be found by using ABC tables or
ABC computations, just like solving the azimuth of a celestial body
by considering one position as the observers position and another
as position of the celestial body. The azimuth would be the initial or
final course, depending which is designated. For example, in order to
find initial course, the initial position is considered as the observers
position, and the final position as the celestial position. Conversely,
for finding the final course; the final position is considered as the
observers position, and initial position as the celestial position. The
course would be named as "C", and direction is the hour angle which
is D. Long. between two positions.

CAPT. KHAN

THE SHIP OFFICERS HANDBOOK

NAVIGATION
Example 1

Find the distance, initial course and final course:

From A: 56 20 N 00812 W
To B: 5212 N 05710 W

Lat.A =
56 20 N
Lat.B =
5212 N

D.Long.AB = 5710 812 = 4858(W)

Distance
=
DAB cos 1 ( sinLat.A sinLat.B + cosLat.A cosLat.B cosD. Long.AB )

= cos 1 ( sin5620 sin5212 + cos56 20 cos5212 cos4858 )

= 2816.5
Distance = 1696.5 miles

Initial course

Final course

Example 2

sinLat.B sinLat.A cosDAB

=cos 1

cosLat.A sinDAB

sin5212 sin56 20 cos2816.5

cos 1
77 25.4 =
77.4
=
=
cos56 20 sin2816.5

Initial course
= N77.4 W
= 282.6 T

sinLat A sinLat B cosDAB

=cos 1

cosLat B sinDAB

sin56
20
sin52
12
cos28

16.5

cos 1
6158.7 =
62.0
=
=
cos5212 sin2816.5

Final course = S62.0 W = 242 T

Find the distance, initial course and final course of great circle
sailing:
From A : 33 22S 113 08 E
To B : 1051S 04916 E

Lat.A =
33 22S
Lat.B =
1051S

D. Long.AB = 113 08 4916 = 6352(W)

CAPT. KHAN

THE SHIP OFFICERS HANDBOOK

NAVIGATION
Distance
=
DAB cos 1 ( sinLat.A sinLat.B + cosLat.A cosLat.B cosD. Long.AB )

= cos 1 ( sin33 22 sin1051 + cos33 22 cos1051 cos6352 )

Initial course

Final course

= 6218.1

Distance = 3738.1miles

sinLat.B sinLat.A cosDAB

=cos 1

cosLat.A sinDAB

sin1051 sin33 22 cos6218.1

cos 1
9513.8 =
95.2
=
=
cos33 22 sin6218.1

Initial course
= S95.2 W
= 275.2 T

sinLat A sinLat B cosDAB

=cos 1

cosLat B sinDAB

sin33 22 sin1051 cos6218.1

cos 1
5752.1 =
57.9
=
=
cos1051 sin6218.1

Final course
= N57.9 W= 302.1 T

Example 3 Find the distance and initial course of great circle sailing from
Vancouver to Guam:
Crossing 180
Vancouver (A): 4912 N 12250 W
meridian
Guam (B): 1330 N 14515 E
Lat.A = 4912 N

Lat.B = 1330 N

D.Long.AB = 360 (12250 + 14515 )

= 9155(W)

=
DAB cos 1 ( sinLat.A sinLat.B + cosLat.A cosLat.B cosD. Long.AB )
Distance

= cos 1 ( sin4912 sin1330 + cos4912 cos1330 cos9155 )

Initial course

CAPT. KHAN

=8103.4
Distance = 4863.4 miles

sinLat.B sinLat.A cosDAB

=cos 1

cosLat.A sinDAB

sin1330 sin4912 cos8103.4

= cos 1
= 79 40.1= 79.7
cos4912 sin8103.4

Initial course
= N79.7 W
= 280.3 T

THE SHIP OFFICERS HANDBOOK

NAVIGATION
Example 4

Crossing 180
meridian

Find the distance and initial course of great circle sailing from Bluff
Harbour to Easter Island:
Bluff Harbour (A): 46 20S 16910 E
Easter Island (B): 2625S 10515 W
Lat.A = 46 20S

Lat.B = 2625S

D.Long.AB = 360 (16910 + 10515 )

= 8535(E)

=
DAB cos 1 ( sinLat.A sinLat.B + cosLat.A cosLat.B cosD. Long.AB )
Distance

= cos 1 ( sin46 20 sin2625 + cos46 20 cos2625 cos8535 )

Initial course

Example 5

Crossing the Equator

and 180 meridian

=6819.1

Distance = 4099.1miles

sinLat.B sinLat.A cosDAB

=cos 1

cosLat.A sinDAB

sin2625 sin46 20 cos6819.1

= cos 1
= 7355.5= 73.9
cos46 20 sin6819.1

Initial course
= S73.9=
E 106.1 T

Find the distance, initial course and final course of great circle
sailing:

From A : 17 S 170 E
To B : 22 N 110 W

Lat.A =
17 S
Lat.B =
22 N

D.Long.=
360 (170 + 110 )
AB
= 80(E)

Since the name of the latitude of

the destination is contrary to the
latitude of departure, then the
latitude of destination is treated as
a negative quantity.

=
DAB cos 1 ( sinLat.A sinLat.B + cosLat.A cosLat.B cosD. Long.AB )
Distance
= cos 1 ( sin17 sin( 22) + cos17cos( 22)cos80 )

CAPT. KHAN

=87 27.2

Distance = 5247.2miles

THE SHIP OFFICERS HANDBOOK

NAVIGATION

Initial course

Final course

Example 6

Rhumb line sailing

sinLat.B sinLat.A cosDAB

=cos 1

cosLat.A sinDAB

sin ( 22 ) sin17 cos8727.2

= cos 1

cos17 sin8727.2

= 11356.1
= 113.9
Initial course
= S113.9=
E 066.1 T

sinLat A sinLat B cosDAB

=cos 1

cosLat B sinDAB

sin17 sin( 22)cos87 27.2

= cos 1

cos( 22)sin8727.2

= 7030.7= 70.5
Final course
= N70.5=
E 070.5 T

Compare rhumb line distance with great circle distance:

Dunedin (A): 45 44S 17115 E
Panama (B): 730 N 7921 W

Lat.A 4544S
Lat.B 730 N

D. Lat.

3194(N)

D.M.P. 3524.04

Long.A 17115 E
Long.B 79 21 W

D. Long.

D.Long.
6564
C tan 1
tan 1
=
=
=

61.8
D.M.P.
3524.04
Distance
=

Great circle sailing

M.P.A 3075.80
M.P.B 448.24

6564(E)

D. Lat.
3194
=
= 6159.1miles
cosC cos61.8

Lat.A = 45 44 S

Lat.B = 0730 N

D.Long.AB = 360 (17115 + 79 21 ) = 109 24

=
DAB cos 1 ( sinLat.A sinLat.B + cosLat.A cosLat.B cosD. Long.AB )

= cos 1 ( sin45 44 sin730 + cos45 44 cos730 cos109 24 )

= 10851.9

Distance = 6531.9miles

Difference = 6531.9 6159.1 = 372.8miles

CAPT. KHAN

THE SHIP OFFICERS HANDBOOK

NAVIGATION
Vertex

The arc of a great circle will always curve towards the nearest pole
and away from the equator. The vertex is the point on a great circle
that is closest to the pole; by knowing the latitude of the vertex, if it
is too high (which is usually associates with ice, fog, cold and severe
weather), the navigator might have to modify the passage plan for a
safer voyage. There are two vertices on a great circle, 180 apart; the
nearer vertex is usually the chosen one for navigational calculation.
The vertexs latitude is always numerically equal to or greater than
the latitude of any other point on the great circle, including the
latitude of departure and destination. At the vertex, the great circle
is running in a direction of 090/270. Knowing the position of the
vertex also helps in calculating the position of any intermediate
position on the track of a great circle. In the spherical triangle APB, if
angles A and B are less than 90; the vertex will lie inside the triangle
between A and B, as shown in the figure (1) below, and the ships
track passes through the vertex. If either A or B is greater than 90,
the vertex will lie outside the spherical triangle and on the side of the
angle which is greater than 90, as shown in the figure (2) below, and
the ships track does not pass through the vertex.

The

vertex is 90 from the point where the track of the great

circle cuts the equator.

The course where the great circle crosses the equator is equal to

the co. latitude of the vertex.

A
AV
V
V
QV
EQ
C

Initial position
Great circle track
Vertex (upper branch)
Vertex (lower branch)
Latitude of vertex
Equator
Intersection of GC track and
equator

GC course at equator
PNV Co. Latitude of vertex V
PN V =

CV =
90

CAPT. KHAN

THE SHIP OFFICERS HANDBOOK

NAVIGATION
The position of the vertex, and the distance from departure point to
vertex, can be calculated by using Napiers Rules in the right angle
triangle PVA:

For all formulas used for great circle vertex calculations, if the name of
the latitude of any position, including the departure and destination, is
contrary to the latitude of the vertex, then the latitude of those having
a contrary name to the latitude of vertex is treated as a negative
quantity.
Latitude of the
vertex
=
sinPV cos
=
( co A ) cos(coPA) sin AsinPA
(Lat.V)
cosLat.V =
sin AcosLat.A

=
Lat.V cos 1 ( sin cosLat.A ) or
=
Lat.V cos 1 ( sin cosLat.B )

Difference of
longitude between
departure and vertex
(D. Long.AV)

sin(coP) = tanPV tan(coPA)

tanL
cot PA
cosP = cosD.Long.AV =A
cot PV
tanL V
tanLat.A
D.Long.AV = cos 1

tanLat.V

D. Long. can also be found by the formula:

sin(co A) = cosPV cos(coP)

cos A = cosPV sinP
cos A
cos A
sinP=
sinD.Long.AV=
cosPV
sinLat.V
cos
D.Long.AV = sin 1

sinLat.V

When using above formula, if the latitude of departure is contrary to

the vertex, then the result has to be subtracted by 180 to get corrected
D. Long.
Difference of
longitude between
destination and vertex
(D. Long.BV)

tanLat.B
cos
1
D.Long.BV = cos 1
or D.Long.BV = sin

tanLat.V
sinLat.V
Similarly, when using the above formula, if the latitude of destination
is contrary to vertex, then the result has to be subtracted by 180 to get
corrected D. Long.

Distance
from
=
sin AV cos(coPA)cos(coP)
= sinPAsinP
departure position to sinD =
cosLat.A sinD.Long.AV
AV
the vertex (DAV)
CAPT. KHAN

THE SHIP OFFICERS HANDBOOK

NAVIGATION
DAV = sin 1 ( cosLat.A sinD. Long.AV )
sin(coP) = cos AV cos(co A)
cosP = cos AV sin A
cosP
cos AV =
sin A

Example 7

or

cosD. Long.AV
DAV = cos 1

sin

Find the great circle distance, the initial course and the position
of the vertex, and also the distance from departure position to the
vertex:
From A : 3455S 5610 W
To B : 3355S 18 25 E

Lat.A =
3455S
Lat.B =
3355S

D. Long.AB = 05610 + 18 25 = 7435(E)

=
DAB cos 1 ( sinLat.A sinLat.B + cosLat.A cosLat.B cosD. Long.AB )
Distance

Initial course

Vertexs position

= cos 1 ( sin3455 sin3355 + cos3455 cos3355 cos7435 )

= 5958.9

Distance = 3598.9miles

sinLat.B sinLat.A cosDAB

=cos 1

cosLat.A sinDAB

sin3355 sin3455 cos5958.9

cos 1
6730.4 =
67.5
=
=
cos3455 sin5958.9

Initial course
= S67.5=
E 112.5 T

Lat.V = cos 1 ( sin coslat.A ) = cos 1 ( sin6730.4 cos3455 )

Lat.=
40 44.8S
V

tanLat A
1 tan3455
D. Long.V= cos 1
=
=
cos
3553.0(E)
tan40 44.8
tanLat.V
Long.V = 5610 W 3553.0(E) = 2017 W

CAPT. KHAN

Vertex's Position: Lat.V =

44 44.8S Long.V =
2017.0 W

THE SHIP OFFICERS HANDBOOK

NAVIGATION
Distance from
departure position to
the vertex
Practical Method for
Great Circle Sailing

DAV
= sin 1 ( cosLat.A sinD.Long.AV=
) sin 1 ( cos3455 sin3553.0)
= 28 43.6

Distance = 1723.6 miles

It is not practical for a ship to sail along a great circle track, because
she has to change course constantly in order to follow it. Therefore,
the great circle is divided into equal segments by longitudes, and is
then made up of a series of rhumb lines. The rhumb lines can be
plotted on the Mercator chart and followed by the ship. The rule of
thumb for selecting the equal interval D. Long. from the vertex is:
Short legs in lower latitudes,
long legs in higher latitudes

Latitude at the
meridian cuts the
great circle track

By using Napiers rules for the spherical right-angle triangle PVX:

sin(coP) = tanPV tan(coPX)
cosP = tanPV cot PX
cosP
cot PX =
tanPX = cosPcot PV
tanPV
tanLat.X =
cosD.Long.VX tanLat.V

Lat.X = tan 1 ( cosD.Long.VX tanLat.V )

Course at the
sin(coX) = cosPV cos(coP)
meridian cuts the
=
cosX cosPV
=
sinP sinLat.V sinD.Long.VX
great circle track
1
X = cos ( sinLat.V sinD.Long.VX )
The longitude can also be selected as the equal interval distance on
the great circle from the vertex, and the position can be calculated by
using Napiers rules:

sin(coPX) = cosPV cosVX

=
cosPX cosPV cosVX
sinLat.
=
sinLat.V cosDVX
X
Lat.X = sin 1 ( sinLat.V cosDVX )
sin(coP) = tan(coPX)tanPV
cosP
= cot PX tanPV

cosD.Long.VX=

tanLat X
D. Long.VX = cos 1

tanLat V

CAPT. KHAN

tanLat.X
tanLat.V

THE SHIP OFFICERS HANDBOOK

NAVIGATION
Example 8

Find: the great circle distance; initial course; final course; position
of the vertex; and the latitudes that cut intermediate meridians at 5
intervals, starting from the departure meridian:
From A : 51 25 N 930 W
To B : 46 00 N 49 00 W
Lat.A = 51 25 N

Lat.B = 46 00 N

D.Long.AB = 4900 W 930 W

= 3930(W)

Distance
=
DAB cos 1 ( sinLat.A sinLat.B + cosLat.A cosLat.B cosD. Long.AB )

= cos 1 ( sin5125 sin46 00 + cos51 25 cos46 00 cos3930 )

Initial course

Final course

=2617.1

Distance = 1577.1miles

sinLat.B sinLat.A cosDAB

=cos 1

cosLat.A sinDAB

sin46 00 sin51 25 cos3930

= cos 1
= 86 09.9= 86.2
cos51 25 sin3930

Initial course
= N86.2 W
= 273.8 T

sinLat A sinLat B cosDAB

=cos 1

cosLat B sinDAB

sin51 25 sin4600'cos3930
= cos 1
= 6336.5= 63.6
cos4600 sin3930

Final course
= S63.6 W
= 243.6 T

Vertexs Position =
Lat.V cos 1 ( sin coslat.A )

= cos 1 ( sin86 09.9 cos51 25 ) = 5131.1 N

tanLat A
D. Long.AV =
cos 1
tanLat V

tan5125
454.0(W)
=

=
tan5131.1

Long.V =
930.0 W + 454.0(W) =
1424.0 W

Waypoints

CAPT. KHAN

Vertex's Position: Lat.V =5131.1 N Long.V =1424.0 W

For intervals of D. Long. of 5 from departure position (A)

Long.A =
930.0 W

Long.V =1424.0 W

THE SHIP OFFICERS HANDBOOK

NAVIGATION
Latitude of any x position can be calculated by formula:
Lat.X = tan 1 ( cosD.Long.VX tanLat.V )

Position
X1
X2
X3
X4
X5
X6
X7

Example 9

D. Long.VX
Longitude
(Long.X ) (Long.X Long.V )
1430 W
1930 W
2430 W

2930 W
3430 W
3930 W

4430 W

Latitude
(Lat.X )

006
506
1006

5131.1 N
5124.5 N
5104.9 N

3006

4725.4 N

1506
2006
2506

5032.1 N
4945.2 N
4843.4 N

Find: the great circle distance; initial course; position of the vertex;
distance from departure position to the vertex; and the positions
where the meridians of 140 W, 160 W, 180 and 160 E cut the track
on the great circle:
From A : 48 24 N 124 44 W
To B : 3450 N 13950 E

Lat.A =
48 24 N
Lat.B =
3450 N

D.Long.=
360 (124 44 + 13950 )
AB
= 95 26(W)

Distance
=
DAB cos 1 ( sinLat.A sinLat.B + cosLat.A cosLat.B cosD. Long.AB )

Initial course

CAPT. KHAN

= cos 1 ( sin48 24 sin3450 + cos48 24 cos3450 cos95 26 )

= 5756.6

Distance = 4076.6miles

sinLat.B sinLat.A cosDAB

=cos 1

cosLat.A sinDAB

sin3450 sin48 24 cos6756.6

= cos 1

cos48 24 sin6756.6

6150.6 =
61.8
=

Initial course
= N61.8 W
= 298.2 T

THE SHIP OFFICERS HANDBOOK

NAVIGATION

Lat.V cos 1 ( sin cosLat.A )

Vertexs Position =

=cos 1 ( sin6150.6 cos48 24 ) =5410.3 N

tanLat A tan4824
D. Long.AV =cos 1
=
=3535.6(W)
tanLat V tan5410.3
Long.V = 124 44 W + 3535.6 = 16019.6 W

Distance from
departure position to
the vertex

Position where the

meridian cut the great
circle track

Vertex's Position: Lat.V =

5410.3 N Long.V =
16019.6 W

DAV = sin 1 ( cosLat.A sinD.Long.AV )

= sin 1 ( cos48 24 sin3535.6 )

= 22 43.9

Lat.X = tan 1 ( cosD. Long.VX tanLat.V )

Position
X1
X2

X3
X4
Example 10

Crossing Equator

D. Long.VX
Longitude
(Long.X ) (Long.X Long.V )
140 W
160 W

180 W
160 E

2019.6
019.6

1940.4
3940.4

Distance = 1363.9 miles

Latitude
(Lat.X )

5224.4 N
5410.3 N

5231.3 N
4650.0 N

Find the great circle distance; initial course; final course; longitude
where the great circle crosses the equator; nearest vertex; and the
waypoints at 10 intervals from 130W to 170W:
From A : 30 N 120 W
To B : 20 S 173 W

Lat.A =
30 N
Lat.B =
20 S

D.Long.AB= 173 120= 53 (W)

Since the name of the latitude of

the destination is contrary to the
latitude of departure, then the
latitude of destination is treated as
a negative quantity.

CAPT. KHAN

THE SHIP OFFICERS HANDBOOK

NAVIGATION
Distance
=
DAB cos 1 ( sinLat.A sinLat.B + cosLat.A cosLat.B cosD. Long.AB )
= cos 1 sin30 sin ( 20 ) + cos30 cos ( 20 ) cos53
=71 24.8

Distance = 4284.8miles

Initial course

sinLat.B sinLat.A cosDAB

=cos 1

cosLat.A sinDAB

sin ( 20 ) sin30 cos7124.8

= cos 1

cos30 sin7124.8

= 12738.9
= 127.6

sinLat A sinLat B cosDAB

=cos 1

cosLat B sinDAB

sin30 sin ( 20 ) cos71 24.8

= cos 1

cos ( 20 ) sin71 24.8

= 4651.7= 46.9

Final course

Vertexs position

Initial course
= N127.6 W
= 232.4 T

Final course
= S46.9 W
= 226.9 T

In this case, the angle PAB is greater than 90; therefore, the vertex
does not lie between A and B, but outside of the A side. From the
right-angled triangle PVA:

=
Lat.V cos 1 ( sin cosLat.A )

= cos 1 ( sin12738.9 cos30 ) = 46 42.6 N

tanLat A tan30
D. Long.AV =cos 1
=
=5703.1(E)
tanLat V tan4642.6

Long.=
120 W + 57 03.1
= 06256.9 W
V

Vertex's Position: Lat.V =4642.6 N Long.V =06256.9 W

Longitude where At the pole, the meridian of the position where the great circle
great circle crosses crosses the equator is 90 with the meridian of the vertex. We can
the Equator prove this as follows:
tanLat.X = cosD.Long.VX tanLat.V

At equator, Lat.X equals zero so tanLat.X = 0

cosD.Long.VX tanLat.
=
0
V

Lat.V 0 tanLat.V 0

cosD.Long.VX =
0
D.Long.VX =
90

CAPT. KHAN

THE SHIP OFFICERS HANDBOOK

NAVIGATION
Longitude
=
Long.V + D. Long.VXE
XE

=6256.9 W + 90 =15256.9 W

Positions where the

meridian cut the great
circle track

Meridian where great circle crosses the equator is 15256.9 W

Lat.X = tan 1 ( cosD.Long.VX tanLat.V )

Position
X1
X2
X3
X4
X5

Example 11

Crossing Equator
and 180 Meridian

CAPT. KHAN

D. Long.VX
Longitude
(Long.X ) (Long.X Long.V )
130 W
140 W
150 W
160 W
170 W

6703.0
7703.0
8703.0
9703.0
10703.0

Latitude
(Lat.X )

2229.1 N
1322.8 N
0307.5 N
0725.5S
1717.4S

From A : 45 N 100 W
To B : 30 S 130 E

Find:
1. Great circle distance
2. Initial course
3. Final course
4. Vertexs position
5. Course at equator
6. Longitude when crossing equator
7. Latitude when crossing 180 meridian
8. Course and latitude for every 10 longitude
9. Mercator sailing course and distance
10. Compare distance between sailing methods.

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NAVIGATION

Lat.A =
45 N
Lat.B =
30 S

D.Long.=
360 (100 + 130=
) 130(W)
AB

Since the name of the latitude of the destination is contrary to the

latitude of departure, then the latitude of destination is treated as a
negative quantity.
Distance
=
DAB cos 1 sinLat.A sinLat.B + cosLat.A cosLat.B cosD. Long.AB
= cos 1 sin45 sin ( 30 ) + cos45 cos ( 30 ) cos130
= 138 20.8

Distance = 8300.8miles

sin ( Lat.B ) sinLat.A cosDAB

=cos 1

cosLat.A sinDAB

Initial course

sin ( 30 ) sin45 cos13820.8

= cos 1

cos45 sin13820.8

= 8632.6= 86.5

Initial course
= N86.5 W
= 273.5 T

sinLat.A sin ( Lat.B ) cosDAB

=cos 1

cos ( Lat.B ) sinDAB

Final course

Vertexs position

sin45 sin ( 30 ) cos138 20.8

= cos 1

cos ( 30 ) sin13820.8

= 5435.3= 54.6

Final course
= S54.6 W= 234.6 T

Lat.V = cos 1 ( sin AcosLat.A )

= cos 1 ( sin8632.6 cos45 )= 4506.2 N

tanLat A
D. Long.AV =
cos 1
tanLat V

tan45
452.9(W)
=

=
tan4506.2

Long.V= 100 00 W + 452.9(W)= 10452.9W

Vertex's Position: Lat.V =4506.2 N Long.V =10452.9 W

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THE SHIP OFFICERS HANDBOOK

NAVIGATION
Great circle course
when crossing the
Equator

At the equator, the angle between a great circle track and the
equator equals the latitude of the vertex.
=Latitude of vertex

Course= 180 +

= 180 + coLat.V
= 180 + ( 90 4506.2 )
= 22453.8

Longitude of position
at Equator

Latitude when
crossing 180
Meridian

= 224.9T

The meridian of the position at the equator and the meridian of the
vertex would make an angle of 90 at the pole.
Longitude = 360 (10452.9 + 90 ) = 16507.1 E

Lat.X = tan 1 ( cosD.Long.VX tanLat.V )

Latitude at every 10

of Longitude

D.Long.VX =180 10452.9 =7507.1

Lat.X =tan 1 ( cos7507.1 tan4506.2 ) =1427.2N

Lat.X = tan 1 ( cosD.Long.VX tanLat.V )

Position
X1
X2

X3
X4

D. Long.VX
Longitude
(Long.X ) (Long.X Long.V )
110 W
120 W

130 W
140 W
150 W

507.1
1507.1

452.9 N
507.0S
1440.1S

5507.1

X9
X10
X11

170 E
160 E
150 E

8507.1
9507.1
10507.1

X12

140 E

4459.4 N
4405.7 N

4215.7 N
3923.0 N
3518.4 N

160 W

170 W
180

Latitude
(Lat.X )

2507.1
3507.1
4507.1

X5
X6

X7
X8

CAPT. KHAN

6507.1
7507.1

11507.1

2951.3 N
2253.6 N
1427.2 N

2304.5S

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NAVIGATION
Rhumb line course
and distance at every
10 of Longitude

Lat.

100 W

4500.0 N

X2

120 W

4405.7 N

X1

X3

X4
X5

X6
X7

X8

X9

X 10
X 11

X 12

X 13

Mercator sailing
course and distance

Long.

X0

110 W

130 W

4459.4 N

4215.7 N

140 W

3923.0 N

160 W

2951.3 N

150 W

170 W

3518.4 N

2253.6 N

180

1427.2 N

160 E

507.0 S

170 E

150 E

140 E

130 E

452.9 N

1440.1 S

2304.5 S

3000.0 S

D. Lat.

Mean Lat.

4459.7 N

0.6

4432.6 N

Dep.

Co.

424.3 269.9

Dist.

424.3

53.7

427.6 262.8

431.0

4049.4 N

172.7

454.0 249.2

485.7

3234.9 N

327.1

505.6

237.1

1840.4 N

506.4

568.4

228.3

007.1 S

599.9

600.0

1852.3 S

504.4

4310.7 N

110.0

3720.7 N

244.6

2622.5 N

417.7

940.1 N

574.3

953.6 S

573.1

2632.3 S

415.5

437.5 255.9

451.1

477.0 242.9

536.1

232.1

680.7

225.9

824.4

537.5

591.5

591.1

567.8

536.8

225.0
225.9

228.4

232.3

602.2

761.3

848.5

823.3

759.5

678.8

Total distance: 8306.9 miles

From A : 45 N 100 W
To B : 30 S 130 E

Lat.A

45 N

Lat.B
30 S
D. Lat. 4500(S)

M.P.A 3013.38

M.P.B 1876.67
D.M.P. 4890.05

Long.A

100 W

Long.B 130 E
D. Long. 7800(W)

D.Long.
7800
C tan 1
tan 1
=
=
=

57.9
D.M.P.
4890.05

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NAVIGATION

Course
= S57.9 W + 180
=
237.9T
Distance
=

Compare distances
between methods of
sailings

D. Lat
4500
=
= 8471.8miles
cosC cos57.9

Great circle distance: 8300.8 miles

Series rhumb line course: 8306.9 miles
One rhumb line course: 8471.8 miles

We can see there is not much difference when breaking down the
great circle track by a series of rhumb lines for convenience (6.1
miles difference), but it still saves compared to Mercator sailing
164.9 miles.

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NAVIGATION
Composite Great
Circle Sailing

The great circle track is always curved toward the nearest pole,
where its vertex is the point nearest to the pole. In very high latitudes,
the track of a great circle cannot go beyond a certain latitude due to
navigational restrictions, e.g., ice, fog, severe weather, etc. In such
cases, the sailing track of a great circle has to be modified. The track
then consists of the combined parts of great circles and the parallel
of limiting latitude, which is called Composite Great Circle Sailing.
So, composite great circle sailing is a combination of great circle
sailing and parallel sailing.

sinPV1 cos
=
Initial=
course
( co A ) cos ( coPA ) sin AsinPA

sin A
=

sinPV1 cosLat.V
=
sinPA cosLat.A

cosLat.V
=sin 1

cosLat.A

Final=
course
sinPV2 cos
=
( coPB) cos ( coB) sinPBsinB

CAPT. KHAN

=
sinB

sinPV2 cosLat.V
=
sinPB cosLat.B

cosLat.V
=sin 1

cosLat.B

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NAVIGATION
D. Long. between
sin ( coP1 ) = tanPV1 tan ( coPA )
departure,
tanLat.A
=
=
cosP1 tanPV
destination
1 cot PA
tanLat.V
positions and

vertices
tanLat.A
D.Long.AV1 = cos 1

tanLat.V

sin ( coP2 ) = tanPV2 tan ( coPB )

=
=
cosP2 tanPV
2 cot PB

tanLat.B
tanLat.V

tanLat.B
D.Long.BV2 = cos 1
tanLat.V

Distance from
departure position
and destination to
limiting latitude

sin ( coPA ) = cos AV1 cosPV1

sin ( coPB ) = cosBV2 cosPV2

cos
=
AV1

cosBV
=
2

cosPA = cos AV1 cosPV1

Distance along
limiting latitude

cosPA sinLat.A
=
cosPV1 sinLat.V

sinLat.A
AV1 = cos 1

sinLat.V
V1 V2 = D.Long.V

1 V2

cosPB = cosBV2 cosPV2

cosPB sinLat.B
=
cosPV2 sinLat.V

sinLat.B
BV2 = cos 1

sinLat.V

cosLat.V

Where D.Long.V1 V2 =D.Long.AB D.Long.AV1 + D.Long.BV2

CAPT. KHAN

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NAVIGATION
Example 12

Find the initial course, final course, meridians of the vertices and the
total distance of the following great circle positions if the limiting
latitude is 38 S:
From A: 3455S 05610 W
To B: 3355S 018 25 E

Initial course

Final course

Meridians of the
vertices

cosLat.V
1 cos38
= sin 1
= sin
= 7356.8
cos3455
cosLat.A
Initial course
E 106.1 T
= S73.9=

cosLat.V
1 cos38
= sin 1
= sin
= 71 43.7
cos3355
cosLat.B
Final course
E 071.7 T
= N71.7=

tanLat.A
1 tan3455
D.Long.AV=
cos 1
=
=
cos
26 41.4(E)
1
tanLat.
tan38
V

Long.V1 = 5610 W 26 41.4(E) = 29 28.6 W

tanLat.B
1 tan3355
D.Long.BV=
cos 1
=
=
cos
3036.8(W)
2
tan38
tanLat.V
Long.V2 = 3036.8(W) 18 25 E = 1211.8 W

Distance AV1 and BV2

sinLat.A
1 sin3455
AV=
cos 1
=
=
cos
1
2131.7
sin38
sinLat.V

Distance AV1 = 1296.7miles

sinLat.B
1 sin3355
BV=
cos 1
=
=
cos
2
2459.9
sin38
sinLat.V

Distance BV2 = 1499.9miles

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NAVIGATION

Distance V1V2

D.Long.V1 V2 =D.Long.AB D.Long.AV1 + D.Long.BV2

= (5610 + 18 25 ) ( 26 41.4 + 3036.8 )

=
1716.8 =
1036.8

=
=
817
V1 V
D.Long.V1 V2 cosLat.=
1036.8 cos38
2
V

Distance V1 V2 = 817miles

Total Distance
= 1296.7 + 1499.9 + 817
= 3613.6 miles

Example 13

A composite great circle route from 3540 N 14000 E to 3730N

12000W. Limited latitude is 45. Find initial and final course,
longitudes of the vertices and total distance:
From A: 35 40 N 140 E
To B: 3730 N 120 W

Initial course

Final course

Meridians
(longitudes) of the
vertices
CAPT. KHAN

cosLat.V
1 cos45
=
sin 1
=
=
sin
60.5
cosLat.
cos3540

A
Initial Course
= N60.5=
E 060.5 T

cosLat.V
= sin 1
cosLat.B

1 cos45
= sin
= 63
cos3730

Final Course
= S63=
E 180 63
=
117T

tanLat.A
1 tan35 40
D.Long.AV1 =cos 1
=cos
=44 08.2(E)
tan45
tanLat.V
Long.V=
360 (140E + 44 08.2=
) 17551.8 W
1

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NAVIGATION
tanLat.B
1 tan3730
D.Long.BV2 =cos 1
=cos
=3953.1(W)
tan45
tanLat.V
Long.V2 = 120W + 3953.1 = 15953.1 W

Distance AV1 and BV2

sinLat.A
AV1 =cos 1
sinLat.V

1 sin35 40
=cos
=34 27.2
sin45

Distance AV1 = 2067.2miles

sinLat.B
1 sin3730
BV2 =cos 1
=cos
=3034.8
sin45
sinLat.V

Distance BV2 = 1834.8miles

Distance V1V2

D. Long.
=
Long.V1 Long.V2
V1 V2

= 17551.8 15953.1= 1558.7= 958.7

V=
D.Long.V1 V2 cosLat.
=
958.7 cos45
=
677.9
1 V2
V

DistanceV1 V2 = 677.9miles
Using ABC Tables
for Great Circle
Sailing

Total Distance = 2067.2 + 1834.8 + 677.9 = 4579.9 miles

The ABC tables can be used to find the initial and final courses
similarly to finding the azimuth. For finding the initial course, the
departure latitude is used as DR latitude; destination latitude is
used as declination, and D. Long. is used as hour angle with direction
east or west. Similarly for finding final course, destination latitude
becomes DR latitude, departure latitude becomes destination and
same hour angle except direction is opposite in initial course case.
Then the course is named according to the direction (East or West),
instead of the size of the hour angle.

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NAVIGATION
Example 14

Using the ABC table, find the initial and final courses of great circle
sailing:
From A: 48 24 N 124 44 W
To B: 3450 N 13950 E

D.Long.AB= 360 (124 44 + 13950=

) 9526(W)
Initial course

Final course

Example 15

Azimuth
= N61.7 W
Initial Course
= N61.7 W
= 298.3 T
Lat.B 3450 N A 0.07 N

Lat.A 4824 N B 1.13 N

D.Long.AB 9526(E) C 1.20 N

Azimuth
= N45.4 E
Final Course
= S45.4 W
= 225.4 T

Find initial course and final course of great circle sailing:

From A: 33 22S 113 08 E
To B: 1051S 04916 E

D.Long .AB = 113 08 4916 = 6352(W)

Initial course

Final course

CAPT. KHAN

Lat.B 48 24 N A 0.11 N

Lat.A 3450 N B 0.70 N

D.Long.AB 95 26(W) C 0.81 N

Lat.B 33 22S A 0.32 N

Lat.A 1051S B 0.21 S

D.Long.AB 6352(W) C 0.11 N

Azimuth
= N84.8 W
Initial Course
= N84.8 W
= 275.2 T
Lat.B 1051S A 0.09 N

Lat.A 33 22S B 0.73 S

D.Long.AB 6352(E) C 0.64 S

Azimuth
= S57.9 E
Final Course
= N57.9 W= 302.1 T
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NAVIGATION
The values A, B, and azimuth can also be computed by formulas:
A=

tanLat.A
tanP

B=

tanLat.B
sinP

1
Azimuth = tan 1

C cosLat.A

Where P is difference of longitude Between A and B positions, then

the above example can be solved as follows:

Initial course

Lat.A : latitude of observer

Lat.B : declination of celestial body

D. Long.: hour angle (W)
Initial course: azimuth
Lat.A = 33 22S

Lat.B = 1051S

D.Long.AB =P =LHA =6352(W)

tanLat.A
3322

=
= 0.323093 N A 0.323093 N
tanP
tan6352
B 0.213489 S
tanLat.B
1051

=
= 0.213489 S C 0.109603 N
B =
sinP
sin6352

=
A

1
1

1
1
Azimuth ( ) tan=
=

tan

0.109603 cos3322
C cosLat.A
=8446.2

Azimuth= N84 46.2 W= N84.8 W

Initial course
= N84.8 W
= 275.2 T

Final course

Lat.B : latitude of observer

Lat.A : declination of celestial body

D. Long.: hour angle (opposite direction of HA in initial course)

Final course: azimuth

At final position, direction of movement of the ship is away from

initial position, not toward, so the azimuth found must be added to or
subtracted from 180 to find correct heading of the ship.
Lat.B = 1051 N Lat.A = 33 22 N
D.Long.AB= P= LHA= 4858(E)

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NAVIGATION
tanLat.B
1051

=
= 0.094034 N A 0.094034 N
tanP
tan6352
B 0.733532 S
tanLat.A
3322

=
= 0.733532 S C 0.639498 S
B =
sinP
sin6352

=
A

1
1

1
1
Azimuth () tan
=
=

tan

C
cosLat.
0.639498
cos10
51

=5752.1

Azimuth= S5752.1 E= S57.9 E

Final course
= N57.9 W= 302.1 T

Example 16

Find initial course and final course by using the ABC computation
formula:

From A: 56 20 N 00812 W
To B: 5212 N 05710 W

Initial course

Lat.A =
56 20 N
Lat.B =
5212 N

D.Long.AB= P= LHA= 4858(W)

tanLat.
5620

=
= 1.306619 S A 1.306619 S
tanP
tan4858
B 1.709061 N
tanLat.
5212

=
= 1.709061 N C 0.402442 N
B =
sinP
sin4858

=
A

1
1

1
1
Azimuth ( ) tan=
=

tan

C
cosLat.
0.402442
cos56
20

=7725.4

Final course

Azimuth =
N77 25.4 W =
N77.4 W
Initial course
= N77.4 W
= 282.6 T
Lat.B =
5212 N Lat.A =
56 20 N

D.Long.AB= P= LHA= 4858(E)

tanLat.B
5212

=
= 1.121995 S A 1.121995 S
tanP
tan4858
B 1.990286 N
tanLat.A
5620

=
= 1.990286 N C 0.868291 N
B =
sinP
sin4858

=
A

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NAVIGATION

1
1

1
1
Azimuth () tan
=
=

tan

0.868291 cos5212
C cosLat.B
=6158.7

Azimuth= N6158.7 E= N62 E

Example 17

Initial course

Final course = S62 W = 242 T

Find initial course and final course of great circle sailing from Suva
to Honolulu:
Suva (A): 18 08S 178 26 E

Honolulu (B): 2119 N 15752 W

Lat.A = 18 08S Lat.B = 2119 N

D.Long.AB= P= LHA= 23 42()

tanLat.A
1808

=
= 0.746053 N A 0.746053 N
tanP
tan2342
B 0.970820 N
tanLat.B
2119

=
= 0.970820 N C 1.716873 N
B =
sinP
sin2342

=
A

1
1

1
1
Azimuth ( ) tan=
=

tan

1.716873 cos1808
C cosLat.A
=3130.2

Final course

Azimuth= N3130.2 E= N31.5 E

Initial course
= N31.5=
E 031.5 T

Lat.B = 2119 N Lat.A = 18 08 S

D.Long.AB= P= LHA= 23 42( W )

tanLat.
2119

=
= 0.888943 S A 0.888943 S
tanP
tan2342
B 0.814769 S
tanLat.
1808

=
= 0.814769 S C 1.703712 S
B =
sinP
sin2342

=
A

1
1

1
1
Azimuth () tan
=
=

tan

1.703712 cos2119
C cosLat.B
=3212.8

Azimuth = S3212.8 W = S32.2 W

Final course
= N32.2=
E 032.2 T

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