Welcome

to Swift

About Swift
Swift is a new programming language for iOS, OS X, watchOS, and tvOS apps that
builds on the best of C and Objective-C, without the constraints of C compatibility.
Swift adopts safe programming patterns and adds modern features to make
programming easier, more flexible, and more fun. Swifts clean slate, backed by the
mature and much-loved Cocoa and Cocoa Touch frameworks, is an opportunity to
reimagine how software development works.
Swift has been years in the making. Apple laid the foundation for Swift by
advancing our existing compiler, debugger, and framework infrastructure. We
simplified memory management with Automatic Reference Counting (ARC). Our
framework stack, built on the solid base of Foundation and Cocoa, has been
modernized and standardized throughout. Objective-C itself has evolved to support
blocks, collection literals, and modules, enabling framework adoption of modern
language technologies without disruption. Thanks to this groundwork, we can now
introduce a new language for the future of Apple software development.
Swift feels familiar to Objective-C developers. It adopts the readability of
Objective-Cs named parameters and the power of Objective-Cs dynamic object
model. It provides seamless access to existing Cocoa frameworks and mix-andmatch interoperability with Objective-C code. Building from this common ground,
Swift introduces many new features and unifies the procedural and object-oriented
portions of the language.
Swift is friendly to new programmers. It is the first industrial-quality systems
programming language that is as expressive and enjoyable as a scripting language.
It supports playgrounds, an innovative feature that allows programmers to
experiment with Swift code and see the results immediately, without the overhead of
building and running an app.
Swift combines the best in modern language thinking with wisdom from the wider
Apple engineering culture. The compiler is optimized for performance, and the
language is optimized for development, without compromising on either. Its
designed to scale from hello, world to an entire operating system. All this makes
Swift a sound future investment for developers and for Apple.
Swift is a fantastic way to write iOS, OS X, watchOS, and tvOS apps, and will

continue to evolve with new features and capabilities. Our goals for Swift are
ambitious. We cant wait to see what you create with it.

A Swift Tour
Tradition suggests that the first program in a new language should print the words
Hello, world! on the screen. In Swift, this can be done in a single line:

print("Hello, world!")

If you have written code in C or Objective-C, this syntax looks familiar to youin
Swift, this line of code is a complete program. You dont need to import a separate
library for functionality like input/output or string handling. Code written at global
scope is used as the entry point for the program, so you dont need a main()
function. You also dont need to write semicolons at the end of every statement.
This tour gives you enough information to start writing code in Swift by showing
you how to accomplish a variety of programming tasks. Dont worry if you dont
understand somethingeverything introduced in this tour is explained in detail in
the rest of this book.

N OTE
On a Mac, download the Playground and double-click the file to open it in Xcode:
https://developer.apple.com/go/?id=swift-tour

Simple Values
Use let to make a constant and var to make a variable. The value of a constant
doesnt need to be known at compile time, but you must assign it a value exactly
once. This means you can use constants to name a value that you determine once but
use in many places.

var myVariable = 42

myVariable = 50

let myConstant = 42

A constant or variable must have the same type as the value you want to assign to it.
However, you dont always have to write the type explicitly. Providing a value when
you create a constant or variable lets the compiler infer its type. In the example
above, the compiler infers that myVariable is an integer because its initial value is an
integer.
If the initial value doesnt provide enough information (or if there is no initial
value), specify the type by writing it after the variable, separated by a colon.
1

let implicitInteger = 70

let implicitDouble = 70.0

let explicitDouble: Double = 70

EXP ERIM EN T
Create a constant with an explicit type of Float and a value of 4.

Values are never implicitly converted to another type. If you need to convert a value
to a different type, explicitly make an instance of the desired type.
1

let label = "The width is "

let width = 94

let widthLabel = label + String(width)

EXP ERIM EN T
Try removing the conversion to String from the last line. What error do you get?

Theres an even simpler way to include values in strings: Write the value in
parentheses, and write a backslash (\) before the parentheses. For example:
1

let apples = 3

let oranges = 5

let appleSummary = "I have \(apples) apples."

let fruitSummary = "I have \(apples + oranges) pieces of fruit."

EXP ERIM EN T
Use \() to include a floating-point calculation in a string and to include someones name in a
greeting.

Create arrays and dictionaries using brackets ([]), and access their elements by
writing the index or key in brackets. A comma is allowed after the last element.
1

var shoppingList = ["catfish", "water", "tulips", "blue paint"]

shoppingList[1] = "bottle of water"

var occupations = [

"Malcolm": "Captain",

"Kaylee": "Mechanic",

occupations["Jayne"] = "Public Relations"

To create an empty array or dictionary, use the initializer syntax.

let emptyArray = [String]()

let emptyDictionary = [String: Float]()

If type information can be inferred, you can write an empty array as [] and an empty
dictionary as [:]for example, when you set a new value for a variable or pass an
argument to a function.
1

shoppingList = []

occupations = [:]

Control Flow
Use if and switch to make conditionals, and use for-in, for, while, and repeatwhile to make loops. Parentheses around the condition or loop variable are
optional. Braces around the body are required.
1

let individualScores = [75, 43, 103, 87, 12]

var teamScore = 0

for score in individualScores {

if score > 50 {

teamScore += 3

} else {

teamScore += 1

}
print(teamScore)

In an if statement, the conditional must be a Boolean expressionthis means that

code such as if score { ... } is an error, not an implicit comparison to zero.
You can use if and let together to work with values that might be missing. These
values are represented as optionals. An optional value either contains a value or
contains nil to indicate that a value is missing. Write a question mark (?) after the
type of a value to mark the value as optional.
1

var optionalString: String? = "Hello"

print(optionalString == nil)

var optionalName: String? = "John Appleseed"

var greeting = "Hello!"

if let name = optionalName {

greeting = "Hello, \(name)"

EXP ERIM EN T
Change optionalName to nil. What greeting do you get? Add an else clause that sets a
different greeting if optionalName is nil.

If the optional value is nil, the conditional is false and the code in braces is
skipped. Otherwise, the optional value is unwrapped and assigned to the constant
after let, which makes the unwrapped value available inside the block of code.
Another way to handle optional values is to provide a default value using the ??
operator. If the optional value is missing, the default value is used instead.

let nickName: String? = nil

let fullName: String = "John Appleseed"

let informalGreeting = "Hi \(nickName ?? fullName)"

Switches support any kind of data and a wide variety of comparison operations
they arent limited to integers and tests for equality.
1

let vegetable = "red pepper"

switch vegetable {

case "celery":

print("Add some raisins and make ants on a log.")

case "cucumber", "watercress":

print("That would make a good tea sandwich.")

case let x where x.hasSuffix("pepper"):

print("Is it a spicy \(x)?")

default:
print("Everything tastes good in soup.")
}

EXP ERIM EN T
Try removing the default case. What error do you get?

Notice how let can be used in a pattern to assign the value that matched that part of a
pattern to a constant.
After executing the code inside the switch case that matched, the program exits from
the switch statement. Execution doesnt continue to the next case, so there is no need

to explicitly break out of the switch at the end of each cases code.
You use for-in to iterate over items in a dictionary by providing a pair of names to
use for each key-value pair. Dictionaries are an unordered collection, so their keys
and values are iterated over in an arbitrary order.
1

let interestingNumbers = [

"Prime": [2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13],

"Fibonacci": [1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8],

"Square": [1, 4, 9, 16, 25],

var largest = 0

for (kind, numbers) in interestingNumbers {

for number in numbers {

if number > largest {

largest = number
}
}
}
print(largest)

EXP ERIM EN T
Add another variable to keep track of which kind of number was the largest, as well as what that
largest number was.

Use while to repeat a block of code until a condition changes. The condition of a
loop can be at the end instead, ensuring that the loop is run at least once.

var n = 2

while n < 100 {

n = n * 2

print(n)

var m = 2

repeat {

m = m * 2
} while m < 100
print(m)

You can keep an index in a loopeither by using ..< to make a range of indexes or
by writing an explicit initialization, condition, and increment. These two loops do
the same thing:

var firstForLoop = 0

for i in 0..<4 {

firstForLoop += i

print(firstForLoop)

var secondForLoop = 0

for var i = 0; i < 4; ++i {

secondForLoop += i
}
print(secondForLoop)

Use ..< to make a range that omits its upper value, and use ... to make a range that
includes both values.

Functions and Closures

Use func to declare a function. Call a function by following its name with a list of
arguments in parentheses. Use -> to separate the parameter names and types from
the functions return type.
1

func greet(name: String, day: String) -> String {

return "Hello \(name), today is \(day)."

greet("Bob", day: "Tuesday")

EXP ERIM EN T
Remove the day parameter. Add a parameter to include todays lunch special in the greeting.

Use a tuple to make a compound valuefor example, to return multiple values

from a function. The elements of a tuple can be referred to either by name or by
number.

func calculateStatistics(scores: [Int]) -> (min: Int, max: Int,

sum: Int) {

var min = scores[0]

var max = scores[0]

var sum = 0

for score in scores {

if score > max {

max = score

} else if score < min {

min = score
}
sum += score
}

return (min, max, sum)
}
let statistics = calculateStatistics([5, 3, 100, 3, 9])
print(statistics.sum)
print(statistics.2)

Functions can also take a variable number of arguments, collecting them into an
array.

func sumOf(numbers: Int...) -> Int {

var sum = 0

for number in numbers {

sum += number

return sum

sumOf()

sumOf(42, 597, 12)

EXP ERIM EN T
Write a function that calculates the average of its arguments.

Functions can be nested. Nested functions have access to variables that were
declared in the outer function. You can use nested functions to organize the code in a
function that is long or complex.

func returnFifteen() -> Int {

var y = 10

func add() {

y += 5

add()

return y

returnFifteen()

Functions are a first-class type. This means that a function can return another
function as its value.
1

func makeIncrementer() -> ((Int) -> Int) {

func addOne(number: Int) -> Int {

return 1 + number

return addOne

var increment = makeIncrementer()

increment(7)

A function can take another function as one of its arguments.

func hasAnyMatches(list: [Int], condition: (Int) -> Bool) -> Bool {

for item in list {

if condition(item) {

return true

return false

func lessThanTen(number: Int) -> Bool {

return number < 10
}
var numbers = [20, 19, 7, 12]
hasAnyMatches(numbers, condition: lessThanTen)

Functions are actually a special case of closures: blocks of code that can be called
later. The code in a closure has access to things like variables and functions that
were available in the scope where the closure was created, even if the closure is in a
different scope when it is executedyou saw an example of this already with nested
functions. You can write a closure without a name by surrounding code with braces
({}). Use in to separate the arguments and return type from the body.
1

numbers.map({

(number: Int) -> Int in

let result = 3 * number

return result

})

EXP ERIM EN T
Rewrite the closure to return zero for all odd numbers.

You have several options for writing closures more concisely. When a closures
type is already known, such as the callback for a delegate, you can omit the type of
its parameters, its return type, or both. Single statement closures implicitly return
the value of their only statement.
1

let mappedNumbers = numbers.map({ number in 3 * number })

print(mappedNumbers)

You can refer to parameters by number instead of by namethis approach is

especially useful in very short closures. A closure passed as the last argument to a
function can appear immediately after the parentheses. When a closure is the only
argument to a function, you can omit the parentheses entirely.
1

let sortedNumbers = numbers.sort { $0 > $1 }

print(sortedNumbers)

Objects and Classes

Use class followed by the classs name to create a class. A property declaration in a
class is written the same way as a constant or variable declaration, except that it is in
the context of a class. Likewise, method and function declarations are written the
same way.

class Shape {

var numberOfSides = 0

func simpleDescription() -> String {

return "A shape with \(numberOfSides) sides."

EXP ERIM EN T
Add a constant property with let, and add another method that takes an argument.

Create an instance of a class by putting parentheses after the class name. Use dot
syntax to access the properties and methods of the instance.
1

var shape = Shape()

shape.numberOfSides = 7

var shapeDescription = shape.simpleDescription()

This version of the Shape class is missing something important: an initializer to set
up the class when an instance is created. Use init to create one.

class NamedShape {

var numberOfSides: Int = 0

var name: String

init(name: String) {

self.name = name

func simpleDescription() -> String {

return "A shape with \(numberOfSides) sides."
}
}

Notice how self is used to distinguish the name property from the name argument to
the initializer. The arguments to the initializer are passed like a function call when
you create an instance of the class. Every property needs a value assignedeither in
its declaration (as with numberOfSides) or in the initializer (as with name).
Use deinit to create a deinitializer if you need to perform some cleanup before the
object is deallocated.
Subclasses include their superclass name after their class name, separated by a
colon. There is no requirement for classes to subclass any standard root class, so
you can include or omit a superclass as needed.
Methods on a subclass that override the superclasss implementation are marked
with overrideoverriding a method by accident, without override, is detected by
the compiler as an error. The compiler also detects methods with override that dont
actually override any method in the superclass.

class Square: NamedShape {

var sideLength: Double

init(sideLength: Double, name: String) {

self.sideLength = sideLength

super.init(name: name)

numberOfSides = 4

func area() -> Double {
return sideLength * sideLength
}

override func simpleDescription() -> String {
return "A square with sides of length \(sideLength)."
}
}
let test = Square(sideLength: 5.2, name: "my test square")
test.area()
test.simpleDescription()

EXP ERIM EN T
Make another subclass of NamedShape called Circle that takes a radius and a name as arguments
to its initializer. Implement an area() and a simpleDescription() method on the Circle
class.

In addition to simple properties that are stored, properties can have a getter and a
setter.
1

class EquilateralTriangle: NamedShape {

var sideLength: Double = 0.0

init(sideLength: Double, name: String) {

self.sideLength = sideLength

super.init(name: name)

numberOfSides = 3

var perimeter: Double {
get {
return 3.0 * sideLength
}
set {
sideLength = newValue / 3.0
}
}


override func simpleDescription() -> String {
return "An equilateral triangle with sides of length \
(sideLength)."
}
}
var triangle = EquilateralTriangle(sideLength: 3.1, name: "a triangle")
print(triangle.perimeter)
triangle.perimeter = 9.9
print(triangle.sideLength)

In the setter for perimeter, the new value has the implicit name newValue. You can
provide an explicit name in parentheses after set.
Notice that the initializer for the EquilateralTriangle class has three different steps:
1. Setting the value of properties that the subclass declares.
2. Calling the superclasss initializer.
3. Changing the value of properties defined by the superclass. Any additional
setup work that uses methods, getters, or setters can also be done at this point.
If you dont need to compute the property but still need to provide code that is run
before and after setting a new value, use willSet and didSet. The code you provide
is run any time the value changes outside of an initializer. For example, the class
below ensures that the side length of its triangle is always the same as the side length
of its square.
1

class TriangleAndSquare {

var triangle: EquilateralTriangle {

willSet {

square.sideLength = newValue.sideLength

var square: Square {

willSet {

triangle.sideLength = newValue.sideLength
}
}
init(size: Double, name: String) {
square = Square(sideLength: size, name: name)
triangle = EquilateralTriangle(sideLength: size, name: name)
}
}
var triangleAndSquare = TriangleAndSquare(size: 10, name: "another test
shape")
print(triangleAndSquare.square.sideLength)
print(triangleAndSquare.triangle.sideLength)
triangleAndSquare.square = Square(sideLength: 50, name: "larger
square")
print(triangleAndSquare.triangle.sideLength)

When working with optional values, you can write ? before operations like
methods, properties, and subscripting. If the value before the ? is nil, everything
after the ? is ignored and the value of the whole expression is nil. Otherwise, the
optional value is unwrapped, and everything after the ? acts on the unwrapped value.

In both cases, the value of the whole expression is an optional value.

1

let optionalSquare: Square? = Square(sideLength: 2.5, name:

"optional square")

let sideLength = optionalSquare?.sideLength

Enumerations and Structures

Use enum to create an enumeration. Like classes and all other named types,
enumerations can have methods associated with them.

enum Rank: Int {

case Ace = 1

case Two, Three, Four, Five, Six, Seven, Eight, Nine, Ten

case Jack, Queen, King

func simpleDescription() -> String {

switch self {

case .Ace:

return "ace"

case .Jack:
return "jack"
case .Queen:
return "queen"
case .King:
return "king"
default:
return String(self.rawValue)
}
}
}
let ace = Rank.Ace
let aceRawValue = ace.rawValue

EXP ERIM EN T
Write a function that compares two Rank values by comparing their raw values.

In the example above, the raw-value type of the enumeration is Int, so you only
have to specify the first raw value. The rest of the raw values are assigned in order.
You can also use strings or floating-point numbers as the raw type of an
enumeration. Use the rawValue property to access the raw value of an enumeration
case.
Use the init?(rawValue:) initializer to make an instance of an enumeration from a
raw value.
1

if let convertedRank = Rank(rawValue: 3) {

let threeDescription = convertedRank.simpleDescription()

The case values of an enumeration are actual values, not just another way of writing
their raw values. In fact, in cases where there isnt a meaningful raw value, you
dont have to provide one.

enum Suit {

case Spades, Hearts, Diamonds, Clubs

func simpleDescription() -> String {

switch self {

case .Spades:

return "spades"

case .Hearts:

return "hearts"

case .Diamonds:
return "diamonds"
case .Clubs:
return "clubs"
}
}
}
let hearts = Suit.Hearts
let heartsDescription = hearts.simpleDescription()

EXP ERIM EN T
Add a color() method to Suit that returns black for spades and clubs, and returns red for
hearts and diamonds.

Notice the two ways that the Hearts case of the enumeration is referred to above:
When assigning a value to the hearts constant, the enumeration case Suit.Hearts is

referred to by its full name because the constant doesnt have an explicit type
specified. Inside the switch, the enumeration case is referred to by the abbreviated
form .Hearts because the value of self is already known to be a suit. You can use
the abbreviated form anytime the values type is already known.
Use struct to create a structure. Structures support many of the same behaviors as
classes, including methods and initializers. One of the most important differences
between structures and classes is that structures are always copied when they are
passed around in your code, but classes are passed by reference.
1

struct Card {

var rank: Rank

var suit: Suit

func simpleDescription() -> String {

return "The \(rank.simpleDescription()) of \

(suit.simpleDescription())"

let threeOfSpades = Card(rank: .Three, suit: .Spades)

let threeOfSpadesDescription = threeOfSpades.simpleDescription()

EXP ERIM EN T
Add a method to Card that creates a full deck of cards, with one card of each combination of rank
and suit.

An instance of an enumeration case can have values associated with the instance.
Instances of the same enumeration case can have different values associated with
them. You provide the associated values when you create the instance. Associated
values and raw values are different: The raw value of an enumeration case is the
same for all of its instances, and you provide the raw value when you define the

enumeration.
For example, consider the case of requesting the sunrise and sunset time from a
server. The server either responds with the information or it responds with some
error information.
1

enum ServerResponse {

case Result(String, String)

case Error(String)

let success = ServerResponse.Result("6:00 am", "8:09 pm")

let failure = ServerResponse.Error("Out of cheese.")

switch success {
case let .Result(sunrise, sunset):
print("Sunrise is at \(sunrise) and sunset is at \(sunset).")
case let .Error(error):
print("Failure... \(error)")
}

EXP ERIM EN T
Add a third case to ServerResponse and to the switch.

Notice how the sunrise and sunset times are extracted from the ServerResponse value
as part of matching the value against the switch cases.

Protocols and Extensions

Use protocol to declare a protocol.
1

protocol ExampleProtocol {

var simpleDescription: String { get }

mutating func adjust()

Classes, enumerations, and structs can all adopt protocols.

class SimpleClass: ExampleProtocol {

var simpleDescription: String = "A very simple class."

var anotherProperty: Int = 69105

func adjust() {

simpleDescription += " Now 100% adjusted."

var a = SimpleClass()

a.adjust()
let aDescription = a.simpleDescription

struct SimpleStructure: ExampleProtocol {
var simpleDescription: String = "A simple structure"
mutating func adjust() {
simpleDescription += " (adjusted)"
}
}
var b = SimpleStructure()
b.adjust()
let bDescription = b.simpleDescription

EXP ERIM EN T
Write an enumeration that conforms to this protocol.

Notice the use of the mutating keyword in the declaration of SimpleStructure to

mark a method that modifies the structure. The declaration of SimpleClass doesnt
need any of its methods marked as mutating because methods on a class can always
modify the class.
Use extension to add functionality to an existing type, such as new methods and
computed properties. You can use an extension to add protocol conformance to a
type that is declared elsewhere, or even to a type that you imported from a library or
framework.
1

extension Int: ExampleProtocol {

var simpleDescription: String {

return "The number \(self)"

mutating func adjust() {

self += 42

print(7.simpleDescription)

EXP ERIM EN T
Write an extension for the Double type that adds an absoluteValue property.

You can use a protocol name just like any other named typefor example, to create
a collection of objects that have different types but that all conform to a single
protocol. When you work with values whose type is a protocol type, methods
outside the protocol definition are not available.

let protocolValue: ExampleProtocol = a

print(protocolValue.simpleDescription)

// print(protocolValue.anotherProperty) // Uncomment to see the

error

Even though the variable protocolValue has a runtime type of SimpleClass, the
compiler treats it as the given type of ExampleProtocol. This means that you cant
accidentally access methods or properties that the class implements in addition to its
protocol conformance.

Generics
Write a name inside angle brackets to make a generic function or type.
1

func repeatItem<Item>(item: Item, numberOfTimes: Int) -> [Item] {

var result = [Item]()

for _ in 0..<numberOfTimes {

result.append(item)

return result

repeatItem("knock", numberOfTimes:4)

You can make generic forms of functions and methods, as well as classes,
enumerations, and structures.

// Reimplement the Swift standard library's optional type

enum OptionalValue<Wrapped> {

case None

case Some(Wrapped)

var possibleInteger: OptionalValue<Int> = .None

possibleInteger = .Some(100)

Use where after the type name to specify a list of requirementsfor example, to
require the type to implement a protocol, to require two types to be the same, or to
require a class to have a particular superclass.
1

func anyCommonElements <T: SequenceType, U: SequenceType where

T.Generator.Element: Equatable, T.Generator.Element ==
U.Generator.Element> (lhs: T, _ rhs: U) -> Bool {

for lhsItem in lhs {

for rhsItem in rhs {

if lhsItem == rhsItem {

return true

return false
}
anyCommonElements([1, 2, 3], [3])

EXP ERIM EN T
Modify the anyCommonElements(_:_:) function to make a function that returns an array of the
elements that any two sequences have in common.

Writing <T: Equatable> is the same as writing <T where T: Equatable>.

Language Guide

The Basics
Swift is a new programming language for iOS, OS X, and watchOS app
development. Nonetheless, many parts of Swift will be familiar from your
experience of developing in C and Objective-C.
Swift provides its own versions of all fundamental C and Objective-C types,
including Int for integers, Double and Float for floating-point values, Bool for
Boolean values, and String for textual data. Swift also provides powerful versions
of the three primary collection types, Array, Set, and Dictionary, as described in
Collection Types.
Like C, Swift uses variables to store and refer to values by an identifying name.
Swift also makes extensive use of variables whose values cannot be changed. These
are known as constants, and are much more powerful than constants in C. Constants
are used throughout Swift to make code safer and clearer in intent when you work
with values that do not need to change.
In addition to familiar types, Swift introduces advanced types not found in
Objective-C, such as tuples. Tuples enable you to create and pass around groupings
of values. You can use a tuple to return multiple values from a function as a single
compound value.
Swift also introduces optional types, which handle the absence of a value. Optionals
say either there is a value, and it equals x or there isnt a value at all. Using
optionals is similar to using nil with pointers in Objective-C, but they work for any
type, not just classes. Not only are optionals safer and more expressive than nil
pointers in Objective-C, they are at the heart of many of Swifts most powerful
features.
Swift is a type-safe language, which means the language helps you to be clear about
the types of values your code can work with. If part of your code expects a String,
type safety prevents you from passing it an Int by mistake. Likewise, type safety
prevents you from accidentally passing an optional String to a piece of code that
expects a nonoptional String. Type safety helps you catch and fix errors as early as
possible in the development process.

Constants and Variables

Constants and variables associate a name (such as maximumNumberOfLoginAttempts or
welcomeMessage) with a value of a particular type (such as the number 10 or the
string "Hello"). The value of a constant cannot be changed once it is set, whereas a
variable can be set to a different value in the future.

Declaring Constants and Variables

Constants and variables must be declared before they are used. You declare
constants with the let keyword and variables with the var keyword. Heres an
example of how constants and variables can be used to track the number of login
attempts a user has made:
1

let maximumNumberOfLoginAttempts = 10

var currentLoginAttempt = 0

This code can be read as:

Declare a new constant called maximumNumberOfLoginAttempts, and give it a value of
10. Then, declare a new variable called currentLoginAttempt, and give it an initial
value of 0.
In this example, the maximum number of allowed login attempts is declared as a
constant, because the maximum value never changes. The current login attempt
counter is declared as a variable, because this value must be incremented after each
failed login attempt.
You can declare multiple constants or multiple variables on a single line, separated
by commas:

var x = 0.0, y = 0.0, z = 0.0

N OTE
If a stored value in your code is not going to change, always declare it as a constant with the let
keyword. Use variables only for storing values that need to be able to change.

Type Annotations
You can provide a type annotation when you declare a constant or variable, to be
clear about the kind of values the constant or variable can store. Write a type
annotation by placing a colon after the constant or variable name, followed by a
space, followed by the name of the type to use.
This example provides a type annotation for a variable called welcomeMessage, to
indicate that the variable can store String values:

var welcomeMessage: String

The colon in the declaration means of type, so the code above can be read as:
Declare a variable called welcomeMessage that is of type String.
The phrase of type String means can store any String value. Think of it as
meaning the type of thing (or the kind of thing) that can be stored.
The welcomeMessage variable can now be set to any string value without error:

welcomeMessage = "Hello"

You can define multiple related variables of the same type on a single line, separated
by commas, with a single type annotation after the final variable name:

var red, green, blue: Double

N OTE
It is rare that you need to write type annotations in practice. If you provide an initial value for a
constant or variable at the point that it is defined, Swift can almost always infer the type to be used for
that constant or variable, as described in Type Safety and Type Inference. In the welcomeMessage
example above, no initial value is provided, and so the type of the welcomeMessage variable is
specified with a type annotation rather than being inferred from an initial value.

Naming Constants and Variables

Constant and variable names can contain almost any character, including Unicode
characters:
1

let = 3.14159

let = ""

let

= "dogcow"

Constant and variable names cannot contain whitespace characters, mathematical

symbols, arrows, private-use (or invalid) Unicode code points, or line- and boxdrawing characters. Nor can they begin with a number, although numbers may be
included elsewhere within the name.
Once youve declared a constant or variable of a certain type, you cant redeclare it
again with the same name, or change it to store values of a different type. Nor can
you change a constant into a variable or a variable into a constant.

N OTE
If you need to give a constant or variable the same name as a reserved Swift keyword, surround the
keyword with back ticks (`) when using it as a name. However, avoid using keywords as names
unless you have absolutely no choice.

You can change the value of an existing variable to another value of a compatible
type. In this example, the value of friendlyWelcome is changed from "Hello!" to

"Bonjour!":

var friendlyWelcome = "Hello!"

friendlyWelcome = "Bonjour!"

// friendlyWelcome is now "Bonjour!"

Unlike a variable, the value of a constant cannot be changed once it is set.

Attempting to do so is reported as an error when your code is compiled:
1

let languageName = "Swift"

languageName = "Swift++"

// this is a compile-time error - languageName cannot be changed

Printing Constants and Variables

You can print the current value of a constant or variable with the
print(_:separator:terminator:) function:
1

print(friendlyWelcome)

// prints "Bonjour!"

The print(_:separator:terminator:) function is a global function that prints one or

more values to an appropriate output. In Xcode, for example, the
print(_:separator:terminator:) function prints its output in Xcodes console
pane. The separator and terminator parameter have default values, so you can omit
them when you call this function. By default, the function terminates the line it prints
by adding a line break. To print a value without a line break after it, pass an empty
string as the terminatorfor example, print(someValue, terminator: ""). For
information about parameters with default values, see Default Parameter Values.
Swift uses string interpolation to include the name of a constant or variable as a
placeholder in a longer string, and to prompt Swift to replace it with the current

value of that constant or variable. Wrap the name in parentheses and escape it with a
backslash before the opening parenthesis:
1

print("The current value of friendlyWelcome is \(friendlyWelcome)")

// prints "The current value of friendlyWelcome is Bonjour!"

N OTE
All options you can use with string interpolation are described in String Interpolation.

Comments
Use comments to include non-executable text in your code, as a note or reminder to
yourself. Comments are ignored by the Swift compiler when your code is compiled.
Comments in Swift are very similar to comments in C. Single-line comments begin
with two forward-slashes (//):

// this is a comment

Multiline comments start with a forward-slash followed by an asterisk (/*) and end
with an asterisk followed by a forward-slash (*/):
1

/* this is also a comment,

but written over multiple lines */

Unlike multiline comments in C, multiline comments in Swift can be nested inside

other multiline comments. You write nested comments by starting a multiline
comment block and then starting a second multiline comment within the first block.
The second block is then closed, followed by the first block:

/* this is the start of the first multiline comment

/* this is the second, nested multiline comment */

this is the end of the first multiline comment */

Nested multiline comments enable you to comment out large blocks of code quickly
and easily, even if the code already contains multiline comments.

Semicolons
Unlike many other languages, Swift does not require you to write a semicolon (;)
after each statement in your code, although you can do so if you wish. However,
semicolons are required if you want to write multiple separate statements on a
single line:
1

let cat = " "; print(cat)

// prints " "

Integers
Integers are whole numbers with no fractional component, such as 42 and -23.
Integers are either signed (positive, zero, or negative) or unsigned (positive or
zero).
Swift provides signed and unsigned integers in 8, 16, 32, and 64 bit forms. These
integers follow a naming convention similar to C, in that an 8-bit unsigned integer
is of type UInt8, and a 32-bit signed integer is of type Int32. Like all types in Swift,
these integer types have capitalized names.

Integer Bounds
You can access the minimum and maximum values of each integer type with its min

and max properties:

1

let minValue = UInt8.min // minValue is equal to 0, and is of type

UInt8

let maxValue = UInt8.max // maxValue is equal to 255, and is of

type UInt8

The values of these properties are of the appropriate-sized number type (such as
UInt8 in the example above) and can therefore be used in expressions alongside
other values of the same type.

Int
In most cases, you dont need to pick a specific size of integer to use in your code.
Swift provides an additional integer type, Int, which has the same size as the current
platforms native word size:
On a 32-bit platform, Int is the same size as Int32.
On a 64-bit platform, Int is the same size as Int64.
Unless you need to work with a specific size of integer, always use Int for integer
values in your code. This aids code consistency and interoperability. Even on 32-bit
platforms, Int can store any value between -2,147,483,648 and 2,147,483,647, and
is large enough for many integer ranges.

UInt
Swift also provides an unsigned integer type, UInt, which has the same size as the
current platforms native word size:
On a 32-bit platform, UInt is the same size as UInt32.
On a 64-bit platform, UInt is the same size as UInt64.

N OTE
Use UInt only when you specifically need an unsigned integer type with the same size as the
platforms native word size. If this is not the case, Int is preferred, even when the values to be stored
are known to be non-negative. A consistent use of Int for integer values aids code interoperability,
avoids the need to convert between different number types, and matches integer type inference, as
described in Type Safety and Type Inference.

Floating-Point Numbers
Floating-point numbers are numbers with a fractional component, such as 3.14159,
0.1, and -273.15.
Floating-point types can represent a much wider range of values than integer types,
and can store numbers that are much larger or smaller than can be stored in an Int.
Swift provides two signed floating-point number types:

Double represents a 64-bit floating-point number.

Float represents a 32-bit floating-point number.

N OTE
Double has a precision of at least 15 decimal digits, whereas the precision of Float can be as little
as 6 decimal digits. The appropriate floating-point type to use depends on the nature and range of
values you need to work with in your code. In situations where either type would be appropriate,
Double is preferred.

Type Safety and Type Inference

Swift is a type-safe language. A type safe language encourages you to be clear about
the types of values your code can work with. If part of your code expects a String,
you cant pass it an Int by mistake.
Because Swift is type safe, it performs type checks when compiling your code and

flags any mismatched types as errors. This enables you to catch and fix errors as
early as possible in the development process.
Type-checking helps you avoid errors when youre working with different types of
values. However, this doesnt mean that you have to specify the type of every
constant and variable that you declare. If you dont specify the type of value you
need, Swift uses type inference to work out the appropriate type. Type inference
enables a compiler to deduce the type of a particular expression automatically when
it compiles your code, simply by examining the values you provide.
Because of type inference, Swift requires far fewer type declarations than languages
such as C or Objective-C. Constants and variables are still explicitly typed, but much
of the work of specifying their type is done for you.
Type inference is particularly useful when you declare a constant or variable with
an initial value. This is often done by assigning a literal value (or literal) to the
constant or variable at the point that you declare it. (A literal value is a value that
appears directly in your source code, such as 42 and 3.14159 in the examples below.)
For example, if you assign a literal value of 42 to a new constant without saying
what type it is, Swift infers that you want the constant to be an Int, because you have
initialized it with a number that looks like an integer:
1

let meaningOfLife = 42

// meaningOfLife is inferred to be of type Int

Likewise, if you dont specify a type for a floating-point literal, Swift infers that you
want to create a Double:
1

let pi = 3.14159

// pi is inferred to be of type Double

Swift always chooses Double (rather than Float) when inferring the type of floatingpoint numbers.
If you combine integer and floating-point literals in an expression, a type of Double
will be inferred from the context:

let anotherPi = 3 + 0.14159

// anotherPi is also inferred to be of type Double

The literal value of 3 has no explicit type in and of itself, and so an appropriate
output type of Double is inferred from the presence of a floating-point literal as part
of the addition.

Numeric Literals
Integer literals can be written as:

A decimal number, with no prefix

A binary number, with a 0b prefix
An octal number, with a 0o prefix
A hexadecimal number, with a 0x prefix

All of these integer literals have a decimal value of 17:

1

let decimalInteger = 17

let binaryInteger = 0b10001 // 17 in binary notation

let octalInteger = 0o21 // 17 in octal notation

let hexadecimalInteger = 0x11 // 17 in hexadecimal notation

Floating-point literals can be decimal (with no prefix), or hexadecimal (with a 0x

prefix). They must always have a number (or hexadecimal number) on both sides of
the decimal point. Decimal floats can also have an optional exponent, indicated by
an uppercase or lowercase e; hexadecimal floats must have an exponent, indicated
by an uppercase or lowercase p.
For decimal numbers with an exponent of exp, the base number is multiplied by
10exp:

1.25e2 means 1.25 x 102 , or 125.0.

1.25e-2 means 1.25 x 10-2 , or 0.0125.

For hexadecimal numbers with an exponent of exp, the base number is multiplied by
2exp:

0xFp2 means 15 x 22 , or 60.0.

0xFp-2 means 15 x 2-2 , or 3.75.

All of these floating-point literals have a decimal value of 12.1875:

1

let decimalDouble = 12.1875

let exponentDouble = 1.21875e1

let hexadecimalDouble = 0xC.3p0

Numeric literals can contain extra formatting to make them easier to read. Both
integers and floats can be padded with extra zeros and can contain underscores to
help with readability. Neither type of formatting affects the underlying value of the
literal:
1

let paddedDouble = 000123.456

let oneMillion = 1_000_000

let justOverOneMillion = 1_000_000.000_000_1

Numeric Type Conversion

Use the Int type for all general-purpose integer constants and variables in your
code, even if they are known to be non-negative. Using the default integer type in
everyday situations means that integer constants and variables are immediately
interoperable in your code and will match the inferred type for integer literal
values.

Use other integer types only when they are specifically needed for the task at hand,
because of explicitly-sized data from an external source, or for performance,
memory usage, or other necessary optimization. Using explicitly-sized types in
these situations helps to catch any accidental value overflows and implicitly
documents the nature of the data being used.

Integer Conversion
The range of numbers that can be stored in an integer constant or variable is
different for each numeric type. An Int8 constant or variable can store numbers
between -128 and 127, whereas a UInt8 constant or variable can store numbers
between 0 and 255. A number that will not fit into a constant or variable of a sized
integer type is reported as an error when your code is compiled:
1

let cannotBeNegative: UInt8 = -1

// UInt8 cannot store negative numbers, and so this will report an

error

let tooBig: Int8 = Int8.max + 1

// Int8 cannot store a number larger than its maximum value,

// and so this will also report an error

Because each numeric type can store a different range of values, you must opt in to
numeric type conversion on a case-by-case basis. This opt-in approach prevents
hidden conversion errors and helps make type conversion intentions explicit in your
code.
To convert one specific number type to another, you initialize a new number of the
desired type with the existing value. In the example below, the constant twoThousand
is of type UInt16, whereas the constant one is of type UInt8. They cannot be added
together directly, because they are not of the same type. Instead, this example calls
UInt16(one) to create a new UInt16 initialized with the value of one, and uses this
value in place of the original:

let twoThousand: UInt16 = 2_000

let one: UInt8 = 1

let twoThousandAndOne = twoThousand + UInt16(one)

Because both sides of the addition are now of type UInt16, the addition is allowed.
The output constant (twoThousandAndOne) is inferred to be of type UInt16, because it
is the sum of two UInt16 values.
SomeType(ofInitialValue) is the default way to call the initializer of a Swift type and

pass in an initial value. Behind the scenes, UInt16 has an initializer that accepts a
UInt8 value, and so this initializer is used to make a new UInt16 from an existing
UInt8. You cant pass in any type here, howeverit has to be a type for which
UInt16 provides an initializer. Extending existing types to provide initializers that
accept new types (including your own type definitions) is covered in Extensions.

Integer and Floating-Point Conversion

Conversions between integer and floating-point numeric types must be made
explicit:
1

let three = 3

let pointOneFourOneFiveNine = 0.14159

let pi = Double(three) + pointOneFourOneFiveNine

// pi equals 3.14159, and is inferred to be of type Double

Here, the value of the constant three is used to create a new value of type Double, so
that both sides of the addition are of the same type. Without this conversion in place,
the addition would not be allowed.
Floating-point to integer conversion must also be made explicit. An integer type can
be initialized with a Double or Float value:

let integerPi = Int(pi)

// integerPi equals 3, and is inferred to be of type Int

Floating-point values are always truncated when used to initialize a new integer
value in this way. This means that 4.75 becomes 4, and -3.9 becomes -3.

N OTE
The rules for combining numeric constants and variables are different from the rules for numeric
literals. The literal value 3 can be added directly to the literal value 0.14159, because number
literals do not have an explicit type in and of themselves. Their type is inferred only at the point that
they are evaluated by the compiler.

Type Aliases
Type aliases define an alternative name for an existing type. You define type aliases
with the typealias keyword.
Type aliases are useful when you want to refer to an existing type by a name that is
contextually more appropriate, such as when working with data of a specific size
from an external source:

typealias AudioSample = UInt16

Once you define a type alias, you can use the alias anywhere you might use the
original name:
1

var maxAmplitudeFound = AudioSample.min

// maxAmplitudeFound is now 0

Here, AudioSample is defined as an alias for UInt16. Because it is an alias, the call to
AudioSample.min actually calls UInt16.min, which provides an initial value of 0 for
the maxAmplitudeFound variable.

Booleans
Swift has a basic Boolean type, called Bool. Boolean values are referred to as
logical, because they can only ever be true or false. Swift provides two Boolean
constant values, true and false:
1

let orangesAreOrange = true

let turnipsAreDelicious = false

The types of orangesAreOrange and turnipsAreDelicious have been inferred as Bool

from the fact that they were initialized with Boolean literal values. As with Int and
Double above, you dont need to declare constants or variables as Bool if you set
them to true or false as soon as you create them. Type inference helps make Swift
code more concise and readable when it initializes constants or variables with other
values whose type is already known.
Boolean values are particularly useful when you work with conditional statements
such as the if statement:
1

if turnipsAreDelicious {

print("Mmm, tasty turnips!")

} else {

print("Eww, turnips are horrible.")

// prints "Eww, turnips are horrible."

Conditional statements such as the if statement are covered in more detail in

Control Flow.
Swifts type safety prevents non-Boolean values from being substituted for Bool.
The following example reports a compile-time error:

let i = 1

if i {

// this example will not compile, and will report an error

However, the alternative example below is valid:

1

let i = 1

if i == 1 {

// this example will compile successfully

The result of the i == 1 comparison is of type Bool, and so this second example
passes the type-check. Comparisons like i == 1 are discussed in Basic Operators.
As with other examples of type safety in Swift, this approach avoids accidental
errors and ensures that the intention of a particular section of code is always clear.

Tuples
Tuples group multiple values into a single compound value. The values within a
tuple can be of any type and do not have to be of the same type as each other.
In this example, (404, "Not Found") is a tuple that describes an HTTP status code.
An HTTP status code is a special value returned by a web server whenever you
request a web page. A status code of 404 Not Found is returned if you request a
webpage that doesnt exist.
1

let http404Error = (404, "Not Found")

// http404Error is of type (Int, String), and equals (404, "Not

Found")

The (404, "Not Found") tuple groups together an Int and a String to give the HTTP
status code two separate values: a number and a human-readable description. It can
be described as a tuple of type (Int, String).
You can create tuples from any permutation of types, and they can contain as many
different types as you like. Theres nothing stopping you from having a tuple of
type (Int, Int, Int), or (String, Bool), or indeed any other permutation you
require.
You can decompose a tuples contents into separate constants or variables, which
you then access as usual:
1

let (statusCode, statusMessage) = http404Error

print("The status code is \(statusCode)")

// prints "The status code is 404"

print("The status message is \(statusMessage)")

// prints "The status message is Not Found"

If you only need some of the tuples values, ignore parts of the tuple with an
underscore (_) when you decompose the tuple:
1

let (justTheStatusCode, _) = http404Error

print("The status code is \(justTheStatusCode)")

// prints "The status code is 404"

Alternatively, access the individual element values in a tuple using index numbers
starting at zero:
1

print("The status code is \(http404Error.0)")

// prints "The status code is 404"

print("The status message is \(http404Error.1)")

// prints "The status message is Not Found"

You can name the individual elements in a tuple when the tuple is defined:

let http200Status = (statusCode: 200, description: "OK")

If you name the elements in a tuple, you can use the element names to access the
values of those elements:
1

print("The status code is \(http200Status.statusCode)")

// prints "The status code is 200"

print("The status message is \(http200Status.description)")

// prints "The status message is OK"

Tuples are particularly useful as the return values of functions. A function that tries
to retrieve a web page might return the (Int, String) tuple type to describe the
success or failure of the page retrieval. By returning a tuple with two distinct values,
each of a different type, the function provides more useful information about its
outcome than if it could only return a single value of a single type. For more
information, see Functions with Multiple Return Values.

N OTE
Tuples are useful for temporary groups of related values. They are not suited to the creation of
complex data structures. If your data structure is likely to persist beyond a temporary scope, model it
as a class or structure, rather than as a tuple. For more information, see Classes and Structures.

Optionals
You use optionals in situations where a value may be absent. An optional says:
There is a value, and it equals x

or
There isnt a value at all

N OTE
The concept of optionals doesnt exist in C or Objective-C. The nearest thing in Objective-C is the
ability to return nil from a method that would otherwise return an object, with nil meaning the
absence of a valid object. However, this only works for objectsit doesnt work for structures,
basic C types, or enumeration values. For these types, Objective-C methods typically return a special
value (such as NSNotFound) to indicate the absence of a value. This approach assumes that the
methods caller knows there is a special value to test against and remembers to check for it. Swifts
optionals let you indicate the absence of a value for any type at all, without the need for special
constants.

Heres an example of how optionals can be used to cope with the absence of a value.
Swifts Int type has an initializer which tries to convert a String value into an Int
value. However, not every string can be converted into an integer. The string "123"
can be converted into the numeric value 123, but the string "hello, world" does not
have an obvious numeric value to convert to.
The example below uses the initializer to try to convert a String into an Int:
1

let possibleNumber = "123"

let convertedNumber = Int(possibleNumber)

// convertedNumber is inferred to be of type "Int?", or "optional

Int"

Because the initializer might fail, it returns an optional Int, rather than an Int. An
optional Int is written as Int?, not Int. The question mark indicates that the value it
contains is optional, meaning that it might contain some Int value, or it might
contain no value at all. (It cant contain anything else, such as a Bool value or a
String value. Its either an Int, or its nothing at all.)

nil

You set an optional variable to a valueless state by assigning it the special value nil:
1

var serverResponseCode: Int? = 404

// serverResponseCode contains an actual Int value of 404

serverResponseCode = nil

// serverResponseCode now contains no value

N OTE
nil cannot be used with nonoptional constants and variables. If a constant or variable in your code
needs to work with the absence of a value under certain conditions, always declare it as an optional
value of the appropriate type.

If you define an optional variable without providing a default value, the variable is
automatically set to nil for you:
1

var surveyAnswer: String?

// surveyAnswer is automatically set to nil

N OTE
Swifts nil is not the same as nil in Objective-C. In Objective-C, nil is a pointer to a nonexistent
object. In Swift, nil is not a pointerit is the absence of a value of a certain type. Optionals of any
type can be set to nil, not just object types.

If Statements and Forced Unwrapping

You can use an if statement to find out whether an optional contains a value by
comparing the optional against nil. You perform this comparison with the equal
to operator (==) or the not equal to operator (!=).

If an optional has a value, it is considered to be not equal to nil:

1

if convertedNumber != nil {

print("convertedNumber contains some integer value.")

// prints "convertedNumber contains some integer value."

Once youre sure that the optional does contain a value, you can access its
underlying value by adding an exclamation mark (!) to the end of the optionals
name. The exclamation mark effectively says, I know that this optional definitely
has a value; please use it. This is known as forced unwrapping of the optionals
value:
1

if convertedNumber != nil {

print("convertedNumber has an integer value of \

(convertedNumber!).")

// prints "convertedNumber has an integer value of 123."

For more on the if statement, see Control Flow.

N OTE
Trying to use ! to access a non-existent optional value triggers a runtime error. Always make sure that
an optional contains a non-nil value before using ! to force-unwrap its value.

Optional Binding
You use optional binding to find out whether an optional contains a value, and if so,
to make that value available as a temporary constant or variable. Optional binding

can be used with if and while statements to check for a value inside an optional, and
to extract that value into a constant or variable, as part of a single action. if and
while statements are described in more detail in Control Flow.
Write an optional binding for an if statement as follows:
if let constantName = someOptional {
statements
}

You can rewrite the possibleNumber example from the Optionals section to use
optional binding rather than forced unwrapping:
1

if let actualNumber = Int(possibleNumber) {

print("\'\(possibleNumber)\' has an integer value of \

(actualNumber)")

} else {

print("\'\(possibleNumber)\' could not be converted to an

integer")

// prints "'123' has an integer value of 123"

This code can be read as:

If the optional Int returned by Int(possibleNumber) contains a value, set a new
constant called actualNumber to the value contained in the optional.
If the conversion is successful, the actualNumber constant becomes available for use
within the first branch of the if statement. It has already been initialized with the
value contained within the optional, and so there is no need to use the ! suffix to
access its value. In this example, actualNumber is simply used to print the result of
the conversion.
You can use both constants and variables with optional binding. If you wanted to

manipulate the value of actualNumber within the first branch of the if statement, you
could write if var actualNumber instead, and the value contained within the optional
would be made available as a variable rather than a constant.
You can include multiple optional bindings in a single if statement and use a where
clause to check for a Boolean condition:
1

if let firstNumber = Int("4"), secondNumber = Int("42") where

firstNumber < secondNumber {

print("\(firstNumber) < \(secondNumber)")

// prints "4 < 42"

Implicitly Unwrapped Optionals

As described above, optionals indicate that a constant or variable is allowed to have
no value. Optionals can be checked with an if statement to see if a value exists,
and can be conditionally unwrapped with optional binding to access the optionals
value if it does exist.
Sometimes it is clear from a programs structure that an optional will always have a
value, after that value is first set. In these cases, it is useful to remove the need to
check and unwrap the optionals value every time it is accessed, because it can be
safely assumed to have a value all of the time.
These kinds of optionals are defined as implicitly unwrapped optionals. You write
an implicitly unwrapped optional by placing an exclamation mark (String!) rather
than a question mark (String?) after the type that you want to make optional.
Implicitly unwrapped optionals are useful when an optionals value is confirmed to
exist immediately after the optional is first defined and can definitely be assumed to
exist at every point thereafter. The primary use of implicitly unwrapped optionals in
Swift is during class initialization, as described in Unowned References and
Implicitly Unwrapped Optional Properties.
An implicitly unwrapped optional is a normal optional behind the scenes, but can

also be used like a nonoptional value, without the need to unwrap the optional value
each time it is accessed. The following example shows the difference in behavior
between an optional string and an implicitly unwrapped optional string when
accessing their wrapped value as an explicit String:
1

let possibleString: String? = "An optional string."

let forcedString: String = possibleString! // requires an

exclamation mark

let assumedString: String! = "An implicitly unwrapped optional

string."

let implicitString: String = assumedString // no need for an

exclamation mark

You can think of an implicitly unwrapped optional as giving permission for the
optional to be unwrapped automatically whenever it is used. Rather than placing an
exclamation mark after the optionals name each time you use it, you place an
exclamation mark after the optionals type when you declare it.

N OTE
If an implicitly unwrapped optional is nil and you try to access its wrapped value, youll trigger a
runtime error. The result is exactly the same as if you place an exclamation mark after a normal
optional that does not contain a value.

You can still treat an implicitly unwrapped optional like a normal optional, to check
if it contains a value:

if assumedString != nil {

print(assumedString)

// prints "An implicitly unwrapped optional string."

You can also use an implicitly unwrapped optional with optional binding, to check
and unwrap its value in a single statement:
1

if let definiteString = assumedString {

print(definiteString)

// prints "An implicitly unwrapped optional string."

N OTE
Do not use an implicitly unwrapped optional when there is a possibility of a variable becoming nil at
a later point. Always use a normal optional type if you need to check for a nil value during the
lifetime of a variable.

Error Handling
You use error handling to respond to error conditions your program may encounter
during execution.
In contrast to optionals, which can use the presence or absence of a value to
communicate success or failure of a function, error handling allows you to
determine the underlying cause of failure, and, if necessary, propagate the error to
another part of your program.
When a function encounters an error condition, it throws an error. That functions
caller can then catch the error and respond appropriately.

func canThrowAnError() throws {

// this function may or may not throw an error

A function indicates that it can throw an error by including the throws keyword in its
declaration. When you call a function that can throw an error, you prepend the try
keyword to the expression.
Swift automatically propagates errors out of their current scope until they are
handled by a catch clause.
1

do {

try canThrowAnError()

// no error was thrown

} catch {

// an error was thrown

A do statement creates a new containing scope, which allows errors to be propagated

to one or more catch clauses.
Heres an example of how error handling can be used to respond to different error
conditions:

func makeASandwich() throws {

// ...

do {

try makeASandwich()

eatASandwich()

} catch Error.OutOfCleanDishes {

washDishes()
} catch Error.MissingIngredients(let ingredients) {
buyGroceries(ingredients)
}

In this example, the makeASandwich() function will throw an error if no clean dishes
are available or if any ingredients are missing. Because makeASandwich() can throw
an error, the function call is wrapped in a try expression. By wrapping the function
call in a do statement, any errors that are thrown will be propagated to the provided
catch clauses.
If no error is thrown, the eatASandwich() function is called. If an error is thrown and
it matches the Error.OutOfCleanDishes case, then the washDishes() function will be
called. If an error is thrown and it matches the Error.MissingIngredients case, then
the buyGroceries(_:) function is called with the associated [String] value captured
by the catch pattern.
Throwing, catching, and propagating errors is covered in greater detail in Error
Handling.

Assertions

In some cases, it is simply not possible for your code to continue execution if a
particular condition is not satisfied. In these situations, you can trigger an assertion
in your code to end code execution and to provide an opportunity to debug the cause
of the absent or invalid value.

Debugging with Assertions

An assertion is a runtime check that a Boolean condition definitely evaluates to true.
Literally put, an assertion asserts that a condition is true. You use an assertion to
make sure that an essential condition is satisfied before executing any further code.
If the condition evaluates to true, code execution continues as usual; if the condition
evaluates to false, code execution ends, and your app is terminated.
If your code triggers an assertion while running in a debug environment, such as
when you build and run an app in Xcode, you can see exactly where the invalid state
occurred and query the state of your app at the time that the assertion was triggered.
An assertion also lets you provide a suitable debug message as to the nature of the
assert.
You write an assertion by calling the Swift standard library global
assert(_:_file:line:) function. You pass this function an expression that evaluates
to true or false and a message that should be displayed if the result of the condition
is false:
1

let age = -3

assert(age >= 0, "A person's age cannot be less than zero")

// this causes the assertion to trigger, because age is not >= 0

In this example, code execution will continue only if age >= 0 evaluates to true, that
is, if the value of age is non-negative. If the value of age is negative, as in the code
above, then age >= 0 evaluates to false, and the assertion is triggered, terminating
the application.
The assertion message can be omitted if desired, as in the following example:

assert(age >= 0)

N OTE
Assertions are disabled when your code is compiled with optimizations, such as when building with an
app targets default Release configuration in Xcode.

When to Use Assertions

Use an assertion whenever a condition has the potential to be false, but must
definitely be true in order for your code to continue execution. Suitable scenarios
for an assertion check include:
An integer subscript index is passed to a custom subscript implementation,
but the subscript index value could be too low or too high.
A value is passed to a function, but an invalid value means that the function
cannot fulfill its task.
An optional value is currently nil, but a non-nil value is essential for
subsequent code to execute successfully.
See also Subscripts and Functions.

N OTE
Assertions cause your app to terminate and are not a substitute for designing your code in such a way
that invalid conditions are unlikely to arise. Nonetheless, in situations where invalid conditions are
possible, an assertion is an effective way to ensure that such conditions are highlighted and noticed
during development, before your app is published.

Basic Operators
An operator is a special symbol or phrase that you use to check, change, or combine
values. For example, the addition operator (+) adds two numbers together (as in let
i = 1 + 2). More complex examples include the logical AND operator && (as in if
enteredDoorCode && passedRetinaScan) and the increment operator ++i, which is a
shortcut to increase the value of i by 1.
Swift supports most standard C operators and improves several capabilities to
eliminate common coding errors. The assignment operator (=) does not return a
value, to prevent it from being mistakenly used when the equal to operator (==) is
intended. Arithmetic operators (+, -, *, /, % and so forth) detect and disallow value
overflow, to avoid unexpected results when working with numbers that become
larger or smaller than the allowed value range of the type that stores them. You can
opt in to value overflow behavior by using Swifts overflow operators, as described
in Overflow Operators.
Unlike C, Swift lets you perform remainder (%) calculations on floating-point
numbers. Swift also provides two range operators (a..<b and a...b) not found in C,
as a shortcut for expressing a range of values.
This chapter describes the common operators in Swift. Advanced Operators covers
Swifts advanced operators, and describes how to define your own custom operators
and implement the standard operators for your own custom types.

Terminology
Operators are unary, binary, or ternary:
Unary operators operate on a single target (such as -a). Unary prefix
operators appear immediately before their target (such as !b), and unary
postfix operators appear immediately after their target (such as i++).
Binary operators operate on two targets (such as 2 + 3) and are infix
because they appear in between their two targets.

 Ternary operators operate on three targets. Like C, Swift has only one
ternary operator, the ternary conditional operator (a ? b : c).
The values that operators affect are operands. In the expression 1 + 2, the + symbol
is a binary operator and its two operands are the values 1 and 2.

Assignment Operator
The assignment operator (a = b) initializes or updates the value of a with the value
of b:
1

let b = 10

var a = 5

a = b

// a is now equal to 10

If the right side of the assignment is a tuple with multiple values, its elements can be
decomposed into multiple constants or variables at once:
1

let (x, y) = (1, 2)

// x is equal to 1, and y is equal to 2

Unlike the assignment operator in C and Objective-C, the assignment operator in

Swift does not itself return a value. The following statement is not valid:
1

if x = y {

// this is not valid, because x = y does not return a value

This feature prevents the assignment operator (=) from being used by accident when
the equal to operator (==) is actually intended. By making if x = y invalid, Swift

helps you to avoid these kinds of errors in your code.

Arithmetic Operators
Swift supports the four standard arithmetic operators for all number types:

Addition (+)
Subtraction (-)
Multiplication (*)
Division (/)

1 + 2 // equals 3

5 - 3 // equals 2

2 * 3 // equals 6

10.0 / 2.5 // equals 4.0

Unlike the arithmetic operators in C and Objective-C, the Swift arithmetic operators
do not allow values to overflow by default. You can opt in to value overflow
behavior by using Swifts overflow operators (such as a &+ b). See Overflow
Operators.
The addition operator is also supported for String concatenation:

"hello, " + "world" // equals "hello, world"

Remainder Operator
The remainder operator (a % b) works out how many multiples of b will fit inside a
and returns the value that is left over (known as the remainder).

N OTE
The remainder operator (%) is also known as a modulo operator in other languages. However, its
behavior in Swift for negative numbers means that it is, strictly speaking, a remainder rather than a
modulo operation.

Heres how the remainder operator works. To calculate 9 % 4, you first work out
how many 4s will fit inside 9:

You can fit two 4s inside 9, and the remainder is 1 (shown in orange).
In Swift, this would be written as:

9 % 4 // equals 1

To determine the answer for a % b, the % operator calculates the following equation
and returns remainder as its output:
a = (b x some multiplier) + remainder

where some multiplier is the largest number of multiples of b that will fit inside a.
Inserting 9 and 4 into this equation yields:
9 = (4 x 2) + 1

The same method is applied when calculating the remainder for a negative value of
a:

-9 % 4 // equals -1

Inserting -9 and 4 into the equation yields:

-9 = (4 x -2) + -1

giving a remainder value of -1.

The sign of b is ignored for negative values of b. This means that a % b and a % -b
always give the same answer.

Floating-Point Remainder Calculations

Unlike the remainder operator in C and Objective-C, Swifts remainder operator
can also operate on floating-point numbers:

8 % 2.5 // equals 0.5

In this example, 8 divided by 2.5 equals 3, with a remainder of 0.5, so the remainder
operator returns a Double value of 0.5.

Increment and Decrement Operators

Like C, Swift provides an increment operator (++) and a decrement operator (--) as a
shortcut to increase or decrease the value of a numeric variable by 1. You can use
these operators with variables of any integer or floating-point type.
1

var i = 0

++i // i now equals 1

Each time you call ++i, the value of i is increased by 1. Essentially, ++i is shorthand
for saying i = i + 1. Likewise, --i can be used as shorthand for i = i - 1.
The ++ and -- symbols can be used as prefix operators or as postfix operators. ++i
and i++ are both valid ways to increase the value of i by 1. Similarly, --i and i-are both valid ways to decrease the value of i by 1.
Note that these operators modify i and also return a value. If you only want to

increment or decrement the value stored in i, you can ignore the returned value.
However, if you do use the returned value, it will be different based on whether you
used the prefix or postfix version of the operator, according to the following rules:
If the operator is written before the variable, it increments the variable
before returning its value.
If the operator is written after the variable, it increments the variable after
returning its value.
For example:
1

var a = 0

let b = ++a

// a and b are now both equal to 1

let c = a++

// a is now equal to 2, but c has been set to the pre-increment

value of 1

In the example above, let b = ++a increments a before returning its value. This is
why both a and b are equal to the new value of 1.
However, let c = a++ increments a after returning its value. This means that c gets
the old value of 1, and a is then updated to equal 2.
Unless you need the specific behavior of i++, it is recommended that you use ++i
and --i in all cases, because they have the typical expected behavior of modifying i
and returning the result.

Unary Minus Operator

The sign of a numeric value can be toggled using a prefixed -, known as the unary
minus operator:

let three = 3

let minusThree = -three // minusThree equals -3

let plusThree = -minusThree // plusThree equals 3, or "minus

minus three"

The unary minus operator (-) is prepended directly before the value it operates on,
without any white space.

Unary Plus Operator

The unary plus operator (+) simply returns the value it operates on, without any
change:
1

let minusSix = -6

let alsoMinusSix = +minusSix // alsoMinusSix equals -6

Although the unary plus operator doesnt actually do anything, you can use it to
provide symmetry in your code for positive numbers when also using the unary
minus operator for negative numbers.

Compound Assignment Operators

Like C, Swift provides compound assignment operators that combine assignment (=)
with another operation. One example is the addition assignment operator (+=):
1

var a = 1

a += 2

// a is now equal to 3

The expression a += 2 is shorthand for a = a + 2. Effectively, the addition and the

assignment are combined into one operator that performs both tasks at the same
time.

N OTE
The compound assignment operators do not return a value. You cannot write let b = a += 2, for
example. This behavior is different from the increment and decrement operators mentioned above.

A complete list of compound assignment operators can be found in Expressions.

Comparison Operators
Swift supports all standard C comparison operators:

Equal to (a == b)
Not equal to (a != b)
Greater than (a > b)
Less than (a < b)
Greater than or equal to (a >= b)
Less than or equal to (a <= b)

N OTE
Swift also provides two identity operators (=== and !==), which you use to test whether two object
references both refer to the same object instance. For more information, see Classes and Structures.

Each of the comparison operators returns a Bool value to indicate whether or not the
statement is true:

1 == 1 // true, because 1 is equal to 1

2 != 1 // true, because 2 is not equal to 1

2 > 1 // true, because 2 is greater than 1

1 < 2 // true, because 1 is less than 2

1 >= 1 // true, because 1 is greater than or equal to 1

2 <= 1 // false, because 2 is not less than or equal to 1

Comparison operators are often used in conditional statements, such as the if

statement:
1

let name = "world"

if name == "world" {

print("hello, world")

} else {

print("I'm sorry \(name), but I don't recognize you")

// prints "hello, world", because name is indeed equal to "world"

For more on the if statement, see Control Flow.

Ternary Conditional Operator

The ternary conditional operator is a special operator with three parts, which takes
the form question ? answer1 : answer2. It is a shortcut for evaluating one of two
expressions based on whether question is true or false. If question is true, it
evaluates answer1 and returns its value; otherwise, it evaluates answer2 and returns
its value.
The ternary conditional operator is shorthand for the code below:

if question {

answer1

} else {

answer2

Heres an example, which calculates the height for a table row. The row height
should be 50 points taller than the content height if the row has a header, and 20
points taller if the row doesnt have a header:
1

let contentHeight = 40

let hasHeader = true

let rowHeight = contentHeight + (hasHeader ? 50 : 20)

// rowHeight is equal to 90

The preceding example is shorthand for the code below:

1

let contentHeight = 40

let hasHeader = true

var rowHeight = contentHeight

if hasHeader {

rowHeight = rowHeight + 50

} else {

rowHeight = rowHeight + 20

// rowHeight is equal to 90

The first examples use of the ternary conditional operator means that rowHeight can
be set to the correct value on a single line of code. This is more concise than the
second example, and removes the need for rowHeight to be a variable, because its
value does not need to be modified within an if statement.
The ternary conditional operator provides an efficient shorthand for deciding which
of two expressions to consider. Use the ternary conditional operator with care,
however. Its conciseness can lead to hard-to-read code if overused. Avoid
combining multiple instances of the ternary conditional operator into one
compound statement.

Nil Coalescing Operator

The nil coalescing operator (a ?? b) unwraps an optional a if it contains a value, or
returns a default value b if a is nil. The expression a is always of an optional type.
The expression b must match the type that is stored inside a.
The nil coalescing operator is shorthand for the code below:

a != nil ? a! : b

The code above uses the ternary conditional operator and forced unwrapping (a!) to
access the value wrapped inside a when a is not nil, and to return b otherwise. The
nil coalescing operator provides a more elegant way to encapsulate this conditional
checking and unwrapping in a concise and readable form.

N OTE
If the value of a is non-nil, the value of b is not evaluated. This is known as short-circuit
evaluation.

The example below uses the nil coalescing operator to choose between a default
color name and an optional user-defined color name:

let defaultColorName = "red"

var userDefinedColorName: String? // defaults to nil

var colorNameToUse = userDefinedColorName ?? defaultColorName

// userDefinedColorName is nil, so colorNameToUse is set to the

default of "red"

The userDefinedColorName variable is defined as an optional String, with a default

value of nil. Because userDefinedColorName is of an optional type, you can use the
nil coalescing operator to consider its value. In the example above, the operator is
used to determine an initial value for a String variable called colorNameToUse.
Because userDefinedColorName is nil, the expression userDefinedColorName ??
defaultColorName returns the value of defaultColorName, or "red".
If you assign a non-nil value to userDefinedColorName and perform the nil
coalescing operator check again, the value wrapped inside userDefinedColorName is
used instead of the default:
1

userDefinedColorName = "green"

colorNameToUse = userDefinedColorName ?? defaultColorName

// userDefinedColorName is not nil, so colorNameToUse is set to

"green"

Range Operators
Swift includes two range operators, which are shortcuts for expressing a range of
values.

Closed Range Operator

The closed range operator (a...b) defines a range that runs from a to b, and
includes the values a and b. The value of a must not be greater than b.
The closed range operator is useful when iterating over a range in which you want
all of the values to be used, such as with a for-in loop:
1

for index in 1...5 {

print("\(index) times 5 is \(index * 5)")

// 1 times 5 is 5

// 2 times 5 is 10

// 3 times 5 is 15

// 4 times 5 is 20

// 5 times 5 is 25

For more on for-in loops, see Control Flow.

Half-Open Range Operator

The half-open range operator (a..<b) defines a range that runs from a to b, but does
not include b. It is said to be half-open because it contains its first value, but not its
final value. As with the closed range operator, the value of a must not be greater
than b. If the value of a is equal to b, then the resulting range will be empty.
Half-open ranges are particularly useful when you work with zero-based lists such
as arrays, where it is useful to count up to (but not including) the length of the list:

let names = ["Anna", "Alex", "Brian", "Jack"]

let count = names.count

for i in 0..<count {

print("Person \(i + 1) is called \(names[i])")

// Person 1 is called Anna

// Person 2 is called Alex

// Person 3 is called Brian

// Person 4 is called Jack

Note that the array contains four items, but 0..<count only counts as far as 3 (the
index of the last item in the array), because it is a half-open range. For more on
arrays, see Arrays.

Logical Operators
Logical operators modify or combine the Boolean logic values true and false.
Swift supports the three standard logical operators found in C-based languages:
Logical NOT (!a)
Logical AND (a && b)
Logical OR (a || b)

Logical NOT Operator

The logical NOT operator (!a) inverts a Boolean value so that true becomes false,
and false becomes true.

The logical NOT operator is a prefix operator, and appears immediately before the
value it operates on, without any white space. It can be read as not a, as seen in the
following example:
1

let allowedEntry = false

if !allowedEntry {

print("ACCESS DENIED")

// prints "ACCESS DENIED"

The phrase if !allowedEntry can be read as if not allowed entry. The subsequent
line is only executed if not allowed entry is true; that is, if allowedEntry is false.
As in this example, careful choice of Boolean constant and variable names can help
to keep code readable and concise, while avoiding double negatives or confusing
logic statements.

Logical AND Operator

The logical AND operator (a && b) creates logical expressions where both values
must be true for the overall expression to also be true.
If either value is false, the overall expression will also be false. In fact, if the first
value is false, the second value wont even be evaluated, because it cant possibly
make the overall expression equate to true. This is known as short-circuit
evaluation.
This example considers two Bool values and only allows access if both values are
true:

let enteredDoorCode = true

let passedRetinaScan = false

if enteredDoorCode && passedRetinaScan {

print("Welcome!")

} else {

print("ACCESS DENIED")

// prints "ACCESS DENIED"

Logical OR Operator
The logical OR operator (a || b) is an infix operator made from two adjacent pipe
characters. You use it to create logical expressions in which only one of the two
values has to be true for the overall expression to be true.
Like the Logical AND operator above, the Logical OR operator uses short-circuit
evaluation to consider its expressions. If the left side of a Logical OR expression is
true, the right side is not evaluated, because it cannot change the outcome of the
overall expression.
In the example below, the first Bool value (hasDoorKey) is false, but the second value
(knowsOverridePassword) is true. Because one value is true, the overall expression
also evaluates to true, and access is allowed:

let hasDoorKey = false

let knowsOverridePassword = true

if hasDoorKey || knowsOverridePassword {

print("Welcome!")

} else {

print("ACCESS DENIED")

// prints "Welcome!"

Combining Logical Operators

You can combine multiple logical operators to create longer compound
expressions:
1

if enteredDoorCode && passedRetinaScan || hasDoorKey ||

knowsOverridePassword {

print("Welcome!")

} else {

print("ACCESS DENIED")

// prints "Welcome!"

This example uses multiple && and || operators to create a longer compound
expression. However, the && and || operators still operate on only two values, so
this is actually three smaller expressions chained together. The example can be read
as:

If weve entered the correct door code and passed the retina scan, or if we have a
valid door key, or if we know the emergency override password, then allow access.
Based on the values of enteredDoorCode, passedRetinaScan, and hasDoorKey, the first
two subexpressions are false. However, the emergency override password is
known, so the overall compound expression still evaluates to true.

N OTE
The Swift logical operators && and || are left-associative, meaning that compound expressions with
multiple logical operators evaluate the leftmost subexpression first.

Explicit Parentheses
It is sometimes useful to include parentheses when they are not strictly needed, to
make the intention of a complex expression easier to read. In the door access
example above, it is useful to add parentheses around the first part of the compound
expression to make its intent explicit:
1

if (enteredDoorCode && passedRetinaScan) || hasDoorKey ||

knowsOverridePassword {

print("Welcome!")

} else {

print("ACCESS DENIED")

// prints "Welcome!"

The parentheses make it clear that the first two values are considered as part of a
separate possible state in the overall logic. The output of the compound expression
doesnt change, but the overall intention is clearer to the reader. Readability is
always preferred over brevity; use parentheses where they help to make your

intentions clear.

Strings and Characters

A string is a series of characters, such as "hello, world" or "albatross". Swift
strings are represented by the String type. The contents of a String can be accessed
in various ways, including as a collection of Character values.
Swifts String and Character types provide a fast, Unicode-compliant way to work
with text in your code. The syntax for string creation and manipulation is
lightweight and readable, with a string literal syntax that is similar to C. String
concatenation is as simple as adding together two strings with the + operator, and
string mutability is managed by choosing between a constant or a variable, just like
any other value in Swift. You can also use strings to insert constants, variables,
literals, and expressions into longer strings, in a process known as string
interpolation. This makes it easy to create custom string values for display, storage,
and printing.
Despite this simplicity of syntax, Swifts String type is a fast, modern string
implementation. Every string is composed of encoding-independent Unicode
characters, and provides support for accessing those characters in various Unicode
representations.

N OTE
Swifts String type is bridged with Foundations NSString class. If you are working with the
Foundation framework in Cocoa, the entire NSString API is available to call on any String
value you create when type cast to NSString, as described in AnyObject. You can also use a
String value with any API that requires an NSString instance.
For more information about using String with Foundation and Cocoa, see Using Swift with Cocoa
and Objective-C (Swift 2.1).

String Literals
You can include predefined String values within your code as string literals. A
string literal is a fixed sequence of textual characters surrounded by a pair of double

quotes ("").
Use a string literal as an initial value for a constant or variable:

let someString = "Some string literal value"

Note that Swift infers a type of String for the someString constant, because it is
initialized with a string literal value.

N OTE
For information about using special characters in string literals, see Special Characters in String
Literals.

Initializing an Empty String

To create an empty String value as the starting point for building a longer string,
either assign an empty string literal to a variable, or initialize a new String instance
with initializer syntax:
1

var emptyString = "" // empty string literal

var anotherEmptyString = String() // initializer syntax

// these two strings are both empty, and are equivalent to each
other

Find out whether a String value is empty by checking its Boolean isEmpty property:

if emptyString.isEmpty {

print("Nothing to see here")

// prints "Nothing to see here"

String Mutability
You indicate whether a particular String can be modified (or mutated) by assigning
it to a variable (in which case it can be modified), or to a constant (in which case it
cannot be modified):
1

var variableString = "Horse"

variableString += " and carriage"

// variableString is now "Horse and carriage"

let constantString = "Highlander"

constantString += " and another Highlander"

// this reports a compile-time error - a constant string cannot be

modified

N OTE
This approach is different from string mutation in Objective-C and Cocoa, where you choose between
two classes (NSString and NSMutableString) to indicate whether a string can be mutated.

Strings Are Value Types

Swifts String type is a value type. If you create a new String value, that String
value is copied when it is passed to a function or method, or when it is assigned to a
constant or variable. In each case, a new copy of the existing String value is created,
and the new copy is passed or assigned, not the original version. Value types are
described in Structures and Enumerations Are Value Types.
Swifts copy-by-default String behavior ensures that when a function or method
passes you a String value, it is clear that you own that exact String value, regardless
of where it came from. You can be confident that the string you are passed will not
be modified unless you modify it yourself.
Behind the scenes, Swifts compiler optimizes string usage so that actual copying
takes place only when absolutely necessary. This means you always get great
performance when working with strings as value types.

Working with Characters

You can access the individual Character values for a String by iterating over its
characters property with a for-in loop:
1

for character in "Dog!" .characters {

print(character)

// D

// o

// g

// !

//

The for-in loop is described in For Loops.

Alternatively, you can create a stand-alone Character constant or variable from a

single-character string literal by providing a Character type annotation:

let exclamationMark: Character = "!"

String values can be constructed by passing an array of Character values as an

argument to its initializer:

1

let catCharacters: [Character] = ["C", "a", "t", "!", " "]

let catString = String(catCharacters)

print(catString)

// prints "Cat! "

Concatenating Strings and Characters

String values can be added together (or concatenated) with the addition operator (+)

to create a new String value:

1

let string1 = "hello"

let string2 = " there"

var welcome = string1 + string2

// welcome now equals "hello there"

You can also append a String value to an existing String variable with the addition
assignment operator (+=):
1

var instruction = "look over"

instruction += string2

// instruction now equals "look over there"

You can append a Character value to a String variable with the String types
append() method:
1

let exclamationMark: Character = "!"

welcome.append(exclamationMark)

// welcome now equals "hello there!"

N OTE
You cant append a String or Character to an existing Character variable, because a
Character value must contain a single character only.

String Interpolation
String interpolation is a way to construct a new String value from a mix of
constants, variables, literals, and expressions by including their values inside a
string literal. Each item that you insert into the string literal is wrapped in a pair of
parentheses, prefixed by a backslash:
1

let multiplier = 3

let message = "\(multiplier) times 2.5 is \(Double(multiplier) *

2.5)"

// message is "3 times 2.5 is 7.5"

In the example above, the value of multiplier is inserted into a string literal as \
(multiplier). This placeholder is replaced with the actual value of multiplier when
the string interpolation is evaluated to create an actual string.
The value of multiplier is also part of a larger expression later in the string. This
expression calculates the value of Double(multiplier) * 2.5 and inserts the result
(7.5) into the string. In this case, the expression is written as \(Double(multiplier)

* 2.5) when it is included inside the string literal.

N OTE
The expressions you write inside parentheses within an interpolated string cannot contain an unescaped
backslash (\), a carriage return, or a line feed. However, they can contain other string literals.

Unicode
Unicode is an international standard for encoding, representing, and processing text
in different writing systems. It enables you to represent almost any character from
any language in a standardized form, and to read and write those characters to and
from an external source such as a text file or web page. Swifts String and
Character types are fully Unicode-compliant, as described in this section.

Unicode Scalars
Behind the scenes, Swifts native String type is built from Unicode scalar values. A
Unicode scalar is a unique 21-bit number for a character or modifier, such as U+0061
for LATIN SMALL LETTER A ("a"), or U+1F425 for FRONT-FACING BABY CHICK ("" ).

N OTE
A Unicode scalar is any Unicode code point in the range U+0000 to U+D7FF inclusive or U+E000
to U+10FFFF inclusive. Unicode scalars do not include the Unicode surrogate pair code points,
which are the code points in the range U+D800 to U+DFFF inclusive.

Note that not all 21-bit Unicode scalars are assigned to a charactersome scalars
are reserved for future assignment. Scalars that have been assigned to a character
typically also have a name, such as LATIN SMALL LETTER A and FRONT-FACING BABY
CHICK in the examples above.

Special Characters in String Literals

String literals can include the following special characters:
The escaped special characters \0 (null character), \\ (backslash), \t
(horizontal tab), \n (line feed), \r (carriage return), \" (double quote) and
\' (single quote)
An arbitrary Unicode scalar, written as \u{n}, where n is a 18 digit
hexadecimal number with a value equal to a valid Unicode code point
The code below shows four examples of these special characters. The wiseWords
constant contains two escaped double quote characters. The dollarSign, blackHeart,
and sparklingHeart constants demonstrate the Unicode scalar format:
1

let wiseWords = "\"Imagination is more important than knowledge\" -

Einstein"

// "Imagination is more important than knowledge" - Einstein

let dollarSign = "\u{24}" // $, Unicode scalar U+0024

let blackHeart = "\u{2665}" // , Unicode scalar U+2665

let sparklingHeart = "\u{1F496}" // , Unicode scalar U+1F496

Extended Grapheme Clusters

Every instance of Swifts Character type represents a single extended grapheme
cluster. An extended grapheme cluster is a sequence of one or more Unicode scalars
that (when combined) produce a single human-readable character.
Heres an example. The letter can be represented as the single Unicode scalar
(LATIN SMALL LETTER E WITH ACUTE, or U+00E9). However, the same letter can also be
represented as a pair of scalarsa standard letter e (LATIN SMALL LETTER E, or
U+0065), followed by the COMBINING ACUTE ACCENT scalar (U+0301). The COMBINING
ACUTE ACCENT scalar is graphically applied to the scalar that precedes it, turning an e

into an when it is rendered by a Unicode-aware text-rendering system.

In both cases, the letter is represented as a single Swift Character value that
represents an extended grapheme cluster. In the first case, the cluster contains a
single scalar; in the second case, it is a cluster of two scalars:
1

let eAcute: Character = "\u{E9}" //

let combinedEAcute: Character = "\u{65}\u{301}" // e

followed by

// eAcute is , combinedEAcute is

Extended grapheme clusters are a flexible way to represent many complex script
characters as a single Character value. For example, Hangul syllables from the
Korean alphabet can be represented as either a precomposed or decomposed
sequence. Both of these representations qualify as a single Character value in Swift:
1

let precomposed: Character = "\u{D55C}" //

let decomposed: Character = "\u{1112}\u{1161}\u{11AB}" // , ,

// precomposed is , decomposed is

Extended grapheme clusters enable scalars for enclosing marks (such as COMBINING
ENCLOSING CIRCLE, or U+20DD) to enclose other Unicode scalars as part of a single
Character value:
1

let enclosedEAcute: Character = "\u{E9}\u{20DD}"

// enclosedEAcute is

Unicode scalars for regional indicator symbols can be combined in pairs to make a
single Character value, such as this combination of REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL
LETTER U (U+1F1FA) and REGIONAL INDICATOR SYMBOL LETTER S (U+1F1F8):

let regionalIndicatorForUS: Character = "\u{1F1FA}\u{1F1F8}"

// regionalIndicatorForUS is

Counting Characters
To retrieve a count of the Character values in a string, use the count property of the
strings characters property:
1

let unusualMenagerie = "Koala , Snail , Penguin , Dromedary "

print("unusualMenagerie has \(unusualMenagerie.characters.count)

characters")

// prints "unusualMenagerie has 40 characters"

Note that Swifts use of extended grapheme clusters for Character values means that
string concatenation and modification may not always affect a strings character
count.
For example, if you initialize a new string with the four-character word cafe, and
then append a COMBINING ACUTE ACCENT (U+0301) to the end of the string, the resulting
string will still have a character count of 4, with a fourth character of , not e:

var word = "cafe"

print("the number of characters in \(word) is \

(word.characters.count)")

// prints "the number of characters in cafe is 4"

word += "\u{301}" // COMBINING ACUTE ACCENT, U+0301

print("the number of characters in \(word) is \

(word.characters.count)")

// prints "the number of characters in caf is 4"

N OTE
Extended grapheme clusters can be composed of one or more Unicode scalars. This means that
different charactersand different representations of the same charactercan require different
amounts of memory to store. Because of this, characters in Swift do not each take up the same amount
of memory within a strings representation. As a result, the number of characters in a string cannot be
calculated without iterating through the string to determine its extended grapheme cluster boundaries.
If you are working with particularly long string values, be aware that the characters property
must iterate over the Unicode scalars in the entire string in order to determine the characters for that
string.
The count of the characters returned by the characters property is not always the same as the
length property of an NSString that contains the same characters. The length of an NSString is
based on the number of 16-bit code units within the strings UTF-16 representation and not the number
of Unicode extended grapheme clusters within the string.

Accessing and Modifying a String

You access and modify a string through its methods and properties, or by using
subscript syntax.

String Indices
Each String value has an associated index type, String.Index, which corresponds to
the position of each Character in the string.
As mentioned above, different characters can require different amounts of memory
to store, so in order to determine which Character is at a particular position, you
must iterate over each Unicode scalar from the start or end of that String. For this
reason, Swift strings cannot be indexed by integer values.
Use the startIndex property to access the position of the first Character of a String.
The endIndex property is the position after the last character in a String. As a result,
the endIndex property isnt a valid argument to a strings subscript. If a String is
empty, startIndex and endIndex are equal.
A String.Index value can access its immediately preceding index by calling the
predecessor() method, and its immediately succeeding index by calling the
successor() method. Any index in a String can be accessed from any other index by
chaining these methods together, or by using the advancedBy(_:) method.
Attempting to access an index outside of a strings range will trigger a runtime
error.
You can use subscript syntax to access the Character at a particular String index.

let greeting = "Guten Tag!"

greeting[greeting.startIndex]

// G

greeting[greeting.endIndex.predecessor()]

// !

greeting[greeting.startIndex.successor()]

// u

let index = greeting.startIndex.advancedBy(7)

greeting[index]
// a

Attempting to access a Character at an index outside of a strings range will trigger

a runtime error.
1

greeting[greeting.endIndex] // error

greeting.endIndex.successor() // error

Use the indices property of the characters property to create a Range of all of the
indexes used to access individual characters in a string.
1

for index in greeting.characters.indices {

print("\(greeting[index]) ", terminator: "")

// prints "G u t e n T a g !"

Inserting and Removing

To insert a character into a string at a specified index, use the insert(_:atIndex:)

method.
1

var welcome = "hello"

welcome.insert("!", atIndex: welcome.endIndex)

// welcome now equals "hello!"

To insert the contents of another string at a specified index, use the

insertContentsOf(_:at:) method.
1

welcome.insertContentsOf(" there".characters, at:

welcome.endIndex.predecessor())

// welcome now equals "hello there!"

To remove a character from a string at a specified index, use the removeAtIndex(_:)

method.
1

welcome.removeAtIndex(welcome.endIndex.predecessor())

// welcome now equals "hello there"

To remove a substring at a specified range, use the removeRange(_:) method:

1

let range = welcome.endIndex.advancedBy(-6)..<welcome.endIndex

welcome.removeRange(range)

// welcome now equals "hello"

Comparing Strings
Swift provides three ways to compare textual values: string and character equality,
prefix equality, and suffix equality.

String and Character Equality

String and character equality is checked with the equal to operator (==) and the
not equal to operator (!=), as described in Comparison Operators:
1

let quotation = "We're a lot alike, you and I."

let sameQuotation = "We're a lot alike, you and I."

if quotation == sameQuotation {

print("These two strings are considered equal")

// prints "These two strings are considered equal"

Two String values (or two Character values) are considered equal if their extended
grapheme clusters are canonically equivalent. Extended grapheme clusters are
canonically equivalent if they have the same linguistic meaning and appearance,
even if they are composed from different Unicode scalars behind the scenes.
For example, LATIN SMALL LETTER E WITH ACUTE (U+00E9) is canonically equivalent
to LATIN SMALL LETTER E (U+0065) followed by COMBINING ACUTE ACCENT (U+0301).
Both of these extended grapheme clusters are valid ways to represent the character
, and so they are considered to be canonically equivalent:

// "Voulez-vous un caf?" using LATIN SMALL LETTER E WITH ACUTE

let eAcuteQuestion = "Voulez-vous un caf\u{E9}?"

// "Voulez-vous un caf?" using LATIN SMALL LETTER E and COMBINING

ACUTE ACCENT

let combinedEAcuteQuestion = "Voulez-vous un caf\u{65}\u{301}?"

if eAcuteQuestion == combinedEAcuteQuestion {

print("These two strings are considered equal")

}
// prints "These two strings are considered equal"

Conversely, LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A (U+0041, or "A"), as used in English, is not

equivalent to CYRILLIC CAPITAL LETTER A (U+0410, or ""), as used in Russian. The
characters are visually similar, but do not have the same linguistic meaning:
1

let latinCapitalLetterA: Character = "\u{41}"

let cyrillicCapitalLetterA: Character = "\u{0410}"

if latinCapitalLetterA != cyrillicCapitalLetterA {

print("These two characters are not equivalent")

// prints "These two characters are not equivalent"

N OTE
String and character comparisons in Swift are not locale-sensitive.

Prefix and Suffix Equality

To check whether a string has a particular string prefix or suffix, call the strings
hasPrefix(_:) and hasSuffix(_:) methods, both of which take a single argument of
type String and return a Boolean value.
The examples below consider an array of strings representing the scene locations
from the first two acts of Shakespeares Romeo and Juliet:
1

let romeoAndJuliet = [

"Act 1 Scene 1: Verona, A public place",

"Act 1 Scene 2: Capulet's mansion",

"Act 1 Scene 3: A room in Capulet's mansion",

"Act 1 Scene 4: A street outside Capulet's mansion",

"Act 1 Scene 5: The Great Hall in Capulet's mansion",

"Act 2 Scene 1: Outside Capulet's mansion",

"Act 2 Scene 2: Capulet's orchard",

"Act 2 Scene 3: Outside Friar Lawrence's cell",

"Act 2 Scene 4: A street in Verona",
"Act 2 Scene 5: Capulet's mansion",
"Act 2 Scene 6: Friar Lawrence's cell"
]

You can use the hasPrefix(_:) method with the romeoAndJuliet array to count the
number of scenes in Act 1 of the play:
1

var act1SceneCount = 0

for scene in romeoAndJuliet {

if scene.hasPrefix("Act 1 ") {

++act1SceneCount

print("There are \(act1SceneCount) scenes in Act 1")

// prints "There are 5 scenes in Act 1"

Similarly, use the hasSuffix(_:) method to count the number of scenes that take
place in or around Capulets mansion and Friar Lawrences cell:
1

var mansionCount = 0

var cellCount = 0

for scene in romeoAndJuliet {

if scene.hasSuffix("Capulet's mansion") {

++mansionCount

} else if scene.hasSuffix("Friar Lawrence's cell") {

++cellCount

}
print("\(mansionCount) mansion scenes; \(cellCount) cell scenes")
// prints "6 mansion scenes; 2 cell scenes"

N OTE
The hasPrefix(_:) and hasSuffix(_:) methods perform a character-by-character canonical
equivalence comparison between the extended grapheme clusters in each string, as described in String
and Character Equality.

Unicode Representations of Strings

When a Unicode string is written to a text file or some other storage, the Unicode
scalars in that string are encoded in one of several Unicode-defined encoding forms.
Each form encodes the string in small chunks known as code units. These include
the UTF-8 encoding form (which encodes a string as 8-bit code units), the UTF-16
encoding form (which encodes a string as 16-bit code units), and the UTF-32
encoding form (which encodes a string as 32-bit code units).
Swift provides several different ways to access Unicode representations of strings.
You can iterate over the string with a for-in statement, to access its individual
Character values as Unicode extended grapheme clusters. This process is described
in Working with Characters.
Alternatively, access a String value in one of three other Unicode-compliant
representations:
A collection of UTF-8 code units (accessed with the strings utf8 property)
A collection of UTF-16 code units (accessed with the strings utf16
property)
A collection of 21-bit Unicode scalar values, equivalent to the strings UTF32 encoding form (accessed with the strings unicodeScalars property)
Each example below shows a different representation of the following string, which
is made up of the characters D, o, g, (DOUBLE EXCLAMATION MARK, or Unicode scalar
U+203C), and the character ( DOG FACE, or Unicode scalar U+1F436):

let dogString = "Dog"

UTF-8 Representation
You can access a UTF-8 representation of a String by iterating over its utf8
property. This property is of type String.UTF8View, which is a collection of
unsigned 8-bit (UInt8) values, one for each byte in the strings UTF-8
representation:

for codeUnit in dogString.utf8 {

print("\(codeUnit) ", terminator: "")

print("")

// 68 111 103 226 128 188 240 159 144 182

In the example above, the first three decimal codeUnit values (68, 111, 103) represent
the characters D, o, and g, whose UTF-8 representation is the same as their ASCII
representation. The next three decimal codeUnit values (226, 128, 188) are a threebyte UTF-8 representation of the DOUBLE EXCLAMATION MARK character. The last four
codeUnit values (240, 159, 144, 182) are a four-byte UTF-8 representation of the DOG
FACE character.

UTF-16 Representation

You can access a UTF-16 representation of a String by iterating over its utf16
property. This property is of type String.UTF16View, which is a collection of
unsigned 16-bit (UInt16) values, one for each 16-bit code unit in the strings UTF-16
representation:

for codeUnit in dogString.utf16 {

print("\(codeUnit) ", terminator: "")

print("")

// 68 111 103 8252 55357 56374

Again, the first three codeUnit values (68, 111, 103) represent the characters D, o, and
g, whose UTF-16 code units have the same values as in the strings UTF-8
representation (because these Unicode scalars represent ASCII characters).
The fourth codeUnit value (8252) is a decimal equivalent of the hexadecimal value
203C, which represents the Unicode scalar U+203C for the DOUBLE EXCLAMATION MARK
character. This character can be represented as a single code unit in UTF-16.
The fifth and sixth codeUnit values (55357 and 56374) are a UTF-16 surrogate pair
representation of the DOG FACE character. These values are a high-surrogate value of
U+D83D (decimal value 55357) and a low-surrogate value of U+DC36 (decimal value
56374).

Unicode Scalar Representation

You can access a Unicode scalar representation of a String value by iterating over
its unicodeScalars property. This property is of type UnicodeScalarView, which is a
collection of values of type UnicodeScalar.
Each UnicodeScalar has a value property that returns the scalar s 21-bit value,
represented within a UInt32 value:

for scalar in dogString.unicodeScalars {

print("\(scalar.value) ", terminator: "")

print("")

// 68 111 103 8252 128054

The value properties for the first three UnicodeScalar values (68, 111, 103) once
again represent the characters D, o, and g.
The fourth codeUnit value (8252) is again a decimal equivalent of the hexadecimal
value 203C, which represents the Unicode scalar U+203C for the DOUBLE EXCLAMATION
MARK character.
The value property of the fifth and final UnicodeScalar, 128054, is a decimal
equivalent of the hexadecimal value 1F436, which represents the Unicode scalar
U+1F436 for the DOG FACE character.

As an alternative to querying their value properties, each UnicodeScalar value can

also be used to construct a new String value, such as with string interpolation:
1

for scalar in dogString.unicodeScalars {

print("\(scalar) ")

// D

// o

// g

//

//

Collection Types
Swift provides three primary collection types, known as arrays, sets, and
dictionaries, for storing collections of values. Arrays are ordered collections of
values. Sets are unordered collections of unique values. Dictionaries are unordered
collections of key-value associations.

Arrays, sets, and dictionaries in Swift are always clear about the types of values and
keys that they can store. This means that you cannot insert a value of the wrong type
into a collection by mistake. It also means you can be confident about the type of
values you will retrieve from a collection.

N OTE
Swifts array, set, and dictionary types are implemented as generic collections. For more on generic
types and collections, see Generics.

Mutability of Collections
If you create an array, a set, or a dictionary, and assign it to a variable, the collection
that is created will be mutable. This means that you can change (or mutate) the
collection after it is created by adding, removing, or changing items in the

collection. If you assign an array, a set, or a dictionary to a constant, that collection

is immutable, and its size and contents cannot be changed.

N OTE
It is good practice to create immutable collections in all cases where the collection does not need to
change. Doing so enables the Swift compiler to optimize the performance of the collections you
create.

Arrays
An array stores values of the same type in an ordered list. The same value can
appear in an array multiple times at different positions.

N OTE
Swifts Array type is bridged to Foundations NSArray class.
For more information about using Array with Foundation and Cocoa, see Using Swift with Cocoa
and Objective-C (Swift 2.1).

Array Type Shorthand Syntax

The type of a Swift array is written in full as Array<Element>, where Element is the
type of values the array is allowed to store. You can also write the type of an array
in shorthand form as [Element]. Although the two forms are functionally identical,
the shorthand form is preferred and is used throughout this guide when referring to
the type of an array.

Creating an Empty Array

You can create an empty array of a certain type using initializer syntax:

var someInts = [Int]()

print("someInts is of type [Int] with \(someInts.count) items.")

// prints "someInts is of type [Int] with 0 items."

Note that the type of the someInts variable is inferred to be [Int] from the type of
the initializer.
Alternatively, if the context already provides type information, such as a function
argument or an already typed variable or constant, you can create an empty array
with an empty array literal, which is written as [] (an empty pair of square
brackets):
1

someInts.append(3)

// someInts now contains 1 value of type Int

someInts = []

// someInts is now an empty array, but is still of type [Int]

Creating an Array with a Default Value

Swifts Array type also provides an initializer for creating an array of a certain size
with all of its values set to the same default value. You pass this initializer the
number of items to be added to the new array (called count) and a default value of
the appropriate type (called repeatedValue):
1

var threeDoubles = [Double](count: 3, repeatedValue: 0.0)

// threeDoubles is of type [Double], and equals [0.0, 0.0, 0.0]

Creating an Array by Adding Two Arrays Together

You can create a new array by adding together two existing arrays with compatible
types with the addition operator (+). The new arrays type is inferred from the type
of the two arrays you add together:
1

var anotherThreeDoubles = [Double](count: 3, repeatedValue: 2.5)

// anotherThreeDoubles is of type [Double], and equals [2.5, 2.5,

2.5]

var sixDoubles = threeDoubles + anotherThreeDoubles

// sixDoubles is inferred as [Double], and equals [0.0, 0.0, 0.0,

2.5, 2.5, 2.5]

Creating an Array with an Array Literal

You can also initialize an array with an array literal, which is a shorthand way to
write one or more values as an array collection. An array literal is written as a list
of values, separated by commas, surrounded by a pair of square brackets:
[ value 1 , value 2 , value 3 ]

The example below creates an array called shoppingList to store String values:
1

var shoppingList: [String] = ["Eggs", "Milk"]

// shoppingList has been initialized with two initial items

The shoppingList variable is declared as an array of string values, written as

[String]. Because this particular array has specified a value type of String, it is
allowed to store String values only. Here, the shoppingList array is initialized with
two String values ("Eggs" and "Milk"), written within an array literal.

N OTE
The shoppingList array is declared as a variable (with the var introducer) and not a constant
(with the let introducer) because more items are added to the shopping list in the examples below.

In this case, the array literal contains two String values and nothing else. This
matches the type of the shoppingList variables declaration (an array that can only
contain String values), and so the assignment of the array literal is permitted as a
way to initialize shoppingList with two initial items.
Thanks to Swifts type inference, you dont have to write the type of the array if
youre initializing it with an array literal containing values of the same type. The
initialization of shoppingList could have been written in a shorter form instead:

var shoppingList = ["Eggs", "Milk"]

Because all values in the array literal are of the same type, Swift can infer that
[String] is the correct type to use for the shoppingList variable.

Accessing and Modifying an Array

You access and modify an array through its methods and properties, or by using
subscript syntax.
To find out the number of items in an array, check its read-only count property:
1

print("The shopping list contains \(shoppingList.count) items.")

// prints "The shopping list contains 2 items."

Use the Boolean isEmpty property as a shortcut for checking whether the count
property is equal to 0:

if shoppingList.isEmpty {

print("The shopping list is empty.")

} else {

print("The shopping list is not empty.")

// prints "The shopping list is not empty."

You can add a new item to the end of an array by calling the arrays append(_:)
method:
1

shoppingList.append("Flour")

// shoppingList now contains 3 items, and someone is making

pancakes

Alternatively, append an array of one or more compatible items with the addition
assignment operator (+=):
1

shoppingList += ["Baking Powder"]

// shoppingList now contains 4 items

shoppingList += ["Chocolate Spread", "Cheese", "Butter"]

// shoppingList now contains 7 items

Retrieve a value from the array by using subscript syntax, passing the index of the
value you want to retrieve within square brackets immediately after the name of the
array:
1

var firstItem = shoppingList[0]

// firstItem is equal to "Eggs"

N OTE
The first item in the array has an index of 0, not 1. Arrays in Swift are always zero-indexed.

You can use subscript syntax to change an existing value at a given index:
1

shoppingList[0] = "Six eggs"

// the first item in the list is now equal to "Six eggs" rather
than "Eggs"

You can also use subscript syntax to change a range of values at once, even if the
replacement set of values has a different length than the range you are replacing.
The following example replaces "Chocolate Spread", "Cheese", and "Butter" with
"Bananas" and "Apples":
1

shoppingList[4...6] = ["Bananas", "Apples"]

// shoppingList now contains 6 items

N OTE
You cant use subscript syntax to append a new item to the end of an array.

To insert an item into the array at a specified index, call the arrays
insert(_:atIndex:) method:
1

shoppingList.insert("Maple Syrup", atIndex: 0)

// shoppingList now contains 7 items

// "Maple Syrup" is now the first item in the list

This call to the insert(_:atIndex:) method inserts a new item with a value of "Maple
Syrup" at the very beginning of the shopping list, indicated by an index of 0.

Similarly, you remove an item from the array with the removeAtIndex(_:) method.
This method removes the item at the specified index and returns the removed item
(although you can ignore the returned value if you do not need it):
1

let mapleSyrup = shoppingList.removeAtIndex(0)

// the item that was at index 0 has just been removed

// shoppingList now contains 6 items, and no Maple Syrup

// the mapleSyrup constant is now equal to the removed "Maple

Syrup" string

N OTE
If you try to access or modify a value for an index that is outside of an arrays existing bounds, you
will trigger a runtime error. You can check that an index is valid before using it by comparing it to the
arrays count property. Except when count is 0 (meaning the array is empty), the largest valid
index in an array will always be count - 1, because arrays are indexed from zero.

Any gaps in an array are closed when an item is removed, and so the value at index
0 is once again equal to "Six eggs":
1

firstItem = shoppingList[0]

// firstItem is now equal to "Six eggs"

If you want to remove the final item from an array, use the removeLast() method
rather than the removeAtIndex(_:) method to avoid the need to query the arrays
count property. Like the removeAtIndex(_:) method, removeLast() returns the
removed item:

let apples = shoppingList.removeLast()

// the last item in the array has just been removed

// shoppingList now contains 5 items, and no apples

// the apples constant is now equal to the removed "Apples" string

Iterating Over an Array

You can iterate over the entire set of values in an array with the for-in loop:
1

for item in shoppingList {

print(item)

// Six eggs

// Milk

// Flour

// Baking Powder

// Bananas

If you need the integer index of each item as well as its value, use the enumerate()
method to iterate over the array instead. For each item in the array, the enumerate()
method returns a tuple composed of the index and the value for that item. You can
decompose the tuple into temporary constants or variables as part of the iteration:

for (index, value) in shoppingList.enumerate() {

print("Item \(index + 1): \(value)")

// Item 1: Six eggs

// Item 2: Milk

// Item 3: Flour

// Item 4: Baking Powder

// Item 5: Bananas

For more about the for-in loop, see For Loops.

Sets
A set stores distinct values of the same type in a collection with no defined ordering.
You can use a set instead of an array when the order of items is not important, or
when you need to ensure that an item only appears once.

N OTE
Swifts Set type is bridged to Foundations NSSet class.
For more information about using Set with Foundation and Cocoa, see Using Swift with Cocoa and
Objective-C (Swift 2.1).

Hash Values for Set Types

A type must be hashable in order to be stored in a setthat is, the type must provide
a way to compute a hash value for itself. A hash value is an Int value that is the same
for all objects that compare equally, such that if a == b, it follows that a.hashValue

== b.hashValue.

All of Swifts basic types (such as String, Int, Double, and Bool) are hashable by
default, and can be used as set value types or dictionary key types. Enumeration case
values without associated values (as described in Enumerations) are also hashable
by default.

N OTE
You can use your own custom types as set value types or dictionary key types by making them
conform to the Hashable protocol from Swifts standard library. Types that conform to the
Hashable protocol must provide a gettable Int property called hashValue. The value returned
by a types hashValue property is not required to be the same across different executions of the
same program, or in different programs.
Because the Hashable protocol conforms to Equatable, conforming types must also provide an
implementation of the is equal operator (==). The Equatable protocol requires any conforming
implementation of == to be an equivalence relation. That is, an implementation of == must satisfy the
following three conditions, for all values a, b, and c:

a == a (Reflexivity)

a == b implies b == a (Symmetry)

a == b && b == c implies a == c (Transitivity)

For more information about conforming to protocols, see Protocols.

Set Type Syntax

The type of a Swift set is written as Set<Element>, where Element is the type that the
set is allowed to store. Unlike arrays, sets do not have an equivalent shorthand form.

Creating and Initializing an Empty Set

You can create an empty set of a certain type using initializer syntax:

var letters = Set<Character>()

print("letters is of type Set<Character> with \(letters.count)

items.")

// prints "letters is of type Set<Character> with 0 items."

N OTE
The type of the letters variable is inferred to be Set<Character>, from the type of the
initializer.

Alternatively, if the context already provides type information, such as a function

argument or an already typed variable or constant, you can create an empty set with
an empty array literal:
1

letters.insert("a")

// letters now contains 1 value of type Character

letters = []

// letters is now an empty set, but is still of type Set<Character>

Creating a Set with an Array Literal

You can also initialize a set with an array literal, as a shorthand way to write one or
more values as a set collection.
The example below creates a set called favoriteGenres to store String values:
1

var favoriteGenres: Set<String> = ["Rock", "Classical", "Hip hop"]

// favoriteGenres has been initialized with three initial items

The favoriteGenres variable is declared as a set of String values, written as

Set<String>. Because this particular set has specified a value type of String, it is
only allowed to store String values. Here, the favoriteGenres set is initialized with
three String values ("Rock", "Classical", and "Hip hop"), written within an array
literal.

N OTE
The favoriteGenres set is declared as a variable (with the var introducer) and not a constant
(with the let introducer) because items are added and removed in the examples below.

A set type cannot be inferred from an array literal alone, so the type Set must be
explicitly declared. However, because of Swifts type inference, you dont have to
write the type of the set if youre initializing it with an array literal containing
values of the same type. The initialization of favoriteGenres could have been
written in a shorter form instead:

var favoriteGenres: Set = ["Rock", "Classical", "Hip hop"]

Because all values in the array literal are of the same type, Swift can infer that
Set<String> is the correct type to use for the favoriteGenres variable.

Accessing and Modifying a Set

You access and modify a set through its methods and properties.
To find out the number of items in a set, check its read-only count property:
1

print("I have \(favoriteGenres.count) favorite music genres.")

// prints "I have 3 favorite music genres."

Use the Boolean isEmpty property as a shortcut for checking whether the count
property is equal to 0:

if favoriteGenres.isEmpty {

print("As far as music goes, I'm not picky.")

} else {

print("I have particular music preferences.")

// prints "I have particular music preferences."

You can add a new item into a set by calling the sets insert(_:) method:
1

favoriteGenres.insert("Jazz")

// favoriteGenres now contains 4 items

You can remove an item from a set by calling the sets remove(_:) method, which
removes the item if its a member of the set, and returns the removed value, or
returns nil if the set did not contain it. Alternatively, all items in a set can be
removed with its removeAll() method.
1

if let removedGenre = favoriteGenres.remove("Rock") {

print("\(removedGenre)? I'm over it.")

} else {

print("I never much cared for that.")

// prints "Rock? I'm over it."

To check whether a set contains a particular item, use the contains(_:) method.

if favoriteGenres.contains("Funk") {

print("I get up on the good foot.")

} else {

print("It's too funky in here.")

// prints "It's too funky in here."

Iterating Over a Set

You can iterate over the values in a set with a for-in loop.
1

for genre in favoriteGenres {

print("\(genre)")

// Classical

// Jazz

// Hip hop

For more about the for-in loop, see For Loops.

Swifts Set type does not have a defined ordering. To iterate over the values of a set
in a specific order, use the sort() method, which returns the sets elements as an
array sorted using the < operator.

for genre in favoriteGenres.sort() {

print("\(genre)")

// Classical

// Hip hop

// Jazz

Performing Set Operations

You can efficiently perform fundamental set operations, such as combining two sets
together, determining which values two sets have in common, or determining
whether two sets contain all, some, or none of the same values.

Fundamental Set Operations

The illustration below depicts two setsa and b with the results of various set
operations represented by the shaded regions.

 Use the intersect(_:) method to create a new set with only the values
common to both sets.
Use the exclusiveOr(_:) method to create a new set with values in either set,
but not both.
Use the union(_:) method to create a new set with all of the values in both
sets.
Use the subtract(_:) method to create a new set with values not in the
specified set.

let oddDigits: Set = [1, 3, 5, 7, 9]

let evenDigits: Set = [0, 2, 4, 6, 8]

let singleDigitPrimeNumbers: Set = [2, 3, 5, 7]

oddDigits.union(evenDigits).sort()

// [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]

oddDigits.intersect(evenDigits).sort()

// []

oddDigits.subtract(singleDigitPrimeNumbers).sort()
// [1, 9]
oddDigits.exclusiveOr(singleDigitPrimeNumbers).sort()
// [1, 2, 9]

Set Membership and Equality

The illustration below depicts three setsa, b and c with overlapping regions
representing elements shared among sets. Set a is a superset of set b, because a
contains all elements in b. Conversely, set b is a subset of set a, because all elements
in b are also contained by a. Set b and set c are disjoint with one another, because
they share no elements in common.

 Use the is equal operator (==) to determine whether two sets contain all of
the same values.
Use the isSubsetOf(_:) method to determine whether all of the values of a
set are contained in the specified set.
Use the isSupersetOf(_:) method to determine whether a set contains all of
the values in a specified set.
Use the isStrictSubsetOf(_:) or isStrictSupersetOf(_:) methods to
determine whether a set is a subset or superset, but not equal to, a specified
set.
Use the isDisjointWith(_:) method to determine whether two sets have any
values in common.

let houseAnimals: Set = ["" , " "]

let farmAnimals: Set = ["

let cityAnimals: Set = ["" , "

houseAnimals.isSubsetOf(farmAnimals)

// true

farmAnimals.isSupersetOf(houseAnimals)

// true

farmAnimals.isDisjointWith(cityAnimals)

", "" , "" , "" , " "]

"]

// true

Dictionaries
A dictionary stores associations between keys of the same type and values of the
same type in a collection with no defined ordering. Each value is associated with a
unique key, which acts as an identifier for that value within the dictionary. Unlike
items in an array, items in a dictionary do not have a specified order. You use a
dictionary when you need to look up values based on their identifier, in much the
same way that a real-world dictionary is used to look up the definition for a
particular word.

N OTE
Swifts Dictionary type is bridged to Foundations NSDictionary class.
For more information about using Dictionary with Foundation and Cocoa, see Using Swift with
Cocoa and Objective-C (Swift 2.1).

Dictionary Type Shorthand Syntax

The type of a Swift dictionary is written in full as Dictionary<Key, Value>, where
Key is the type of value that can be used as a dictionary key, and Value is the type of
value that the dictionary stores for those keys.

N OTE
A dictionary Key type must conform to the Hashable protocol, like a sets value type.

You can also write the type of a dictionary in shorthand form as [Key: Value].
Although the two forms are functionally identical, the shorthand form is preferred
and is used throughout this guide when referring to the type of a dictionary.

Creating an Empty Dictionary

As with arrays, you can create an empty Dictionary of a certain type by using
initializer syntax:
1

var namesOfIntegers = [Int: String]()

// namesOfIntegers is an empty [Int: String] dictionary

This example creates an empty dictionary of type [Int: String] to store humanreadable names of integer values. Its keys are of type Int, and its values are of type
String.
If the context already provides type information, you can create an empty dictionary
with an empty dictionary literal, which is written as [:] (a colon inside a pair of
square brackets):

namesOfIntegers[16] = "sixteen"

// namesOfIntegers now contains 1 key-value pair

namesOfIntegers = [:]

// namesOfIntegers is once again an empty dictionary of type [Int:

String]

Creating a Dictionary with a Dictionary Literal

You can also initialize a dictionary with a dictionary literal, which has a similar
syntax to the array literal seen earlier. A dictionary literal is a shorthand way to
write one or more key-value pairs as a Dictionary collection.
A key-value pair is a combination of a key and a value. In a dictionary literal, the
key and value in each key-value pair are separated by a colon. The key-value pairs
are written as a list, separated by commas, surrounded by a pair of square brackets:
[ key 1 : value 1 , key 2 : value 2 , key 3 : value 3 ]

The example below creates a dictionary to store the names of international airports.
In this dictionary, the keys are three-letter International Air Transport Association
codes, and the values are airport names:

var airports: [String: String] = ["YYZ": "Toronto Pearson", "DUB":

"Dublin"]

The airports dictionary is declared as having a type of [String: String], which

means a Dictionary whose keys are of type String, and whose values are also of
type String.

N OTE
The airports dictionary is declared as a variable (with the var introducer), and not a constant
(with the let introducer), because more airports are added to the dictionary in the examples below.

The airports dictionary is initialized with a dictionary literal containing two keyvalue pairs. The first pair has a key of "YYZ" and a value of "Toronto Pearson". The
second pair has a key of "DUB" and a value of "Dublin".
This dictionary literal contains two String: String pairs. This key-value type
matches the type of the airports variable declaration (a dictionary with only String
keys, and only String values), and so the assignment of the dictionary literal is
permitted as a way to initialize the airports dictionary with two initial items.
As with arrays, you dont have to write the type of the dictionary if youre
initializing it with a dictionary literal whose keys and values have consistent types.
The initialization of airports could have been written in a shorter form instead:

var airports = ["YYZ": "Toronto Pearson", "DUB": "Dublin"]

Because all keys in the literal are of the same type as each other, and likewise all
values are of the same type as each other, Swift can infer that [String: String] is
the correct type to use for the airports dictionary.

Accessing and Modifying a Dictionary

You access and modify a dictionary through its methods and properties, or by using
subscript syntax.
As with an array, you find out the number of items in a Dictionary by checking its
read-only count property:
1

print("The airports dictionary contains \(airports.count) items.")

// prints "The airports dictionary contains 2 items."

Use the Boolean isEmpty property as a shortcut for checking whether the count

property is equal to 0:
1

if airports.isEmpty {

print("The airports dictionary is empty.")

} else {

print("The airports dictionary is not empty.")

// prints "The airports dictionary is not empty."

You can add a new item to a dictionary with subscript syntax. Use a new key of the
appropriate type as the subscript index, and assign a new value of the appropriate
type:
1

airports["LHR"] = "London"

// the airports dictionary now contains 3 items

You can also use subscript syntax to change the value associated with a particular
key:
1

airports["LHR"] = "London Heathrow"

// the value for "LHR" has been changed to "London Heathrow"

As an alternative to subscripting, use a dictionarys updateValue(_:forKey:) method

to set or update the value for a particular key. Like the subscript examples above, the
updateValue(_:forKey:) method sets a value for a key if none exists, or updates the
value if that key already exists. Unlike a subscript, however, the
updateValue(_:forKey:) method returns the old value after performing an update.
This enables you to check whether or not an update took place.
The updateValue(_:forKey:) method returns an optional value of the dictionarys
value type. For a dictionary that stores String values, for example, the method
returns a value of type String?, or optional String. This optional value contains
the old value for that key if one existed before the update, or nil if no value existed:

if let oldValue = airports.updateValue("Dublin Airport", forKey:

"DUB") {

print("The old value for DUB was \(oldValue).")

// prints "The old value for DUB was Dublin."

You can also use subscript syntax to retrieve a value from the dictionary for a
particular key. Because it is possible to request a key for which no value exists, a
dictionarys subscript returns an optional value of the dictionarys value type. If the
dictionary contains a value for the requested key, the subscript returns an optional
value containing the existing value for that key. Otherwise, the subscript returns nil:
1

if let airportName = airports["DUB"] {

print("The name of the airport is \(airportName).")

} else {

print("That airport is not in the airports dictionary.")

// prints "The name of the airport is Dublin Airport."

You can use subscript syntax to remove a key-value pair from a dictionary by
assigning a value of nil for that key:
1

airports["APL"] = "Apple International"

// "Apple International" is not the real airport for APL, so delete

it

airports["APL"] = nil

// APL has now been removed from the dictionary

Alternatively, remove a key-value pair from a dictionary with the

removeValueForKey(_:) method. This method removes the key-value pair if it exists
and returns the removed value, or returns nil if no value existed:
1

if let removedValue = airports.removeValueForKey("DUB") {

print("The removed airport's name is \(removedValue).")

} else {

print("The airports dictionary does not contain a value for

DUB.")

// prints "The removed airport's name is Dublin Airport."

Iterating Over a Dictionary

You can iterate over the key-value pairs in a dictionary with a for-in loop. Each
item in the dictionary is returned as a (key, value) tuple, and you can decompose
the tuples members into temporary constants or variables as part of the iteration:
1

for (airportCode, airportName) in airports {

print("\(airportCode): \(airportName)")

// YYZ: Toronto Pearson

// LHR: London Heathrow

For more about the for-in loop, see For Loops.

You can also retrieve an iterable collection of a dictionarys keys or values by
accessing its keys and values properties:

for airportCode in airports.keys {

print("Airport code: \(airportCode)")

// Airport code: YYZ

// Airport code: LHR

for airportName in airports.values {

print("Airport name: \(airportName)")

}
// Airport name: Toronto Pearson
// Airport name: London Heathrow

If you need to use a dictionarys keys or values with an API that takes an Array
instance, initialize a new array with the keys or values property:
1

let airportCodes = [String](airports.keys)

// airportCodes is ["YYZ", "LHR"]

let airportNames = [String](airports.values)

// airportNames is ["Toronto Pearson", "London Heathrow"]

Swifts Dictionary type does not have a defined ordering. To iterate over the keys or
values of a dictionary in a specific order, use the sort() method on its keys or
values property.

Control Flow
Swift provides all the familiar control flow statements from C-like languages.
These include for and while loops to perform a task multiple times; if, guard, and
switch statements to execute different branches of code based on certain conditions;
and statements such as break and continue to transfer the flow of execution to
another point in your code.
In addition to the traditional for loop found in C, Swift adds a for-in loop that
makes it easy to iterate over arrays, dictionaries, ranges, strings, and other
sequences.
Swifts switch statement is also considerably more powerful than its counterpart in
C. The cases of a switch statement do not fall through to the next case in Swift,
avoiding common C errors caused by missing break statements. Cases can match
many different patterns, including interval matches, tuples, and casts to a specific
type. Matched values in a switch case can be bound to temporary constants or
variables for use within the cases body, and complex matching conditions can be
expressed with a where clause for each case.

For Loops
Swift provides two kinds of loop that perform a set of statements a certain number
of times:
The for-in loop performs a set of statements for each item in a sequence.
The for loop performs a set of statements until a specific condition is met,
typically by incrementing a counter each time the loop ends.

For-In
You use the for-in loop to iterate over a sequence, such as ranges of numbers, items

in an array, or characters in a string.

This example prints the first few entries in the five-times-table:
1

for index in 1...5 {

print("\(index) times 5 is \(index * 5)")

// 1 times 5 is 5

// 2 times 5 is 10

// 3 times 5 is 15

// 4 times 5 is 20

// 5 times 5 is 25

The sequence being iterated is a range of numbers from 1 to 5, inclusive, as

indicated by the use of the closed range operator (...). The value of index is set to
the first number in the range (1), and the statements inside the loop are executed. In
this case, the loop contains only one statement, which prints an entry from the fivetimes-table for the current value of index. After the statement is executed, the value
of index is updated to contain the second value in the range (2), and the
print(_:separator:terminator:) function is called again. This process continues
until the end of the range is reached.
In the example above, index is a constant whose value is automatically set at the start
of each iteration of the loop. As such, it does not have to be declared before it is
used. It is implicitly declared simply by its inclusion in the loop declaration, without
the need for a let declaration keyword.
If you dont need each value from a sequence, you can ignore the values by using an
underscore in place of a variable name:

let base = 3

let power = 10

var answer = 1

for _ in 1...power {

answer *= base

print("\(base) to the power of \(power) is \(answer)")

// prints "3 to the power of 10 is 59049"

This example calculates the value of one number to the power of another (in this
case, 3 to the power of 10). It multiplies a starting value of 1 (that is, 3 to the power
of 0) by 3, ten times, using a closed range that starts with 1 and ends with 10. This
calculation doesnt need to know the individual counter values each time through the
loopit simply needs to execute the loop the correct number of times. The
underscore character (_) used in place of a loop variable causes the individual
values to be ignored and does not provide access to the current value during each
iteration of the loop.
Use a for-in loop with an array to iterate over its items:
1

let names = ["Anna", "Alex", "Brian", "Jack"]

for name in names {

print("Hello, \(name)!")

// Hello, Anna!

// Hello, Alex!

// Hello, Brian!

// Hello, Jack!

You can also iterate over a dictionary to access its key-value pairs. Each item in the
dictionary is returned as a (key, value) tuple when the dictionary is iterated, and
you can decompose the (key, value) tuples members as explicitly named constants
for use within the body of the for-in loop. Here, the dictionarys keys are
decomposed into a constant called animalName, and the dictionarys values are
decomposed into a constant called legCount:
1

let numberOfLegs = ["spider": 8, "ant": 6, "cat": 4]

for (animalName, legCount) in numberOfLegs {

print("\(animalName)s have \(legCount) legs")

// ants have 6 legs

// cats have 4 legs

// spiders have 8 legs

Items in a Dictionary may not necessarily be iterated in the same order as they were
inserted. The contents of a Dictionary are inherently unordered, and iterating over
them does not guarantee the order in which they will be retrieved. For more on
arrays and dictionaries, see Collection Types.

For
In addition to for-in loops, Swift supports traditional C-style for loops with a
condition and an incrementer:

for var index = 0; index < 3; ++index {

print("index is \(index)")

// index is 0

// index is 1

// index is 2

Heres the general form of this loop format:

for initialization ; condition ; increment {
statements
}

Semicolons separate the three parts of the loops definition, as in C. However,

unlike C, Swift doesnt need parentheses around the entire initialization; condition;
increment block.
The loop is executed as follows:
1. When the loop is first entered, the initialization expression is evaluated once, to
set up any constants or variables that are needed for the loop.
2. The condition expression is evaluated. If it evaluates to false, the loop ends,
and code execution continues after the for loops closing brace (}). If the
expression evaluates to true, code execution continues by executing the
statements inside the braces.
3. After all statements are executed, the increment expression is evaluated. It might
increase or decrease the value of a counter, or set one of the initialized
variables to a new value based on the outcome of the statements. After the
increment expression has been evaluated, execution returns to step 2, and the
condition expression is evaluated again.
Constants and variables declared within the initialization expression (such as var
index = 0) are only valid within the scope of the for loop itself. To retrieve the final

value of index after the loop ends, you must declare index before the loops scope
begins:
1

var index: Int

for index = 0; index < 3; ++index {

print("index is \(index)")

// index is 0

// index is 1

// index is 2

print("The loop statements were executed \(index) times")

// prints "The loop statements were executed 3 times"

Note that the final value of index after this loop is completed is 3, not 2. The last
time the increment statement ++index is called, it sets index to 3, which causes index
< 3 to equate to false, ending the loop.

While Loops
A while loop performs a set of statements until a condition becomes false. These
kinds of loops are best used when the number of iterations is not known before the
first iteration begins. Swift provides two kinds of while loop:

While

while evaluates its condition at the start of each pass through the loop.
repeat-while evaluates its condition at the end of each pass through the loop.

A while loop starts by evaluating a single condition. If the condition is true, a set of
statements is repeated until the condition becomes false.
Heres the general form of a while loop:
while condition {
statements
}

This example plays a simple game of Snakes and Ladders (also known as Chutes
and Ladders):

The rules of the game are as follows:

The board has 25 squares, and the aim is to land on or beyond square 25.
Each turn, you roll a six-sided dice and move by that number of squares,
following the horizontal path indicated by the dotted arrow above.
If your turn ends at the bottom of a ladder, you move up that ladder.
If your turn ends at the head of a snake, you move down that snake.
The game board is represented by an array of Int values. Its size is based on a
constant called finalSquare, which is used to initialize the array and also to check
for a win condition later in the example. The board is initialized with 26 zero Int

values, not 25 (one each at indexes 0 through 25 inclusive):

1

let finalSquare = 25

var board = [Int](count: finalSquare + 1, repeatedValue: 0)

Some squares are then set to have more specific values for the snakes and ladders.
Squares with a ladder base have a positive number to move you up the board,
whereas squares with a snake head have a negative number to move you back down
the board:
1

board[03] = +08; board[06] = +11; board[09] = +09; board[10] = +02

board[14] = -10; board[19] = -11; board[22] = -02; board[24] = -08

Square 3 contains the bottom of a ladder that moves you up to square 11. To
represent this, board[03] is equal to +08, which is equivalent to an integer value of 8
(the difference between 3 and 11). The unary plus operator (+i) balances with the
unary minus operator (-i), and numbers lower than 10 are padded with zeros so that
all board definitions align. (Neither stylistic tweak is strictly necessary, but they lead
to neater code.)
The player s starting square is square zero, which is just off the bottom left
corner of the board. The first dice roll always moves the player on to the board:

var square = 0

var diceRoll = 0

while square < finalSquare {

// roll the dice

if ++diceRoll == 7 { diceRoll = 1 }

// move by the rolled amount

square += diceRoll

if square < board.count {

// if we're still on the board, move up or down for a snake

or a ladder
square += board[square]
}
}
print("Game over!")

This example uses a very simple approach to dice rolling. Instead of a random
number generator, it starts with a diceRoll value of 0. Each time through the while
loop, diceRoll is incremented with the prefix increment operator (++i), and is then
checked to see if it has become too large. The return value of ++diceRoll is equal to
the value of diceRoll after it is incremented. Whenever this return value equals 7,
the dice roll has become too large, and is reset to a value of 1. This gives a sequence
of diceRoll values that is always 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 1, 2 and so on.
After rolling the dice, the player moves forward by diceRoll squares. Its possible
that the dice roll may have moved the player beyond square 25, in which case the
game is over. To cope with this scenario, the code checks that square is less than the
board arrays count property before adding the value stored in board[square] onto
the current square value to move the player up or down any ladders or snakes.
Had this check not been performed, board[square] might try to access a value

outside the bounds of the board array, which would trigger an error. If square is now
equal to 26, the code would try to check the value of board[26], which is larger than
the size of the array.
The current while loop execution then ends, and the loops condition is checked to
see if the loop should be executed again. If the player has moved on or beyond
square number 25, the loops condition evaluates to false, and the game ends.
A while loop is appropriate in this case because the length of the game is not clear at
the start of the while loop. Instead, the loop is executed until a particular condition is
satisfied.

Repeat-While
The other variation of the while loop, known as the repeat-while loop, performs a
single pass through the loop block first, before considering the loops condition. It
then continues to repeat the loop until the condition is false.

N OTE
The repeat-while loop in Swift is analogous to a do-while loop in other languages.

Heres the general form of a repeat-while loop:

repeat {
statements
} while condition

Heres the Snakes and Ladders example again, written as a repeat-while loop rather
than a while loop. The values of finalSquare, board, square, and diceRoll are
initialized in exactly the same way as with a while loop:

let finalSquare = 25

var board = [Int](count: finalSquare + 1, repeatedValue: 0)

board[03] = +08; board[06] = +11; board[09] = +09; board[10] = +02

board[14] = -10; board[19] = -11; board[22] = -02; board[24] = -08

var square = 0

var diceRoll = 0

In this version of the game, the first action in the loop is to check for a ladder or a
snake. No ladder on the board takes the player straight to square 25, and so it is not
possible to win the game by moving up a ladder. Therefore, it is safe to check for a
snake or a ladder as the first action in the loop.
At the start of the game, the player is on square zero. board[0] always equals 0,
and has no effect:
1

repeat {

// move up or down for a snake or ladder

square += board[square]

// roll the dice

if ++diceRoll == 7 { diceRoll = 1 }

// move by the rolled amount

square += diceRoll

} while square < finalSquare

print("Game over!")

After the code checks for snakes and ladders, the dice is rolled, and the player is
moved forward by diceRoll squares. The current loop execution then ends.
The loops condition (while square < finalSquare) is the same as before, but this

time it is not evaluated until the end of the first run through the loop. The structure
of the repeat-while loop is better suited to this game than the while loop in the
previous example. In the repeat-while loop above, square += board[square] is
always executed immediately after the loops while condition confirms that square is
still on the board. This behavior removes the need for the array bounds check seen
in the earlier version of the game.

Conditional Statements
It is often useful to execute different pieces of code based on certain conditions. You
might want to run an extra piece of code when an error occurs, or to display a
message when a value becomes too high or too low. To do this, you make parts of
your code conditional.
Swift provides two ways to add conditional branches to your code, known as the if
statement and the switch statement. Typically, you use the if statement to evaluate
simple conditions with only a few possible outcomes. The switch statement is better
suited to more complex conditions with multiple possible permutations, and is
useful in situations where pattern-matching can help select an appropriate code
branch to execute.

If
In its simplest form, the if statement has a single if condition. It executes a set of
statements only if that condition is true:
1

var temperatureInFahrenheit = 30

if temperatureInFahrenheit <= 32 {

print("It's very cold. Consider wearing a scarf.")

// prints "It's very cold. Consider wearing a scarf."

The preceding example checks whether the temperature is less than or equal to 32

degrees Fahrenheit (the freezing point of water). If it is, a message is printed.

Otherwise, no message is printed, and code execution continues after the if
statements closing brace.
The if statement can provide an alternative set of statements, known as an else
clause, for when the if condition is false. These statements are indicated by the else
keyword:
1

temperatureInFahrenheit = 40

if temperatureInFahrenheit <= 32 {

print("It's very cold. Consider wearing a scarf.")

} else {

print("It's not that cold. Wear a t-shirt.")

// prints "It's not that cold. Wear a t-shirt."

One of these two branches is always executed. Because the temperature has
increased to 40 degrees Fahrenheit, it is no longer cold enough to advise wearing a
scarf, and so the else branch is triggered instead.
You can chain multiple if statements together, to consider additional clauses:

temperatureInFahrenheit = 90

if temperatureInFahrenheit <= 32 {

print("It's very cold. Consider wearing a scarf.")

} else if temperatureInFahrenheit >= 86 {

print("It's really warm. Don't forget to wear sunscreen.")

} else {

print("It's not that cold. Wear a t-shirt.")

// prints "It's really warm. Don't forget to wear sunscreen."

Here, an additional if statement is added to respond to particularly warm

temperatures. The final else clause remains, and prints a response for any
temperatures that are neither too warm nor too cold.
The final else clause is optional, however, and can be excluded if the set of
conditions does not need to be complete:
1

temperatureInFahrenheit = 72

if temperatureInFahrenheit <= 32 {

print("It's very cold. Consider wearing a scarf.")

} else if temperatureInFahrenheit >= 86 {

print("It's really warm. Don't forget to wear sunscreen.")

In this example, the temperature is neither too cold nor too warm to trigger the if
or else if conditions, and so no message is printed.

Switch
A switch statement considers a value and compares it against several possible
matching patterns. It then executes an appropriate block of code, based on the first
pattern that matches successfully. A switch statement provides an alternative to the if
statement for responding to multiple potential states.
In its simplest form, a switch statement compares a value against one or more
values of the same type:
switch some value to consider {
case value 1 :
respond to value 1
case value 2 ,
value 3 :
respond to value 2 or 3
default:
otherwise, do something else
}

Every switch statement consists of multiple possible cases, each of which begins
with the case keyword. In addition to comparing against specific values, Swift
provides several ways for each case to specify more complex matching patterns.
These options are described later in this section.
The body of each switch case is a separate branch of code execution, in a similar
manner to the branches of an if statement. The switch statement determines which
branch should be selected. This is known as switching on the value that is being
considered.
Every switch statement must be exhaustive. That is, every possible value of the type
being considered must be matched by one of the switch cases. If it is not appropriate
to provide a switch case for every possible value, you can define a default catch-all
case to cover any values that are not addressed explicitly. This catch-all case is
indicated by the default keyword, and must always appear last.

This example uses a switch statement to consider a single lowercase character

called someCharacter:
1

let someCharacter: Character = "e"

switch someCharacter {

case "a", "e", "i", "o", "u":

print("\(someCharacter) is a vowel")

case "b", "c", "d", "f", "g", "h", "j", "k", "l", "m",

"n", "p", "q", "r", "s", "t", "v", "w", "x", "y", "z":

print("\(someCharacter) is a consonant")

default:

print("\(someCharacter) is not a vowel or a consonant")

}
// prints "e is a vowel"

The switch statements first case matches all five lowercase vowels in the English
language. Similarly, its second case matches all lowercase English consonants.
It is not practical to write all other possible characters as part of a switch case, and
so this switch statement provides a default case to match all other characters that
are not vowels or consonants. This provision ensures that the switch statement is
exhaustive.

No Implicit Fallthrough
In contrast with switch statements in C and Objective-C, switch statements in Swift
do not fall through the bottom of each case and into the next one by default. Instead,
the entire switch statement finishes its execution as soon as the first matching switch
case is completed, without requiring an explicit break statement. This makes the
switch statement safer and easier to use than in C, and avoids executing more than

one switch case by mistake.

N OTE
Although break is not required in Swift, you can still use a break statement to match and ignore a
particular case, or to break out of a matched case before that case has completed its execution. See
Break in a Switch Statement for details.

The body of each case must contain at least one executable statement. It is not valid
to write the following code, because the first case is empty:
1

let anotherCharacter: Character = "a"

switch anotherCharacter {

case "a":

case "A":

print("The letter A")

default:

print("Not the letter A")

// this will report a compile-time error

Unlike a switch statement in C, this switch statement does not match both "a" and
"A". Rather, it reports a compile-time error that case "a": does not contain any
executable statements. This approach avoids accidental fallthrough from one case to
another, and makes for safer code that is clearer in its intent.
Multiple matches for a single switch case can be separated by commas, and can be
written over multiple lines if the list is long:

switch some value to consider {

case value 1 ,
value 2 :
statements
}

N OTE
To opt in to fallthrough behavior for a particular switch case, use the fallthrough keyword, as
described in Fallthrough.

Interval Matching
Values in switch cases can be checked for their inclusion in an interval. This
example uses number intervals to provide a natural-language count for numbers of
any size:

let approximateCount = 62

let countedThings = "moons orbiting Saturn"

var naturalCount: String

switch approximateCount {

case 0:

naturalCount = "no"

case 1..<5:

naturalCount = "a few"

case 5..<12:
naturalCount = "several"
case 12..<100:
naturalCount = "dozens of"
case 100..<1000:
naturalCount = "hundreds of"
default:
naturalCount = "many"
}
print("There are \(naturalCount) \(countedThings).")
// prints "There are dozens of moons orbiting Saturn."

In the above example, approximateCount is evaluated in a switch statement. Each

case compares that value to a number or interval. Because the value of
approximateCount falls between 12 and 100, naturalCount is assigned the value
"dozens of", and execution is transferred out of the switch statement.

N OTE
Both the closed range operator (...) and half-open range operator (..<) functions are overloaded
to return either an IntervalType or Range. An interval can determine whether it contains a
particular element, such as when matching a switch statement case. A range is a collection of
consecutive values, which can be iterated on in a for-in statement.

Tuples
You can use tuples to test multiple values in the same switch statement. Each element
of the tuple can be tested against a different value or interval of values.
Alternatively, use the underscore character (_), also known as the wildcard pattern,
to match any possible value.
The example below takes an (x, y) point, expressed as a simple tuple of type (Int,
Int), and categorizes it on the graph that follows the example:

let somePoint = (1, 1)

switch somePoint {

case (0, 0):

print("(0, 0) is at the origin")

case (_, 0):

print("(\(somePoint.0), 0) is on the x-axis")

case (0, _):

print("(0, \(somePoint.1)) is on the y-axis")

case (-2...2, -2...2):

print("(\(somePoint.0), \(somePoint.1)) is inside the box")
default:
print("(\(somePoint.0), \(somePoint.1)) is outside of the box")
}
// prints "(1, 1) is inside the box"

The switch statement determines if the point is at the origin (0, 0); on the red x-axis;

on the orange y-axis; inside the blue 4-by-4 box centered on the origin; or outside
of the box.
Unlike C, Swift allows multiple switch cases to consider the same value or values.
In fact, the point (0, 0) could match all four of the cases in this example. However, if
multiple matches are possible, the first matching case is always used. The point (0,
0) would match case (0, 0) first, and so all other matching cases would be ignored.

Value Bindings
A switch case can bind the value or values it matches to temporary constants or
variables, for use in the body of the case. This is known as value binding, because
the values are bound to temporary constants or variables within the cases body.
The example below takes an (x, y) point, expressed as a tuple of type (Int, Int) and
categorizes it on the graph that follows:
1

let anotherPoint = (2, 0)

switch anotherPoint {

case (let x, 0):

print("on the x-axis with an x value of \(x)")

case (0, let y):

print("on the y-axis with a y value of \(y)")

case let (x, y):

print("somewhere else at (\(x), \(y))")

}
// prints "on the x-axis with an x value of 2"

The switch statement determines if the point is on the red x-axis, on the orange yaxis, or elsewhere, on neither axis.
The three switch cases declare placeholder constants x and y, which temporarily
take on one or both tuple values from anotherPoint. The first case, case (let x, 0),
matches any point with a y value of 0 and assigns the points x value to the
temporary constant x. Similarly, the second case, case (0, let y), matches any
point with an x value of 0 and assigns the points y value to the temporary constant y.
Once the temporary constants are declared, they can be used within the cases code
block. Here, they are used as shorthand for printing the values with the
print(_:separator:terminator:) function.
Note that this switch statement does not have a default case. The final case, case let
(x, y), declares a tuple of two placeholder constants that can match any value. As a
result, it matches all possible remaining values, and a default case is not needed to
make the switch statement exhaustive.
In the example above, x and y are declared as constants with the let keyword,
because there is no need to modify their values within the body of the case.
However, they could have been declared as variables instead, with the var keyword.
If this had been done, a temporary variable would have been created and initialized
with the appropriate value. Any changes to that variable would only have an effect
within the body of the case.

Where

A switch case can use a where clause to check for additional conditions.
The example below categorizes an (x, y) point on the following graph:
1

let yetAnotherPoint = (1, -1)

switch yetAnotherPoint {

case let (x, y) where x == y:

print("(\(x), \(y)) is on the line x == y")

case let (x, y) where x == -y:

print("(\(x), \(y)) is on the line x == -y")

case let (x, y):

print("(\(x), \(y)) is just some arbitrary point")

}
// prints "(1, -1) is on the line x == -y"

The switch statement determines if the point is on the green diagonal line where x
== y, on the purple diagonal line where x == -y, or neither.
The three switch cases declare placeholder constants x and y, which temporarily

take on the two tuple values from yetAnotherPoint. These constants are used as part
of a where clause, to create a dynamic filter. The switch case matches the current
value of point only if the where clauses condition evaluates to true for that value.
As in the previous example, the final case matches all possible remaining values,
and so a default case is not needed to make the switch statement exhaustive.

Control Transfer Statements

Control transfer statements change the order in which your code is executed, by
transferring control from one piece of code to another. Swift has five control
transfer statements:

continue
break
fallthrough
return
throw

The continue, break, and fallthrough statements are described below. The return
statement is described in Functions, and the throw statement is described in
Propagating Errors Using Throwing Functions.

Continue
The continue statement tells a loop to stop what it is doing and start again at the
beginning of the next iteration through the loop. It says I am done with the current
loop iteration without leaving the loop altogether.

N OTE
In a for loop with a condition and incrementer, the loops incrementer is still evaluated after calling
the continue statement. The loop itself continues to work as usual; only the code within the loops
body is skipped.

The following example removes all vowels and spaces from a lowercase string to
create a cryptic puzzle phrase:
1

let puzzleInput = "great minds think alike"

var puzzleOutput = ""

for character in puzzleInput.characters {

switch character {

case "a", "e", "i", "o", "u", " ":

continue

default:

puzzleOutput.append(character)

}
}
print(puzzleOutput)
// prints "grtmndsthnklk"

The code above calls the continue keyword whenever it matches a vowel or a space,
causing the current iteration of the loop to end immediately and to jump straight to
the start of the next iteration. This behavior enables the switch block to match (and
ignore) only the vowel and space characters, rather than requiring the block to
match every character that should get printed.

Break
The break statement ends execution of an entire control flow statement immediately.
The break statement can be used inside a switch statement or loop statement when
you want to terminate the execution of the switch or loop statement earlier than
would otherwise be the case.

Break in a Loop Statement

When used inside a loop statement, break ends the loops execution immediately,
and transfers control to the first line of code after the loops closing brace (}). No
further code from the current iteration of the loop is executed, and no further
iterations of the loop are started.

Break in a Switch Statement

When used inside a switch statement, break causes the switch statement to end its
execution immediately, and to transfer control to the first line of code after the
switch statements closing brace (}).
This behavior can be used to match and ignore one or more cases in a switch
statement. Because Swifts switch statement is exhaustive and does not allow empty
cases, it is sometimes necessary to deliberately match and ignore a case in order to
make your intentions explicit. You do this by writing the break statement as the
entire body of the case you want to ignore. When that case is matched by the switch
statement, the break statement inside the case ends the switch statements execution
immediately.

N OTE
A switch case that only contains a comment is reported as a compile-time error. Comments are not
statements and do not cause a switch case to be ignored. Always use a break statement to ignore
a switch case.

The following example switches on a Character value and determines whether it

represents a number symbol in one of four languages. Multiple values are covered
in a single switch case for brevity:

let numberSymbol: Character = "" // Simplified Chinese for the

number 3

var possibleIntegerValue: Int?

switch numberSymbol {

case "1", "", "", "":

possibleIntegerValue = 1

case "2", "", "", "":

possibleIntegerValue = 2

case "3", "", "", "":

possibleIntegerValue = 3
case "4", "", "", "":
possibleIntegerValue = 4
default:
break
}
if let integerValue = possibleIntegerValue {
print("The integer value of \(numberSymbol) is \(integerValue).")
} else {
print("An integer value could not be found for \(numberSymbol).")
}
// prints "The integer value of is 3."

This example checks numberSymbol to determine whether it is a Latin, Arabic,

Chinese, or Thai symbol for the numbers 1 to 4. If a match is found, one of the

switch statements cases sets an optional Int? variable called possibleIntegerValue

to an appropriate integer value.

After the switch statement completes its execution, the example uses optional
binding to determine whether a value was found. The possibleIntegerValue variable
has an implicit initial value of nil by virtue of being an optional type, and so the
optional binding will succeed only if possibleIntegerValue was set to an actual
value by one of the switch statements first four cases.
It is not practical to list every possible Character value in the example above, so a
default case provides a catchall for any characters that are not matched. This
default case does not need to perform any action, and so it is written with a single
break statement as its body. As soon as the default case is matched, the break
statement ends the switch statements execution, and code execution continues from
the if let statement.

Fallthrough
Switch statements in Swift do not fall through the bottom of each case and into the
next one. Instead, the entire switch statement completes its execution as soon as the
first matching case is completed. By contrast, C requires you to insert an explicit
break statement at the end of every switch case to prevent fallthrough. Avoiding
default fallthrough means that Swift switch statements are much more concise and
predictable than their counterparts in C, and thus they avoid executing multiple
switch cases by mistake.
If you really need C-style fallthrough behavior, you can opt in to this behavior on a
case-by-case basis with the fallthrough keyword. The example below uses
fallthrough to create a textual description of a number:

let integerToDescribe = 5

var description = "The number \(integerToDescribe) is"

switch integerToDescribe {

case 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19:

description += " a prime number, and also"

fallthrough

default:

description += " an integer."

}
print(description)
// prints "The number 5 is a prime number, and also an integer."

This example declares a new String variable called description and assigns it an
initial value. The function then considers the value of integerToDescribe using a
switch statement. If the value of integerToDescribe is one of the prime numbers in
the list, the function appends text to the end of description, to note that the number
is prime. It then uses the fallthrough keyword to fall into the default case as well.
The default case adds some extra text to the end of the description, and the switch
statement is complete.
If the value of integerToDescribe is not in the list of known prime numbers, it is not
matched by the first switch case at all. There are no other specific cases, and so
integerToDescribe is matched by the catchall default case.
After the switch statement has finished executing, the number s description is
printed using the print(_:separator:terminator:) function. In this example, the
number 5 is correctly identified as a prime number.

N OTE
The fallthrough keyword does not check the case conditions for the switch case that it causes
execution to fall into. The fallthrough keyword simply causes code execution to move directly
to the statements inside the next case (or default case) block, as in Cs standard switch statement
behavior.

Labeled Statements
You can nest loops and conditional statements inside other loops and conditional
statements in Swift to create complex control flow structures. However, loops and
conditional statements can both use the break statement to end their execution
prematurely. Therefore, it is sometimes useful to be explicit about which loop or
conditional statement you want a break statement to terminate. Similarly, if you have
multiple nested loops, it can be useful to be explicit about which loop the continue
statement should affect.
To achieve these aims, you can mark a loop statement or conditional statement with
a statement label. With a conditional statement, you can use a statement label with
the break statement to end the execution of the labeled statement. With a loop
statement, you can use a statement label with the break or continue statement to end
or continue the execution of the labeled statement.
A labeled statement is indicated by placing a label on the same line as the statements
introducer keyword, followed by a colon. Heres an example of this syntax for a
while loop, although the principle is the same for all loops and switch statements:
label name : while condition {
statements
}

The following example uses the break and continue statements with a labeled while
loop for an adapted version of the Snakes and Ladders game that you saw earlier in
this chapter. This time around, the game has an extra rule:

 To win, you must land exactly on square 25.

If a particular dice roll would take you beyond square 25, you must roll again until
you roll the exact number needed to land on square 25.
The game board is the same as before:

The values of finalSquare, board, square, and diceRoll are initialized in the same
way as before:
1

let finalSquare = 25

var board = [Int](count: finalSquare + 1, repeatedValue: 0)

board[03] = +08; board[06] = +11; board[09] = +09; board[10] = +02

board[14] = -10; board[19] = -11; board[22] = -02; board[24] = -08

var square = 0

var diceRoll = 0

This version of the game uses a while loop and a switch statement to implement the
games logic. The while loop has a statement label called gameLoop, to indicate that it
is the main game loop for the Snakes and Ladders game.

The while loops condition is while square != finalSquare, to reflect that you must
land exactly on square 25:
1

gameLoop: while square != finalSquare {

if ++diceRoll == 7 { diceRoll = 1 }

switch square + diceRoll {

case finalSquare:

// diceRoll will move us to the final square, so the game

is over

break gameLoop

case let newSquare where newSquare > finalSquare:

// diceRoll will move us beyond the final square, so roll

again

continue gameLoop
default:
// this is a valid move, so find out its effect
square += diceRoll
square += board[square]
}
}
print("Game over!")

The dice is rolled at the start of each loop. Rather than moving the player
immediately, a switch statement is used to consider the result of the move, and to
work out if the move is allowed:

 If the dice roll will move the player onto the final square, the game is over.
The break gameLoop statement transfers control to the first line of code
outside of the while loop, which ends the game.
If the dice roll will move the player beyond the final square, the move is
invalid, and the player needs to roll again. The continue gameLoop statement
ends the current while loop iteration and begins the next iteration of the
loop.
In all other cases, the dice roll is a valid move. The player moves forward
by diceRoll squares, and the game logic checks for any snakes and ladders.
The loop then ends, and control returns to the while condition to decide
whether another turn is required.

N OTE
If the break statement above did not use the gameLoop label, it would break out of the switch
statement, not the while statement. Using the gameLoop label makes it clear which control
statement should be terminated.
Note also that it is not strictly necessary to use the gameLoop label when calling continue
gameLoop to jump to the next iteration of the loop. There is only one loop in the game, and so there
is no ambiguity as to which loop the continue statement will affect. However, there is no harm in
using the gameLoop label with the continue statement. Doing so is consistent with the labels use
alongside the break statement, and helps make the games logic clearer to read and understand.

Early Exit
A guard statement, like an if statement, executes statements depending on the
Boolean value of an expression. You use a guard statement to require that a
condition must be true in order for the code after the guard statement to be executed.
Unlike an if statement, a guard statement always has an else clausethe code inside
the else clause is executed if the condition is not true.

func greet(person: [String: String]) {

guard let name = person["name"] else {

return

print("Hello \(name)!")

guard let location = person["location"] else {

print("I hope the weather is nice near you.")

return
}

print("I hope the weather is nice in \(location).")
}

greet(["name": "John"])
// prints "Hello John!"
// prints "I hope the weather is nice near you."
greet(["name": "Jane", "location": "Cupertino"])
// prints "Hello Jane!"
// prints "I hope the weather is nice in Cupertino."

If the guard statements condition is met, code execution continues after the guard
statements closing brace. Any variables or constants that were assigned values

using an optional binding as part of the condition are available for the rest of the
code block that the guard statement appears in.
If that condition is not met, the code inside the else branch is executed. That branch
must transfer control to exit the code block that that guard statement appears in. It
can do this with a control transfer statement such as return, break, continue, or
throw, or it can call a function or method that doesnt return, such as fatalError().
Using a guard statement for requirements improves the readability of your code,
compared to doing the same check with an if statement. It lets you write the code
thats typically executed without wrapping it in an else block, and it lets you keep
the code that handles a violated requirement next to the requirement.

Checking API Availability

Swift has built-in support for checking API availability, which ensures that you
dont accidentally use APIs that are unavailable on a given deployment target.
The compiler uses availability information in the SDK to verify that all of the APIs
used in your code are available on the deployment target specified by your project.
Swift reports an error at compile time if you try to use an API that isnt available.
You use an availability condition in an if or guard statement to conditionally
execute a block of code, depending on whether the APIs you want to use are
available at runtime. The compiler uses the information from the availability
condition when it verifies that the APIs in that block of code are available.
1

if #available(iOS 9, OSX 10.10, *) {

// Use iOS 9 APIs on iOS, and use OS X v10.10 APIs on OS X

} else {

// Fall back to earlier iOS and OS X APIs

The availability condition above specifies that on iOS, the body of the if executes
only on iOS 9 and later; on OS X, only on OS X v10.10 and later. The last argument,

*, is required and specifies that on any other platform, the body of the if executes

on the minimum deployment target specified by your target.

In its general form, the availability condition takes a list of platform names and
versions. You use iOS, OSX, and watchOS for the platform names. In addition to
specifying major version numbers like iOS 8, you can specify minor versions
numbers like iOS 8.3 and OS X v10.10.3.
if #available( platform name version , ... , *) {
statements to execute if the APIs are available
} else {
fallback statements to execute if the APIs are unavailable
}

Functions
Functions are self-contained chunks of code that perform a specific task. You give a
function a name that identifies what it does, and this name is used to call the
function to perform its task when needed.
Swifts unified function syntax is flexible enough to express anything from a simple
C-style function with no parameter names to a complex Objective-C-style method
with local and external parameter names for each parameter. Parameters can
provide default values to simplify function calls and can be passed as in-out
parameters, which modify a passed variable once the function has completed its
execution.
Every function in Swift has a type, consisting of the functions parameter types and
return type. You can use this type like any other type in Swift, which makes it easy to
pass functions as parameters to other functions, and to return functions from
functions. Functions can also be written within other functions to encapsulate useful
functionality within a nested function scope.

Defining and Calling Functions

When you define a function, you can optionally define one or more named, typed
values that the function takes as input, known as parameters. You can also optionally
define a type of value that the function will pass back as output when it is done,
known as its return type.
Every function has a function name, which describes the task that the function
performs. To use a function, you call that function with its name and pass it input
values (known as arguments) that match the types of the functions parameters. A
functions arguments must always be provided in the same order as the functions
parameter list.
The function in the example below is called sayHello(_:), because thats what it
doesit takes a persons name as input and returns a greeting for that person. To
accomplish this, you define one input parametera String value called personName
and a return type of String, which will contain a greeting for that person:

func sayHello(personName: String) -> String {

let greeting = "Hello, " + personName + "!"

return greeting

All of this information is rolled up into the functions definition, which is prefixed
with the func keyword. You indicate the functions return type with the return arrow
-> (a hyphen followed by a right angle bracket), which is followed by the name of
the type to return.
The definition describes what the function does, what it expects to receive, and what
it returns when it is done. The definition makes it easy for the function to be called
unambiguously from elsewhere in your code:
1

print(sayHello("Anna"))

// prints "Hello, Anna!"

print(sayHello("Brian"))

// prints "Hello, Brian!"

You call the sayHello(_:) function by passing it a String argument value in

parentheses, such as sayHello("Anna"). Because the function returns a String value,
sayHello(_:) can be wrapped in a call to the print(_:separator:terminator:)
function to print that string and see its return value, as shown above.
The body of the sayHello(_:) function starts by defining a new String constant
called greeting and setting it to a simple greeting message for personName. This
greeting is then passed back out of the function using the return keyword. As soon
as return greeting is called, the function finishes its execution and returns the
current value of greeting.
You can call the sayHello(_:) function multiple times with different input values.
The example above shows what happens if it is called with an input value of "Anna",
and an input value of "Brian". The function returns a tailored greeting in each case.
To simplify the body of this function, combine the message creation and the return

statement into one line:

1

func sayHelloAgain(personName: String) -> String {

return "Hello again, " + personName + "!"

print(sayHelloAgain("Anna"))

// prints "Hello again, Anna!"

Function Parameters and Return Values

Function parameters and return values are extremely flexible in Swift. You can
define anything from a simple utility function with a single unnamed parameter to a
complex function with expressive parameter names and different parameter options.

Functions Without Parameters

Functions are not required to define input parameters. Heres a function with no
input parameters, which always returns the same String message whenever it is
called:
1

func sayHelloWorld() -> String {

return "hello, world"

print(sayHelloWorld())

// prints "hello, world"

The function definition still needs parentheses after the functions name, even
though it does not take any parameters. The function name is also followed by an

empty pair of parentheses when the function is called.

Functions With Multiple Parameters

Functions can have multiple input parameters, which are written within the
functions parentheses, separated by commas.
This function takes a persons name and whether they have already been greeted as
input, and returns an appropriate greeting for that person:
1

func sayHello(personName: String, alreadyGreeted: Bool) -> String {

if alreadyGreeted {

return sayHelloAgain(personName)

} else {

return sayHello(personName)

print(sayHello("Tim", alreadyGreeted: true))

// prints "Hello again, Tim!"

You call the sayHello(_:alreadyGreeted:) function by passing it both a String

argument value and a Bool argument value labeled alreadyGreeted in parentheses,
separated by commas.
When calling a function with more than one parameter, any argument after the first
is labeled according to its corresponding parameter name. Function parameter
naming is described in more detail in Function Parameter Names.

Functions Without Return Values

Functions are not required to define a return type. Heres a version of the
sayHello(_:) function, called sayGoodbye(_:), which prints its own String value
rather than returning it:
1

func sayGoodbye(personName: String) {

print("Goodbye, \(personName)!")

sayGoodbye("Dave")

// prints "Goodbye, Dave!"

Because it does not need to return a value, the functions definition does not include
the return arrow (->) or a return type.

N OTE
Strictly speaking, the sayGoodbye(_:) function does still return a value, even though no return
value is defined. Functions without a defined return type return a special value of type Void. This is
simply an empty tuple, in effect a tuple with zero elements, which can be written as ().

The return value of a function can be ignored when it is called:

func printAndCount(stringToPrint: String) -> Int {

print(stringToPrint)

return stringToPrint.characters.count

func printWithoutCounting(stringToPrint: String) {

printAndCount(stringToPrint)

printAndCount("hello, world")

// prints "hello, world" and returns a value of 12

printWithoutCounting("hello, world")
// prints "hello, world" but does not return a value

The first function, printAndCount(_:), prints a string, and then returns its character
count as an Int. The second function, printWithoutCounting, calls the first function,
but ignores its return value. When the second function is called, the message is still
printed by the first function, but the returned value is not used.

N OTE
Return values can be ignored, but a function that says it will return a value must always do so. A
function with a defined return type cannot allow control to fall out of the bottom of the function
without returning a value, and attempting to do so will result in a compile-time error.

Functions with Multiple Return Values

You can use a tuple type as the return type for a function to return multiple values as
part of one compound return value.

The example below defines a function called minMax(_:), which finds the smallest
and largest numbers in an array of Int values:
1

func minMax(array: [Int]) -> (min: Int, max: Int) {

var currentMin = array[0]

var currentMax = array[0]

for value in array[1..<array.count] {

if value < currentMin {

currentMin = value

} else if value > currentMax {

currentMax = value

}
}
return (currentMin, currentMax)
}

The minMax(_:) function returns a tuple containing two Int values. These values are
labeled min and max so that they can be accessed by name when querying the
functions return value.
The body of the minMax(_:) function starts by setting two working variables called
currentMin and currentMax to the value of the first integer in the array. The function
then iterates over the remaining values in the array and checks each value to see if it
is smaller or larger than the values of currentMin and currentMax respectively.
Finally, the overall minimum and maximum values are returned as a tuple of two
Int values.
Because the tuples member values are named as part of the functions return type,
they can be accessed with dot syntax to retrieve the minimum and maximum found
values:

let bounds = minMax([8, -6, 2, 109, 3, 71])

print("min is \(bounds.min) and max is \(bounds.max)")

// prints "min is -6 and max is 109"

Note that the tuples members do not need to be named at the point that the tuple is
returned from the function, because their names are already specified as part of the
functions return type.

Optional Tuple Return Types

If the tuple type to be returned from a function has the potential to have no value
for the entire tuple, you can use an optional tuple return type to reflect the fact that
the entire tuple can be nil. You write an optional tuple return type by placing a
question mark after the tuple types closing parenthesis, such as (Int, Int)? or
(String, Int, Bool)?.

N OTE
An optional tuple type such as (Int, Int)? is different from a tuple that contains optional types
such as (Int?, Int?). With an optional tuple type, the entire tuple is optional, not just each
individual value within the tuple.

The minMax(_:) function above returns a tuple containing two Int values. However,
the function does not perform any safety checks on the array it is passed. If the array
argument contains an empty array, the minMax(_:) function, as defined above, will
trigger a runtime error when attempting to access array[0].
To handle this empty array scenario safely, write the minMax(_:) function with an
optional tuple return type and return a value of nil when the array is empty:

func minMax(array: [Int]) -> (min: Int, max: Int)? {

if array.isEmpty { return nil }

var currentMin = array[0]

var currentMax = array[0]

for value in array[1..<array.count] {

if value < currentMin {

currentMin = value

} else if value > currentMax {

currentMax = value
}
}
return (currentMin, currentMax)
}

You can use optional binding to check whether this version of the minMax(_:)
function returns an actual tuple value or nil:
1

if let bounds = minMax([8, -6, 2, 109, 3, 71]) {

print("min is \(bounds.min) and max is \(bounds.max)")

// prints "min is -6 and max is 109"

Function Parameter Names

Function parameters have both an external parameter name and a local parameter

name. An external parameter name is used to label arguments passed to a function

call. A local parameter name is used in the implementation of the function.
1

func someFunction(firstParameterName: Int, secondParameterName:

Int) {

// function body goes here

// firstParameterName and secondParameterName refer to

// the argument values for the first and second parameters

someFunction(1, secondParameterName: 2)

By default, the first parameter omits its external name, and the second and
subsequent parameters use their local name as their external name. All parameters
must have unique local names. Although its possible for multiple parameters to
have the same external name, unique external names help make your code more
readable.

Specifying External Parameter Names

You write an external parameter name before the local parameter name it supports,
separated by a space:
1

func someFunction(externalParameterName localParameterName: Int) {

// function body goes here, and can use localParameterName

// to refer to the argument value for that parameter

N OTE
If you provide an external parameter name for a parameter, that external name must always be used
when you call the function.

Heres a version of the sayHello(_:) function that takes the names of two people and
returns a greeting for both of them:
1

func sayHello(to person: String, and anotherPerson: String) ->

String {

return "Hello \(person) and \(anotherPerson)!"

print(sayHello(to: "Bill", and: "Ted"))

// prints "Hello Bill and Ted!"

By specifying external parameter names for both parameters, both the first and
second arguments to the sayHello(to:and:) function must be labeled when you call
it.
The use of external parameter names can allow a function to be called in an
expressive, sentence-like manner, while still providing a function body that is
readable and clear in intent.

Omitting External Parameter Names

If you do not want to use an external name for the second or subsequent parameters
of a function, write an underscore (_) instead of an explicit external name for that
parameter.

func someFunction(firstParameterName: Int, _ secondParameterName:

Int) {

// function body goes here

// firstParameterName and secondParameterName refer to

// the argument values for the first and second parameters

someFunction(1, 2)

N OTE
Because the first parameter omits its external parameter name by default, explicitly writing an
underscore is extraneous.

Default Parameter Values

You can define a default value for any parameter in a function by assigning a value
to the parameter after that parameter s type. If a default value is defined, you can
omit that parameter when calling the function.
1

func someFunction(parameterWithDefault: Int = 12) {

// function body goes here

// if no arguments are passed to the function call,

// value of parameterWithDefault is 12

someFunction(6) // parameterWithDefault is 6

someFunction() // parameterWithDefault is 12

N OTE
Place parameters with default values at the end of a functions parameter list. This ensures that all
calls to the function use the same order for their nondefault arguments, and makes it clear that the
same function is being called in each case.

Variadic Parameters
A variadic parameter accepts zero or more values of a specified type. You use a
variadic parameter to specify that the parameter can be passed a varying number of
input values when the function is called. Write variadic parameters by inserting
three period characters (...) after the parameter s type name.
The values passed to a variadic parameter are made available within the functions
body as an array of the appropriate type. For example, a variadic parameter with a
name of numbers and a type of Double... is made available within the functions
body as a constant array called numbers of type [Double].
The example below calculates the arithmetic mean (also known as the average) for a
list of numbers of any length:

func arithmeticMean(numbers: Double...) -> Double {

var total: Double = 0

for number in numbers {

total += number

return total / Double(numbers.count)

arithmeticMean(1, 2, 3, 4, 5)

// returns 3.0, which is the arithmetic mean of these five numbers

arithmeticMean(3, 8.25, 18.75)
// returns 10.0, which is the arithmetic mean of these three numbers

N OTE
A function may have at most one variadic parameter.

Constant and Variable Parameters

Function parameters are constants by default. Trying to change the value of a
function parameter from within the body of that function results in a compile-time
error. This means that you cant change the value of a parameter by mistake.
However, sometimes it is useful for a function to have a variable copy of a
parameter s value to work with. You can avoid defining a new variable yourself
within the function by specifying one or more parameters as variable parameters
instead. Variable parameters are available as variables rather than as constants, and
give a new modifiable copy of the parameter s value for your function to work
with.

Define variable parameters by prefixing the parameter name with the var keyword:
1

func alignRight(var string: String, totalLength: Int, pad:

Character) -> String {

let amountToPad = totalLength - string.characters.count

if amountToPad < 1 {

return string

let padString = String(pad)

for _ in 1...amountToPad {

string = padString + string

}
return string
}
let originalString = "hello"
let paddedString = alignRight(originalString, totalLength: 10, pad: "")
// paddedString is equal to "-----hello"
// originalString is still equal to "hello"

This example defines a new function called alignRight(_:totalLength:pad:), which

aligns an input string to the right edge of a longer output string. Any space on the
left is filled with a specified padding character. In this example, the string "hello" is
converted to the string "-----hello".
The alignRight(_:totalLength:pad:) function defines the input parameter string to
be a variable parameter. This means that string is now available as a local variable,
initialized with the passed-in string value, and can be manipulated within the body of

the function.
The function starts by working out how many characters need to be added to the left
of string in order to right-align it within the overall string. This value is stored in a
local constant called amountToPad. If no padding is needed (that is, if amountToPad is
less than 1), the function simply returns the input value of string without any
padding.
Otherwise, the function creates a new temporary String constant called padString,
initialized with the pad character, and adds amountToPad copies of padString to the
left of the existing string. (A String value cannot be added on to a Character value,
and so the padString constant is used to ensure that both sides of the + operator are
String values.)

N OTE
The changes you make to a variable parameter do not persist beyond the end of each call to the
function, and are not visible outside the functions body. The variable parameter only exists for the
lifetime of that function call.

In-Out Parameters
Variable parameters, as described above, can only be changed within the function
itself. If you want a function to modify a parameter s value, and you want those
changes to persist after the function call has ended, define that parameter as an inout parameter instead.
You write an in-out parameter by placing the inout keyword at the start of its
parameter definition. An in-out parameter has a value that is passed in to the
function, is modified by the function, and is passed back out of the function to
replace the original value. For a detailed discussion of the behavior of in-out
parameters and associated compiler optimizations, see In-Out Parameters.
You can only pass a variable as the argument for an in-out parameter. You cannot
pass a constant or a literal value as the argument, because constants and literals
cannot be modified. You place an ampersand (&) directly before a variables name
when you pass it as an argument to an in-out parameter, to indicate that it can be

modified by the function.

N OTE
In-out parameters cannot have default values, and variadic parameters cannot be marked as inout.
If you mark a parameter as inout, it cannot also be marked as var or let.

Heres an example of a function called swapTwoInts(_:_:), which has two in-out

integer parameters called a and b:
1

func swapTwoInts(inout a: Int, inout _ b: Int) {

let temporaryA = a

a = b

b = temporaryA

The swapTwoInts(_:_:) function simply swaps the value of b into a, and the value of
a into b. The function performs this swap by storing the value of a in a temporary
constant called temporaryA, assigning the value of b to a, and then assigning
temporaryA to b.
You can call the swapTwoInts(_:_:) function with two variables of type Int to swap
their values. Note that the names of someInt and anotherInt are prefixed with an
ampersand when they are passed to the swapTwoInts(_:_:) function:
1

var someInt = 3

var anotherInt = 107

swapTwoInts(&someInt, &anotherInt)

print("someInt is now \(someInt), and anotherInt is now \

(anotherInt)")

// prints "someInt is now 107, and anotherInt is now 3"

The example above shows that the original values of someInt and anotherInt are
modified by the swapTwoInts(_:_:) function, even though they were originally
defined outside of the function.

N OTE
In-out parameters are not the same as returning a value from a function. The swapTwoInts example
above does not define a return type or return a value, but it still modifies the values of someInt and
anotherInt. In-out parameters are an alternative way for a function to have an effect outside of the
scope of its function body.

Function Types
Every function has a specific function type, made up of the parameter types and the
return type of the function.
For example:
1

func addTwoInts(a: Int, _ b: Int) -> Int {

return a + b

func multiplyTwoInts(a: Int, _ b: Int) -> Int {

return a * b

This example defines two simple mathematical functions called addTwoInts and
multiplyTwoInts. These functions each take two Int values, and return an Int value,
which is the result of performing an appropriate mathematical operation.
The type of both of these functions is (Int, Int) -> Int. This can be read as:
A function type that has two parameters, both of type Int, and that returns a value
of type Int.

Heres another example, for a function with no parameters or return value:

1

func printHelloWorld() {

print("hello, world")

The type of this function is () -> Void, or a function that has no parameters, and
returns Void.

Using Function Types

You use function types just like any other types in Swift. For example, you can
define a constant or variable to be of a function type and assign an appropriate
function to that variable:

var mathFunction: (Int, Int) -> Int = addTwoInts

This can be read as:

Define a variable called mathFunction, which has a type of a function that takes
two Int values, and returns an Int value. Set this new variable to refer to the
function called addTwoInts.
The addTwoInts(_:_:) function has the same type as the mathFunction variable, and
so this assignment is allowed by Swifts type-checker.
You can now call the assigned function with the name mathFunction:
1

print("Result: \(mathFunction(2, 3))")

// prints "Result: 5"

A different function with the same matching type can be assigned to the same
variable, in the same way as for non-function types:

mathFunction = multiplyTwoInts

print("Result: \(mathFunction(2, 3))")

// prints "Result: 6"

As with any other type, you can leave it to Swift to infer the function type when you
assign a function to a constant or variable:
1

let anotherMathFunction = addTwoInts

// anotherMathFunction is inferred to be of type (Int, Int) -> Int

Function Types as Parameter Types

You can use a function type such as (Int, Int) -> Int as a parameter type for
another function. This enables you to leave some aspects of a functions
implementation for the functions caller to provide when the function is called.
Heres an example to print the results of the math functions from above:
1

func printMathResult(mathFunction: (Int, Int) -> Int, _ a: Int, _

b: Int) {

print("Result: \(mathFunction(a, b))")

printMathResult(addTwoInts, 3, 5)

// prints "Result: 8"

This example defines a function called printMathResult(_:_:_:), which has three

parameters. The first parameter is called mathFunction, and is of type (Int, Int) ->
Int. You can pass any function of that type as the argument for this first parameter.
The second and third parameters are called a and b, and are both of type Int. These
are used as the two input values for the provided math function.

When printMathResult(_:_:_:) is called, it is passed the addTwoInts(_:_:) function,

and the integer values 3 and 5. It calls the provided function with the values 3 and 5,
and prints the result of 8.
The role of printMathResult(_:_:_:) is to print the result of a call to a math
function of an appropriate type. It doesnt matter what that functions
implementation actually doesit matters only that the function is of the correct type.
This enables printMathResult(_:_:_:) to hand off some of its functionality to the
caller of the function in a type-safe way.

Function Types as Return Types

You can use a function type as the return type of another function. You do this by
writing a complete function type immediately after the return arrow (->) of the
returning function.
The next example defines two simple functions called stepForward(_:) and
stepBackward(_:). The stepForward(_:) function returns a value one more than its
input value, and the stepBackward(_:) function returns a value one less than its input
value. Both functions have a type of (Int) -> Int:
1

func stepForward(input: Int) -> Int {

return input + 1

func stepBackward(input: Int) -> Int {

return input - 1

Heres a function called chooseStepFunction(_:), whose return type is a function of

type (Int) -> Int. The chooseStepFunction(_:)``function returns the
``stepForward(_:) function or the stepBackward(_:) function based on a Boolean
parameter called backwards:

func chooseStepFunction(backwards: Bool) -> (Int) -> Int {

return backwards ? stepBackward : stepForward

You can now use chooseStepFunction(_:) to obtain a function that will step in one
direction or the other:
1

var currentValue = 3

let moveNearerToZero = chooseStepFunction(currentValue > 0)

// moveNearerToZero now refers to the stepBackward() function

The preceding example determines whether a positive or negative step is needed to

move a variable called currentValue progressively closer to zero. currentValue has
an initial value of 3, which means that currentValue > 0 returns true, causing
chooseStepFunction(_:) to return the stepBackward(_:) function. A reference to the
returned function is stored in a constant called moveNearerToZero.
Now that moveNearerToZero refers to the correct function, it can be used to count to
zero:

print("Counting to zero:")

// Counting to zero:

while currentValue != 0 {

print("\(currentValue)... ")

currentValue = moveNearerToZero(currentValue)

print("zero!")

// 3...

// 2...
// 1...
// zero!

Nested Functions
All of the functions you have encountered so far in this chapter have been examples
of global functions, which are defined at a global scope. You can also define
functions inside the bodies of other functions, known as nested functions.
Nested functions are hidden from the outside world by default, but can still be called
and used by their enclosing function. An enclosing function can also return one of
its nested functions to allow the nested function to be used in another scope.
You can rewrite the chooseStepFunction(_:) example above to use and return nested
functions:

func chooseStepFunction(backwards: Bool) -> (Int) -> Int {

func stepForward(input: Int) -> Int { return input + 1 }

func stepBackward(input: Int) -> Int { return input - 1 }

return backwards ? stepBackward : stepForward

var currentValue = -4

let moveNearerToZero = chooseStepFunction(currentValue > 0)

// moveNearerToZero now refers to the nested stepForward() function

while currentValue != 0 {
print("\(currentValue)... ")
currentValue = moveNearerToZero(currentValue)
}
print("zero!")
// -4...
// -3...
// -2...
// -1...
// zero!

Closures
Closures are self-contained blocks of functionality that can be passed around and
used in your code. Closures in Swift are similar to blocks in C and Objective-C and
to lambdas in other programming languages.
Closures can capture and store references to any constants and variables from the
context in which they are defined. This is known as closing over those constants and
variables, hence the name closures. Swift handles all of the memory management
of capturing for you.

N OTE
Dont worry if you are not familiar with the concept of capturing. It is explained in detail below in
Capturing Values.

Global and nested functions, as introduced in Functions, are actually special cases of
closures. Closures take one of three forms:
Global functions are closures that have a name and do not capture any
values.
Nested functions are closures that have a name and can capture values from
their enclosing function.
Closure expressions are unnamed closures written in a lightweight syntax
that can capture values from their surrounding context.
Swifts closure expressions have a clean, clear style, with optimizations that
encourage brief, clutter-free syntax in common scenarios. These optimizations
include:
Inferring parameter and return value types from context
Implicit returns from single-expression closures
Shorthand argument names

 Trailing closure syntax

Closure Expressions
Nested functions, as introduced in Nested Functions, are a convenient means of
naming and defining self-contained blocks of code as part of a larger function.
However, it is sometimes useful to write shorter versions of function-like constructs
without a full declaration and name. This is particularly true when you work with
functions or methods that take functions as one or more of their arguments.
Closure expressions are a way to write inline closures in a brief, focused syntax.
Closure expressions provide several syntax optimizations for writing closures in a
shortened form without loss of clarity or intent. The closure expression examples
below illustrate these optimizations by refining a single example of the sort(_:)
method over several iterations, each of which expresses the same functionality in a
more succinct way.

The Sort Method

Swifts standard library provides a method called sort(_:), which sorts an array of
values of a known type, based on the output of a sorting closure that you provide.
Once it completes the sorting process, the sort(_:) method returns a new array of
the same type and size as the old one, with its elements in the correct sorted order.
The original array is not modified by the sort(_:) method.
The closure expression examples below use the sort(_:) method to sort an array of
String values in reverse alphabetical order. Heres the initial array to be sorted:

let names = ["Chris", "Alex", "Ewa", "Barry", "Daniella"]

The sort(_:) method accepts a closure that takes two arguments of the same type as
the arrays contents, and returns a Bool value to say whether the first value should
appear before or after the second value once the values are sorted. The sorting
closure needs to return true if the first value should appear before the second value,
and false otherwise.

This example is sorting an array of String values, and so the sorting closure needs
to be a function of type (String, String) -> Bool.
One way to provide the sorting closure is to write a normal function of the correct
type, and to pass it in as an argument to the sort(_:) method:
1

func backwards(s1: String, _ s2: String) -> Bool {

return s1 > s2

var reversed = names.sort(backwards)

// reversed is equal to ["Ewa", "Daniella", "Chris", "Barry",

"Alex"]

If the first string (s1) is greater than the second string (s2), the backwards(_:_:)
function will return true, indicating that s1 should appear before s2 in the sorted
array. For characters in strings, greater than means appears later in the alphabet
than. This means that the letter "B" is greater than the letter "A", and the string
"Tom" is greater than the string "Tim". This gives a reverse alphabetical sort, with
"Barry" being placed before "Alex", and so on.
However, this is a rather long-winded way to write what is essentially a singleexpression function (a > b). In this example, it would be preferable to write the
sorting closure inline, using closure expression syntax.

Closure Expression Syntax

Closure expression syntax has the following general form:
{ ( parameters ) -> return type in
statements
}

Closure expression syntax can use constant parameters, variable parameters, and

inout parameters. Default values cannot be provided. Variadic parameters can be

used if you name the variadic parameter. Tuples can also be used as parameter types
and return types.
The example below shows a closure expression version of the backwards(_:_:)
function from earlier:
1

reversed = names.sort({ (s1: String, s2: String) -> Bool in

return s1 > s2

})

Note that the declaration of parameters and return type for this inline closure is
identical to the declaration from the backwards(_:_:) function. In both cases, it is
written as (s1: String, s2: String) -> Bool. However, for the inline closure
expression, the parameters and return type are written inside the curly braces, not
outside of them.
The start of the closures body is introduced by the in keyword. This keyword
indicates that the definition of the closures parameters and return type has finished,
and the body of the closure is about to begin.
Because the body of the closure is so short, it can even be written on a single line:

reversed = names.sort( { (s1: String, s2: String) -> Bool in return

s1 > s2 } )

This illustrates that the overall call to the sort(_:) method has remained the same. A
pair of parentheses still wrap the entire argument for the method. However, that
argument is now an inline closure.

Inferring Type From Context

Because the sorting closure is passed as an argument to a method, Swift can infer
the types of its parameters and the type of the value it returns. The sort(_:) method
is being called on an array of strings, so its argument must be a function of type

(String, String) -> Bool. This means that the (String, String) and Bool types do

not need to be written as part of the closure expressions definition. Because all of
the types can be inferred, the return arrow (->) and the parentheses around the
names of the parameters can also be omitted:

reversed = names.sort( { s1, s2 in return s1 > s2 } )

It is always possible to infer the parameter types and return type when passing a
closure to a function or method as an inline closure expression. As a result, you
never need to write an inline closure in its fullest form when the closure is used as a
function or method argument.
Nonetheless, you can still make the types explicit if you wish, and doing so is
encouraged if it avoids ambiguity for readers of your code. In the case of the
sort(_:) method, the purpose of the closure is clear from the fact that sorting is
taking place, and it is safe for a reader to assume that the closure is likely to be
working with String values, because it is assisting with the sorting of an array of
strings.

Implicit Returns from Single-Expression Closures

Single-expression closures can implicitly return the result of their single expression
by omitting the return keyword from their declaration, as in this version of the
previous example:

reversed = names.sort( { s1, s2 in s1 > s2 } )

Here, the function type of the sort(_:) methods argument makes it clear that a Bool
value must be returned by the closure. Because the closures body contains a single
expression (s1 > s2) that returns a Bool value, there is no ambiguity, and the return
keyword can be omitted.

Shorthand Argument Names

Swift automatically provides shorthand argument names to inline closures, which

can be used to refer to the values of the closures arguments by the names $0, $1, $2,
and so on.
If you use these shorthand argument names within your closure expression, you can
omit the closures argument list from its definition, and the number and type of the
shorthand argument names will be inferred from the expected function type. The in
keyword can also be omitted, because the closure expression is made up entirely of
its body:

reversed = names.sort( { $0 > $1 } )

Here, $0 and $1 refer to the closures first and second String arguments.

Operator Functions
Theres actually an even shorter way to write the closure expression above. Swifts
String type defines its string-specific implementation of the greater-than operator
(>) as a function that has two parameters of type String, and returns a value of type
Bool. This exactly matches the function type needed by the sort(_:) method.
Therefore, you can simply pass in the greater-than operator, and Swift will infer that
you want to use its string-specific implementation:

reversed = names.sort(>)

For more about operator functions, see Operator Functions.

Trailing Closures
If you need to pass a closure expression to a function as the functions final
argument and the closure expression is long, it can be useful to write it as a trailing
closure instead. A trailing closure is a closure expression that is written outside of
(and after) the parentheses of the function call it supports:

func someFunctionThatTakesAClosure(closure: () -> Void) {

// function body goes here

// here's how you call this function without using a trailing

closure:

someFunctionThatTakesAClosure({

// closure's body goes here

})

// here's how you call this function with a trailing closure instead:

someFunctionThatTakesAClosure() {
// trailing closure's body goes here
}

The string-sorting closure from the Closure Expression Syntax section above can
be written outside of the sort(_:) methods parentheses as a trailing closure:

reversed = names.sort() { $0 > $1 }

If a closure expression is provided as the function or methods only argument and

you provide that expression as a trailing closure, you do not need to write a pair of
parentheses () after the function or methods name when you call the function:

reversed = names.sort { $0 > $1 }

Trailing closures are most useful when the closure is sufficiently long that it is not
possible to write it inline on a single line. As an example, Swifts Array type has a
map(_:) method which takes a closure expression as its single argument. The
closure is called once for each item in the array, and returns an alternative mapped
value (possibly of some other type) for that item. The nature of the mapping and the
type of the returned value is left up to the closure to specify.
After applying the provided closure to each array element, the map(_:) method
returns a new array containing all of the new mapped values, in the same order as
their corresponding values in the original array.
Heres how you can use the map(_:) method with a trailing closure to convert an
array of Int values into an array of String values. The array [16, 58, 510] is used
to create the new array ["OneSix", "FiveEight", "FiveOneZero"]:
1

let digitNames = [

0: "Zero", 1: "One", 2: "Two", 3: "Three", 4: "Four",

5: "Five", 6: "Six", 7: "Seven", 8: "Eight", 9: "Nine"

let numbers = [16, 58, 510]

The code above creates a dictionary of mappings between the integer digits and
English-language versions of their names. It also defines an array of integers, ready
to be converted into strings.
You can now use the numbers array to create an array of String values, by passing a
closure expression to the arrays map(_:) method as a trailing closure:

let strings = numbers.map {

(var number) -> String in

var output = ""

while number > 0 {

output = digitNames[number % 10]! + output

number /= 10

return output

}
// strings is inferred to be of type [String]
// its value is ["OneSix", "FiveEight", "FiveOneZero"]

The map(_:) method calls the closure expression once for each item in the array.
You do not need to specify the type of the closures input parameter, number, because
the type can be inferred from the values in the array to be mapped.
In this example, the closures number parameter is defined as a variable parameter,
as described in Constant and Variable Parameters, so that the parameter s value can
be modified within the closure body, rather than declaring a new local variable and
assigning the passed number value to it. The closure expression also specifies a
return type of String, to indicate the type that will be stored in the mapped output
array.
The closure expression builds a string called output each time it is called. It
calculates the last digit of number by using the remainder operator (number % 10),
and uses this digit to look up an appropriate string in the digitNames dictionary. The
closure can be used to create a string representation of any integer number greater
than zero.

N OTE
The call to the digitNames dictionarys subscript is followed by an exclamation mark (!), because
dictionary subscripts return an optional value to indicate that the dictionary lookup can fail if the key
does not exist. In the example above, it is guaranteed that number % 10 will always be a valid
subscript key for the digitNames dictionary, and so an exclamation mark is used to force-unwrap
the String value stored in the subscripts optional return value.

The string retrieved from the digitNames dictionary is added to the front of output,
effectively building a string version of the number in reverse. (The expression
number % 10 gives a value of 6 for 16, 8 for 58, and 0 for 510.)
The number variable is then divided by 10. Because it is an integer, it is rounded
down during the division, so 16 becomes 1, 58 becomes 5, and 510 becomes 51.
The process is repeated until number is equal to 0, at which point the output string is
returned by the closure, and is added to the output array by the map(_:) method.
The use of trailing closure syntax in the example above neatly encapsulates the
closures functionality immediately after the function that closure supports, without
needing to wrap the entire closure within the map(_:) methods outer parentheses.

Capturing Values
A closure can capture constants and variables from the surrounding context in
which it is defined. The closure can then refer to and modify the values of those
constants and variables from within its body, even if the original scope that defined
the constants and variables no longer exists.
In Swift, the simplest form of a closure that can capture values is a nested function,
written within the body of another function. A nested function can capture any of its
outer functions arguments and can also capture any constants and variables defined
within the outer function.
Heres an example of a function called makeIncrementer, which contains a nested
function called incrementer. The nested incrementer() function captures two values,
runningTotal and amount, from its surrounding context. After capturing these values,
incrementer is returned by makeIncrementer as a closure that increments
runningTotal by amount each time it is called.

func makeIncrementer(forIncrement amount: Int) -> () -> Int {

var runningTotal = 0

func incrementer() -> Int {

runningTotal += amount

return runningTotal

return incrementer

The return type of makeIncrementer is () -> Int. This means that it returns a
function, rather than a simple value. The function it returns has no parameters, and
returns an Int value each time it is called. To learn how functions can return other
functions, see Function Types as Return Types.
The makeIncrementer(forIncrement:) function defines an integer variable called
runningTotal, to store the current running total of the incrementer that will be
returned. This variable is initialized with a value of 0.
The makeIncrementer(forIncrement:) function has a single Int parameter with an
external name of forIncrement, and a local name of amount. The argument value
passed to this parameter specifies how much runningTotal should be incremented by
each time the returned incrementer function is called.
makeIncrementer defines a nested function called incrementer, which performs the

actual incrementing. This function simply adds amount to runningTotal, and returns
the result.
When considered in isolation, the nested incrementer() function might seem
unusual:

func incrementer() -> Int {

runningTotal += amount

return runningTotal

The incrementer() function doesnt have any parameters, and yet it refers to
runningTotal and amount from within its function body. It does this by capturing a
reference to runningTotal and amount from the surrounding function and using them
within its own function body. Capturing by reference ensures that runningTotal and
amount do not disappear when the call to makeIncrementer ends, and also ensures that
runningTotal is available the next time the incrementer function is called.

N OTE
As an optimization, Swift may instead capture and store a copy of a value if that value is not mutated
by or outside a closure.
Swift also handles all memory management involved in disposing of variables when they are no
longer needed.

Heres an example of makeIncrementer in action:

let incrementByTen = makeIncrementer(forIncrement: 10)

This example sets a constant called incrementByTen to refer to an incrementer

function that adds 10 to its runningTotal variable each time it is called. Calling the
function multiple times shows this behavior in action:

incrementByTen()

// returns a value of 10

incrementByTen()

// returns a value of 20

incrementByTen()

// returns a value of 30

If you create a second incrementer, it will have its own stored reference to a new,
separate runningTotal variable:
1

let incrementBySeven = makeIncrementer(forIncrement: 7)

incrementBySeven()

// returns a value of 7

Calling the original incrementer (incrementByTen) again continues to increment its

own runningTotal variable, and does not affect the variable captured by
incrementBySeven:
1

incrementByTen()

// returns a value of 40

N OTE
If you assign a closure to a property of a class instance, and the closure captures that instance by
referring to the instance or its members, you will create a strong reference cycle between the closure
and the instance. Swift uses capture lists to break these strong reference cycles. For more information,
see Strong Reference Cycles for Closures.

Closures Are Reference Types

In the example above, incrementBySeven and incrementByTen are constants, but the
closures these constants refer to are still able to increment the runningTotal
variables that they have captured. This is because functions and closures are
reference types.
Whenever you assign a function or a closure to a constant or a variable, you are
actually setting that constant or variable to be a reference to the function or closure.
In the example above, it is the choice of closure that incrementByTen refers to that is
constant, and not the contents of the closure itself.
This also means that if you assign a closure to two different constants or variables,
both of those constants or variables will refer to the same closure:
1

let alsoIncrementByTen = incrementByTen

alsoIncrementByTen()

// returns a value of 50

Nonescaping Closures
A closure is said to escape a function when the closure is passed as an argument to
the function, but is called after the function returns. When you declare a function that
takes a closure as one of its parameters, you can write @noescape before the
parameter name to indicate that the closure is not allowed to escape. Marking a
closure with @noescape lets the compiler make more aggressive optimizations
because it knows more information about the closures lifespan.
1

func someFunctionWithNoescapeClosure(@noescape closure: () -> Void)

{

closure()

As an example, the sort(_:) method takes a closure as its parameter, which is used
to compare elements. The parameter is marked @noescape because it is guaranteed

not to be needed after the sorting is completed.

One way that a closure can escape is by being stored in a variable that is defined
outside the function. As an example, many functions that start an asynchronous
operation take a closure argument as a completion handler. The function returns
after it starts the operation, but the closure isnt called until the operation is
completedthe closure needs to escape, to be called later. For example:
1

var completionHandlers: [() -> Void] = []

func someFunctionWithEscapingClosure(completionHandler: () -> Void)

{

completionHandlers.append(completionHandler)

The someFunctionWithEscapingClosure(_:) function takes a closure as its argument

and adds it to an array thats declared outside the function. If you tried to mark the
parameter of this function with @noescape, you would get a compiler error.
Marking a closure with @noescape lets you refer to self implicitly within the
closure.

class SomeClass {

var x = 10

func doSomething() {

someFunctionWithEscapingClosure { self.x = 100 }

someFunctionWithNoescapeClosure { x = 200 }

let instance = SomeClass()

instance.doSomething()
print(instance.x)
// prints "200"

completionHandlers.first?()
print(instance.x)
// prints "100"

Autoclosures
An autoclosure is a closure that is automatically created to wrap an expression thats
being passed as an argument to a function. It doesnt take any arguments, and when
its called, it returns the value of the expression thats wrapped inside of it. This
syntactic convenience lets you omit braces around a functions parameter by writing
a normal expression instead of an explicit closure.
Its common to call functions that take autoclosures, but its not common to

implement that kind of function. For example, the

assert(condition:message:file:line:) function takes an autoclosure for its
condition and message parameters; its condition parameter is evaluated only in
debug builds and its message parameter is evaluated only if condition is false.
An autoclosure lets you delay evaluation, because the code inside isnt run until you
call the closure. Delaying evaluation is useful for code that has side effects or is
computationally expensive, because it lets you control when that code is evaluated.
The code below shows how a closure delays evaluation.
1

var customersInLine = ["Chris", "Alex", "Ewa", "Barry", "Daniella"]

print(customersInLine.count)

// prints "5"

let customerProvider = { customersInLine.removeAtIndex(0) }

print(customersInLine.count)

// prints "5"

print("Now serving \(customerProvider())!")

// prints "Now serving Chris!"
print(customersInLine.count)
// prints "4"

Even though the first element of the customersInLine array is removed by the code
inside the closure, the array element isnt removed until the closure is actually
called. If the closure is never called, the expression inside the closure is never
evaluated, which means the array element is never removed. Note that the type of
customerProvider is not String but () -> Stringa function with no parameters
that returns a string.
You get the same behavior of delayed evaluation when you pass a closure as an

argument to a function.
1

// customersInLine is ["Alex", "Ewa", "Barry", "Daniella"]

func serveCustomer(customerProvider: () -> String) {

print("Now serving \(customerProvider())!")

serveCustomer( { customersInLine.removeAtIndex(0) } )

// prints "Now serving Alex!"

The serveCustomer(_:) function in the listing above takes an explicit closure that
returns a customer s name. The version of serveCustomer(_:) below performs the
same operation but, instead of taking an explicit closure, it takes an autoclosure by
marking its parameter with the @autoclosure attribute. Now you can call the function
as if it took a String argument instead of a closure. The argument is automatically
converted to a closure, because the customerProvider parameter is marked with the
@autoclosure attribute.
1

// customersInLine is ["Ewa", "Barry", "Daniella"]

func serveCustomer(@autoclosure customerProvider: () -> String) {

print("Now serving \(customerProvider())!")

serveCustomer(customersInLine.removeAtIndex(0))

// prints "Now serving Ewa!"

N OTE
Overusing autoclosures can make your code hard to understand. The context and function name
should make it clear that evaluation is being deferred.

The @autoclosure attribute implies the @noescape attribute, which is described above
in Nonescaping Closures. If you want an autoclosure that is allowed to escape, use
the @autoclosure(escaping) form of the attribute.
1

// customersInLine is ["Barry", "Daniella"]

var customerProviders: [() -> String] = []

func collectCustomerProviders(@autoclosure(escaping)
customerProvider: () -> String) {

customerProviders.append(customerProvider)

collectCustomerProviders(customersInLine.removeAtIndex(0))

collectCustomerProviders(customersInLine.removeAtIndex(0))

print("Collected \(customerProviders.count) closures.")

// prints "Collected 2 closures."
for customerProvider in customerProviders {
print("Now serving \(customerProvider())!")
}
// prints "Now serving Barry!"
// prints "Now serving Daniella!"

In the code above, instead of calling the closure passed to it as its customer
argument, the collectCustomerProviders(_:) function appends the closure to the
customerProviders array. The array is declared outside the scope of the function,
which means the closures in the array can be executed after the function returns. As
a result, the value of the customer argument must be allowed to escape the functions
scope.

Enumerations
An enumeration defines a common type for a group of related values and enables
you to work with those values in a type-safe way within your code.
If you are familiar with C, you will know that C enumerations assign related names
to a set of integer values. Enumerations in Swift are much more flexible, and do not
have to provide a value for each case of the enumeration. If a value (known as a
raw value) is provided for each enumeration case, the value can be a string, a
character, or a value of any integer or floating-point type.
Alternatively, enumeration cases can specify associated values of any type to be
stored along with each different case value, much as unions or variants do in other
languages. You can define a common set of related cases as part of one
enumeration, each of which has a different set of values of appropriate types
associated with it.
Enumerations in Swift are first-class types in their own right. They adopt many
features traditionally supported only by classes, such as computed properties to
provide additional information about the enumerations current value, and instance
methods to provide functionality related to the values the enumeration represents.
Enumerations can also define initializers to provide an initial case value; can be
extended to expand their functionality beyond their original implementation; and
can conform to protocols to provide standard functionality.
For more on these capabilities, see Properties, Methods, Initialization, Extensions,
and Protocols.

Enumeration Syntax
You introduce enumerations with the enum keyword and place their entire definition
within a pair of braces:

enum SomeEnumeration {

// enumeration definition goes here

Heres an example for the four main points of a compass:

1

enum CompassPoint {

case North

case South

case East

case West

The values defined in an enumeration (such as North, South, East, and West) are its
enumeration cases. You use the case keyword to introduce new enumeration cases.

N OTE
Unlike C and Objective-C, Swift enumeration cases are not assigned a default integer value when they
are created. In the CompassPoint example above, North, South, East and West do not
implicitly equal 0, 1, 2 and 3. Instead, the different enumeration cases are fully-fledged values in
their own right, with an explicitly-defined type of CompassPoint.

Multiple cases can appear on a single line, separated by commas:

1

enum Planet {

case Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus,

Neptune

Each enumeration definition defines a brand new type. Like other types in Swift,
their names (such as CompassPoint and Planet) should start with a capital letter. Give
enumeration types singular rather than plural names, so that they read as selfevident:

var directionToHead = CompassPoint.West

The type of directionToHead is inferred when it is initialized with one of the

possible values of CompassPoint. Once directionToHead is declared as a
CompassPoint, you can set it to a different CompassPoint value using a shorter dot
syntax:

directionToHead = .East

The type of directionToHead is already known, and so you can drop the type when
setting its value. This makes for highly readable code when working with explicitlytyped enumeration values.

Matching Enumeration Values with a Switch Statement

You can match individual enumeration values with a switch statement:

directionToHead = .South

switch directionToHead {

case .North:

print("Lots of planets have a north")

case .South:

print("Watch out for penguins")

case .East:

print("Where the sun rises")

case .West:
print("Where the skies are blue")
}
// prints "Watch out for penguins"

You can read this code as:

Consider the value of directionToHead. In the case where it equals .North, print
"Lots of planets have a north". In the case where it equals .South, print "Watch
out for penguins".
and so on.
As described in Control Flow, a switch statement must be exhaustive when
considering an enumerations cases. If the case for .West is omitted, this code does
not compile, because it does not consider the complete list of CompassPoint cases.
Requiring exhaustiveness ensures that enumeration cases are not accidentally
omitted.
When it is not appropriate to provide a case for every enumeration case, you can
provide a default case to cover any cases that are not addressed explicitly:

let somePlanet = Planet.Earth

switch somePlanet {

case .Earth:

print("Mostly harmless")

default:

print("Not a safe place for humans")

// prints "Mostly harmless"

Associated Values
The examples in the previous section show how the cases of an enumeration are a
defined (and typed) value in their own right. You can set a constant or variable to
Planet.Earth, and check for this value later. However, it is sometimes useful to be
able to store associated values of other types alongside these case values. This
enables you to store additional custom information along with the case value, and
permits this information to vary each time you use that case in your code.
You can define Swift enumerations to store associated values of any given type, and
the value types can be different for each case of the enumeration if needed.
Enumerations similar to these are known as discriminated unions, tagged unions, or
variants in other programming languages.
For example, suppose an inventory tracking system needs to track products by two
different types of barcode. Some products are labeled with 1D barcodes in UPC-A
format, which uses the numbers 0 to 9. Each barcode has a number system digit,
followed by five manufacturer code digits and five product code digits. These
are followed by a check digit to verify that the code has been scanned correctly:

Other products are labeled with 2D barcodes in QR code format, which can use any
ISO 8859-1 character and can encode a string up to 2,953 characters long:

It would be convenient for an inventory tracking system to be able to store UPC-A

barcodes as a tuple of four integers, and QR code barcodes as a string of any length.
In Swift, an enumeration to define product barcodes of either type might look like
this:
1

enum Barcode {

case UPCA(Int, Int, Int, Int)

case QRCode(String)

This can be read as:

Define an enumeration type called Barcode, which can take either a value of UPCA
with an associated value of type (Int, Int, Int, Int), or a value of QRCode with an
associated value of type String.
This definition does not provide any actual Int or String valuesit just defines the
type of associated values that Barcode constants and variables can store when they
are equal to Barcode.UPCA or Barcode.QRCode.

New barcodes can then be created using either type:

var productBarcode = Barcode.UPCA(8, 85909, 51226, 3)

This example creates a new variable called productBarcode and assigns it a value of
Barcode.UPCA with an associated tuple value of (8, 85909, 51226, 3).
The same product can be assigned a different type of barcode:

productBarcode = .QRCode("ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOP")

At this point, the original Barcode.UPCA and its integer values are replaced by the
new Barcode.QRCode and its string value. Constants and variables of type Barcode can
store either a .UPCA or a .QRCode (together with their associated values), but they can
only store one of them at any given time.
The different barcode types can be checked using a switch statement, as before. This
time, however, the associated values can be extracted as part of the switch statement.
You extract each associated value as a constant (with the let prefix) or a variable
(with the var prefix) for use within the switch cases body:
1

switch productBarcode {

case .UPCA(let numberSystem, let manufacturer, let product, let

check):

print("UPC-A: \(numberSystem), \(manufacturer), \(product), \

(check).")

case .QRCode(let productCode):

print("QR code: \(productCode).")

// prints "QR code: ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOP."

If all of the associated values for an enumeration case are extracted as constants, or
if all are extracted as variables, you can place a single var or let annotation before

the case name, for brevity:

1

switch productBarcode {

case let .UPCA(numberSystem, manufacturer, product, check):

print("UPC-A: \(numberSystem), \(manufacturer), \(product), \

(check).")

case let .QRCode(productCode):

print("QR code: \(productCode).")

// prints "QR code: ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOP."

Raw Values
The barcode example in Associated Values shows how cases of an enumeration can
declare that they store associated values of different types. As an alternative to
associated values, enumeration cases can come prepopulated with default values
(called raw values), which are all of the same type.
Heres an example that stores raw ASCII values alongside named enumeration
cases:
1

enum ASCIIControlCharacter: Character {

case Tab = "\t"

case LineFeed = "\n"

case CarriageReturn = "\r"

Here, the raw values for an enumeration called ASCIIControlCharacter are defined
to be of type Character, and are set to some of the more common ASCII control

characters. Character values are described in Strings and Characters.

Raw values can be strings, characters, or any of the integer or floating-point
number types. Each raw value must be unique within its enumeration declaration.

N OTE
Raw values are not the same as associated values. Raw values are set to prepopulated values when
you first define the enumeration in your code, like the three ASCII codes above. The raw value for a
particular enumeration case is always the same. Associated values are set when you create a new
constant or variable based on one of the enumerations cases, and can be different each time you do
so.

Implicitly Assigned Raw Values

When youre working with enumerations that store integer or string raw values,
you dont have to explicitly assign a raw value for each case. When you dont, Swift
will automatically assign the values for you.
For instance, when integers are used for raw values, the implicit value for each case
is one more than the previous case. If the first case doesnt have a value set, its
value is 0.
The enumeration below is a refinement of the earlier Planet enumeration, with
integer raw values to represent each planets order from the sun:
1

enum Planet: Int {

case Mercury = 1, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus,

Neptune

In the example above, Planet.Mercury has an explicit raw value of 1, Planet.Venus

has an implicit raw value of 2, and so on.
When strings are used for raw values, the implicit value for each case is the text of

that cases name.

The enumeration below is a refinement of the earlier CompassPoint enumeration,
with string raw values to represent each directions name:
1

enum CompassPoint: String {

case North, South, East, West

In the example above, CompassPoint.South has an implicit raw value of "South", and
so on.
You access the raw value of an enumeration case with its rawValue property:
1

let earthsOrder = Planet.Earth.rawValue

// earthsOrder is 3

let sunsetDirection = CompassPoint.West.rawValue

// sunsetDirection is "West"

Initializing from a Raw Value

If you define an enumeration with a raw-value type, the enumeration automatically
receives an initializer that takes a value of the raw values type (as a parameter
called rawValue) and returns either an enumeration case or nil. You can use this
initializer to try to create a new instance of the enumeration.
This example identifies Uranus from its raw value of 7:
1

let possiblePlanet = Planet(rawValue: 7)

// possiblePlanet is of type Planet? and equals Planet.Uranus

Not all possible Int values will find a matching planet, however. Because of this, the
raw value initializer always returns an optional enumeration case. In the example
above, possiblePlanet is of type Planet?, or optional Planet.

N OTE
The raw value initializer is a failable initializer, because not every raw value will return an
enumeration case. For more information, see Failable Initializers.

If you try to find a planet with a position of 9, the optional Planet value returned by
the raw value initializer will be nil:
1

let positionToFind = 9

if let somePlanet = Planet(rawValue: positionToFind) {

switch somePlanet {

case .Earth:

print("Mostly harmless")

default:

print("Not a safe place for humans")

} else {
print("There isn't a planet at position \(positionToFind)")
}
// prints "There isn't a planet at position 9"

This example uses optional binding to try to access a planet with a raw value of 9.
The statement if let somePlanet = Planet(rawValue: 9) creates an optional Planet,
and sets somePlanet to the value of that optional Planet if it can be retrieved. In this
case, it is not possible to retrieve a planet with a position of 9, and so the else

branch is executed instead.

Recursive Enumerations
Enumerations work well for modeling data when there is a fixed number of
possibilities that need to be considered, such as the operations used for doing simple
integer arithmetic. These operations let you combine simple arithmetic expressions
that are made up of integers such as 5 into more complex ones such as 5 + 4.
One important characteristic of arithmetic expressions is that they can be nested. For
example, the expression (5 + 4) * 2 has a number on the right hand side of the
multiplication and another expression on the left hand side of the multiplication.
Because the data is nested, the enumeration used to store the data also needs to
support nestingthis means the enumeration needs to be recursive.
A recursive enumeration is an enumeration that has another instance of the
enumeration as the associated value for one or more of the enumeration cases. The
compiler has to insert a layer of indirection when it works with recursive
enumerations. You indicate that an enumeration case is recursive by writing
indirect before it.
For example, here is an enumeration that stores simple arithmetic expressions:
1

enum ArithmeticExpression {

case Number(Int)

indirect case Addition(ArithmeticExpression,

ArithmeticExpression)

indirect case Multiplication(ArithmeticExpression,

ArithmeticExpression)

You can also write indirect before the beginning of the enumeration, to enable
indirection for all of the enumerations cases that need it:

indirect enum ArithmeticExpression {

case Number(Int)

case Addition(ArithmeticExpression, ArithmeticExpression)

case Multiplication(ArithmeticExpression, ArithmeticExpression)

This enumeration can store three kinds of arithmetic expressions: a plain number,
the addition of two expressions, and the multiplication of two expressions. The
Addition and Multiplication cases have associated values that are also arithmetic
expressionsthese associated values make it possible to nest expressions.
A recursive function is a straightforward way to work with data that has a recursive
structure. For example, heres a function that evaluates an arithmetic expression:

func evaluate(expression: ArithmeticExpression) -> Int {

switch expression {

case .Number(let value):

return value

case .Addition(let left, let right):

return evaluate(left) + evaluate(right)

case .Multiplication(let left, let right):

return evaluate(left) * evaluate(right)

}
}

// evaluate (5 + 4) * 2
let five = ArithmeticExpression.Number(5)
let four = ArithmeticExpression.Number(4)
let sum = ArithmeticExpression.Addition(five, four)
let product = ArithmeticExpression.Multiplication(sum,
ArithmeticExpression.Number(2))
print(evaluate(product))
// prints "18"

This function evaluates a plain number by simply returning the associated value. It
evaluates an addition or multiplication by evaluating the expression on the left hand
side, evaluating the expression on the right hand side, and then adding them or
multiplying them.

Classes and Structures

Classes and structures are general-purpose, flexible constructs that become the
building blocks of your programs code. You define properties and methods to add
functionality to your classes and structures by using exactly the same syntax as for
constants, variables, and functions.
Unlike other programming languages, Swift does not require you to create separate
interface and implementation files for custom classes and structures. In Swift, you
define a class or a structure in a single file, and the external interface to that class or
structure is automatically made available for other code to use.

N OTE
An instance of a class is traditionally known as an object. However, Swift classes and structures are
much closer in functionality than in other languages, and much of this chapter describes functionality
that can apply to instances of either a class or a structure type. Because of this, the more general term
instance is used.

Comparing Classes and Structures

Classes and structures in Swift have many things in common. Both can:

Define properties to store values

Define methods to provide functionality
Define subscripts to provide access to their values using subscript syntax
Define initializers to set up their initial state
Be extended to expand their functionality beyond a default implementation
Conform to protocols to provide standard functionality of a certain kind

For more information, see Properties, Methods, Subscripts, Initialization,

Extensions, and Protocols.

Classes have additional capabilities that structures do not:
Inheritance enables one class to inherit the characteristics of another.
Type casting enables you to check and interpret the type of a class instance
at runtime.
Deinitializers enable an instance of a class to free up any resources it has
assigned.
Reference counting allows more than one reference to a class instance.
For more information, see Inheritance, Type Casting, Deinitialization, and
Automatic Reference Counting.

N OTE
Structures are always copied when they are passed around in your code, and do not use reference
counting.

Definition Syntax
Classes and structures have a similar definition syntax. You introduce classes with
the class keyword and structures with the struct keyword. Both place their entire
definition within a pair of braces:

class SomeClass {

// class definition goes here

struct SomeStructure {

// structure definition goes here

N OTE
Whenever you define a new class or structure, you effectively define a brand new Swift type. Give
types UpperCamelCase names (such as SomeClass and SomeStructure here) to match the
capitalization of standard Swift types (such as String, Int, and Bool). Conversely, always give
properties and methods lowerCamelCase names (such as frameRate and incrementCount)
to differentiate them from type names.

Heres an example of a structure definition and a class definition:

1

struct Resolution {

var width = 0

var height = 0

class VideoMode {

var resolution = Resolution()

var interlaced = false

var frameRate = 0.0

var name: String?

}

The example above defines a new structure called Resolution, to describe a pixelbased display resolution. This structure has two stored properties called width and
height. Stored properties are constants or variables that are bundled up and stored
as part of the class or structure. These two properties are inferred to be of type Int
by setting them to an initial integer value of 0.
The example above also defines a new class called VideoMode, to describe a specific
video mode for video display. This class has four variable stored properties. The
first, resolution, is initialized with a new Resolution structure instance, which infers
a property type of Resolution. For the other three properties, new VideoMode
instances will be initialized with an interlaced setting of false (meaning noninterlaced video), a playback frame rate of 0.0, and an optional String value called
name. The name property is automatically given a default value of nil, or no name
value, because it is of an optional type.

Class and Structure Instances

The Resolution structure definition and the VideoMode class definition only describe
what a Resolution or VideoMode will look like. They themselves do not describe a
specific resolution or video mode. To do that, you need to create an instance of the
structure or class.
The syntax for creating instances is very similar for both structures and classes:
1

let someResolution = Resolution()

let someVideoMode = VideoMode()

Structures and classes both use initializer syntax for new instances. The simplest
form of initializer syntax uses the type name of the class or structure followed by
empty parentheses, such as Resolution() or VideoMode(). This creates a new instance
of the class or structure, with any properties initialized to their default values. Class
and structure initialization is described in more detail in Initialization.

Accessing Properties

You can access the properties of an instance using dot syntax. In dot syntax, you
write the property name immediately after the instance name, separated by a period
(.), without any spaces:
1

print("The width of someResolution is \(someResolution.width)")

// prints "The width of someResolution is 0"

In this example, someResolution.width refers to the width property of

someResolution, and returns its default initial value of 0.
You can drill down into sub-properties, such as the width property in the resolution
property of a VideoMode:
1

print("The width of someVideoMode is \

(someVideoMode.resolution.width)")

// prints "The width of someVideoMode is 0"

You can also use dot syntax to assign a new value to a variable property:
1

someVideoMode.resolution.width = 1280

print("The width of someVideoMode is now \

(someVideoMode.resolution.width)")

// prints "The width of someVideoMode is now 1280"

N OTE
Unlike Objective-C, Swift enables you to set sub-properties of a structure property directly. In the last
example above, the width property of the resolution property of someVideoMode is set
directly, without your needing to set the entire resolution property to a new value.

Memberwise Initializers for Structure Types

All structures have an automatically-generated memberwise initializer, which you

can use to initialize the member properties of new structure instances. Initial values
for the properties of the new instance can be passed to the memberwise initializer by
name:

let vga = Resolution(width: 640, height: 480)

Unlike structures, class instances do not receive a default memberwise initializer.

Initializers are described in more detail in Initialization.

Structures and Enumerations Are Value Types

A value type is a type whose value is copied when it is assigned to a variable or
constant, or when it is passed to a function.
Youve actually been using value types extensively throughout the previous
chapters. In fact, all of the basic types in Swiftintegers, floating-point numbers,
Booleans, strings, arrays and dictionariesare value types, and are implemented as
structures behind the scenes.
All structures and enumerations are value types in Swift. This means that any
structure and enumeration instances you createand any value types they have as
propertiesare always copied when they are passed around in your code.
Consider this example, which uses the Resolution structure from the previous
example:
1

let hd = Resolution(width: 1920, height: 1080)

var cinema = hd

This example declares a constant called hd and sets it to a Resolution instance

initialized with the width and height of full HD video (1920 pixels wide by 1080
pixels high).
It then declares a variable called cinema and sets it to the current value of hd. Because
Resolution is a structure, a copy of the existing instance is made, and this new copy
is assigned to cinema. Even though hd and cinema now have the same width and

height, they are two completely different instances behind the scenes.
Next, the width property of cinema is amended to be the width of the slightly-wider
2K standard used for digital cinema projection (2048 pixels wide and 1080 pixels
high):

cinema.width = 2048

Checking the width property of cinema shows that it has indeed changed to be 2048:
1

print("cinema is now \(cinema.width) pixels wide")

// prints "cinema is now 2048 pixels wide"

However, the width property of the original hd instance still has the old value of
1920:
1

print("hd is still \(hd.width) pixels wide")

// prints "hd is still 1920 pixels wide"

When cinema was given the current value of hd, the values stored in hd were copied
into the new cinema instance. The end result is two completely separate instances,
which just happened to contain the same numeric values. Because they are separate
instances, setting the width of cinema to 2048 doesnt affect the width stored in hd.
The same behavior applies to enumerations:

enum CompassPoint {

case North, South, East, West

var currentDirection = CompassPoint.West

let rememberedDirection = currentDirection

currentDirection = .East

if rememberedDirection == .West {

print("The remembered direction is still .West")

}
// prints "The remembered direction is still .West"

When rememberedDirection is assigned the value of currentDirection, it is actually

set to a copy of that value. Changing the value of currentDirection thereafter does
not affect the copy of the original value that was stored in rememberedDirection.

Classes Are Reference Types

Unlike value types, reference types are not copied when they are assigned to a
variable or constant, or when they are passed to a function. Rather than a copy, a
reference to the same existing instance is used instead.
Heres an example, using the VideoMode class defined above:

let tenEighty = VideoMode()

tenEighty.resolution = hd

tenEighty.interlaced = true

tenEighty.name = "1080i"

tenEighty.frameRate = 25.0

This example declares a new constant called tenEighty and sets it to refer to a new
instance of the VideoMode class. The video mode is assigned a copy of the HD
resolution of 1920 by 1080 from before. It is set to be interlaced, and is given a name
of "1080i". Finally, it is set to a frame rate of 25.0 frames per second.
Next, tenEighty is assigned to a new constant, called alsoTenEighty, and the frame
rate of alsoTenEighty is modified:
1

let alsoTenEighty = tenEighty

alsoTenEighty.frameRate = 30.0

Because classes are reference types, tenEighty and alsoTenEighty actually both
refer to the same VideoMode instance. Effectively, they are just two different names
for the same single instance.
Checking the frameRate property of tenEighty shows that it correctly reports the
new frame rate of 30.0 from the underlying VideoMode instance:
1

print("The frameRate property of tenEighty is now \

(tenEighty.frameRate)")

// prints "The frameRate property of tenEighty is now 30.0"

Note that tenEighty and alsoTenEighty are declared as constants, rather than
variables. However, you can still change tenEighty.frameRate and
alsoTenEighty.frameRate because the values of the tenEighty and alsoTenEighty
constants themselves do not actually change. tenEighty and alsoTenEighty
themselves do not store the VideoMode instanceinstead, they both refer to a

VideoMode instance behind the scenes. It is the frameRate property of the underlying
VideoMode that is changed, not the values of the constant references to that VideoMode.

Identity Operators
Because classes are reference types, it is possible for multiple constants and
variables to refer to the same single instance of a class behind the scenes. (The same
is not true for structures and enumerations, because they are always copied when
they are assigned to a constant or variable, or passed to a function.)
It can sometimes be useful to find out if two constants or variables refer to exactly
the same instance of a class. To enable this, Swift provides two identity operators:
Identical to (===)
Not identical to (!==)
Use these operators to check whether two constants or variables refer to the same
single instance:
1

if tenEighty === alsoTenEighty {

print("tenEighty and alsoTenEighty refer to the same VideoMode

instance.")

// prints "tenEighty and alsoTenEighty refer to the same VideoMode

instance."

Note that identical to (represented by three equals signs, or ===) does not mean the
same thing as equal to (represented by two equals signs, or ==):
Identical to means that two constants or variables of class type refer to
exactly the same class instance.
Equal to means that two instances are considered equal or equivalent

in value, for some appropriate meaning of equal, as defined by the types

designer.
When you define your own custom classes and structures, it is your responsibility to
decide what qualifies as two instances being equal. The process of defining your
own implementations of the equal to and not equal to operators is described in
Equivalence Operators.

Pointers
If you have experience with C, C++, or Objective-C, you may know that these
languages use pointers to refer to addresses in memory. A Swift constant or variable
that refers to an instance of some reference type is similar to a pointer in C, but is
not a direct pointer to an address in memory, and does not require you to write an
asterisk (*) to indicate that you are creating a reference. Instead, these references are
defined like any other constant or variable in Swift.

Choosing Between Classes and Structures

You can use both classes and structures to define custom data types to use as the
building blocks of your programs code.
However, structure instances are always passed by value, and class instances are
always passed by reference. This means that they are suited to different kinds of
tasks. As you consider the data constructs and functionality that you need for a
project, decide whether each data construct should be defined as a class or as a
structure.
As a general guideline, consider creating a structure when one or more of these
conditions apply:
The structures primary purpose is to encapsulate a few relatively simple
data values.
It is reasonable to expect that the encapsulated values will be copied rather
than referenced when you assign or pass around an instance of that

structure.
Any properties stored by the structure are themselves value types, which
would also be expected to be copied rather than referenced.
The structure does not need to inherit properties or behavior from another
existing type.
Examples of good candidates for structures include:
The size of a geometric shape, perhaps encapsulating a width property and a
height property, both of type Double.
A way to refer to ranges within a series, perhaps encapsulating a start
property and a length property, both of type Int.
A point in a 3D coordinate system, perhaps encapsulating x, y and z
properties, each of type Double.
In all other cases, define a class, and create instances of that class to be managed and
passed by reference. In practice, this means that most custom data constructs should
be classes, not structures.

Assignment and Copy Behavior for Strings, Arrays, and

Dictionaries
In Swift, many basic data types such as String, Array, and Dictionary are
implemented as structures. This means that data such as strings, arrays, and
dictionaries are copied when they are assigned to a new constant or variable, or
when they are passed to a function or method.
This behavior is different from Foundation: NSString, NSArray, and NSDictionary
are implemented as classes, not structures. Strings, arrays, and dictionaries in
Foundation are always assigned and passed around as a reference to an existing
instance, rather than as a copy.

N OTE
The description above refers to the copying of strings, arrays, and dictionaries. The behavior you
see in your code will always be as if a copy took place. However, Swift only performs an actual
copy behind the scenes when it is absolutely necessary to do so. Swift manages all value copying to
ensure optimal performance, and you should not avoid assignment to try to preempt this optimization.

Properties
Properties associate values with a particular class, structure, or enumeration. Stored
properties store constant and variable values as part of an instance, whereas
computed properties calculate (rather than store) a value. Computed properties are
provided by classes, structures, and enumerations. Stored properties are provided
only by classes and structures.
Stored and computed properties are usually associated with instances of a particular
type. However, properties can also be associated with the type itself. Such properties
are known as type properties.
In addition, you can define property observers to monitor changes in a propertys
value, which you can respond to with custom actions. Property observers can be
added to stored properties you define yourself, and also to properties that a subclass
inherits from its superclass.

Stored Properties
In its simplest form, a stored property is a constant or variable that is stored as part
of an instance of a particular class or structure. Stored properties can be either
variable stored properties (introduced by the var keyword) or constant stored
properties (introduced by the let keyword).
You can provide a default value for a stored property as part of its definition, as
described in Default Property Values. You can also set and modify the initial value
for a stored property during initialization. This is true even for constant stored
properties, as described in Assigning Constant Properties During Initialization.
The example below defines a structure called FixedLengthRange, which describes a
range of integers whose range length cannot be changed once it is created:

struct FixedLengthRange {

var firstValue: Int

let length: Int

var rangeOfThreeItems = FixedLengthRange(firstValue: 0, length: 3)

// the range represents integer values 0, 1, and 2

rangeOfThreeItems.firstValue = 6

// the range now represents integer values 6, 7, and 8

Instances of FixedLengthRange have a variable stored property called firstValue and

a constant stored property called length. In the example above, length is initialized
when the new range is created and cannot be changed thereafter, because it is a
constant property.

Stored Properties of Constant Structure Instances

If you create an instance of a structure and assign that instance to a constant, you
cannot modify the instances properties, even if they were declared as variable
properties:
1

let rangeOfFourItems = FixedLengthRange(firstValue: 0, length: 4)

// this range represents integer values 0, 1, 2, and 3

rangeOfFourItems.firstValue = 6

// this will report an error, even though firstValue is a variable

property

Because rangeOfFourItems is declared as a constant (with the let keyword), it is not

possible to change its firstValue property, even though firstValue is a variable

property.
This behavior is due to structures being value types. When an instance of a value
type is marked as a constant, so are all of its properties.
The same is not true for classes, which are reference types. If you assign an instance
of a reference type to a constant, you can still change that instances variable
properties.

Lazy Stored Properties

A lazy stored property is a property whose initial value is not calculated until the
first time it is used. You indicate a lazy stored property by writing the lazy modifier
before its declaration.

N OTE
You must always declare a lazy property as a variable (with the var keyword), because its initial
value might not be retrieved until after instance initialization completes. Constant properties must
always have a value before initialization completes, and therefore cannot be declared as lazy.

Lazy properties are useful when the initial value for a property is dependent on
outside factors whose values are not known until after an instances initialization is
complete. Lazy properties are also useful when the initial value for a property
requires complex or computationally expensive setup that should not be performed
unless or until it is needed.
The example below uses a lazy stored property to avoid unnecessary initialization
of a complex class. This example defines two classes called DataImporter and
DataManager, neither of which is shown in full:

class DataImporter {

/*

DataImporter is a class to import data from an external file.

The class is assumed to take a non-trivial amount of time to

initialize.

*/

var fileName = "data.txt"

// the DataImporter class would provide data importing

functionality here

class DataManager {
lazy var importer = DataImporter()
var data = [String]()
// the DataManager class would provide data management
functionality here
}

let manager = DataManager()
manager.data.append("Some data")
manager.data.append("Some more data")
// the DataImporter instance for the importer property has not yet been
created

The DataManager class has a stored property called data, which is initialized with a
new, empty array of String values. Although the rest of its functionality is not
shown, the purpose of this DataManager class is to manage and provide access to this
array of String data.
Part of the functionality of the DataManager class is the ability to import data from a
file. This functionality is provided by the DataImporter class, which is assumed to
take a non-trivial amount of time to initialize. This might be because a DataImporter
instance needs to open a file and read its contents into memory when the
DataImporter instance is initialized.
It is possible for a DataManager instance to manage its data without ever importing
data from a file, so there is no need to create a new DataImporter instance when the
DataManager itself is created. Instead, it makes more sense to create the DataImporter
instance if and when it is first used.
Because it is marked with the lazy modifier, the DataImporter instance for the
importer property is only created when the importer property is first accessed, such
as when its fileName property is queried:
1

print(manager.importer.fileName)

// the DataImporter instance for the importer property has now been
created

// prints "data.txt"

N OTE
If a property marked with the lazy modifier is accessed by multiple threads simultaneously and the
property has not yet been initialized, there is no guarantee that the property will be initialized only
once.

Stored Properties and Instance Variables

If you have experience with Objective-C, you may know that it provides two ways to

store values and references as part of a class instance. In addition to properties, you
can use instance variables as a backing store for the values stored in a property.
Swift unifies these concepts into a single property declaration. A Swift property
does not have a corresponding instance variable, and the backing store for a
property is not accessed directly. This approach avoids confusion about how the
value is accessed in different contexts and simplifies the propertys declaration into
a single, definitive statement. All information about the propertyincluding its
name, type, and memory management characteristicsis defined in a single
location as part of the types definition.

Computed Properties
In addition to stored properties, classes, structures, and enumerations can define
computed properties, which do not actually store a value. Instead, they provide a
getter and an optional setter to retrieve and set other properties and values
indirectly.
1

struct Point {

var x = 0.0, y = 0.0

struct Size {

var width = 0.0, height = 0.0

struct Rect {

var origin = Point()

var size = Size()

var center: Point {
get {

 let centerX = origin.x + (size.width / 2)

let centerY = origin.y + (size.height / 2)
return Point(x: centerX, y: centerY)
}
set(newCenter) {
origin.x = newCenter.x - (size.width / 2)
origin.y = newCenter.y - (size.height / 2)
}
}
}
var square = Rect(origin: Point(x: 0.0, y: 0.0),
size: Size(width: 10.0, height: 10.0))
let initialSquareCenter = square.center
square.center = Point(x: 15.0, y: 15.0)
print("square.origin is now at (\(square.origin.x), \
(square.origin.y))")
// prints "square.origin is now at (10.0, 10.0)"

This example defines three structures for working with geometric shapes:

Point encapsulates an (x, y) coordinate.

Size encapsulates a width and a height.
Rect defines a rectangle by an origin point and a size.

The Rect structure also provides a computed property called center. The current
center position of a Rect can always be determined from its origin and size, and so

you dont need to store the center point as an explicit Point value. Instead, Rect
defines a custom getter and setter for a computed variable called center, to enable
you to work with the rectangles center as if it were a real stored property.
The preceding example creates a new Rect variable called square. The square
variable is initialized with an origin point of (0, 0), and a width and height of 10.
This square is represented by the blue square in the diagram below.
The square variables center property is then accessed through dot syntax
(square.center), which causes the getter for center to be called, to retrieve the
current property value. Rather than returning an existing value, the getter actually
calculates and returns a new Point to represent the center of the square. As can be
seen above, the getter correctly returns a center point of (5, 5).
The center property is then set to a new value of (15, 15), which moves the square
up and to the right, to the new position shown by the orange square in the diagram
below. Setting the center property calls the setter for center, which modifies the x
and y values of the stored origin property, and moves the square to its new position.

Shorthand Setter Declaration

If a computed propertys setter does not define a name for the new value to be set, a
default name of newValue is used. Heres an alternative version of the Rect structure,
which takes advantage of this shorthand notation:
1

struct AlternativeRect {

var origin = Point()

var size = Size()

var center: Point {

get {

let centerX = origin.x + (size.width / 2)

let centerY = origin.y + (size.height / 2)

return Point(x: centerX, y: centerY)

}
set {
origin.x = newValue.x - (size.width / 2)
origin.y = newValue.y - (size.height / 2)
}
}
}

Read-Only Computed Properties

A computed property with a getter but no setter is known as a read-only computed
property. A read-only computed property always returns a value, and can be
accessed through dot syntax, but cannot be set to a different value.

N OTE
You must declare computed propertiesincluding read-only computed propertiesas variable
properties with the var keyword, because their value is not fixed. The let keyword is only used for
constant properties, to indicate that their values cannot be changed once they are set as part of instance
initialization.

You can simplify the declaration of a read-only computed property by removing the
get keyword and its braces:
1

struct Cuboid {

var width = 0.0, height = 0.0, depth = 0.0

var volume: Double {

return width * height * depth

let fourByFiveByTwo = Cuboid(width: 4.0, height: 5.0, depth: 2.0)

print("the volume of fourByFiveByTwo is \(fourByFiveByTwo.volume)")

// prints "the volume of fourByFiveByTwo is 40.0"

This example defines a new structure called Cuboid, which represents a 3D

rectangular box with width, height, and depth properties. This structure also has a
read-only computed property called volume, which calculates and returns the current
volume of the cuboid. It doesnt make sense for volume to be settable, because it
would be ambiguous as to which values of width, height, and depth should be used
for a particular volume value. Nonetheless, it is useful for a Cuboid to provide a readonly computed property to enable external users to discover its current calculated
volume.

Property Observers

Property observers observe and respond to changes in a propertys value. Property

observers are called every time a propertys value is set, even if the new value is the
same as the propertys current value.
You can add property observers to any stored properties you define, apart from lazy
stored properties. You can also add property observers to any inherited property
(whether stored or computed) by overriding the property within a subclass. Property
overriding is described in Overriding.

N OTE
You dont need to define property observers for non-overridden computed properties, because you
can observe and respond to changes to their value in the computed propertys setter.

You have the option to define either or both of these observers on a property:

willSet is called just before the value is stored.

didSet is called immediately after the new value is stored.

If you implement a willSet observer, it is passed the new property value as a

constant parameter. You can specify a name for this parameter as part of your
willSet implementation. If you dont write the parameter name and parentheses
within your implementation, the parameter is made available with a default
parameter name of newValue.
Similarly, if you implement a didSet observer, it will be passed a constant
parameter containing the old property value. You can name the parameter or use the
default parameter name of oldValue.

N OTE
The willSet and didSet observers of superclass properties are called when a property is set in a
subclass initializer.
For more information about initializer delegation, see Initializer Delegation for Value Types and
Initializer Delegation for Class Types.

Heres an example of willSet and didSet in action. The example below defines a
new class called StepCounter, which tracks the total number of steps that a person
takes while walking. This class might be used with input data from a pedometer or
other step counter to keep track of a persons exercise during their daily routine.

class StepCounter {

var totalSteps: Int = 0 {

willSet(newTotalSteps) {

print("About to set totalSteps to \(newTotalSteps)")

didSet {

if totalSteps > oldValue {

print("Added \(totalSteps - oldValue) steps")

}
}
}
}
let stepCounter = StepCounter()
stepCounter.totalSteps = 200
// About to set totalSteps to 200
// Added 200 steps
stepCounter.totalSteps = 360
// About to set totalSteps to 360
// Added 160 steps
stepCounter.totalSteps = 896
// About to set totalSteps to 896
// Added 536 steps

The StepCounter class declares a totalSteps property of type Int. This is a stored
property with willSet and didSet observers.
The willSet and didSet observers for totalSteps are called whenever the property
is assigned a new value. This is true even if the new value is the same as the current
value.
This examples willSet observer uses a custom parameter name of newTotalSteps
for the upcoming new value. In this example, it simply prints out the value that is
about to be set.
The didSet observer is called after the value of totalSteps is updated. It compares
the new value of totalSteps against the old value. If the total number of steps has
increased, a message is printed to indicate how many new steps have been taken. The
didSet observer does not provide a custom parameter name for the old value, and
the default name of oldValue is used instead.

N OTE
If you assign a value to a property within its own didSet observer, the new value that you assign
will replace the one that was just set.

Global and Local Variables

The capabilities described above for computing and observing properties are also
available to global variables and local variables. Global variables are variables that
are defined outside of any function, method, closure, or type context. Local
variables are variables that are defined within a function, method, or closure
context.
The global and local variables you have encountered in previous chapters have all
been stored variables. Stored variables, like stored properties, provide storage for a
value of a certain type and allow that value to be set and retrieved.
However, you can also define computed variables and define observers for stored
variables, in either a global or local scope. Computed variables calculate rather than
store a value, and are written in the same way as computed properties.

N OTE
Global constants and variables are always computed lazily, in a similar manner to Lazy Stored
Properties. Unlike lazy stored properties, global constants and variables do not need to be marked
with the lazy modifier.
Local constants and variables are never computed lazily.

Type Properties
Instance properties are properties that belong to an instance of a particular type.
Every time you create a new instance of that type, it has its own set of property
values, separate from any other instance.
You can also define properties that belong to the type itself, not to any one instance
of that type. There will only ever be one copy of these properties, no matter how
many instances of that type you create. These kinds of properties are called type
properties.
Type properties are useful for defining values that are universal to all instances of a
particular type, such as a constant property that all instances can use (like a static
constant in C), or a variable property that stores a value that is global to all instances
of that type (like a static variable in C).
Stored type properties can be variables or constants. Computed type properties are
always declared as variable properties, in the same way as computed instance
properties.

N OTE
Unlike stored instance properties, you must always give stored type properties a default value. This is
because the type itself does not have an initializer that can assign a value to a stored type property at
initialization time.
Stored type properties are lazily initialized on their first access. They are guaranteed to be initialized
only once, even when accessed by multiple threads simultaneously, and they do not need to be
marked with the lazy modifier.

Type Property Syntax

In C and Objective-C, you define static constants and variables associated with a type
as global static variables. In Swift, however, type properties are written as part of the
types definition, within the types outer curly braces, and each type property is
explicitly scoped to the type it supports.
You define type properties with the static keyword. For computed type properties
for class types, you can use the class keyword instead to allow subclasses to
override the superclasss implementation. The example below shows the syntax for
stored and computed type properties:

struct SomeStructure {

static var storedTypeProperty = "Some value."

static var computedTypeProperty: Int {

return 1

enum SomeEnumeration {

static var storedTypeProperty = "Some value."

static var computedTypeProperty: Int {

return 6
}
}
class SomeClass {
static var storedTypeProperty = "Some value."
static var computedTypeProperty: Int {
return 27
}
class var overrideableComputedTypeProperty: Int {
return 107
}
}

N OTE
The computed type property examples above are for read-only computed type properties, but you can
also define read-write computed type properties with the same syntax as for computed instance
properties.

Querying and Setting Type Properties

Type properties are queried and set with dot syntax, just like instance properties.
However, type properties are queried and set on the type, not on an instance of that
type. For example:
1

print(SomeStructure.storedTypeProperty)

// prints "Some value."

SomeStructure.storedTypeProperty = "Another value."

print(SomeStructure.storedTypeProperty)

// prints "Another value."

print(SomeEnumeration.computedTypeProperty)

// prints "6"

print(SomeClass.computedTypeProperty)

// prints "27"

The examples that follow use two stored type properties as part of a structure that
models an audio level meter for a number of audio channels. Each channel has an
integer audio level between 0 and 10 inclusive.
The figure below illustrates how two of these audio channels can be combined to
model a stereo audio level meter. When a channels audio level is 0, none of the
lights for that channel are lit. When the audio level is 10, all of the lights for that
channel are lit. In this figure, the left channel has a current level of 9, and the right

channel has a current level of 7:

The audio channels described above are represented by instances of the

AudioChannel structure:

struct AudioChannel {

static let thresholdLevel = 10

static var maxInputLevelForAllChannels = 0

var currentLevel: Int = 0 {

didSet {

if currentLevel > AudioChannel.thresholdLevel {

// cap the new audio level to the threshold level

currentLevel = AudioChannel.thresholdLevel

}
if currentLevel > AudioChannel.maxInputLevelForAllChannels
{
// store this as the new overall maximum input level
AudioChannel.maxInputLevelForAllChannels = currentLevel
}
}
}
}

The AudioChannel structure defines two stored type properties to support its
functionality. The first, thresholdLevel, defines the maximum threshold value an
audio level can take. This is a constant value of 10 for all AudioChannel instances. If
an audio signal comes in with a higher value than 10, it will be capped to this
threshold value (as described below).
The second type property is a variable stored property called
maxInputLevelForAllChannels. This keeps track of the maximum input value that has
been received by any AudioChannel instance. It starts with an initial value of 0.

The AudioChannel structure also defines a stored instance property called

currentLevel, which represents the channels current audio level on a scale of 0 to
10.
The currentLevel property has a didSet property observer to check the value of
currentLevel whenever it is set. This observer performs two checks:
If the new value of currentLevel is greater than the allowed thresholdLevel,
the property observer caps currentLevel to thresholdLevel.
If the new value of currentLevel (after any capping) is higher than any value
previously received by any AudioChannel instance, the property observer
stores the new currentLevel value in the maxInputLevelForAllChannels type
property.

N OTE
In the first of these two checks, the didSet observer sets currentLevel to a different value. This
does not, however, cause the observer to be called again.

You can use the AudioChannel structure to create two new audio channels called
leftChannel and rightChannel, to represent the audio levels of a stereo sound
system:
1

var leftChannel = AudioChannel()

var rightChannel = AudioChannel()

If you set the currentLevel of the left channel to 7, you can see that the
maxInputLevelForAllChannels type property is updated to equal 7:

leftChannel.currentLevel = 7

print(leftChannel.currentLevel)

// prints "7"

print(AudioChannel.maxInputLevelForAllChannels)

// prints "7"

If you try to set the currentLevel of the right channel to 11, you can see that the right
channels currentLevel property is capped to the maximum value of 10, and the
maxInputLevelForAllChannels type property is updated to equal 10:
1

rightChannel.currentLevel = 11

print(rightChannel.currentLevel)

// prints "10"

print(AudioChannel.maxInputLevelForAllChannels)

// prints "10"

Methods
Methods are functions that are associated with a particular type. Classes, structures,
and enumerations can all define instance methods, which encapsulate specific tasks
and functionality for working with an instance of a given type. Classes, structures,
and enumerations can also define type methods, which are associated with the type
itself. Type methods are similar to class methods in Objective-C.
The fact that structures and enumerations can define methods in Swift is a major
difference from C and Objective-C. In Objective-C, classes are the only types that
can define methods. In Swift, you can choose whether to define a class, structure, or
enumeration, and still have the flexibility to define methods on the type you create.

Instance Methods
Instance methods are functions that belong to instances of a particular class,
structure, or enumeration. They support the functionality of those instances, either
by providing ways to access and modify instance properties, or by providing
functionality related to the instances purpose. Instance methods have exactly the
same syntax as functions, as described in Functions.
You write an instance method within the opening and closing braces of the type it
belongs to. An instance method has implicit access to all other instance methods and
properties of that type. An instance method can be called only on a specific instance
of the type it belongs to. It cannot be called in isolation without an existing instance.
Heres an example that defines a simple Counter class, which can be used to count
the number of times an action occurs:

class Counter {

var count = 0

func increment() {

++count

func incrementBy(amount: Int) {

count += amount

func reset() {
count = 0
}
}

The Counter class defines three instance methods:

increment increments the counter by 1.

incrementBy(amount: Int) increments the counter by a specified integer

amount.
reset resets the counter to zero.
The Counter class also declares a variable property, count, to keep track of the
current counter value.
You call instance methods with the same dot syntax as properties:

let counter = Counter()

// the initial counter value is 0

counter.increment()

// the counter's value is now 1

counter.incrementBy(5)

// the counter's value is now 6

counter.reset()

// the counter's value is now 0

Local and External Parameter Names for Methods

Function parameters can have both a local name (for use within the functions body)
and an external name (for use when calling the function), as described in Specifying
External Parameter Names. The same is true for method parameters, because
methods are just functions that are associated with a type.
Methods in Swift are very similar to their counterparts in Objective-C. As in
Objective-C, the name of a method in Swift typically refers to the methods first
parameter using a preposition such as with, for, or by, as seen in the
incrementBy(_:) method from the preceding Counter class example. The use of a
preposition enables the method to be read as a sentence when it is called.
Swift gives the first parameter name in a method a local parameter name by default,
and gives the second and subsequent parameter names both local and external
parameter names by default. This convention matches the typical naming and calling
convention you will be familiar with from writing Objective-C methods, and makes
for expressive method calls without the need to qualify your parameter names.
Consider this alternative version of the Counter class, which defines a more
complex form of the incrementBy(_:) method:

class Counter {

var count: Int = 0

func incrementBy(amount: Int, numberOfTimes: Int) {

count += amount * numberOfTimes

This incrementBy(_:numberOfTimes:) method has two parametersamount and

numberOfTimes. By default, Swift treats amount as a local name only, but treats
numberOfTimes as both a local and an external name. You call the method as follows:
1

let counter = Counter()

counter.incrementBy(5, numberOfTimes: 3)

// counter value is now 15

You dont need to define an external parameter name for the first argument value,
because its purpose is clear from the function name incrementBy(_:numberOfTimes:).
The second argument, however, is qualified by an external parameter name to make
its purpose clear when the method is called.
The behavior described above means that method definitions in Swift are written
with the same grammatical style as Objective-C, and are called in a natural,
expressive way.

Modifying External Parameter Name Behavior for Methods

Sometimes its useful to provide an external parameter name for a methods first
parameter, even though this is not the default behavior. To do so, you can add an
explicit external name yourself.
Conversely, if you do not want to provide an external name for the second or
subsequent parameter of a method, override the default behavior by using an

underscore character (_) as an explicit external parameter name for that parameter.

The self Property

Every instance of a type has an implicit property called self, which is exactly
equivalent to the instance itself. You use the self property to refer to the current
instance within its own instance methods.
The increment() method in the example above could have been written like this:
1

func increment() {

self.count++

In practice, you dont need to write self in your code very often. If you dont
explicitly write self, Swift assumes that you are referring to a property or method
of the current instance whenever you use a known property or method name within
a method. This assumption is demonstrated by the use of count (rather than
self.count) inside the three instance methods for Counter.
The main exception to this rule occurs when a parameter name for an instance
method has the same name as a property of that instance. In this situation, the
parameter name takes precedence, and it becomes necessary to refer to the property
in a more qualified way. You use the self property to distinguish between the
parameter name and the property name.
Here, self disambiguates between a method parameter called x and an instance
property that is also called x:

struct Point {

var x = 0.0, y = 0.0

func isToTheRightOfX(x: Double) -> Bool {

return self.x > x

let somePoint = Point(x: 4.0, y: 5.0)

if somePoint.isToTheRightOfX(1.0) {

print("This point is to the right of the line where x == 1.0")

}
// prints "This point is to the right of the line where x == 1.0"

Without the self prefix, Swift would assume that both uses of x referred to the
method parameter called x.

Modifying Value Types from Within Instance Methods

Structures and enumerations are value types. By default, the properties of a value
type cannot be modified from within its instance methods.
However, if you need to modify the properties of your structure or enumeration
within a particular method, you can opt in to mutating behavior for that method. The
method can then mutate (that is, change) its properties from within the method, and
any changes that it makes are written back to the original structure when the method
ends. The method can also assign a completely new instance to its implicit self
property, and this new instance will replace the existing one when the method ends.
You can opt in to this behavior by placing the mutating keyword before the func
keyword for that method:

struct Point {

var x = 0.0, y = 0.0

mutating func moveByX(deltaX: Double, y deltaY: Double) {

x += deltaX

y += deltaY

var somePoint = Point(x: 1.0, y: 1.0)

somePoint.moveByX(2.0, y: 3.0)
print("The point is now at (\(somePoint.x), \(somePoint.y))")
// prints "The point is now at (3.0, 4.0)"

The Point structure above defines a mutating moveByX(_:y:) method, which moves a
Point instance by a certain amount. Instead of returning a new point, this method
actually modifies the point on which it is called. The mutating keyword is added to
its definition to enable it to modify its properties.
Note that you cannot call a mutating method on a constant of structure type, because
its properties cannot be changed, even if they are variable properties, as described
in Stored Properties of Constant Structure Instances:
1

let fixedPoint = Point(x: 3.0, y: 3.0)

fixedPoint.moveByX(2.0, y: 3.0)

// this will report an error

Assigning to self Within a Mutating Method

Mutating methods can assign an entirely new instance to the implicit self property.
The Point example shown above could have been written in the following way
instead:
1

struct Point {

var x = 0.0, y = 0.0

mutating func moveByX(deltaX: Double, y deltaY: Double) {

self = Point(x: x + deltaX, y: y + deltaY)

This version of the mutating moveByX(_:y:) method creates a brand new structure
whose x and y values are set to the target location. The end result of calling this
alternative version of the method will be exactly the same as for calling the earlier
version.
Mutating methods for enumerations can set the implicit self parameter to be a
different case from the same enumeration:

enum TriStateSwitch {

case Off, Low, High

mutating func next() {

switch self {

case Off:

self = Low

case Low:

self = High

case High:
self = Off
}
}
}
var ovenLight = TriStateSwitch.Low
ovenLight.next()
// ovenLight is now equal to .High
ovenLight.next()
// ovenLight is now equal to .Off

This example defines an enumeration for a three-state switch. The switch cycles
between three different power states (Off, Low and High) every time its next()
method is called.

Type Methods

Instance methods, as described above, are methods that are called on an instance of a
particular type. You can also define methods that are called on the type itself. These
kinds of methods are called type methods. You indicate type methods by writing the
static keyword before the methods func keyword. Classes may also use the class
keyword to allow subclasses to override the superclasss implementation of that
method.

N OTE
In Objective-C, you can define type-level methods only for Objective-C classes. In Swift, you can
define type-level methods for all classes, structures, and enumerations. Each type method is explicitly
scoped to the type it supports.

Type methods are called with dot syntax, like instance methods. However, you call
type methods on the type, not on an instance of that type. Heres how you call a type
method on a class called SomeClass:
1

class SomeClass {

class func someTypeMethod() {

// type method implementation goes here

SomeClass.someTypeMethod()

Within the body of a type method, the implicit self property refers to the type itself,
rather than an instance of that type. For structures and enumerations, this means that
you can use self to disambiguate between type properties and type method
parameters, just as you do for instance properties and instance method parameters.
More generally, any unqualified method and property names that you use within the
body of a type method will refer to other type-level methods and properties. A type
method can call another type method with the other methods name, without needing
to prefix it with the type name. Similarly, type methods on structures and
enumerations can access type properties by using the type propertys name without a

type name prefix.

The example below defines a structure called LevelTracker, which tracks a player s
progress through the different levels or stages of a game. It is a single-player game,
but can store information for multiple players on a single device.
All of the games levels (apart from level one) are locked when the game is first
played. Every time a player finishes a level, that level is unlocked for all players on
the device. The LevelTracker structure uses type properties and methods to keep
track of which levels of the game have been unlocked. It also tracks the current level
for an individual player.

struct LevelTracker {

static var highestUnlockedLevel = 1

static func unlockLevel(level: Int) {

if level > highestUnlockedLevel { highestUnlockedLevel =

level }

static func levelIsUnlocked(level: Int) -> Bool {

return level <= highestUnlockedLevel

var currentLevel = 1
mutating func advanceToLevel(level: Int) -> Bool {
if LevelTracker.levelIsUnlocked(level) {
currentLevel = level
return true
} else {
return false
}
}
}

The LevelTracker structure keeps track of the highest level that any player has
unlocked. This value is stored in a type property called highestUnlockedLevel.
LevelTracker also defines two type functions to work with the highestUnlockedLevel

property. The first is a type function called unlockLevel, which updates the value of
highestUnlockedLevel whenever a new level is unlocked. The second is a

convenience type function called levelIsUnlocked, which returns true if a particular

level number is already unlocked. (Note that these type methods can access the
highestUnlockedLevel type property without your needing to write it as
LevelTracker.highestUnlockedLevel.)
In addition to its type property and type methods, LevelTracker tracks an individual
player s progress through the game. It uses an instance property called currentLevel
to track the level that a player is currently playing.
To help manage the currentLevel property, LevelTracker defines an instance method
called advanceToLevel. Before updating currentLevel, this method checks whether
the requested new level is already unlocked. The advanceToLevel(_:) method returns
a Boolean value to indicate whether or not it was actually able to set currentLevel.
The LevelTracker structure is used with the Player class, shown below, to track and
update the progress of an individual player:
1

class Player {

var tracker = LevelTracker()

let playerName: String

func completedLevel(level: Int) {

LevelTracker.unlockLevel(level + 1)

tracker.advanceToLevel(level + 1)

init(name: String) {

playerName = name
}
}

The Player class creates a new instance of LevelTracker to track that player s
progress. It also provides a method called completedLevel, which is called whenever
a player completes a particular level. This method unlocks the next level for all

players and updates the player s progress to move them to the next level. (The
Boolean return value of advanceToLevel is ignored, because the level is known to
have been unlocked by the call to LevelTracker.unlockLevel on the previous line.)
You can create an instance of the Player class for a new player, and see what
happens when the player completes level one:
1

var player = Player(name: "Argyrios")

player.completedLevel(1)

print("highest unlocked level is now \

(LevelTracker.highestUnlockedLevel)")

// prints "highest unlocked level is now 2"

If you create a second player, whom you try to move to a level that is not yet
unlocked by any player in the game, the attempt to set the player s current level
fails:
1

player = Player(name: "Beto")

if player.tracker.advanceToLevel(6) {

print("player is now on level 6")

} else {

print("level 6 has not yet been unlocked")

// prints "level 6 has not yet been unlocked"

Subscripts
Classes, structures, and enumerations can define subscripts, which are shortcuts for
accessing the member elements of a collection, list, or sequence. You use subscripts
to set and retrieve values by index without needing separate methods for setting and
retrieval. For example, you access elements in an Array instance as
someArray[index] and elements in a Dictionary instance as someDictionary[key].
You can define multiple subscripts for a single type, and the appropriate subscript
overload to use is selected based on the type of index value you pass to the subscript.
Subscripts are not limited to a single dimension, and you can define subscripts with
multiple input parameters to suit your custom types needs.

Subscript Syntax
Subscripts enable you to query instances of a type by writing one or more values in
square brackets after the instance name. Their syntax is similar to both instance
method syntax and computed property syntax. You write subscript definitions with
the subscript keyword, and specify one or more input parameters and a return type,
in the same way as instance methods. Unlike instance methods, subscripts can be
read-write or read-only. This behavior is communicated by a getter and setter in the
same way as for computed properties:

subscript(index: Int) -> Int {

get {

// return an appropriate subscript value here

set(newValue) {

// perform a suitable setting action here

The type of newValue is the same as the return value of the subscript. As with
computed properties, you can choose not to specify the setter s (newValue)
parameter. A default parameter called newValue is provided to your setter if you do
not provide one yourself.
As with read-only computed properties, you can drop the get keyword for readonly subscripts:
1

subscript(index: Int) -> Int {

// return an appropriate subscript value here

Heres an example of a read-only subscript implementation, which defines a

TimesTable structure to represent an n-times-table of integers:

struct TimesTable {

let multiplier: Int

subscript(index: Int) -> Int {

return multiplier * index

let threeTimesTable = TimesTable(multiplier: 3)

print("six times three is \(threeTimesTable[6])")

// prints "six times three is 18"

In this example, a new instance of TimesTable is created to represent the three-timestable. This is indicated by passing a value of 3 to the structures initializer as the
value to use for the instances multiplier parameter.
You can query the threeTimesTable instance by calling its subscript, as shown in the
call to threeTimesTable[6]. This requests the sixth entry in the three-times-table,
which returns a value of 18, or 3 times 6.

N OTE
An n-times-table is based on a fixed mathematical rule. It is not appropriate to set
threeTimesTable[someIndex] to a new value, and so the subscript for TimesTable is
defined as a read-only subscript.

Subscript Usage
The exact meaning of subscript depends on the context in which it is used.
Subscripts are typically used as a shortcut for accessing the member elements in a
collection, list, or sequence. You are free to implement subscripts in the most
appropriate way for your particular class or structures functionality.

For example, Swifts Dictionary type implements a subscript to set and retrieve the
values stored in a Dictionary instance. You can set a value in a dictionary by
providing a key of the dictionarys key type within subscript brackets, and assigning
a value of the dictionarys value type to the subscript:
1

var numberOfLegs = ["spider": 8, "ant": 6, "cat": 4]

numberOfLegs["bird"] = 2

The example above defines a variable called numberOfLegs and initializes it with a
dictionary literal containing three key-value pairs. The type of the numberOfLegs
dictionary is inferred to be [String: Int]. After creating the dictionary, this
example uses subscript assignment to add a String key of "bird" and an Int value of
2 to the dictionary.
For more information about Dictionary subscripting, see Accessing and Modifying
a Dictionary.

N OTE
Swifts Dictionary type implements its key-value subscripting as a subscript that takes and returns
an optional type. For the numberOfLegs dictionary above, the key-value subscript takes and
returns a value of type Int?, or optional int. The Dictionary type uses an optional subscript
type to model the fact that not every key will have a value, and to give a way to delete a value for a
key by assigning a nil value for that key.

Subscript Options
Subscripts can take any number of input parameters, and these input parameters can
be of any type. Subscripts can also return any type. Subscripts can use variable
parameters and variadic parameters, but cannot use in-out parameters or provide
default parameter values.
A class or structure can provide as many subscript implementations as it needs, and
the appropriate subscript to be used will be inferred based on the types of the value
or values that are contained within the subscript brackets at the point that the
subscript is used. This definition of multiple subscripts is known as subscript

overloading.
While it is most common for a subscript to take a single parameter, you can also
define a subscript with multiple parameters if it is appropriate for your type. The
following example defines a Matrix structure, which represents a two-dimensional
matrix of Double values. The Matrix structures subscript takes two integer
parameters:
1

struct Matrix {

let rows: Int, columns: Int

var grid: [Double]

init(rows: Int, columns: Int) {

self.rows = rows

self.columns = columns

grid = Array(count: rows * columns, repeatedValue: 0.0)

func indexIsValidForRow(row: Int, column: Int) -> Bool {

return row >= 0 && row < rows && column >= 0 && column <
columns
}
subscript(row: Int, column: Int) -> Double {
get {
assert(indexIsValidForRow(row, column: column), "Index out
of range")
return grid[(row * columns) + column]
}
set {

 assert(indexIsValidForRow(row, column: column), "Index out

of range")
grid[(row * columns) + column] = newValue
}
}
}

Matrix provides an initializer that takes two parameters called rows and columns, and

creates an array that is large enough to store rows * columns values of type Double.
Each position in the matrix is given an initial value of 0.0. To achieve this, the
arrays size, and an initial cell value of 0.0, are passed to an array initializer that
creates and initializes a new array of the correct size. This initializer is described in
more detail in Creating an Array with a Default Value.
You can construct a new Matrix instance by passing an appropriate row and column
count to its initializer:

var matrix = Matrix(rows: 2, columns: 2)

The preceding example creates a new Matrix instance with two rows and two
columns. The grid array for this Matrix instance is effectively a flattened version of
the matrix, as read from top left to bottom right:

Values in the matrix can be set by passing row and column values into the subscript,
separated by a comma:

matrix[0, 1] = 1.5

matrix[1, 0] = 3.2

These two statements call the subscripts setter to set a value of 1.5 in the top right
position of the matrix (where row is 0 and column is 1), and 3.2 in the bottom left
position (where row is 1 and column is 0):

The Matrix subscripts getter and setter both contain an assertion to check that the
subscripts row and column values are valid. To assist with these assertions, Matrix
includes a convenience method called indexIsValidForRow(_:column:), which
checks whether the requested row and column are inside the bounds of the matrix:
1

func indexIsValidForRow(row: Int, column: Int) -> Bool {

return row >= 0 && row < rows && column >= 0 && column <
columns

An assertion is triggered if you try to access a subscript that is outside of the matrix
bounds:
1

let someValue = matrix[2, 2]

// this triggers an assert, because [2, 2] is outside of the matrix

bounds

Inheritance
A class can inherit methods, properties, and other characteristics from another class.
When one class inherits from another, the inheriting class is known as a subclass,
and the class it inherits from is known as its superclass. Inheritance is a fundamental
behavior that differentiates classes from other types in Swift.
Classes in Swift can call and access methods, properties, and subscripts belonging
to their superclass and can provide their own overriding versions of those methods,
properties, and subscripts to refine or modify their behavior. Swift helps to ensure
your overrides are correct by checking that the override definition has a matching
superclass definition.
Classes can also add property observers to inherited properties in order to be
notified when the value of a property changes. Property observers can be added to
any property, regardless of whether it was originally defined as a stored or
computed property.

Defining a Base Class

Any class that does not inherit from another class is known as a base class.

N OTE
Swift classes do not inherit from a universal base class. Classes you define without specifying a
superclass automatically become base classes for you to build upon.

The example below defines a base class called Vehicle. This base class defines a
stored property called currentSpeed, with a default value of 0.0 (inferring a
property type of Double). The currentSpeed propertys value is used by a read-only
computed String property called description to create a description of the vehicle.
The Vehicle base class also defines a method called makeNoise. This method does
not actually do anything for a base Vehicle instance, but will be customized by

subclasses of Vehicle later on:

1

class Vehicle {

var currentSpeed = 0.0

var description: String {

return "traveling at \(currentSpeed) miles per hour"

func makeNoise() {

// do nothing - an arbitrary vehicle doesn't necessarily

make a noise

You create a new instance of Vehicle with initializer syntax, which is written as a
TypeName followed by empty parentheses:

let someVehicle = Vehicle()

Having created a new Vehicle instance, you can access its description property to
print a human-readable description of the vehicles current speed:
1

print("Vehicle: \(someVehicle.description)")

// Vehicle: traveling at 0.0 miles per hour

The Vehicle class defines common characteristics for an arbitrary vehicle, but is not
much use in itself. To make it more useful, you need to refine it to describe more
specific kinds of vehicle.

Subclassing

Subclassing is the act of basing a new class on an existing class. The subclass
inherits characteristics from the existing class, which you can then refine. You can
also add new characteristics to the subclass.
To indicate that a subclass has a superclass, write the subclass name before the
superclass name, separated by a colon:
1

class SomeSubclass: SomeSuperclass {

// subclass definition goes here

The following example defines a subclass called Bicycle, with a superclass of

Vehicle:
1

class Bicycle: Vehicle {

var hasBasket = false

The new Bicycle class automatically gains all of the characteristics of Vehicle, such
as its currentSpeed and description properties and its makeNoise() method.
In addition to the characteristics it inherits, the Bicycle class defines a new stored
property, hasBasket, with a default value of false (inferring a type of Bool for the
property).
By default, any new Bicycle instance you create will not have a basket. You can set
the hasBasket property to true for a particular Bicycle instance after that instance is
created:
1

let bicycle = Bicycle()

bicycle.hasBasket = true

You can also modify the inherited currentSpeed property of a Bicycle instance, and
query the instances inherited description property:

bicycle.currentSpeed = 15.0

print("Bicycle: \(bicycle.description)")

// Bicycle: traveling at 15.0 miles per hour

Subclasses can themselves be subclassed. The next example creates a subclass of

Bicycle for a two-seater bicycle known as a tandem:
1

class Tandem: Bicycle {

var currentNumberOfPassengers = 0

Tandem inherits all of the properties and methods from Bicycle, which in turn

inherits all of the properties and methods from Vehicle. The Tandem subclass also
adds a new stored property called currentNumberOfPassengers, with a default value
of 0.
If you create an instance of Tandem, you can work with any of its new and inherited
properties, and query the read-only description property it inherits from Vehicle:
1

let tandem = Tandem()

tandem.hasBasket = true

tandem.currentNumberOfPassengers = 2

tandem.currentSpeed = 22.0

print("Tandem: \(tandem.description)")

// Tandem: traveling at 22.0 miles per hour

Overriding
A subclass can provide its own custom implementation of an instance method, type

method, instance property, type property, or subscript that it would otherwise inherit
from a superclass. This is known as overriding.
To override a characteristic that would otherwise be inherited, you prefix your
overriding definition with the override keyword. Doing so clarifies that you intend
to provide an override and have not provided a matching definition by mistake.
Overriding by accident can cause unexpected behavior, and any overrides without
the override keyword are diagnosed as an error when your code is compiled.
The override keyword also prompts the Swift compiler to check that your
overriding classs superclass (or one of its parents) has a declaration that matches
the one you provided for the override. This check ensures that your overriding
definition is correct.

Accessing Superclass Methods, Properties, and Subscripts

When you provide a method, property, or subscript override for a subclass, it is
sometimes useful to use the existing superclass implementation as part of your
override. For example, you can refine the behavior of that existing implementation,
or store a modified value in an existing inherited variable.
Where this is appropriate, you access the superclass version of a method, property,
or subscript by using the super prefix:
An overridden method named someMethod() can call the superclass version
of someMethod() by calling super.someMethod() within the overriding
method implementation.
An overridden property called someProperty can access the superclass
version of someProperty as super.someProperty within the overriding getter
or setter implementation.
An overridden subscript for someIndex can access the superclass version of
the same subscript as super[someIndex] from within the overriding subscript
implementation.

Overriding Methods

You can override an inherited instance or type method to provide a tailored or

alternative implementation of the method within your subclass.
The following example defines a new subclass of Vehicle called Train, which
overrides the makeNoise() method that Train inherits from Vehicle:
1

class Train: Vehicle {

override func makeNoise() {

print("Choo Choo")

If you create a new instance of Train and call its makeNoise() method, you can see
that the Train subclass version of the method is called:
1

let train = Train()

train.makeNoise()

// prints "Choo Choo"

Overriding Properties
You can override an inherited instance or type property to provide your own custom
getter and setter for that property, or to add property observers to enable the
overriding property to observe when the underlying property value changes.

Overriding Property Getters and Setters

You can provide a custom getter (and setter, if appropriate) to override any
inherited property, regardless of whether the inherited property is implemented as a
stored or computed property at source. The stored or computed nature of an

inherited property is not known by a subclassit only knows that the inherited
property has a certain name and type. You must always state both the name and the
type of the property you are overriding, to enable the compiler to check that your
override matches a superclass property with the same name and type.
You can present an inherited read-only property as a read-write property by
providing both a getter and a setter in your subclass property override. You cannot,
however, present an inherited read-write property as a read-only property.

N OTE
If you provide a setter as part of a property override, you must also provide a getter for that override.
If you dont want to modify the inherited propertys value within the overriding getter, you can simply
pass through the inherited value by returning super.someProperty from the getter, where
someProperty is the name of the property you are overriding.

The following example defines a new class called Car, which is a subclass of
Vehicle. The Car class introduces a new stored property called gear, with a default
integer value of 1. The Car class also overrides the description property it inherits
from Vehicle, to provide a custom description that includes the current gear:
1

class Car: Vehicle {

var gear = 1

override var description: String {

return super.description + " in gear \(gear)"

The override of the description property starts by calling super.description, which

returns the Vehicle classs description property. The Car classs version of
description then adds some extra text onto the end of this description to provide
information about the current gear.
If you create an instance of the Car class and set its gear and currentSpeed
properties, you can see that its description property returns the tailored description

defined within the Car class:

1

let car = Car()

car.currentSpeed = 25.0

car.gear = 3

print("Car: \(car.description)")

// Car: traveling at 25.0 miles per hour in gear 3

Overriding Property Observers

You can use property overriding to add property observers to an inherited property.
This enables you to be notified when the value of an inherited property changes,
regardless of how that property was originally implemented. For more information
on property observers, see Property Observers.

N OTE
You cannot add property observers to inherited constant stored properties or inherited read-only
computed properties. The value of these properties cannot be set, and so it is not appropriate to provide
a willSet or didSet implementation as part of an override.
Note also that you cannot provide both an overriding setter and an overriding property observer for
the same property. If you want to observe changes to a propertys value, and you are already
providing a custom setter for that property, you can simply observe any value changes from within the
custom setter.

The following example defines a new class called AutomaticCar, which is a subclass
of Car. The AutomaticCar class represents a car with an automatic gearbox, which
automatically selects an appropriate gear to use based on the current speed:

class AutomaticCar: Car {

override var currentSpeed: Double {

didSet {

gear = Int(currentSpeed / 10.0) + 1

Whenever you set the currentSpeed property of an AutomaticCar instance, the

propertys didSet observer sets the instances gear property to an appropriate choice
of gear for the new speed. Specifically, the property observer chooses a gear that is
the new currentSpeed value divided by 10, rounded down to the nearest integer, plus
1. A speed of 35.0 produces a gear of 4:
1

let automatic = AutomaticCar()

automatic.currentSpeed = 35.0

print("AutomaticCar: \(automatic.description)")

// AutomaticCar: traveling at 35.0 miles per hour in gear 4

Preventing Overrides
You can prevent a method, property, or subscript from being overridden by
marking it as final. Do this by writing the final modifier before the method,
property, or subscripts introducer keyword (such as final var, final func, final
class func, and final subscript).
Any attempt to override a final method, property, or subscript in a subclass is
reported as a compile-time error. Methods, properties, or subscripts that you add to
a class in an extension can also be marked as final within the extensions definition.

You can mark an entire class as final by writing the final modifier before the class
keyword in its class definition (final class). Any attempt to subclass a final class is
reported as a compile-time error.

Initialization
Initialization is the process of preparing an instance of a class, structure, or
enumeration for use. This process involves setting an initial value for each stored
property on that instance and performing any other setup or initialization that is
required before the new instance is ready for use.
You implement this initialization process by defining initializers, which are like
special methods that can be called to create a new instance of a particular type.
Unlike Objective-C initializers, Swift initializers do not return a value. Their
primary role is to ensure that new instances of a type are correctly initialized before
they are used for the first time.
Instances of class types can also implement a deinitializer, which performs any
custom cleanup just before an instance of that class is deallocated. For more
information about deinitializers, see Deinitialization.

Setting Initial Values for Stored Properties

Classes and structures must set all of their stored properties to an appropriate initial
value by the time an instance of that class or structure is created. Stored properties
cannot be left in an indeterminate state.
You can set an initial value for a stored property within an initializer, or by
assigning a default property value as part of the propertys definition. These actions
are described in the following sections.

N OTE
When you assign a default value to a stored property, or set its initial value within an initializer, the
value of that property is set directly, without calling any property observers.

Initializers
Initializers are called to create a new instance of a particular type. In its simplest
form, an initializer is like an instance method with no parameters, written using the
init keyword:
1

init() {

// perform some initialization here

The example below defines a new structure called Fahrenheit to store temperatures
expressed in the Fahrenheit scale. The Fahrenheit structure has one stored property,
temperature, which is of type Double:
1

struct Fahrenheit {

var temperature: Double

init() {

temperature = 32.0

var f = Fahrenheit()

print("The default temperature is \(f.temperature) Fahrenheit")

// prints "The default temperature is 32.0 Fahrenheit"

The structure defines a single initializer, init, with no parameters, which initializes
the stored temperature with a value of 32.0 (the freezing point of water when
expressed in the Fahrenheit scale).

Default Property Values

You can set the initial value of a stored property from within an initializer, as shown
above. Alternatively, specify a default property value as part of the propertys
declaration. You specify a default property value by assigning an initial value to the
property when it is defined.

N OTE
If a property always takes the same initial value, provide a default value rather than setting a value
within an initializer. The end result is the same, but the default value ties the propertys initialization
more closely to its declaration. It makes for shorter, clearer initializers and enables you to infer the
type of the property from its default value. The default value also makes it easier for you to take
advantage of default initializers and initializer inheritance, as described later in this chapter.

You can write the Fahrenheit structure from above in a simpler form by providing a
default value for its temperature property at the point that the property is declared:
1

struct Fahrenheit {

var temperature = 32.0

Customizing Initialization
You can customize the initialization process with input parameters and optional
property types, or by assigning constant properties during initialization, as
described in the following sections.

Initialization Parameters
You can provide initialization parameters as part of an initializer s definition, to
define the types and names of values that customize the initialization process.
Initialization parameters have the same capabilities and syntax as function and
method parameters.

The following example defines a structure called Celsius, which stores

temperatures expressed in the Celsius scale. The Celsius structure implements two
custom initializers called init(fromFahrenheit:) and init(fromKelvin:), which
initialize a new instance of the structure with a value from a different temperature
scale:
1

struct Celsius {

var temperatureInCelsius: Double

init(fromFahrenheit fahrenheit: Double) {

temperatureInCelsius = (fahrenheit - 32.0) / 1.8

init(fromKelvin kelvin: Double) {

temperatureInCelsius = kelvin - 273.15

}
let boilingPointOfWater = Celsius(fromFahrenheit: 212.0)
// boilingPointOfWater.temperatureInCelsius is 100.0
let freezingPointOfWater = Celsius(fromKelvin: 273.15)
// freezingPointOfWater.temperatureInCelsius is 0.0

The first initializer has a single initialization parameter with an external name of
fromFahrenheit and a local name of fahrenheit. The second initializer has a single
initialization parameter with an external name of fromKelvin and a local name of
kelvin. Both initializers convert their single argument into a value in the Celsius
scale and store this value in a property called temperatureInCelsius.

Local and External Parameter Names

As with function and method parameters, initialization parameters can have both a
local name for use within the initializer s body and an external name for use when
calling the initializer.
However, initializers do not have an identifying function name before their
parentheses in the way that functions and methods do. Therefore, the names and
types of an initializer s parameters play a particularly important role in identifying
which initializer should be called. Because of this, Swift provides an automatic
external name for every parameter in an initializer if you dont provide an external
name yourself.
The following example defines a structure called Color, with three constant
properties called red, green, and blue. These properties store a value between 0.0
and 1.0 to indicate the amount of red, green, and blue in the color.
Color provides an initializer with three appropriately named parameters of type
Double for its red, green, and blue components. Color also provides a second

initializer with a single white parameter, which is used to provide the same value for
all three color components.

struct Color {

let red, green, blue: Double

init(red: Double, green: Double, blue: Double) {

self.red = red

self.green = green

self.blue = blue

init(white: Double) {

red = white
green = white
blue = white
}
}

Both initializers can be used to create a new Color instance, by providing named
values for each initializer parameter:
1

let magenta = Color(red: 1.0, green: 0.0, blue: 1.0)

let halfGray = Color(white: 0.5)

Note that it is not possible to call these initializers without using external parameter
names. External names must always be used in an initializer if they are defined, and
omitting them is a compile-time error:
1

let veryGreen = Color(0.0, 1.0, 0.0)

// this reports a compile-time error - external names are required

Initializer Parameters Without External Names

If you do not want to use an external name for an initializer parameter, write an
underscore (_) instead of an explicit external name for that parameter to override
the default behavior.
Heres an expanded version of the Celsius example from earlier, with an additional
initializer to create a new Celsius instance from a Double value that is already in the
Celsius scale:
1

struct Celsius {

var temperatureInCelsius: Double

init(fromFahrenheit fahrenheit: Double) {

temperatureInCelsius = (fahrenheit - 32.0) / 1.8

init(fromKelvin kelvin: Double) {

temperatureInCelsius = kelvin - 273.15

init(_ celsius: Double) {

temperatureInCelsius = celsius
}
}
let bodyTemperature = Celsius(37.0)
// bodyTemperature.temperatureInCelsius is 37.0

The initializer call Celsius(37.0) is clear in its intent without the need for an
external parameter name. It is therefore appropriate to write this initializer as init(_

celsius: Double) so that it can be called by providing an unnamed Double value.

Optional Property Types

If your custom type has a stored property that is logically allowed to have no
valueperhaps because its value cannot be set during initialization, or because it is
allowed to have no value at some later pointdeclare the property with an
optional type. Properties of optional type are automatically initialized with a value
of nil, indicating that the property is deliberately intended to have no value yet
during initialization.
The following example defines a class called SurveyQuestion, with an optional
String property called response:
1

class SurveyQuestion {

var text: String

var response: String?

init(text: String) {

self.text = text

func ask() {

print(text)

}
}
let cheeseQuestion = SurveyQuestion(text: "Do you like cheese?")
cheeseQuestion.ask()
// prints "Do you like cheese?"
cheeseQuestion.response = "Yes, I do like cheese."

The response to a survey question cannot be known until it is asked, and so the
response property is declared with a type of String?, or optional String. It is
automatically assigned a default value of nil, meaning no string yet, when a new
instance of SurveyQuestion is initialized.

Assigning Constant Properties During Initialization

You can assign a value to a constant property at any point during initialization, as
long as it is set to a definite value by the time initialization finishes. Once a constant
property is assigned a value, it cant be further modified.

N OTE
For class instances, a constant property can only be modified during initialization by the class that
introduces it. It cannot be modified by a subclass.

You can revise the SurveyQuestion example from above to use a constant property
rather than a variable property for the text property of the question, to indicate that
the question does not change once an instance of SurveyQuestion is created. Even
though the text property is now a constant, it can still be set within the classs
initializer:

class SurveyQuestion {

let text: String

var response: String?

init(text: String) {

self.text = text

func ask() {

print(text)

}
}
let beetsQuestion = SurveyQuestion(text: "How about beets?")
beetsQuestion.ask()
// prints "How about beets?"
beetsQuestion.response = "I also like beets. (But not with cheese.)"

Default Initializers
Swift provides a default initializer for any structure or class that provides default
values for all of its properties and does not provide at least one initializer itself. The
default initializer simply creates a new instance with all of its properties set to their
default values.
This example defines a class called ShoppingListItem, which encapsulates the name,
quantity, and purchase state of an item in a shopping list:

class ShoppingListItem {

var name: String?

var quantity = 1

var purchased = false

var item = ShoppingListItem()

Because all properties of the ShoppingListItem class have default values, and
because it is a base class with no superclass, ShoppingListItem automatically gains a
default initializer implementation that creates a new instance with all of its
properties set to their default values. (The name property is an optional String
property, and so it automatically receives a default value of nil, even though this
value is not written in the code.) The example above uses the default initializer for
the ShoppingListItem class to create a new instance of the class with initializer
syntax, written as ShoppingListItem(), and assigns this new instance to a variable
called item.

Memberwise Initializers for Structure Types

Structure types automatically receive a memberwise initializer if they do not define
any of their own custom initializers. Unlike a default initializer, the structure
receives a memberwise initializer even if it has stored properties that do not have
default values.
The memberwise initializer is a shorthand way to initialize the member properties
of new structure instances. Initial values for the properties of the new instance can
be passed to the memberwise initializer by name.
The example below defines a structure called Size with two properties called width
and height. Both properties are inferred to be of type Double by assigning a default
value of 0.0.
The Size structure automatically receives an init(width:height:) memberwise
initializer, which you can use to initialize a new Size instance:

struct Size {

var width = 0.0, height = 0.0

let twoByTwo = Size(width: 2.0, height: 2.0)

Initializer Delegation for Value Types

Initializers can call other initializers to perform part of an instances initialization.
This process, known as initializer delegation, avoids duplicating code across
multiple initializers.
The rules for how initializer delegation works, and for what forms of delegation
are allowed, are different for value types and class types. Value types (structures and
enumerations) do not support inheritance, and so their initializer delegation process
is relatively simple, because they can only delegate to another initializer that they
provide themselves. Classes, however, can inherit from other classes, as described
in Inheritance. This means that classes have additional responsibilities for ensuring
that all stored properties they inherit are assigned a suitable value during
initialization. These responsibilities are described in Class Inheritance and
Initialization below.
For value types, you use self.init to refer to other initializers from the same value
type when writing your own custom initializers. You can only call self.init from
within an initializer.
Note that if you define a custom initializer for a value type, you will no longer have
access to the default initializer (or the memberwise initializer, if it is a structure) for
that type. This constraint prevents a situation in which additional essential setup
provided in a more complex initializer is circumvented by someone accidentally
using one of the automatic initializers instead.

N OTE
If you want your custom value type to be initializable with the default initializer and memberwise
initializer, and also with your own custom initializers, write your custom initializers in an extension
rather than as part of the value types original implementation. For more information, see Extensions.

The following example defines a custom Rect structure to represent a geometric

rectangle. The example requires two supporting structures called Size and Point,
both of which provide default values of 0.0 for all of their properties:
1

struct Size {

var width = 0.0, height = 0.0

struct Point {

var x = 0.0, y = 0.0

You can initialize the Rect structure below in one of three waysby using its default
zero-initialized origin and size property values, by providing a specific origin
point and size, or by providing a specific center point and size. These initialization
options are represented by three custom initializers that are part of the Rect
structures definition:

struct Rect {

var origin = Point()

var size = Size()

init() {}

init(origin: Point, size: Size) {

self.origin = origin

self.size = size

init(center: Point, size: Size) {

let originX = center.x - (size.width / 2)
let originY = center.y - (size.height / 2)
self.init(origin: Point(x: originX, y: originY), size: size)
}
}

The first Rect initializer, init(), is functionally the same as the default initializer
that the structure would have received if it did not have its own custom initializers.
This initializer has an empty body, represented by an empty pair of curly braces {},
and does not perform any initialization. Calling this initializer returns a Rect
instance whose origin and size properties are both initialized with the default values
of Point(x: 0.0, y: 0.0) and Size(width: 0.0, height: 0.0) from their property
definitions:
1

let basicRect = Rect()

// basicRect's origin is (0.0, 0.0) and its size is (0.0, 0.0)

The second Rect initializer, init(origin:size:), is functionally the same as the

memberwise initializer that the structure would have received if it did not have its

own custom initializers. This initializer simply assigns the origin and size
argument values to the appropriate stored properties:
1

let originRect = Rect(origin: Point(x: 2.0, y: 2.0),

size: Size(width: 5.0, height: 5.0))

// originRect's origin is (2.0, 2.0) and its size is (5.0, 5.0)

The third Rect initializer, init(center:size:), is slightly more complex. It starts by

calculating an appropriate origin point based on a center point and a size value. It
then calls (or delegates) to the init(origin:size:) initializer, which stores the new
origin and size values in the appropriate properties:
1

let centerRect = Rect(center: Point(x: 4.0, y: 4.0),

size: Size(width: 3.0, height: 3.0))

// centerRect's origin is (2.5, 2.5) and its size is (3.0, 3.0)

The init(center:size:) initializer could have assigned the new values of origin
and size to the appropriate properties itself. However, it is more convenient (and
clearer in intent) for the init(center:size:) initializer to take advantage of an
existing initializer that already provides exactly that functionality.

N OTE
For an alternative way to write this example without defining the init() and
init(origin:size:) initializers yourself, see Extensions.

Class Inheritance and Initialization

All of a classs stored propertiesincluding any properties the class inherits from
its superclassmust be assigned an initial value during initialization.
Swift defines two kinds of initializers for class types to help ensure all stored

properties receive an initial value. These are known as designated initializers and
convenience initializers.

Designated Initializers and Convenience Initializers

Designated initializers are the primary initializers for a class. A designated
initializer fully initializes all properties introduced by that class and calls an
appropriate superclass initializer to continue the initialization process up the
superclass chain.
Classes tend to have very few designated initializers, and it is quite common for a
class to have only one. Designated initializers are funnel points through which
initialization takes place, and through which the initialization process continues up
the superclass chain.
Every class must have at least one designated initializer. In some cases, this
requirement is satisfied by inheriting one or more designated initializers from a
superclass, as described in Automatic Initializer Inheritance below.
Convenience initializers are secondary, supporting initializers for a class. You can
define a convenience initializer to call a designated initializer from the same class
as the convenience initializer with some of the designated initializer s parameters
set to default values. You can also define a convenience initializer to create an
instance of that class for a specific use case or input value type.
You do not have to provide convenience initializers if your class does not require
them. Create convenience initializers whenever a shortcut to a common
initialization pattern will save time or make initialization of the class clearer in
intent.

Syntax for Designated and Convenience Initializers

Designated initializers for classes are written in the same way as simple initializers
for value types:

init( parameters ) {
statements
}

Convenience initializers are written in the same style, but with the convenience
modifier placed before the init keyword, separated by a space:
convenience init( parameters ) {
statements
}

Initializer Delegation for Class Types

To simplify the relationships between designated and convenience initializers, Swift
applies the following three rules for delegation calls between initializers:
Rule 1
A designated initializer must call a designated initializer from its immediate
superclass.
Rule 2
A convenience initializer must call another initializer from the same class.
Rule 3
A convenience initializer must ultimately call a designated initializer.
A simple way to remember this is:
Designated initializers must always delegate up.
Convenience initializers must always delegate across.
These rules are illustrated in the figure below:

Here, the superclass has a single designated initializer and two convenience
initializers. One convenience initializer calls another convenience initializer, which
in turn calls the single designated initializer. This satisfies rules 2 and 3 from above.
The superclass does not itself have a further superclass, and so rule 1 does not
apply.
The subclass in this figure has two designated initializers and one convenience
initializer. The convenience initializer must call one of the two designated
initializers, because it can only call another initializer from the same class. This
satisfies rules 2 and 3 from above. Both designated initializers must call the single
designated initializer from the superclass, to satisfy rule 1 from above.

N OTE
These rules dont affect how users of your classes create instances of each class. Any initializer in the
diagram above can be used to create a fully-initialized instance of the class they belong to. The rules
only affect how you write the classs implementation.

The figure below shows a more complex class hierarchy for four classes. It
illustrates how the designated initializers in this hierarchy act as funnel points for
class initialization, simplifying the interrelationships among classes in the chain:

Two-Phase Initialization
Class initialization in Swift is a two-phase process. In the first phase, each stored
property is assigned an initial value by the class that introduced it. Once the initial
state for every stored property has been determined, the second phase begins, and
each class is given the opportunity to customize its stored properties further before
the new instance is considered ready for use.
The use of a two-phase initialization process makes initialization safe, while still
giving complete flexibility to each class in a class hierarchy. Two-phase
initialization prevents property values from being accessed before they are
initialized, and prevents property values from being set to a different value by
another initializer unexpectedly.

N OTE
Swifts two-phase initialization process is similar to initialization in Objective-C. The main difference is
that during phase 1, Objective-C assigns zero or null values (such as 0 or nil) to every property.
Swifts initialization flow is more flexible in that it lets you set custom initial values, and can cope with
types for which 0 or nil is not a valid default value.

Swifts compiler performs four helpful safety-checks to make sure that two-phase
initialization is completed without error:
Safety check 1
A designated initializer must ensure that all of the properties introduced by its
class are initialized before it delegates up to a superclass initializer.
As mentioned above, the memory for an object is only considered fully initialized
once the initial state of all of its stored properties is known. In order for this rule to
be satisfied, a designated initializer must make sure that all its own properties are
initialized before it hands off up the chain.
Safety check 2
A designated initializer must delegate up to a superclass initializer before
assigning a value to an inherited property. If it doesnt, the new value the
designated initializer assigns will be overwritten by the superclass as part of its
own initialization.
Safety check 3
A convenience initializer must delegate to another initializer before assigning a
value to any property (including properties defined by the same class). If it
doesnt, the new value the convenience initializer assigns will be overwritten
by its own classs designated initializer.
Safety check 4
An initializer cannot call any instance methods, read the values of any instance
properties, or refer to self as a value until after the first phase of initialization
is complete.
The class instance is not fully valid until the first phase ends. Properties can only be
accessed, and methods can only be called, once the class instance is known to be
valid at the end of the first phase.

Heres how two-phase initialization plays out, based on the four safety checks
above:
Phase 1
A designated or convenience initializer is called on a class.
Memory for a new instance of that class is allocated. The memory is not yet
initialized.
A designated initializer for that class confirms that all stored properties
introduced by that class have a value. The memory for these stored
properties is now initialized.
The designated initializer hands off to a superclass initializer to perform the
same task for its own stored properties.
This continues up the class inheritance chain until the top of the chain is
reached.
Once the top of the chain is reached, and the final class in the chain has
ensured that all of its stored properties have a value, the instances memory
is considered to be fully initialized, and phase 1 is complete.
Phase 2
Working back down from the top of the chain, each designated initializer in
the chain has the option to customize the instance further. Initializers are
now able to access self and can modify its properties, call its instance
methods, and so on.
Finally, any convenience initializers in the chain have the option to
customize the instance and to work with self.
Heres how phase 1 looks for an initialization call for a hypothetical subclass and
superclass:

In this example, initialization begins with a call to a convenience initializer on the

subclass. This convenience initializer cannot yet modify any properties. It delegates
across to a designated initializer from the same class.
The designated initializer makes sure that all of the subclasss properties have a
value, as per safety check 1. It then calls a designated initializer on its superclass to
continue the initialization up the chain.
The superclasss designated initializer makes sure that all of the superclass
properties have a value. There are no further superclasses to initialize, and so no
further delegation is needed.
As soon as all properties of the superclass have an initial value, its memory is
considered fully initialized, and Phase 1 is complete.
Heres how phase 2 looks for the same initialization call:

The superclasss designated initializer now has an opportunity to customize the

instance further (although it does not have to).
Once the superclasss designated initializer is finished, the subclasss designated

initializer can perform additional customization (although again, it does not have
to).
Finally, once the subclasss designated initializer is finished, the convenience
initializer that was originally called can perform additional customization.

Initializer Inheritance and Overriding

Unlike subclasses in Objective-C, Swift subclasses do not inherit their superclass
initializers by default. Swifts approach prevents a situation in which a simple
initializer from a superclass is inherited by a more specialized subclass and is used
to create a new instance of the subclass that is not fully or correctly initialized.

N OTE
Superclass initializers are inherited in certain circumstances, but only when it is safe and appropriate to
do so. For more information, see Automatic Initializer Inheritance below.

If you want a custom subclass to present one or more of the same initializers as its
superclass, you can provide a custom implementation of those initializers within the
subclass.
When you write a subclass initializer that matches a superclass designated
initializer, you are effectively providing an override of that designated initializer.
Therefore, you must write the override modifier before the subclasss initializer
definition. This is true even if you are overriding an automatically provided default
initializer, as described in Default Initializers.
As with an overridden property, method or subscript, the presence of the override
modifier prompts Swift to check that the superclass has a matching designated
initializer to be overridden, and validates that the parameters for your overriding
initializer have been specified as intended.

N OTE
You always write the override modifier when overriding a superclass designated initializer, even if
your subclasss implementation of the initializer is a convenience initializer.

Conversely, if you write a subclass initializer that matches a superclass convenience

initializer, that superclass convenience initializer can never be called directly by
your subclass, as per the rules described above in Initializer Delegation for Class
Types. Therefore, your subclass is not (strictly speaking) providing an override of
the superclass initializer. As a result, you do not write the override modifier when
providing a matching implementation of a superclass convenience initializer.
The example below defines a base class called Vehicle. This base class declares a
stored property called numberOfWheels, with a default Int value of 0. The
numberOfWheels property is used by a computed property called description to
create a String description of the vehicles characteristics:
1

class Vehicle {

var numberOfWheels = 0

var description: String {

return "\(numberOfWheels) wheel(s)"

The Vehicle class provides a default value for its only stored property, and does not
provide any custom initializers itself. As a result, it automatically receives a default
initializer, as described in Default Initializers. The default initializer (when
available) is always a designated initializer for a class, and can be used to create a
new Vehicle instance with a numberOfWheels of 0:

let vehicle = Vehicle()

print("Vehicle: \(vehicle.description)")

// Vehicle: 0 wheel(s)

The next example defines a subclass of Vehicle called Bicycle:

1

class Bicycle: Vehicle {

override init() {

super.init()

numberOfWheels = 2

The Bicycle subclass defines a custom designated initializer, init(). This

designated initializer matches a designated initializer from the superclass of
Bicycle, and so the Bicycle version of this initializer is marked with the override
modifier.
The init() initializer for Bicycle starts by calling super.init(), which calls the
default initializer for the Bicycle classs superclass, Vehicle. This ensures that the
numberOfWheels inherited property is initialized by Vehicle before Bicycle has the
opportunity to modify the property. After calling super.init(), the original value of
numberOfWheels is replaced with a new value of 2.
If you create an instance of Bicycle, you can call its inherited description computed
property to see how its numberOfWheels property has been updated:
1

let bicycle = Bicycle()

print("Bicycle: \(bicycle.description)")

// Bicycle: 2 wheel(s)

N OTE
Subclasses can modify inherited variable properties during initialization, but can not modify inherited
constant properties.

Automatic Initializer Inheritance

As mentioned above, subclasses do not inherit their superclass initializers by
default. However, superclass initializers are automatically inherited if certain
conditions are met. In practice, this means that you do not need to write initializer
overrides in many common scenarios, and can inherit your superclass initializers
with minimal effort whenever it is safe to do so.
Assuming that you provide default values for any new properties you introduce in a
subclass, the following two rules apply:
Rule 1
If your subclass doesnt define any designated initializers, it automatically
inherits all of its superclass designated initializers.
Rule 2
If your subclass provides an implementation of all of its superclass designated
initializerseither by inheriting them as per rule 1, or by providing a custom
implementation as part of its definitionthen it automatically inherits all of the
superclass convenience initializers.
These rules apply even if your subclass adds further convenience initializers.

N OTE
A subclass can implement a superclass designated initializer as a subclass convenience initializer as
part of satisfying rule 2.

Designated and Convenience Initializers in Action

The following example shows designated initializers, convenience initializers, and
automatic initializer inheritance in action. This example defines a hierarchy of three
classes called Food, RecipeIngredient, and ShoppingListItem, and demonstrates how
their initializers interact.
The base class in the hierarchy is called Food, which is a simple class to encapsulate
the name of a foodstuff. The Food class introduces a single String property called
name and provides two initializers for creating Food instances:
1

class Food {

var name: String

init(name: String) {

self.name = name

convenience init() {

self.init(name: "[Unnamed]")

The figure below shows the initializer chain for the Food class:

Classes do not have a default memberwise initializer, and so the Food class provides
a designated initializer that takes a single argument called name. This initializer can
be used to create a new Food instance with a specific name:

let namedMeat = Food(name: "Bacon")

// namedMeat's name is "Bacon"

The init(name: String) initializer from the Food class is provided as a designated
initializer, because it ensures that all stored properties of a new Food instance are
fully initialized. The Food class does not have a superclass, and so the init(name:
String) initializer does not need to call super.init() to complete its initialization.
The Food class also provides a convenience initializer, init(), with no arguments.
The init() initializer provides a default placeholder name for a new food by
delegating across to the Food classs init(name: String) with a name value of
[Unnamed]:
1

let mysteryMeat = Food()

// mysteryMeat's name is "[Unnamed]"

The second class in the hierarchy is a subclass of Food called RecipeIngredient. The
RecipeIngredient class models an ingredient in a cooking recipe. It introduces an
Int property called quantity (in addition to the name property it inherits from Food)
and defines two initializers for creating RecipeIngredient instances:

class RecipeIngredient: Food {

var quantity: Int

init(name: String, quantity: Int) {

self.quantity = quantity

super.init(name: name)

override convenience init(name: String) {

self.init(name: name, quantity: 1)

}
}

The figure below shows the initializer chain for the RecipeIngredient class:

The RecipeIngredient class has a single designated initializer, init(name: String,

quantity: Int), which can be used to populate all of the properties of a new
RecipeIngredient instance. This initializer starts by assigning the passed quantity
argument to the quantity property, which is the only new property introduced by
RecipeIngredient. After doing so, the initializer delegates up to the init(name:
String) initializer of the Food class. This process satisfies safety check 1 from Two-

Phase Initialization above.

RecipeIngredient also defines a convenience initializer, init(name: String), which

is used to create a RecipeIngredient instance by name alone. This convenience

initializer assumes a quantity of 1 for any RecipeIngredient instance that is created
without an explicit quantity. The definition of this convenience initializer makes
RecipeIngredient instances quicker and more convenient to create, and avoids code
duplication when creating several single-quantity RecipeIngredient instances. This
convenience initializer simply delegates across to the classs designated initializer,
passing in a quantity value of 1.
The init(name: String) convenience initializer provided by RecipeIngredient takes
the same parameters as the init(name: String) designated initializer from Food.
Because this convenience initializer overrides a designated initializer from its
superclass, it must be marked with the override modifier (as described in Initializer
Inheritance and Overriding).
Even though RecipeIngredient provides the init(name: String) initializer as a
convenience initializer, RecipeIngredient has nonetheless provided an
implementation of all of its superclasss designated initializers. Therefore,
RecipeIngredient automatically inherits all of its superclasss convenience
initializers too.
In this example, the superclass for RecipeIngredient is Food, which has a single
convenience initializer called init(). This initializer is therefore inherited by
RecipeIngredient. The inherited version of init() functions in exactly the same way
as the Food version, except that it delegates to the RecipeIngredient version of
init(name: String) rather than the Food version.
All three of these initializers can be used to create new RecipeIngredient instances:
1

let oneMysteryItem = RecipeIngredient()

let oneBacon = RecipeIngredient(name: "Bacon")

let sixEggs = RecipeIngredient(name: "Eggs", quantity: 6)

The third and final class in the hierarchy is a subclass of RecipeIngredient called
ShoppingListItem. The ShoppingListItem class models a recipe ingredient as it
appears in a shopping list.

Every item in the shopping list starts out as unpurchased. To represent this fact,
ShoppingListItem introduces a Boolean property called purchased, with a default
value of false. ShoppingListItem also adds a computed description property, which
provides a textual description of a ShoppingListItem instance:
1

class ShoppingListItem: RecipeIngredient {

var purchased = false

var description: String {

var output = "\(quantity) x \(name)"

output += purchased ? " " : " "

return output

N OTE
ShoppingListItem does not define an initializer to provide an initial value for purchased,
because items in a shopping list (as modeled here) always start out unpurchased.

Because it provides a default value for all of the properties it introduces and does
not define any initializers itself, ShoppingListItem automatically inherits all of the
designated and convenience initializers from its superclass.
The figure below shows the overall initializer chain for all three classes:

You can use all three of the inherited initializers to create a new ShoppingListItem
instance:

var breakfastList = [

ShoppingListItem(),

ShoppingListItem(name: "Bacon"),

ShoppingListItem(name: "Eggs", quantity: 6),

breakfastList[0].name = "Orange juice"

breakfastList[0].purchased = true

for item in breakfastList {

print(item.description)
}
// 1 x Orange juice
// 1 x Bacon
// 6 x Eggs

Here, a new array called breakfastList is created from an array literal containing
three new ShoppingListItem instances. The type of the array is inferred to be
[ShoppingListItem]. After the array is created, the name of the ShoppingListItem at
the start of the array is changed from "[Unnamed]" to "Orange juice" and it is
marked as having been purchased. Printing the description of each item in the array
shows that their default states have been set as expected.

Failable Initializers
It is sometimes useful to define a class, structure, or enumeration for which
initialization can fail. This failure might be triggered by invalid initialization
parameter values, the absence of a required external resource, or some other
condition that prevents initialization from succeeding.

To cope with initialization conditions that can fail, define one or more failable
initializers as part of a class, structure, or enumeration definition. You write a
failable initializer by placing a question mark after the init keyword (init?).

N OTE
You cannot define a failable and a nonfailable initializer with the same parameter types and names.

A failable initializer creates an optional value of the type it initializes. You write
return nil within a failable initializer to indicate a point at which initialization
failure can be triggered.

N OTE
Strictly speaking, initializers do not return a value. Rather, their role is to ensure that self is fully and
correctly initialized by the time that initialization ends. Although you write return nil to trigger an
initialization failure, you do not use the return keyword to indicate initialization success.

The example below defines a structure called Animal, with a constant String
property called species. The Animal structure also defines a failable initializer with
a single parameter called species. This initializer checks if the species value passed
to the initializer is an empty string. If an empty string is found, an initialization
failure is triggered. Otherwise, the species propertys value is set, and initialization
succeeds:

struct Animal {

let species: String

init?(species: String) {

if species.isEmpty { return nil }

self.species = species

You can use this failable initializer to try to initialize a new Animal instance and to
check if initialization succeeded:
1

let someCreature = Animal(species: "Giraffe")

// someCreature is of type Animal?, not Animal

if let giraffe = someCreature {

print("An animal was initialized with a species of \

(giraffe.species)")

// prints "An animal was initialized with a species of Giraffe"

If you pass an empty string value to the failable initializer s species parameter, the
initializer triggers an initialization failure:

let anonymousCreature = Animal(species: "")

// anonymousCreature is of type Animal?, not Animal

if anonymousCreature == nil {

print("The anonymous creature could not be initialized")

// prints "The anonymous creature could not be initialized"

N OTE
Checking for an empty string value (such as "" rather than "Giraffe") is not the same as checking
for nil to indicate the absence of an optional String value. In the example above, an empty string
("") is a valid, nonoptional String. However, it is not appropriate for an animal to have an empty
string as the value of its species property. To model this restriction, the failable initializer triggers an
initialization failure if an empty string is found.

Failable Initializers for Enumerations

You can use a failable initializer to select an appropriate enumeration case based on
one or more parameters. The initializer can then fail if the provided parameters do
not match an appropriate enumeration case.
The example below defines an enumeration called TemperatureUnit, with three
possible states (Kelvin, Celsius, and Fahrenheit). A failable initializer is used to find
an appropriate enumeration case for a Character value representing a temperature
symbol:

enum TemperatureUnit {

case Kelvin, Celsius, Fahrenheit

init?(symbol: Character) {

switch symbol {

case "K":

self = .Kelvin

case "C":

self = .Celsius

case "F":
self = .Fahrenheit
default:
return nil
}
}
}

You can use this failable initializer to choose an appropriate enumeration case for
the three possible states and to cause initialization to fail if the parameter does not
match one of these states:

let fahrenheitUnit = TemperatureUnit(symbol: "F")

if fahrenheitUnit != nil {

print("This is a defined temperature unit, so initialization

succeeded.")

// prints "This is a defined temperature unit, so initialization

succeeded."

let unknownUnit = TemperatureUnit(symbol: "X")

if unknownUnit == nil {

print("This is not a defined temperature unit, so

initialization failed.")
}
// prints "This is not a defined temperature unit, so initialization
failed."

Failable Initializers for Enumerations with Raw Values

Enumerations with raw values automatically receive a failable initializer, init?
(rawValue:), that takes a parameter called rawValue of the appropriate raw-value
type and selects a matching enumeration case if one is found, or triggers an
initialization failure if no matching value exists.
You can rewrite the TemperatureUnit example from above to use raw values of type
Character and to take advantage of the init?(rawValue:) initializer:

enum TemperatureUnit: Character {

case Kelvin = "K", Celsius = "C", Fahrenheit = "F"

let fahrenheitUnit = TemperatureUnit(rawValue: "F")

if fahrenheitUnit != nil {

print("This is a defined temperature unit, so initialization

succeeded.")

// prints "This is a defined temperature unit, so initialization

succeeded."

let unknownUnit = TemperatureUnit(rawValue: "X")
if unknownUnit == nil {
print("This is not a defined temperature unit, so initialization
failed.")
}
// prints "This is not a defined temperature unit, so initialization
failed."

Failable Initializers for Classes

A failable initializer for a value type (that is, a structure or enumeration) can trigger
an initialization failure at any point within its initializer implementation. In the

Animal structure example above, the initializer triggers an initialization failure at the

very start of its implementation, before the species property has been set.
For classes, however, a failable initializer can trigger an initialization failure only
after all stored properties introduced by that class have been set to an initial value
and any initializer delegation has taken place.
The example below shows how you can use an implicitly unwrapped optional
property to satisfy this requirement within a failable class initializer:
1

class Product {

let name: String!

init?(name: String) {

self.name = name

if name.isEmpty { return nil }

The Product class defined above is very similar to the Animal structure seen earlier.
The Product class has a constant name property that must not be allowed to take an
empty string value. To enforce this requirement, the Product class uses a failable
initializer to ensure that the propertys value is nonempty before allowing
initialization to succeed.
However, Product is a class, not a structure. This means that unlike Animal, any
failable initializer for the Product class must provide an initial value for the name
property before triggering an initialization failure.
In the example above, the name property of the Product class is defined as having an
implicitly unwrapped optional string type (String!). Because it is of an optional
type, this means that the name property has a default value of nil before it is assigned
a specific value during initialization. This default value of nil in turn means that all
of the properties introduced by the Product class have a valid initial value. As a
result, the failable initializer for Product can trigger an initialization failure at the
start of the initializer if it is passed an empty string, before assigning a specific
value to the name property within the initializer.

Because the name property is a constant, you can be confident that it will always
contain a non-nil value if initialization succeeds. Even though it is defined with an
implicitly unwrapped optional type, you can always access its implicitly unwrapped
value with confidence, without needing to check for a value of nil:
1

if let bowTie = Product(name: "bow tie") {

// no need to check if bowTie.name == nil

print("The product's name is \(bowTie.name)")

// prints "The product's name is bow tie"

Propagation of Initialization Failure

A failable initializer of a class, structure, or enumeration can delegate across to
another failable initializer from the same class, structure, or enumeration. Similarly,
a subclass failable initializer can delegate up to a superclass failable initializer.
In either case, if you delegate to another initializer that causes initialization to fail,
the entire initialization process fails immediately, and no further initialization code
is executed.

N OTE
A failable initializer can also delegate to a nonfailable initializer. Use this approach if you need to add
a potential failure state to an existing initialization process that does not otherwise fail.

The example below defines a subclass of Product called CartItem. The CartItem
class models an item in an online shopping cart. CartItem introduces a stored
constant property called quantity and ensures that this property always has a value
of at least 1:

class CartItem: Product {

let quantity: Int!

init?(name: String, quantity: Int) {

self.quantity = quantity

super.init(name: name)

if quantity < 1 { return nil }

The quantity property has an implicitly unwrapped integer type (Int!). As with the
name property of the Product class, this means that the quantity property has a
default value of nil before it is assigned a specific value during initialization.
The failable initializer for CartItem starts by delegating up to the init(name:)
initializer from its superclass, Product. This satisfies the requirement that a failable
initializer must always perform initializer delegation before triggering an
initialization failure.
If the superclass initialization fails because of an empty name value, the entire
initialization process fails immediately and no further initialization code is
executed. If the superclass initialization succeeds, the CartItem initializer validates
that it has received a quantity value of 1 or more.
If you create a CartItem instance with a nonempty name and a quantity of 1 or more,
initialization succeeds:
1

if let twoSocks = CartItem(name: "sock", quantity: 2) {

print("Item: \(twoSocks.name), quantity: \(twoSocks.quantity)")

// prints "Item: sock, quantity: 2"

If you try to create a CartItem instance with a quantity value of 0, the CartItem

initializer causes initialization to fail:

1

if let zeroShirts = CartItem(name: "shirt", quantity: 0) {

print("Item: \(zeroShirts.name), quantity: \

(zeroShirts.quantity)")

} else {

print("Unable to initialize zero shirts")

// prints "Unable to initialize zero shirts"

Similarly, if you try to create a CartItem instance with an empty name value, the
superclass Product initializer causes initialization to fail:
1

if let oneUnnamed = CartItem(name: "", quantity: 1) {

print("Item: \(oneUnnamed.name), quantity: \

(oneUnnamed.quantity)")

} else {

print("Unable to initialize one unnamed product")

// prints "Unable to initialize one unnamed product"

Overriding a Failable Initializer

You can override a superclass failable initializer in a subclass, just like any other
initializer. Alternatively, you can override a superclass failable initializer with a
subclass nonfailable initializer. This enables you to define a subclass for which
initialization cannot fail, even though initialization of the superclass is allowed to
fail.

Note that if you override a failable superclass initializer with a nonfailable subclass
initializer, the only way to delegate up to the superclass initializer is to forceunwrap the result of the failable superclass initializer.

N OTE
You can override a failable initializer with a nonfailable initializer but not the other way around.

The example below defines a class called Document. This class models a document
that can be initialized with a name property that is either a nonempty string value or
nil, but cannot be an empty string:
1

class Document {

var name: String?

// this initializer creates a document with a nil name value

init() {}

// this initializer creates a document with a non-empty name

value

init?(name: String) {

self.name = name

if name.isEmpty { return nil }

}
}

The next example defines a subclass of Document called

AutomaticallyNamedDocument. The AutomaticallyNamedDocument subclass overrides
both of the designated initializers introduced by Document. These overrides ensure
that an AutomaticallyNamedDocument instance has an initial name value of "
[Untitled]" if the instance is initialized without a name, or if an empty string is
passed to the init(name:) initializer:

class AutomaticallyNamedDocument: Document {

override init() {

super.init()

self.name = "[Untitled]"

override init(name: String) {

super.init()

if name.isEmpty {

self.name = "[Untitled]"
} else {
self.name = name
}
}
}

The AutomaticallyNamedDocument overrides its superclasss failable init?(name:)

initializer with a nonfailable init(name:) initializer. Because
AutomaticallyNamedDocument copes with the empty string case in a different way than
its superclass, its initializer does not need to fail, and so it provides a nonfailable
version of the initializer instead.
You can use forced unwrapping in an initializer to call a failable initializer from the
superclass as part of the implementation of a subclasss nonfailable initializer. For
example, the UntitledDocument subclass below is always named "[Untitled]", and it
uses the failable init(name:) initializer from its superclass during initialization.

class UntitledDocument: Document {

override init() {

super.init(name: "[Untitled]")!

In this case, if the init(name:) initializer of the superclass were ever called with an
empty string as the name, the forced unwrap operation would result in a runtime
error. However, because its called with a string constant, you can see that the
initializer wont fail, so no runtime error can occur in this case.

The init! Failable Initializer

You typically define a failable initializer that creates an optional instance of the
appropriate type by placing a question mark after the init keyword (init?).
Alternatively, you can define a failable initializer that creates an implicitly
unwrapped optional instance of the appropriate type. Do this by placing an
exclamation mark after the init keyword (init!) instead of a question mark.
You can delegate from init? to init! and vice versa, and you can override init?
with init! and vice versa. You can also delegate from init to init!, although doing
so will trigger an assertion if the init! initializer causes initialization to fail.

Required Initializers
Write the required modifier before the definition of a class initializer to indicate
that every subclass of the class must implement that initializer:

class SomeClass {

required init() {

// initializer implementation goes here

You must also write the required modifier before every subclass implementation of
a required initializer, to indicate that the initializer requirement applies to further
subclasses in the chain. You do not write the override modifier when overriding a
required designated initializer:
1

class SomeSubclass: SomeClass {

required init() {

// subclass implementation of the required initializer goes

here

N OTE
You do not have to provide an explicit implementation of a required initializer if you can satisfy the
requirement with an inherited initializer.

Setting a Default Property Value with a Closure or Function

If a stored propertys default value requires some customization or setup, you can
use a closure or global function to provide a customized default value for that
property. Whenever a new instance of the type that the property belongs to is

initialized, the closure or function is called, and its return value is assigned as the
propertys default value.
These kinds of closures or functions typically create a temporary value of the same
type as the property, tailor that value to represent the desired initial state, and then
return that temporary value to be used as the propertys default value.
Heres a skeleton outline of how a closure can be used to provide a default property
value:
1

class SomeClass {

let someProperty: SomeType = {

// create a default value for someProperty inside this

closure

// someValue must be of the same type as SomeType

return someValue

}()

Note that the closures end curly brace is followed by an empty pair of parentheses.
This tells Swift to execute the closure immediately. If you omit these parentheses,
you are trying to assign the closure itself to the property, and not the return value of
the closure.

N OTE
If you use a closure to initialize a property, remember that the rest of the instance has not yet been
initialized at the point that the closure is executed. This means that you cannot access any other
property values from within your closure, even if those properties have default values. You also
cannot use the implicit self property, or call any of the instances methods.

The example below defines a structure called Checkerboard, which models a board
for the game of Checkers (also known as Draughts):

The game of Checkers is played on a ten-by-ten board, with alternating black and
white squares. To represent this game board, the Checkerboard structure has a single
property called boardColors, which is an array of 100 Bool values. A value of true in
the array represents a black square and a value of false represents a white square.
The first item in the array represents the top left square on the board and the last
item in the array represents the bottom right square on the board.
The boardColors array is initialized with a closure to set up its color values:

struct Checkerboard {

let boardColors: [Bool] = {

var temporaryBoard = [Bool]()

var isBlack = false

for i in 1...10 {

for j in 1...10 {

temporaryBoard.append(isBlack)

isBlack = !isBlack

}
isBlack = !isBlack
}
return temporaryBoard
}()
func squareIsBlackAtRow(row: Int, column: Int) -> Bool {
return boardColors[(row * 10) + column]
}
}

Whenever a new Checkerboard instance is created, the closure is executed, and the
default value of boardColors is calculated and returned. The closure in the example
above calculates and sets the appropriate color for each square on the board in a
temporary array called temporaryBoard, and returns this temporary array as the
closures return value once its setup is complete. The returned array value is stored
in boardColors and can be queried with the squareIsBlackAtRow utility function:

let board = Checkerboard()

print(board.squareIsBlackAtRow(0, column: 1))

// prints "true"

print(board.squareIsBlackAtRow(9, column: 9))

// prints "false"

Deinitialization
A deinitializer is called immediately before a class instance is deallocated. You
write deinitializers with the deinit keyword, similar to how initializers are written
with the init keyword. Deinitializers are only available on class types.

How Deinitialization Works

Swift automatically deallocates your instances when they are no longer needed, to
free up resources. Swift handles the memory management of instances through
automatic reference counting (ARC), as described in Automatic Reference Counting.
Typically you dont need to perform manual clean-up when your instances are
deallocated. However, when you are working with your own resources, you might
need to perform some additional clean-up yourself. For example, if you create a
custom class to open a file and write some data to it, you might need to close the file
before the class instance is deallocated.
Class definitions can have at most one deinitializer per class. The deinitializer does
not take any parameters and is written without parentheses:
1

deinit {

// perform the deinitialization

Deinitializers are called automatically, just before instance deallocation takes place.
You are not allowed to call a deinitializer yourself. Superclass deinitializers are
inherited by their subclasses, and the superclass deinitializer is called automatically
at the end of a subclass deinitializer implementation. Superclass deinitializers are
always called, even if a subclass does not provide its own deinitializer.
Because an instance is not deallocated until after its deinitializer is called, a
deinitializer can access all properties of the instance it is called on and can modify
its behavior based on those properties (such as looking up the name of a file that

needs to be closed).

Deinitializers in Action
Heres an example of a deinitializer in action. This example defines two new types,
Bank and Player, for a simple game. The Bank class manages a made-up currency,
which can never have more than 10,000 coins in circulation. There can only ever be
one Bank in the game, and so the Bank is implemented as a class with type properties
and methods to store and manage its current state:
1

class Bank {

static var coinsInBank = 10_000

static func vendCoins(var numberOfCoinsToVend: Int) -> Int {

numberOfCoinsToVend = min(numberOfCoinsToVend, coinsInBank)

coinsInBank -= numberOfCoinsToVend

return numberOfCoinsToVend

static func receiveCoins(coins: Int) {

coinsInBank += coins
}
}

Bank keeps track of the current number of coins it holds with its coinsInBank

property. It also offers two methodsvendCoins(_:) and receiveCoins(_:)to

handle the distribution and collection of coins.
vendCoins(_:) checks that there are enough coins in the bank before distributing

them. If there are not enough coins, Bank returns a smaller number than the number
that was requested (and returns zero if no coins are left in the bank). vendCoins(_:)
declares numberOfCoinsToVend as a variable parameter, so that the number can be

modified within the methods body without the need to declare a new variable. It
returns an integer value to indicate the actual number of coins that were provided.
The receiveCoins(_:) method simply adds the received number of coins back into
the banks coin store.
The Player class describes a player in the game. Each player has a certain number
of coins stored in their purse at any time. This is represented by the player s
coinsInPurse property:
1

class Player {

var coinsInPurse: Int

init(coins: Int) {

coinsInPurse = Bank.vendCoins(coins)

func winCoins(coins: Int) {

coinsInPurse += Bank.vendCoins(coins)

deinit {
Bank.receiveCoins(coinsInPurse)
}
}

Each Player instance is initialized with a starting allowance of a specified number of

coins from the bank during initialization, although a Player instance may receive
fewer than that number if not enough coins are available.
The Player class defines a winCoins(_:) method, which retrieves a certain number
of coins from the bank and adds them to the player s purse. The Player class also
implements a deinitializer, which is called just before a Player instance is
deallocated. Here, the deinitializer simply returns all of the player s coins to the
bank:

var playerOne: Player? = Player(coins: 100)

print("A new player has joined the game with \

(playerOne!.coinsInPurse) coins")

// prints "A new player has joined the game with 100 coins"

print("There are now \(Bank.coinsInBank) coins left in the bank")

// prints "There are now 9900 coins left in the bank"

A new Player instance is created, with a request for 100 coins if they are available.
This Player instance is stored in an optional Player variable called playerOne. An
optional variable is used here, because players can leave the game at any point. The
optional lets you track whether there is currently a player in the game.
Because playerOne is an optional, it is qualified with an exclamation mark (!) when
its coinsInPurse property is accessed to print its default number of coins, and
whenever its winCoins(_:) method is called:
1

playerOne!.winCoins(2_000)

print("PlayerOne won 2000 coins & now has \

(playerOne!.coinsInPurse) coins")

// prints "PlayerOne won 2000 coins & now has 2100 coins"

print("The bank now only has \(Bank.coinsInBank) coins left")

// prints "The bank now only has 7900 coins left"

Here, the player has won 2,000 coins. The player s purse now contains 2,100 coins,
and the bank has only 7,900 coins left.

playerOne = nil

print("PlayerOne has left the game")

// prints "PlayerOne has left the game"

print("The bank now has \(Bank.coinsInBank) coins")

// prints "The bank now has 10000 coins"

The player has now left the game. This is indicated by setting the optional playerOne
variable to nil, meaning no Player instance. At the point that this happens, the
playerOne variables reference to the Player instance is broken. No other properties
or variables are still referring to the Player instance, and so it is deallocated in
order to free up its memory. Just before this happens, its deinitializer is called
automatically, and its coins are returned to the bank.

Automatic Reference Counting

Swift uses Automatic Reference Counting (ARC) to track and manage your apps
memory usage. In most cases, this means that memory management just works in
Swift, and you do not need to think about memory management yourself. ARC
automatically frees up the memory used by class instances when those instances are
no longer needed.
However, in a few cases ARC requires more information about the relationships
between parts of your code in order to manage memory for you. This chapter
describes those situations and shows how you enable ARC to manage all of your
apps memory.

N OTE
Reference counting only applies to instances of classes. Structures and enumerations are value types,
not reference types, and are not stored and passed by reference.

How ARC Works

Every time you create a new instance of a class, ARC allocates a chunk of memory
to store information about that instance. This memory holds information about the
type of the instance, together with the values of any stored properties associated with
that instance.
Additionally, when an instance is no longer needed, ARC frees up the memory used
by that instance so that the memory can be used for other purposes instead. This
ensures that class instances do not take up space in memory when they are no longer
needed.
However, if ARC were to deallocate an instance that was still in use, it would no
longer be possible to access that instances properties, or call that instances
methods. Indeed, if you tried to access the instance, your app would most likely
crash.

To make sure that instances dont disappear while they are still needed, ARC tracks
how many properties, constants, and variables are currently referring to each class
instance. ARC will not deallocate an instance as long as at least one active reference
to that instance still exists.
To make this possible, whenever you assign a class instance to a property, constant,
or variable, that property, constant, or variable makes a strong reference to the
instance. The reference is called a strong reference because it keeps a firm hold
on that instance, and does not allow it to be deallocated for as long as that strong
reference remains.

ARC in Action
Heres an example of how Automatic Reference Counting works. This example
starts with a simple class called Person, which defines a stored constant property
called name:
1

class Person {

let name: String

init(name: String) {

self.name = name

print("\(name) is being initialized")

deinit {

print("\(name) is being deinitialized")

}
}

The Person class has an initializer that sets the instances name property and prints a
message to indicate that initialization is underway. The Person class also has a
deinitializer that prints a message when an instance of the class is deallocated.

The next code snippet defines three variables of type Person?, which are used to set
up multiple references to a new Person instance in subsequent code snippets.
Because these variables are of an optional type (Person?, not Person), they are
automatically initialized with a value of nil, and do not currently reference a Person
instance.
1

var reference1: Person?

var reference2: Person?

var reference3: Person?

You can now create a new Person instance and assign it to one of these three
variables:
1

reference1 = Person(name: "John Appleseed")

// prints "John Appleseed is being initialized"

Note that the message "John Appleseed is being initialized" is printed at the point
that you call the Person classs initializer. This confirms that initialization has taken
place.
Because the new Person instance has been assigned to the reference1 variable, there
is now a strong reference from reference1 to the new Person instance. Because there
is at least one strong reference, ARC makes sure that this Person is kept in memory
and is not deallocated.
If you assign the same Person instance to two more variables, two more strong
references to that instance are established:
1

reference2 = reference1

reference3 = reference1

There are now three strong references to this single Person instance.
If you break two of these strong references (including the original reference) by
assigning nil to two of the variables, a single strong reference remains, and the
Person instance is not deallocated:

reference1 = nil

reference2 = nil

ARC does not deallocate the Person instance until the third and final strong
reference is broken, at which point it is clear that you are no longer using the Person
instance:
1

reference3 = nil

// prints "John Appleseed is being deinitialized"

Strong Reference Cycles Between Class Instances

In the examples above, ARC is able to track the number of references to the new
Person instance you create and to deallocate that Person instance when it is no longer
needed.
However, it is possible to write code in which an instance of a class never gets to a
point where it has zero strong references. This can happen if two class instances
hold a strong reference to each other, such that each instance keeps the other alive.
This is known as a strong reference cycle.
You resolve strong reference cycles by defining some of the relationships between
classes as weak or unowned references instead of as strong references. This process
is described in Resolving Strong Reference Cycles Between Class Instances.
However, before you learn how to resolve a strong reference cycle, it is useful to
understand how such a cycle is caused.
Heres an example of how a strong reference cycle can be created by accident. This
example defines two classes called Person and Apartment, which model a block of
apartments and its residents:

class Person {

let name: String

init(name: String) { self.name = name }

var apartment: Apartment?

deinit { print("\(name) is being deinitialized") }

class Apartment {

let unit: String

init(unit: String) { self.unit = unit }
var tenant: Person?
deinit { print("Apartment \(unit) is being deinitialized") }
}

Every Person instance has a name property of type String and an optional apartment
property that is initially nil. The apartment property is optional, because a person
may not always have an apartment.
Similarly, every Apartment instance has a unit property of type String and has an
optional tenant property that is initially nil. The tenant property is optional because
an apartment may not always have a tenant.
Both of these classes also define a deinitializer, which prints the fact that an instance
of that class is being deinitialized. This enables you to see whether instances of
Person and Apartment are being deallocated as expected.
This next code snippet defines two variables of optional type called john and unit4A,
which will be set to a specific Apartment and Person instance below. Both of these
variables have an initial value of nil, by virtue of being optional:

var john: Person?

var unit4A: Apartment?

You can now create a specific Person instance and Apartment instance and assign
these new instances to the john and unit4A variables:
1

john = Person(name: "John Appleseed")

unit4A = Apartment(unit: "4A")

Heres how the strong references look after creating and assigning these two
instances. The john variable now has a strong reference to the new Person instance,
and the unit4A variable has a strong reference to the new Apartment instance:

You can now link the two instances together so that the person has an apartment, and
the apartment has a tenant. Note that an exclamation mark (!) is used to unwrap and
access the instances stored inside the john and unit4A optional variables, so that the
properties of those instances can be set:
1

john!.apartment = unit4A

unit4A!.tenant = john

Heres how the strong references look after you link the two instances together:

Unfortunately, linking these two instances creates a strong reference cycle between
them. The Person instance now has a strong reference to the Apartment instance, and
the Apartment instance has a strong reference to the Person instance. Therefore,
when you break the strong references held by the john and unit4A variables, the
reference counts do not drop to zero, and the instances are not deallocated by ARC:
1

john = nil

unit4A = nil

Note that neither deinitializer was called when you set these two variables to nil.
The strong reference cycle prevents the Person and Apartment instances from ever
being deallocated, causing a memory leak in your app.
Heres how the strong references look after you set the john and unit4A variables to
nil:

The strong references between the Person instance and the Apartment instance
remain and cannot be broken.

Resolving Strong Reference Cycles Between Class Instances

Swift provides two ways to resolve strong reference cycles when you work with
properties of class type: weak references and unowned references.
Weak and unowned references enable one instance in a reference cycle to refer to
the other instance without keeping a strong hold on it. The instances can then refer
to each other without creating a strong reference cycle.
Use a weak reference whenever it is valid for that reference to become nil at some
point during its lifetime. Conversely, use an unowned reference when you know that
the reference will never be nil once it has been set during initialization.

Weak References
A weak reference is a reference that does not keep a strong hold on the instance it
refers to, and so does not stop ARC from disposing of the referenced instance. This
behavior prevents the reference from becoming part of a strong reference cycle.
You indicate a weak reference by placing the weak keyword before a property or
variable declaration.
Use a weak reference to avoid reference cycles whenever it is possible for that
reference to have no value at some point in its life. If the reference will always
have a value, use an unowned reference instead, as described in Unowned
References. In the Apartment example above, it is appropriate for an apartment to be
able to have no tenant at some point in its lifetime, and so a weak reference is an
appropriate way to break the reference cycle in this case.

N OTE
Weak references must be declared as variables, to indicate that their value can change at runtime. A
weak reference cannot be declared as a constant.

Because weak references are allowed to have no value, you must declare every
weak reference as having an optional type. Optional types are the preferred way to
represent the possibility for no value in Swift.

Because a weak reference does not keep a strong hold on the instance it refers to, it
is possible for that instance to be deallocated while the weak reference is still
referring to it. Therefore, ARC automatically sets a weak reference to nil when the
instance that it refers to is deallocated. You can check for the existence of a value in
the weak reference, just like any other optional value, and you will never end up
with a reference to an invalid instance that no longer exists.
The example below is identical to the Person and Apartment example from above,
with one important difference. This time around, the Apartment types tenant
property is declared as a weak reference:
1

class Person {

let name: String

init(name: String) { self.name = name }

var apartment: Apartment?

deinit { print("\(name) is being deinitialized") }

class Apartment {

let unit: String

init(unit: String) { self.unit = unit }
weak var tenant: Person?
deinit { print("Apartment \(unit) is being deinitialized") }
}

The strong references from the two variables (john and unit4A) and the links
between the two instances are created as before:

var john: Person?

var unit4A: Apartment?

john = Person(name: "John Appleseed")

unit4A = Apartment(unit: "4A")

john!.apartment = unit4A

unit4A!.tenant = john

Heres how the references look now that youve linked the two instances together:

The Person instance still has a strong reference to the Apartment instance, but the
Apartment instance now has a weak reference to the Person instance. This means that
when you break the strong reference held by the john variables, there are no more
strong references to the Person instance:

Because there are no more strong references to the Person instance, it is deallocated:
1

john = nil

// prints "John Appleseed is being deinitialized"

The only remaining strong reference to the Apartment instance is from the unit4A
variable. If you break that strong reference, there are no more strong references to
the Apartment instance:

Because there are no more strong references to the Apartment instance, it too is
deallocated:
1

unit4A = nil

// prints "Apartment 4A is being deinitialized"

The final two code snippets above show that the deinitializers for the Person instance
and Apartment instance print their deinitialized messages after the john and unit4A
variables are set to nil. This proves that the reference cycle has been broken.

N OTE
In systems that use garbage collection, weak pointers are sometimes used to implement a simple
caching mechanism because objects with no strong references are deallocated only when memory
pressure triggers garbage collection. However, with ARC, values are deallocated as soon as their last
strong reference is removed, making weak references unsuitable for such a purpose.

Unowned References
Like weak references, an unowned reference does not keep a strong hold on the
instance it refers to. Unlike a weak reference, however, an unowned reference is
assumed to always have a value. Because of this, an unowned reference is always
defined as a nonoptional type. You indicate an unowned reference by placing the
unowned keyword before a property or variable declaration.
Because an unowned reference is nonoptional, you dont need to unwrap the
unowned reference each time it is used. An unowned reference can always be
accessed directly. However, ARC cannot set the reference to nil when the instance it
refers to is deallocated, because variables of a nonoptional type cannot be set to nil.

N OTE
If you try to access an unowned reference after the instance that it references is deallocated, you will
trigger a runtime error. Use unowned references only when you are sure that the reference will always
refer to an instance.
Note also that Swift guarantees your app will crash if you try to access an unowned reference after
the instance it references is deallocated. You will never encounter unexpected behavior in this
situation. Your app will always crash reliably, although you should, of course, prevent it from doing
so.

The following example defines two classes, Customer and CreditCard, which model
a bank customer and a possible credit card for that customer. These two classes each
store an instance of the other class as a property. This relationship has the potential
to create a strong reference cycle.
The relationship between Customer and CreditCard is slightly different from the
relationship between Apartment and Person seen in the weak reference example
above. In this data model, a customer may or may not have a credit card, but a credit
card will always be associated with a customer. To represent this, the Customer class
has an optional card property, but the CreditCard class has a nonoptional customer
property.
Furthermore, a new CreditCard instance can only be created by passing a number
value and a customer instance to a custom CreditCard initializer. This ensures that a
CreditCard instance always has a customer instance associated with it when the

CreditCard instance is created.

Because a credit card will always have a customer, you define its customer property
as an unowned reference, to avoid a strong reference cycle:
1

class Customer {

let name: String

var card: CreditCard?

init(name: String) {

self.name = name

deinit { print("\(name) is being deinitialized") }

class CreditCard {
let number: UInt64
unowned let customer: Customer
init(number: UInt64, customer: Customer) {
self.number = number
self.customer = customer
}
deinit { print("Card #\(number) is being deinitialized") }
}

N OTE
The number property of the CreditCard class is defined with a type of UInt64 rather than Int,
to ensure that the number propertys capacity is large enough to store a 16-digit card number on both
32-bit and 64-bit systems.

This next code snippet defines an optional Customer variable called john, which will
be used to store a reference to a specific customer. This variable has an initial value
of nil, by virtue of being optional:

var john: Customer?

You can now create a Customer instance, and use it to initialize and assign a new
CreditCard instance as that customer s card property:
1

john = Customer(name: "John Appleseed")

john!.card = CreditCard(number: 1234_5678_9012_3456, customer:

john!)

Heres how the references look, now that youve linked the two instances:

The Customer instance now has a strong reference to the CreditCard instance, and the
CreditCard instance has an unowned reference to the Customer instance.
Because of the unowned customer reference, when you break the strong reference
held by the john variable, there are no more strong references to the Customer
instance:

Because there are no more strong references to the Customer instance, it is

deallocated. After this happens, there are no more strong references to the
CreditCard instance, and it too is deallocated:
1

john = nil

// prints "John Appleseed is being deinitialized"

// prints "Card #1234567890123456 is being deinitialized"

The final code snippet above shows that the deinitializers for the Customer instance
and CreditCard instance both print their deinitialized messages after the john
variable is set to nil.

Unowned References and Implicitly Unwrapped Optional Properties

The examples for weak and unowned references above cover two of the more
common scenarios in which it is necessary to break a strong reference cycle.
The Person and Apartment example shows a situation where two properties, both of
which are allowed to be nil, have the potential to cause a strong reference cycle.
This scenario is best resolved with a weak reference.
The Customer and CreditCard example shows a situation where one property that is
allowed to be nil and another property that cannot be nil have the potential to cause
a strong reference cycle. This scenario is best resolved with an unowned reference.
However, there is a third scenario, in which both properties should always have a
value, and neither property should ever be nil once initialization is complete. In this

scenario, it is useful to combine an unowned property on one class with an

implicitly unwrapped optional property on the other class.
This enables both properties to be accessed directly (without optional unwrapping)
once initialization is complete, while still avoiding a reference cycle. This section
shows you how to set up such a relationship.
The example below defines two classes, Country and City, each of which stores an
instance of the other class as a property. In this data model, every country must
always have a capital city, and every city must always belong to a country. To
represent this, the Country class has a capitalCity property, and the City class has a
country property:

class Country {

let name: String

var capitalCity: City!

init(name: String, capitalName: String) {

self.name = name

self.capitalCity = City(name: capitalName, country: self)

class City {
let name: String
unowned let country: Country
init(name: String, country: Country) {
self.name = name
self.country = country
}
}

To set up the interdependency between the two classes, the initializer for City takes a
Country instance, and stores this instance in its country property.
The initializer for City is called from within the initializer for Country. However,
the initializer for Country cannot pass self to the City initializer until a new Country
instance is fully initialized, as described in Two-Phase Initialization.
To cope with this requirement, you declare the capitalCity property of Country as
an implicitly unwrapped optional property, indicated by the exclamation mark at the
end of its type annotation (City!). This means that the capitalCity property has a

default value of nil, like any other optional, but can be accessed without the need to
unwrap its value as described in Implicitly Unwrapped Optionals.
Because capitalCity has a default nil value, a new Country instance is considered
fully initialized as soon as the Country instance sets its name property within its
initializer. This means that the Country initializer can start to reference and pass
around the implicit self property as soon as the name property is set. The Country
initializer can therefore pass self as one of the parameters for the City initializer
when the Country initializer is setting its own capitalCity property.
All of this means that you can create the Country and City instances in a single
statement, without creating a strong reference cycle, and the capitalCity property
can be accessed directly, without needing to use an exclamation mark to unwrap its
optional value:
1

var country = Country(name: "Canada", capitalName: "Ottawa")

print("\(country.name)'s capital city is called \

(country.capitalCity.name)")

// prints "Canada's capital city is called Ottawa"

In the example above, the use of an implicitly unwrapped optional means that all of
the two-phase class initializer requirements are satisfied. The capitalCity property
can be used and accessed like a nonoptional value once initialization is complete,
while still avoiding a strong reference cycle.

Strong Reference Cycles for Closures

You saw above how a strong reference cycle can be created when two class instance
properties hold a strong reference to each other. You also saw how to use weak and
unowned references to break these strong reference cycles.
A strong reference cycle can also occur if you assign a closure to a property of a
class instance, and the body of that closure captures the instance. This capture might
occur because the closures body accesses a property of the instance, such as
self.someProperty, or because the closure calls a method on the instance, such as
self.someMethod(). In either case, these accesses cause the closure to capture self,

creating a strong reference cycle.

This strong reference cycle occurs because closures, like classes, are reference
types. When you assign a closure to a property, you are assigning a reference to that
closure. In essence, its the same problem as abovetwo strong references are
keeping each other alive. However, rather than two class instances, this time its a
class instance and a closure that are keeping each other alive.
Swift provides an elegant solution to this problem, known as a closure capture list.
However, before you learn how to break a strong reference cycle with a closure
capture list, it is useful to understand how such a cycle can be caused.
The example below shows how you can create a strong reference cycle when using
a closure that references self. This example defines a class called HTMLElement,
which provides a simple model for an individual element within an HTML
document:
1

class HTMLElement {

let name: String

let text: String?

lazy var asHTML: Void -> String = {

if let text = self.text {

return "<\(self.name)>\(text)</\(self.name)>"

} else {
return "<\(self.name) />"
}
}

 init(name: String, text: String? = nil) {

self.name = name
self.text = text
}

deinit {
print("\(name) is being deinitialized")
}

}

The HTMLElement class defines a name property, which indicates the name of the
element, such as "h1" for a heading element, "p" for a paragraph element, or "br"
for a line break element. HTMLElement also defines an optional text property, which
you can set to a string that represents the text to be rendered within that HTML
element.
In addition to these two simple properties, the HTMLElement class defines a lazy
property called asHTML. This property references a closure that combines name and
text into an HTML string fragment. The asHTML property is of type () -> String, or
a function that takes no parameters, and returns a String value.
By default, the asHTML property is assigned a closure that returns a string
representation of an HTML tag. This tag contains the optional text value if it exists,
or no text content if text does not exist. For a paragraph element, the closure would
return "<p>some text</p>" or "<p />", depending on whether the text property
equals "some text" or nil.
The asHTML property is named and used somewhat like an instance method.
However, because asHTML is a closure property rather than an instance method, you
can replace the default value of the asHTML property with a custom closure, if you
want to change the HTML rendering for a particular HTML element.

For example, the asHTML property could be set to a closure that defaults to some text
if the text property is nil, in order to prevent the representation from returning an
empty HTML tag:
1

let heading = HTMLElement(name: "h1")

let defaultText = "some default text"

heading.asHTML = {

return "<\(heading.name)>\(heading.text ?? defaultText)</\

(heading.name)>"

print(heading.asHTML())

// prints "<h1>some default text</h1>"

N OTE
The asHTML property is declared as a lazy property, because it is only needed if and when the
element actually needs to be rendered as a string value for some HTML output target. The fact that
asHTML is a lazy property means that you can refer to self within the default closure, because the
lazy property will not be accessed until after initialization has been completed and self is known to
exist.

The HTMLElement class provides a single initializer, which takes a name argument and
(if desired) a text argument to initialize a new element. The class also defines a
deinitializer, which prints a message to show when an HTMLElement instance is
deallocated.
Heres how you use the HTMLElement class to create and print a new instance:

var paragraph: HTMLElement? = HTMLElement(name: "p", text: "hello,

world")

print(paragraph!.asHTML())

// prints "<p>hello, world</p>"

N OTE
The paragraph variable above is defined as an optional HTMLElement, so that it can be set to
nil below to demonstrate the presence of a strong reference cycle.

Unfortunately, the HTMLElement class, as written above, creates a strong reference

cycle between an HTMLElement instance and the closure used for its default asHTML
value. Heres how the cycle looks:

The instances asHTML property holds a strong reference to its closure. However,
because the closure refers to self within its body (as a way to reference self.name
and self.text), the closure captures self, which means that it holds a strong
reference back to the HTMLElement instance. A strong reference cycle is created
between the two. (For more information about capturing values in a closure, see
Capturing Values.)

N OTE
Even though the closure refers to self multiple times, it only captures one strong reference to the
HTMLElement instance.

If you set the paragraph variable to nil and break its strong reference to the
HTMLElement instance, neither the HTMLElement instance nor its closure are
deallocated, because of the strong reference cycle:

paragraph = nil

Note that the message in the HTMLElement deinitializer is not printed, which shows
that the HTMLElement instance is not deallocated.

Resolving Strong Reference Cycles for Closures

You resolve a strong reference cycle between a closure and a class instance by
defining a capture list as part of the closures definition. A capture list defines the
rules to use when capturing one or more reference types within the closures body.
As with strong reference cycles between two class instances, you declare each
captured reference to be a weak or unowned reference rather than a strong
reference. The appropriate choice of weak or unowned depends on the relationships
between the different parts of your code.

N OTE
Swift requires you to write self.someProperty or self.someMethod() (rather than just
someProperty or someMethod()) whenever you refer to a member of self within a closure.
This helps you remember that its possible to capture self by accident.

Defining a Capture List

Each item in a capture list is a pairing of the weak or unowned keyword with a

reference to a class instance (such as self) or a variable initialized with some value
(such as delegate = self.delegate!). These pairings are written within a pair of
square braces, separated by commas.
Place the capture list before a closures parameter list and return type if they are
provided:
1

lazy var someClosure: (Int, String) -> String = {

[unowned self, weak delegate = self.delegate!] (index: Int,

stringToProcess: String) -> String in

// closure body goes here

If a closure does not specify a parameter list or return type because they can be
inferred from context, place the capture list at the very start of the closure, followed
by the in keyword:
1

lazy var someClosure: Void -> String = {

[unowned self, weak delegate = self.delegate!] in

// closure body goes here

Weak and Unowned References

Define a capture in a closure as an unowned reference when the closure and the
instance it captures will always refer to each other, and will always be deallocated at
the same time.
Conversely, define a capture as a weak reference when the captured reference may
become nil at some point in the future. Weak references are always of an optional
type, and automatically become nil when the instance they reference is deallocated.
This enables you to check for their existence within the closures body.

N OTE
If the captured reference will never become nil, it should always be captured as an unowned
reference, rather than a weak reference.

An unowned reference is the appropriate capture method to use to resolve the strong
reference cycle in the HTMLElement example from earlier. Heres how you write the
HTMLElement class to avoid the cycle:
1

class HTMLElement {

let name: String

let text: String?

lazy var asHTML: Void -> String = {

[unowned self] in

if let text = self.text {

return "<\(self.name)>\(text)</\(self.name)>"
} else {
return "<\(self.name) />"
}
}

init(name: String, text: String? = nil) {
self.name = name
self.text = text

 }

deinit {
print("\(name) is being deinitialized")
}

}

This implementation of HTMLElement is identical to the previous implementation,

apart from the addition of a capture list within the asHTML closure. In this case, the
capture list is [unowned self], which means capture self as an unowned reference
rather than a strong reference.
You can create and print an HTMLElement instance as before:
1

var paragraph: HTMLElement? = HTMLElement(name: "p", text: "hello,

world")

print(paragraph!.asHTML())

// prints "<p>hello, world</p>"

Heres how the references look with the capture list in place:

This time, the capture of self by the closure is an unowned reference, and does not
keep a strong hold on the HTMLElement instance it has captured. If you set the strong
reference from the paragraph variable to nil, the HTMLElement instance is
deallocated, as can be seen from the printing of its deinitializer message in the
example below:
1

paragraph = nil

// prints "p is being deinitialized"

For more information about capture lists, see Capture Lists.

Optional Chaining
Optional chaining is a process for querying and calling properties, methods, and
subscripts on an optional that might currently be nil. If the optional contains a
value, the property, method, or subscript call succeeds; if the optional is nil, the
property, method, or subscript call returns nil. Multiple queries can be chained
together, and the entire chain fails gracefully if any link in the chain is nil.

N OTE
Optional chaining in Swift is similar to messaging nil in Objective-C, but in a way that works for any
type, and that can be checked for success or failure.

Optional Chaining as an Alternative to Forced Unwrapping

You specify optional chaining by placing a question mark (?) after the optional
value on which you wish to call a property, method or subscript if the optional is
non-nil. This is very similar to placing an exclamation mark (!) after an optional
value to force the unwrapping of its value. The main difference is that optional
chaining fails gracefully when the optional is nil, whereas forced unwrapping
triggers a runtime error when the optional is nil.
To reflect the fact that optional chaining can be called on a nil value, the result of an
optional chaining call is always an optional value, even if the property, method, or
subscript you are querying returns a nonoptional value. You can use this optional
return value to check whether the optional chaining call was successful (the returned
optional contains a value), or did not succeed due to a nil value in the chain (the
returned optional value is nil).
Specifically, the result of an optional chaining call is of the same type as the
expected return value, but wrapped in an optional. A property that normally returns
an Int will return an Int? when accessed through optional chaining.
The next several code snippets demonstrate how optional chaining differs from

forced unwrapping and enables you to check for success.

First, two classes called Person and Residence are defined:
1

class Person {

var residence: Residence?

class Residence {

var numberOfRooms = 1

Residence instances have a single Int property called numberOfRooms, with a default

value of 1. Person instances have an optional residence property of type Residence?.

If you create a new Person instance, its residence property is default initialized to
nil, by virtue of being optional. In the code below, john has a residence property
value of nil:

let john = Person()

If you try to access the numberOfRooms property of this persons residence, by

placing an exclamation mark after residence to force the unwrapping of its value,
you trigger a runtime error, because there is no residence value to unwrap:
1

let roomCount = john.residence!.numberOfRooms

// this triggers a runtime error

The code above succeeds when john.residence has a non-nil value and will set
roomCount to an Int value containing the appropriate number of rooms. However,
this code always triggers a runtime error when residence is nil, as illustrated
above.

Optional chaining provides an alternative way to access the value of numberOfRooms.

To use optional chaining, use a question mark in place of the exclamation mark:
1

if let roomCount = john.residence?.numberOfRooms {

print("John's residence has \(roomCount) room(s).")

} else {

print("Unable to retrieve the number of rooms.")

// prints "Unable to retrieve the number of rooms."

This tells Swift to chain on the optional residence property and to retrieve the
value of numberOfRooms if residence exists.
Because the attempt to access numberOfRooms has the potential to fail, the optional
chaining attempt returns a value of type Int?, or optional Int. When residence is
nil, as in the example above, this optional Int will also be nil, to reflect the fact that
it was not possible to access numberOfRooms. The optional Int is accessed through
optional binding to unwrap the integer and assign the nonoptional value to the
roomCount variable.
Note that this is true even though numberOfRooms is a nonoptional Int. The fact that it
is queried through an optional chain means that the call to numberOfRooms will
always return an Int? instead of an Int.
You can assign a Residence instance to john.residence, so that it no longer has a nil
value:

john.residence = Residence()

john.residence now contains an actual Residence instance, rather than nil. If you try

to access numberOfRooms with the same optional chaining as before, it will now
return an Int? that contains the default numberOfRooms value of 1:

if let roomCount = john.residence?.numberOfRooms {

print("John's residence has \(roomCount) room(s).")

} else {

print("Unable to retrieve the number of rooms.")

// prints "John's residence has 1 room(s)."

Defining Model Classes for Optional Chaining

You can use optional chaining with calls to properties, methods, and subscripts that
are more than one level deep. This enables you to drill down into subproperties
within complex models of interrelated types, and to check whether it is possible to
access properties, methods, and subscripts on those subproperties.
The code snippets below define four model classes for use in several subsequent
examples, including examples of multilevel optional chaining. These classes expand
upon the Person and Residence model from above by adding a Room and Address
class, with associated properties, methods, and subscripts.
The Person class is defined in the same way as before:
1

class Person {

var residence: Residence?

The Residence class is more complex than before. This time, the Residence class
defines a variable property called rooms, which is initialized with an empty array of
type [Room]:

class Residence {

var rooms = [Room]()

var numberOfRooms: Int {

return rooms.count

subscript(i: Int) -> Room {

get {

return rooms[i]

}
set {
rooms[i] = newValue
}
}
func printNumberOfRooms() {
print("The number of rooms is \(numberOfRooms)")
}
var address: Address?
}

Because this version of Residence stores an array of Room instances, its

numberOfRooms property is implemented as a computed property, not a stored
property. The computed numberOfRooms property simply returns the value of the
count property from the rooms array.
As a shortcut to accessing its rooms array, this version of Residence provides a readwrite subscript that provides access to the room at the requested index in the rooms

array.
This version of Residence also provides a method called printNumberOfRooms, which
simply prints the number of rooms in the residence.
Finally, Residence defines an optional property called address, with a type of
Address?. The Address class type for this property is defined below.
The Room class used for the rooms array is a simple class with one property called
name, and an initializer to set that property to a suitable room name:
1

class Room {

let name: String

init(name: String) { self.name = name }

The final class in this model is called Address. This class has three optional
properties of type String?. The first two properties, buildingName and
buildingNumber, are alternative ways to identify a particular building as part of an
address. The third property, street, is used to name the street for that address:

class Address {

var buildingName: String?

var buildingNumber: String?

var street: String?

func buildingIdentifier() -> String? {

if buildingName != nil {

return buildingName

} else if buildingNumber != nil && street != nil {

return "\(buildingNumber) \(street)"

} else {
return nil
}
}
}

The Address class also provides a method called buildingIdentifier(), which has a
return type of String?. This method checks the properties of the address and returns
buildingName if it has a value, or buildingNumber concatenated with street if both
have values, or nil otherwise.

Accessing Properties Through Optional Chaining

As demonstrated in Optional Chaining as an Alternative to Forced Unwrapping, you
can use optional chaining to access a property on an optional value, and to check if
that property access is successful.
Use the classes defined above to create a new Person instance, and try to access its
numberOfRooms property as before:

let john = Person()

if let roomCount = john.residence?.numberOfRooms {

print("John's residence has \(roomCount) room(s).")

} else {

print("Unable to retrieve the number of rooms.")

// prints "Unable to retrieve the number of rooms."

Because john.residence is nil, this optional chaining call fails in the same way as
before.
You can also attempt to set a propertys value through optional chaining:
1

let someAddress = Address()

someAddress.buildingNumber = "29"

someAddress.street = "Acacia Road"

john.residence?.address = someAddress

In this example, the attempt to set the address property of john.residence will fail,
because john.residence is currently nil.
The assignment is part of the optional chaining, which means none of the code on
the right hand side of the = operator is evaluated. In the previous example, its not
easy to see that someAddress is never evaluated, because accessing a constant doesnt
have any side effects. The listing below does the same assignment, but it uses a
function to create the address. The function prints Function was called before
returning a value, which lets you see whether the right hand side of the = operator
was evaluated.

func createAddress() -> Address {

print("Function was called.")

let someAddress = Address()

someAddress.buildingNumber = "29"

someAddress.street = "Acacia Road"

return someAddress

}
john.residence?.address = createAddress()

You can tell that the createAddress() function isnt called, because nothing is
printed.

Calling Methods Through Optional Chaining

You can use optional chaining to call a method on an optional value, and to check
whether that method call is successful. You can do this even if that method does not
define a return value.
The printNumberOfRooms() method on the Residence class prints the current value of
numberOfRooms. Heres how the method looks:
1

func printNumberOfRooms() {

print("The number of rooms is \(numberOfRooms)")

This method does not specify a return type. However, functions and methods with no
return type have an implicit return type of Void, as described in Functions Without

Return Values. This means that they return a value of (), or an empty tuple.
If you call this method on an optional value with optional chaining, the methods
return type will be Void?, not Void, because return values are always of an optional
type when called through optional chaining. This enables you to use an if statement
to check whether it was possible to call the printNumberOfRooms() method, even
though the method does not itself define a return value. Compare the return value
from the printNumberOfRooms call against nil to see if the method call was
successful:
1

if john.residence?.printNumberOfRooms() != nil {

print("It was possible to print the number of rooms.")

} else {

print("It was not possible to print the number of rooms.")

// prints "It was not possible to print the number of rooms."

The same is true if you attempt to set a property through optional chaining. The
example above in Accessing Properties Through Optional Chaining attempts to set
an address value for john.residence, even though the residence property is nil.
Any attempt to set a property through optional chaining returns a value of type
Void?, which enables you to compare against nil to see if the property was set
successfully:
1

if (john.residence?.address = someAddress) != nil {

print("It was possible to set the address.")

} else {

print("It was not possible to set the address.")

// prints "It was not possible to set the address."

Accessing Subscripts Through Optional Chaining

You can use optional chaining to try to retrieve and set a value from a subscript on
an optional value, and to check whether that subscript call is successful.

N OTE
When you access a subscript on an optional value through optional chaining, you place the question
mark before the subscripts brackets, not after. The optional chaining question mark always follows
immediately after the part of the expression that is optional.

The example below tries to retrieve the name of the first room in the rooms array of
the john.residence property using the subscript defined on the Residence class.
Because john.residence is currently nil, the subscript call fails:
1

if let firstRoomName = john.residence?[0].name {

print("The first room name is \(firstRoomName).")

} else {

print("Unable to retrieve the first room name.")

// prints "Unable to retrieve the first room name."

The optional chaining question mark in this subscript call is placed immediately
after john.residence, before the subscript brackets, because john.residence is the
optional value on which optional chaining is being attempted.
Similarly, you can try to set a new value through a subscript with optional chaining:

john.residence?[0] = Room(name: "Bathroom")

This subscript setting attempt also fails, because residence is currently nil.

If you create and assign an actual Residence instance to john.residence, with one or
more Room instances in its rooms array, you can use the Residence subscript to access
the actual items in the rooms array through optional chaining:
1

let johnsHouse = Residence()

johnsHouse.rooms.append(Room(name: "Living Room"))

johnsHouse.rooms.append(Room(name: "Kitchen"))

john.residence = johnsHouse

if let firstRoomName = john.residence?[0].name {

print("The first room name is \(firstRoomName).")

} else {

print("Unable to retrieve the first room name.")

}
// prints "The first room name is Living Room."

Accessing Subscripts of Optional Type

If a subscript returns a value of optional typesuch as the key subscript of Swifts
Dictionary typeplace a question mark after the subscripts closing bracket to
chain on its optional return value:

var testScores = ["Dave": [86, 82, 84], "Bev": [79, 94, 81]]

testScores["Dave"]?[0] = 91

testScores["Bev"]?[0]++

testScores["Brian"]?[0] = 72

// the "Dave" array is now [91, 82, 84] and the "Bev" array is now
[80, 94, 81]

The example above defines a dictionary called testScores, which contains two keyvalue pairs that map a String key to an array of Int values. The example uses
optional chaining to set the first item in the "Dave" array to 91; to increment the first
item in the "Bev" array by 1; and to try to set the first item in an array for a key of
"Brian". The first two calls succeed, because the testScores dictionary contains keys
for "Dave" and "Bev". The third call fails, because the testScores dictionary does not
contain a key for "Brian".

Linking Multiple Levels of Chaining

You can link together multiple levels of optional chaining to drill down to
properties, methods, and subscripts deeper within a model. However, multiple levels
of optional chaining do not add more levels of optionality to the returned value.
To put it another way:
If the type you are trying to retrieve is not optional, it will become optional
because of the optional chaining.
If the type you are trying to retrieve is already optional, it will not become
more optional because of the chaining.
Therefore:
If you try to retrieve an Int value through optional chaining, an Int? is
always returned, no matter how many levels of chaining are used.

 Similarly, if you try to retrieve an Int? value through optional chaining, an

Int? is always returned, no matter how many levels of chaining are used.
The example below tries to access the street property of the address property of the
residence property of john. There are two levels of optional chaining in use here, to
chain through the residence and address properties, both of which are of optional
type:
1

if let johnsStreet = john.residence?.address?.street {

print("John's street name is \(johnsStreet).")

} else {

print("Unable to retrieve the address.")

// prints "Unable to retrieve the address."

The value of john.residence currently contains a valid Residence instance.

However, the value of john.residence.address is currently nil. Because of this, the
call to john.residence?.address?.street fails.
Note that in the example above, you are trying to retrieve the value of the street
property. The type of this property is String?. The return value of
john.residence?.address?.street is therefore also String?, even though two levels
of optional chaining are applied in addition to the underlying optional type of the
property.
If you set an actual Address instance as the value for john.residence.address, and set
an actual value for the addresss street property, you can access the value of the
street property through multilevel optional chaining:

let johnsAddress = Address()

johnsAddress.buildingName = "The Larches"

johnsAddress.street = "Laurel Street"

john.residence?.address = johnsAddress

if let johnsStreet = john.residence?.address?.street {

print("John's street name is \(johnsStreet).")

} else {

print("Unable to retrieve the address.")

}
// prints "John's street name is Laurel Street."

In this example, the attempt to set the address property of john.residence will
succeed, because the value of john.residence currently contains a valid Residence
instance.

Chaining on Methods with Optional Return Values

The previous example shows how to retrieve the value of a property of optional
type through optional chaining. You can also use optional chaining to call a method
that returns a value of optional type, and to chain on that methods return value if
needed.
The example below calls the Address classs buildingIdentifier() method through
optional chaining. This method returns a value of type String?. As described above,
the ultimate return type of this method call after optional chaining is also String?:

if let buildingIdentifier =
john.residence?.address?.buildingIdentifier() {

print("John's building identifier is \(buildingIdentifier).")

// prints "John's building identifier is The Larches."

If you want to perform further optional chaining on this methods return value,
place the optional chaining question mark after the methods parentheses:
1

if let beginsWithThe =

john.residence?.address?.buildingIdentifier()?.hasPrefix("The")
{

if beginsWithThe {

print("John's building identifier begins with

\"The\".")

} else {

print("John's building identifier does not begin with

\"The\".")

// prints "John's building identifier begins with "The"."

N OTE
In the example above, you place the optional chaining question mark after the parentheses, because
the optional value you are chaining on is the buildingIdentifier() methods return value, and
not the buildingIdentifier() method itself.

Error Handling
Error handling is the process of responding to and recovering from error
conditions in your program. Swift provides first-class support for throwing,
catching, propagating, and manipulating recoverable errors at runtime.
Some operations arent guaranteed to always complete execution or produce a
useful output. Optionals are used to represent the absence of a value, but when an
operation fails, its often useful to understand what caused the failure, so that your
code can respond accordingly.
As an example, consider the task of reading and processing data from a file on disk.
There are a number of ways this task can fail, including the file not existing at the
specified path, the file not having read permissions, or the file not being encoded in
a compatible format. Distinguishing among these different situations allows a
program to resolve some errors and to communicate to the user any errors it cant
resolve.

N OTE
Error handling in Swift interoperates with error handling patterns that use the NSError class in Cocoa
and Objective-C. For more information about this class, see Error Handling in Using Swift with Cocoa
and Objective-C (Swift 2.1).

Representing and Throwing Errors

In Swift, errors are represented by values of types that conform to the ErrorType
protocol. This empty protocol indicates that a type can be used for error handling.
Swift enumerations are particularly well suited to modeling a group of related error
conditions, with associated values allowing for additional information about the
nature of an error to be communicated. For example, heres how you might
represent the error conditions of operating a vending machine inside a game:

enum VendingMachineError: ErrorType {

case InvalidSelection

case InsufficientFunds(coinsNeeded: Int)

case OutOfStock

Throwing an error lets you indicate that something unexpected happened and the
normal flow of execution cant continue. You use a throw statement to throw an
error. For example, the following code throws an error to indicate that five
additional coins are needed by the vending machine:

throw VendingMachineError.InsufficientFunds(coinsNeeded: 5)

Handling Errors
When an error is thrown, some surrounding piece of code must be responsible for
handling the errorfor example, by correcting the problem, trying an alternative
approach, or informing the user of the failure.
There are four ways to handle errors in Swift. You can propagate the error from a
function to the code that calls that function, handle the error using a do-catch
statement, handle the error as an optional value, or assert that the error will not
occur. Each approach is described in a section below.
When a function throws an error, it changes the flow of your program, so its
important that you can quickly identify places in your code that can throw errors. To
identify these places in your code, write the try keywordor the try? or try!
variationbefore a piece of code that calls a function, method, or initializer that
can throw an error. These keywords are described in the sections below.

N OTE
Error handling in Swift resembles exception handling in other languages, with the use of the try,
catch and throw keywords. Unlike exception handling in many languagesincluding Objective-C
error handling in Swift does not involve unwinding the call stack, a process that can be
computationally expensive. As such, the performance characteristics of a throw statement are
comparable to those of a return statement.

Propagating Errors Using Throwing Functions

To indicate that a function, method, or initializer can throw an error, you write the
throws keyword in the functions declaration after its parameters. A function marked
with throws is called a throwing function. If the function specifies a return type, you
write the throws keyword before the return arrow (->).
1

func canThrowErrors() throws -> String

func cannotThrowErrors() -> String

A throwing function propagates errors that are thrown inside of it to the scope from
which its called.

N OTE
Only throwing functions can propagate errors. Any errors thrown inside a nonthrowing function must
be handled inside the function.

In the example below, the VendingMachine class has a vend(itemNamed:) method that
throws an appropriate VendingMachineError if the requested item is not available, is
out of stock, or has a cost that exceeds the current deposited amount:
1

struct Item {

var price: Int

var count: Int

class VendingMachine {

var inventory = [

"Candy Bar": Item(price: 12, count: 7),

"Chips": Item(price: 10, count: 4),

"Pretzels": Item(price: 7, count: 11)
]
var coinsDeposited = 0
func dispenseSnack(snack: String) {
print("Dispensing \(snack)")
}

func vend(itemNamed name: String) throws {
guard var item = inventory[name] else {
throw VendingMachineError.InvalidSelection
}

guard item.count > 0 else {
throw VendingMachineError.OutOfStock
}


guard item.price <= coinsDeposited else {
throw VendingMachineError.InsufficientFunds(coinsNeeded:
item.price - coinsDeposited)
}

coinsDeposited -= item.price
--item.count
inventory[name] = item
dispenseSnack(name)
}
}

The implementation of the vend(itemNamed:) method uses guard statements to exit

the method early and throw appropriate errors if any of the requirements for
purchasing a snack arent met. Because a throw statement immediately transfers
program control, an item will be vended only if all of these requirements are met.
Because the vend(itemNamed:) method propagates any errors it throws, places in
your code that call it must either handle the errors directlyusing a do-catch
statement, try?, or try!or continue to propagate them. For example, the
buyFavoriteSnack(_:vendingMachine:) in the example below is also a throwing
function, and any errors that the vend(itemNamed:) method throws will propagate up
to the point where the buyFavoriteSnack(_:vendingMachine:) function is called.

let favoriteSnacks = [

"Alice": "Chips",

"Bob": "Licorice",

"Eve": "Pretzels",

func buyFavoriteSnack(person: String, vendingMachine:

VendingMachine) throws {

let snackName = favoriteSnacks[person] ?? "Candy Bar"

try vendingMachine.vend(itemNamed: snackName)

In this example, the buyFavoriteSnack(_:vendingMachine:) function looks up a given

persons favorite snack and tries to buy it for them by calling the vend(itemNamed:)
method. Because the vend(itemNamed:) method can throw an error, its called with
the try keyword in front of it.

Handling Errors Using Do-Catch

You use a do-catch statement to handle errors by running a block of code. If an
error is thrown by the code in the do clause, it is matched against the catch clauses
to determine which one of them can handle the error.
Here is the general form of a do-catch statement:

do {
try expression
statements
} catch pattern 1 {
statements
} catch pattern 2 where condition {
statements
}

You write a pattern after catch to indicate what errors that clause can handle. If a
catch clause doesnt have a pattern, the clause matches any error and binds the error
to a local constant named error. For more information about pattern matching, see
Patterns.
The catch clauses dont have to handle every possible error that the code in its do
clause can throw. If none of the catch clauses handle the error, the error propagates
to the surrounding scope. However, the error must handled by some surrounding
scopeeither by an enclosing do-catch clause that handles the error or by being
inside a throwing function. For example, the following code handles all three cases
of the VendingMachineError enumeration, but all other errors have to be handled by
its surrounding scope:

var vendingMachine = VendingMachine()

vendingMachine.coinsDeposited = 8

do {

try buyFavoriteSnack("Alice", vendingMachine: vendingMachine)

} catch VendingMachineError.InvalidSelection {

print("Invalid Selection.")

} catch VendingMachineError.OutOfStock {

print("Out of Stock.")

} catch VendingMachineError.InsufficientFunds(let coinsNeeded) {

print("Insufficient funds. Please insert an additional \
(coinsNeeded) coins.")
}
// prints "Insufficient funds. Please insert an additional 2 coins."

In the above example, the buyFavoriteSnack(_:vendingMachine:) function is called

in a try expression, because it can throw an error. If an error is thrown, execution
immediately transfers to the catch clauses, which decide whether to allow
propagation to continue. If no error is thrown, the remaining statements in the do
statement are executed.

Converting Errors to Optional Values

You use try? to handle an error by converting it to an optional value. If an error is
thrown while evaluating the try? expression, the value of the expression is nil. For
example, in the following code x and y have the same value and behavior:

func someThrowingFunction() throws -> Int {

// ...

let x = try? someThrowingFunction()

let y: Int?

do {

y = try someThrowingFunction()
} catch {
y = nil
}

If someThrowingFunction() throws an error, the value of x and y is nil. Otherwise,

the value of x and y is the value that the function returned. Note that x and y are an
optional of whatever type someThrowingFunction() returns. Here the function returns
an integer, so x and y are optional integers.
Using try? lets you write concise error handling code when you want to handle all
errors in the same way. For example, the following code uses several approaches to
fetch data, or returns nil if all of the approaches fail.
1

func fetchData() -> Data? {

if let data = try? fetchDataFromDisk() { return data }

if let data = try? fetchDataFromServer() { return data }

return nil

Disabling Error Propagation

Sometimes you know a throwing function or method wont, in fact, throw an error
at runtime. On those occasions, you can write try! before the expression to disable
error propagation and wrap the call in a runtime assertion that no error will be
thrown. If an error actually is thrown, youll get a runtime error.
For example, the following code uses a loadImage(_:) function, which loads the
image resource at a given path or throws an error if the image cant be loaded. In
this case, because the image is shipped with the application, no error will be thrown
at runtime, so it is appropriate to disable error propagation.

let photo = try! loadImage("./Resources/John Appleseed.jpg")

Specifying Cleanup Actions

You use a defer statement to execute a set of statements just before code execution
leaves the current block of code. This statement lets you do any necessary cleanup
that should be performed regardless of how execution leaves the current block of
codewhether it leaves because an error was thrown or because of a statement such
as return or break. For example, you can use a defer statement to ensure that file
descriptors are closed and manually allocated memory is freed.
A defer statement defers execution until the current scope is exited. This statement
consists of the defer keyword and the statements to be executed later. The deferred
statements may not contain any code that would transfer control out of the
statements, such as a break or a return statement, or by throwing an error. Deferred
actions are executed in reverse order of how they are specifiedthat is, the code in
the first defer statement executes after code in the second, and so on.

func processFile(filename: String) throws {

if exists(filename) {

let file = open(filename)

defer {

close(file)

while let line = try file.readline() {

// Work with the file.

}
// close(file) is called here, at the end of the scope.
}
}

The above example uses a defer statement to ensure that the open(_:) function has a
corresponding call to close(_:).

N OTE
You can use a defer statement even when no error handling code is involved.

Type Casting
Type casting is a way to check the type of an instance, or to treat that instance as a
different superclass or subclass from somewhere else in its own class hierarchy.
Type casting in Swift is implemented with the is and as operators. These two
operators provide a simple and expressive way to check the type of a value or cast a
value to a different type.
You can also use type casting to check whether a type conforms to a protocol, as
described in Checking for Protocol Conformance.

Defining a Class Hierarchy for Type Casting

You can use type casting with a hierarchy of classes and subclasses to check the type
of a particular class instance and to cast that instance to another class within the
same hierarchy. The three code snippets below define a hierarchy of classes and an
array containing instances of those classes, for use in an example of type casting.
The first snippet defines a new base class called MediaItem. This class provides basic
functionality for any kind of item that appears in a digital media library.
Specifically, it declares a name property of type String, and an init name initializer.
(It is assumed that all media items, including all movies and songs, will have a
name.)
1

class MediaItem {

var name: String

init(name: String) {

self.name = name

The next snippet defines two subclasses of MediaItem. The first subclass, Movie,
encapsulates additional information about a movie or film. It adds a director
property on top of the base MediaItem class, with a corresponding initializer. The
second subclass, Song, adds an artist property and initializer on top of the base
class:
1

class Movie: MediaItem {

var director: String

init(name: String, director: String) {

self.director = director

super.init(name: name)

class Song: MediaItem {

var artist: String
init(name: String, artist: String) {
self.artist = artist
super.init(name: name)
}
}

The final snippet creates a constant array called library, which contains two Movie
instances and three Song instances. The type of the library array is inferred by
initializing it with the contents of an array literal. Swifts type checker is able to
deduce that Movie and Song have a common superclass of MediaItem, and so it infers
a type of [MediaItem] for the library array:

let library = [

Movie(name: "Casablanca", director: "Michael Curtiz"),

Song(name: "Blue Suede Shoes", artist: "Elvis Presley"),

Movie(name: "Citizen Kane", director: "Orson Welles"),

Song(name: "The One And Only", artist: "Chesney Hawkes"),

Song(name: "Never Gonna Give You Up", artist: "Rick Astley")

// the type of "library" is inferred to be [MediaItem]

The items stored in library are still Movie and Song instances behind the scenes.
However, if you iterate over the contents of this array, the items you receive back
are typed as MediaItem, and not as Movie or Song. In order to work with them as their
native type, you need to check their type, or downcast them to a different type, as
described below.

Checking Type
Use the type check operator (is) to check whether an instance is of a certain subclass
type. The type check operator returns true if the instance is of that subclass type and
false if it is not.
The example below defines two variables, movieCount and songCount, which count
the number of Movie and Song instances in the library array:

var movieCount = 0

var songCount = 0

for item in library {

if item is Movie {

++movieCount

} else if item is Song {

++songCount

}
}

print("Media library contains \(movieCount) movies and \(songCount)
songs")
// prints "Media library contains 2 movies and 3 songs"

This example iterates through all items in the library array. On each pass, the forin loop sets the item constant to the next MediaItem in the array.
item is Movie returns true if the current MediaItem is a Movie instance and false if it

is not. Similarly, item is Song checks whether the item is a Song instance. At the end
of the for-in loop, the values of movieCount and songCount contain a count of how
many MediaItem instances were found of each type.

Downcasting
A constant or variable of a certain class type may actually refer to an instance of a
subclass behind the scenes. Where you believe this is the case, you can try to
downcast to the subclass type with a type cast operator (as? or as!).

Because downcasting can fail, the type cast operator comes in two different forms.
The conditional form, as?, returns an optional value of the type you are trying to
downcast to. The forced form, as!, attempts the downcast and force-unwraps the
result as a single compound action.
Use the conditional form of the type cast operator (as?) when you are not sure if the
downcast will succeed. This form of the operator will always return an optional
value, and the value will be nil if the downcast was not possible. This enables you to
check for a successful downcast.
Use the forced form of the type cast operator (as!) only when you are sure that the
downcast will always succeed. This form of the operator will trigger a runtime
error if you try to downcast to an incorrect class type.
The example below iterates over each MediaItem in library, and prints an
appropriate description for each item. To do this, it needs to access each item as a
true Movie or Song, and not just as a MediaItem. This is necessary in order for it to be
able to access the director or artist property of a Movie or Song for use in the
description.
In this example, each item in the array might be a Movie, or it might be a Song. You
dont know in advance which actual class to use for each item, and so it is
appropriate to use the conditional form of the type cast operator (as?) to check the
downcast each time through the loop:

for item in library {

if let movie = item as? Movie {

print("Movie: '\(movie.name)', dir. \(movie.director)")

} else if let song = item as? Song {

print("Song: '\(song.name)', by \(song.artist)")

// Movie: 'Casablanca', dir. Michael Curtiz

// Song: 'Blue Suede Shoes', by Elvis Presley
// Movie: 'Citizen Kane', dir. Orson Welles
// Song: 'The One And Only', by Chesney Hawkes
// Song: 'Never Gonna Give You Up', by Rick Astley

The example starts by trying to downcast the current item as a Movie. Because item is
a MediaItem instance, its possible that it might be a Movie; equally, its also possible
that it might be a Song, or even just a base MediaItem. Because of this uncertainty, the
as? form of the type cast operator returns an optional value when attempting to
downcast to a subclass type. The result of item as? Movie is of type Movie?, or
optional Movie.
Downcasting to Movie fails when applied to the Song instances in the library array.
To cope with this, the example above uses optional binding to check whether the
optional Movie actually contains a value (that is, to find out whether the downcast
succeeded.) This optional binding is written if let movie = item as? Movie,
which can be read as:
Try to access item as a Movie. If this is successful, set a new temporary constant
called movie to the value stored in the returned optional Movie.
If the downcasting succeeds, the properties of movie are then used to print a

description for that Movie instance, including the name of its director. A similar
principle is used to check for Song instances, and to print an appropriate description
(including artist name) whenever a Song is found in the library.

N OTE
Casting does not actually modify the instance or change its values. The underlying instance remains
the same; it is simply treated and accessed as an instance of the type to which it has been cast.

Type Casting for Any and AnyObject

Swift provides two special type aliases for working with non-specific types:

AnyObject can represent an instance of any class type.

Any can represent an instance of any type at all, including function types.

N OTE
Use Any and AnyObject only when you explicitly need the behavior and capabilities they provide.
It is always better to be specific about the types you expect to work with in your code.

AnyObject
When working with Cocoa APIs, it is common to receive an array with a type of
[AnyObject], or an array of values of any object type. This is because Objective-C
does not have explicitly typed arrays. However, you can often be confident about the
type of objects contained in such an array just from the information you know about
the API that provided the array.
In these situations, you can use the forced version of the type cast operator (as!) to
downcast each item in the array to a more specific class type than AnyObject, without
the need for optional unwrapping.

The example below defines an array of type [AnyObject] and populates this array
with three instances of the Movie class:
1

let someObjects: [AnyObject] = [

Movie(name: "2001: A Space Odyssey", director: "Stanley

Kubrick"),

Movie(name: "Moon", director: "Duncan Jones"),

Movie(name: "Alien", director: "Ridley Scott")

Because this array is known to contain only Movie instances, you can downcast and
unwrap directly to a nonoptional Movie with the forced version of the type cast
operator (as!):
1

for object in someObjects {

let movie = object as! Movie

print("Movie: '\(movie.name)', dir. \(movie.director)")

// Movie: '2001: A Space Odyssey', dir. Stanley Kubrick

// Movie: 'Moon', dir. Duncan Jones

// Movie: 'Alien', dir. Ridley Scott

For an even shorter form of this loop, downcast the someObjects array to a type of
[Movie] instead of downcasting each item:

for movie in someObjects as! [Movie] {

print("Movie: '\(movie.name)', dir. \(movie.director)")

// Movie: '2001: A Space Odyssey', dir. Stanley Kubrick

// Movie: 'Moon', dir. Duncan Jones

// Movie: 'Alien', dir. Ridley Scott

Any
Heres an example of using Any to work with a mix of different types, including
function types and non-class types. The example creates an array called things,
which can store values of type Any:
1

var things = [Any]()

things.append(0)

things.append(0.0)

things.append(42)

things.append(3.14159)

things.append("hello")

things.append((3.0, 5.0))

things.append(Movie(name: "Ghostbusters", director: "Ivan

Reitman"))
things.append({ (name: String) -> String in "Hello, \(name)" })

The things array contains two Int values, two Double values, a String value, a tuple
of type (Double, Double), the movie Ghostbusters, and a closure expression that
takes a String value and returns another String value.
You can use the is and as operators in a switch statements cases to discover the
specific type of a constant or variable that is known only to be of type Any or
AnyObject. The example below iterates over the items in the things array and
queries the type of each item with a switch statement. Several of the switch
statements cases bind their matched value to a constant of the specified type to
enable its value to be printed:
1

for thing in things {

switch thing {

case 0 as Int:

print("zero as an Int")

case 0 as Double:

print("zero as a Double")

case let someInt as Int:

print("an integer value of \(someInt)")

case let someDouble as Double where someDouble > 0:

print("a positive double value of \(someDouble)")
case is Double:
print("some other double value that I don't want to print")
case let someString as String:
print("a string value of \"\(someString)\"")
case let (x, y) as (Double, Double):
print("an (x, y) point at \(x), \(y)")
case let movie as Movie:

 print("a movie called '\(movie.name)', dir. \(movie.director)")

case let stringConverter as String -> String:
print(stringConverter("Michael"))
default:
print("something else")
}
}

// zero as an Int
// zero as a Double
// an integer value of 42
// a positive double value of 3.14159
// a string value of "hello"
// an (x, y) point at 3.0, 5.0
// a movie called 'Ghostbusters', dir. Ivan Reitman
// Hello, Michael

Nested Types
Enumerations are often created to support a specific class or structures
functionality. Similarly, it can be convenient to define utility classes and structures
purely for use within the context of a more complex type. To accomplish this, Swift
enables you to define nested types, whereby you nest supporting enumerations,
classes, and structures within the definition of the type they support.
To nest a type within another type, write its definition within the outer braces of the
type it supports. Types can be nested to as many levels as are required.

Nested Types in Action

The example below defines a structure called BlackjackCard, which models a
playing card as used in the game of Blackjack. The BlackJack structure contains two
nested enumeration types called Suit and Rank.
In Blackjack, the Ace cards have a value of either one or eleven. This feature is
represented by a structure called Values, which is nested within the Rank
enumeration:
1

struct BlackjackCard {

// nested Suit enumeration

enum Suit: Character {

case Spades = "", Hearts = "", Diamonds = "", Clubs =

""

// nested Rank enumeration

enum Rank: Int {

case Two = 2, Three, Four, Five, Six, Seven, Eight, Nine, Ten
case Jack, Queen, King, Ace
struct Values {
let first: Int, second: Int?
}
var values: Values {
switch self {
case .Ace:
return Values(first: 1, second: 11)
case .Jack, .Queen, .King:
return Values(first: 10, second: nil)
default:
return Values(first: self.rawValue, second: nil)
}
}
}

// BlackjackCard properties and methods
let rank: Rank, suit: Suit
var description: String {
var output = "suit is \(suit.rawValue),"

 output += " value is \(rank.values.first)"

if let second = rank.values.second {
output += " or \(second)"
}
return output
}
}

The Suit enumeration describes the four common playing card suits, together with
a raw Character value to represent their symbol.
The Rank enumeration describes the thirteen possible playing card ranks, together
with a raw Int value to represent their face value. (This raw Int value is not used for
the Jack, Queen, King, and Ace cards.)
As mentioned above, the Rank enumeration defines a further nested structure of its
own, called Values. This structure encapsulates the fact that most cards have one
value, but the Ace card has two values. The Values structure defines two properties
to represent this:

first, of type Int

second, of type Int?, or optional Int

Rank also defines a computed property, values, which returns an instance of the
Values structure. This computed property considers the rank of the card and

initializes a new Values instance with appropriate values based on its rank. It uses
special values for Jack, Queen, King, and Ace. For the numeric cards, it uses the
ranks raw Int value.
The BlackjackCard structure itself has two propertiesrank and suit. It also defines
a computed property called description, which uses the values stored in rank and
suit to build a description of the name and value of the card. The description
property uses optional binding to check whether there is a second value to display,
and if so, inserts additional description detail for that second value.

Because BlackjackCard is a structure with no custom initializers, it has an implicit

memberwise initializer, as described in Memberwise Initializers for Structure
Types. You can use this initializer to initialize a new constant called theAceOfSpades:
1

let theAceOfSpades = BlackjackCard(rank: .Ace, suit: .Spades)

print("theAceOfSpades: \(theAceOfSpades.description)")

// prints "theAceOfSpades: suit is , value is 1 or 11"

Even though Rank and Suit are nested within BlackjackCard, their type can be
inferred from context, and so the initialization of this instance is able to refer to the
enumeration cases by their case names (.Ace and .Spades) alone. In the example
above, the description property correctly reports that the Ace of Spades has a value
of 1 or 11.

Referring to Nested Types

To use a nested type outside of its definition context, prefix its name with the name
of the type it is nested within:
1

let heartsSymbol = BlackjackCard.Suit.Hearts.rawValue

// heartsSymbol is ""

For the example above, this enables the names of Suit, Rank, and Values to be kept
deliberately short, because their names are naturally qualified by the context in
which they are defined.

Extensions
Extensions add new functionality to an existing class, structure, enumeration, or
protocol type. This includes the ability to extend types for which you do not have
access to the original source code (known as retroactive modeling). Extensions are
similar to categories in Objective-C. (Unlike Objective-C categories, Swift
extensions do not have names.)
Extensions in Swift can:

Add computed properties and computed type properties

Define instance methods and type methods
Provide new initializers
Define subscripts
Define and use new nested types
Make an existing type conform to a protocol

In Swift, you can even extend a protocol to provide implementations of its

requirements or add additional functionality that conforming types can take
advantage of. For more details, see Protocol Extensions.

N OTE
Extensions can add new functionality to a type, but they cannot override existing functionality.

Extension Syntax
Declare extensions with the extension keyword:

extension SomeType {

// new functionality to add to SomeType goes here

An extension can extend an existing type to make it adopt one or more protocols.
Where this is the case, the protocol names are written in exactly the same way as for
a class or structure:
1

extension SomeType: SomeProtocol, AnotherProtocol {

// implementation of protocol requirements goes here

Adding protocol conformance in this way is described in Adding Protocol

Conformance with an Extension.

N OTE
If you define an extension to add new functionality to an existing type, the new functionality will be
available on all existing instances of that type, even if they were created before the extension was
defined.

Computed Properties
Extensions can add computed instance properties and computed type properties to
existing types. This example adds five computed instance properties to Swifts builtin Double type, to provide basic support for working with distance units:

extension Double {

var km: Double { return self * 1_000.0 }

var m: Double { return self }

var cm: Double { return self / 100.0 }

var mm: Double { return self / 1_000.0 }

var ft: Double { return self / 3.28084 }

let oneInch = 25.4.mm

print("One inch is \(oneInch) meters")

// prints "One inch is 0.0254 meters"
let threeFeet = 3.ft
print("Three feet is \(threeFeet) meters")
// prints "Three feet is 0.914399970739201 meters"

These computed properties express that a Double value should be considered as a

certain unit of length. Although they are implemented as computed properties, the
names of these properties can be appended to a floating-point literal value with dot
syntax, as a way to use that literal value to perform distance conversions.
In this example, a Double value of 1.0 is considered to represent one meter. This is
why the m computed property returns selfthe expression 1.m is considered to
calculate a Double value of 1.0.
Other units require some conversion to be expressed as a value measured in meters.
One kilometer is the same as 1,000 meters, so the km computed property multiplies
the value by 1_000.00 to convert into a number expressed in meters. Similarly, there
are 3.28084 feet in a meter, and so the ft computed property divides the underlying
Double value by 3.28084, to convert it from feet to meters.
These properties are read-only computed properties, and so they are expressed
without the get keyword, for brevity. Their return value is of type Double, and can be

used within mathematical calculations wherever a Double is accepted:

1

let aMarathon = 42.km + 195.m

print("A marathon is \(aMarathon) meters long")

// prints "A marathon is 42195.0 meters long"

N OTE
Extensions can add new computed properties, but they cannot add stored properties, or add property
observers to existing properties.

Initializers
Extensions can add new initializers to existing types. This enables you to extend
other types to accept your own custom types as initializer parameters, or to provide
additional initialization options that were not included as part of the types original
implementation.
Extensions can add new convenience initializers to a class, but they cannot add new
designated initializers or deinitializers to a class. Designated initializers and
deinitializers must always be provided by the original class implementation.

N OTE
If you use an extension to add an initializer to a value type that provides default values for all of its
stored properties and does not define any custom initializers, you can call the default initializer and
memberwise initializer for that value type from within your extensions initializer.
This would not be the case if you had written the initializer as part of the value types original
implementation, as described in Initializer Delegation for Value Types.

The example below defines a custom Rect structure to represent a geometric

rectangle. The example also defines two supporting structures called Size and Point,
both of which provide default values of 0.0 for all of their properties:

struct Size {

var width = 0.0, height = 0.0

struct Point {

var x = 0.0, y = 0.0

struct Rect {

var origin = Point()

var size = Size()

}

Because the Rect structure provides default values for all of its properties, it
receives a default initializer and a memberwise initializer automatically, as
described in Default Initializers. These initializers can be used to create new Rect
instances:
1

let defaultRect = Rect()

let memberwiseRect = Rect(origin: Point(x: 2.0, y: 2.0),

size: Size(width: 5.0, height: 5.0))

You can extend the Rect structure to provide an additional initializer that takes a
specific center point and size:

extension Rect {

init(center: Point, size: Size) {

let originX = center.x - (size.width / 2)

let originY = center.y - (size.height / 2)

self.init(origin: Point(x: originX, y: originY), size:

size)

This new initializer starts by calculating an appropriate origin point based on the
provided center point and size value. The initializer then calls the structures
automatic memberwise initializer init(origin:size:), which stores the new origin
and size values in the appropriate properties:
1

let centerRect = Rect(center: Point(x: 4.0, y: 4.0),

size: Size(width: 3.0, height: 3.0))

// centerRect's origin is (2.5, 2.5) and its size is (3.0, 3.0)

N OTE
If you provide a new initializer with an extension, you are still responsible for making sure that each
instance is fully initialized once the initializer completes.

Methods
Extensions can add new instance methods and type methods to existing types. The
following example adds a new instance method called repetitions to the Int type:

extension Int {

func repetitions(task: () -> Void) {

for _ in 0..<self {

task()

The repetitions(_:) method takes a single argument of type () -> Void, which
indicates a function that has no parameters and does not return a value.
After defining this extension, you can call the repetitions(_:) method on any
integer number to perform a task that many number of times:
1

3.repetitions({

print("Hello!")

})

// Hello!

// Hello!

// Hello!

Use trailing closure syntax to make the call more succinct:

3.repetitions {

print("Goodbye!")

// Goodbye!

// Goodbye!

// Goodbye!

Mutating Instance Methods

Instance methods added with an extension can also modify (or mutate) the instance
itself. Structure and enumeration methods that modify self or its properties must
mark the instance method as mutating, just like mutating methods from an original
implementation.
The example below adds a new mutating method called square to Swifts Int type,
which squares the original value:
1

extension Int {

mutating func square() {

self = self * self

var someInt = 3

someInt.square()

// someInt is now 9

Subscripts
Extensions can add new subscripts to an existing type. This example adds an integer
subscript to Swifts built-in Int type. This subscript [n] returns the decimal digit n
places in from the right of the number:

123456789[0] returns 9
123456789[1] returns 8

and so on:

extension Int {

subscript(var digitIndex: Int) -> Int {

var decimalBase = 1

while digitIndex > 0 {

decimalBase *= 10

--digitIndex

return (self / decimalBase) % 10

}
}
746381295[0]
// returns 5
746381295[1]
// returns 9
746381295[2]
// returns 2
746381295[8]
// returns 7

If the Int value does not have enough digits for the requested index, the subscript
implementation returns 0, as if the number had been padded with zeros to the left:

746381295[9]

// returns 0, as if you had requested:

0746381295[9]

Nested Types
Extensions can add new nested types to existing classes, structures and
enumerations:
1

extension Int {

enum Kind {

case Negative, Zero, Positive

var kind: Kind {

switch self {

case 0:

return .Zero

case let x where x > 0:

return .Positive
default:
return .Negative
}
}
}

This example adds a new nested enumeration to Int. This enumeration, called Kind,
expresses the kind of number that a particular integer represents. Specifically, it
expresses whether the number is negative, zero, or positive.
This example also adds a new computed instance property to Int, called kind, which
returns the appropriate Kind enumeration case for that integer.
The nested enumeration can now be used with any Int value:
1

func printIntegerKinds(numbers: [Int]) {

for number in numbers {

switch number.kind {

case .Negative:

print("- ", terminator: "")

case .Zero:

print("0 ", terminator: "")

case .Positive:

print("+ ", terminator: "")

}
}
print("")
}
printIntegerKinds([3, 19, -27, 0, -6, 0, 7])
// prints "+ + - 0 - 0 +"

This function, printIntegerKinds, takes an input array of Int values and iterates
over those values in turn. For each integer in the array, the function considers the
kind computed property for that integer, and prints an appropriate description.

N OTE
number.kind is already known to be of type Int.Kind. Because of this, all of the Int.Kind
case values can be written in shorthand form inside the switch statement, such as .Negative
rather than Int.Kind.Negative.

Protocols
A protocol defines a blueprint of methods, properties, and other requirements that
suit a particular task or piece of functionality. The protocol can then be adopted by a
class, structure, or enumeration to provide an actual implementation of those
requirements. Any type that satisfies the requirements of a protocol is said to
conform to that protocol.
In addition to specifying requirements that conforming types must implement, you
can extend a protocol to implement some of these requirements or to implement
additional functionality that conforming types can take advantage of.

Protocol Syntax
You define protocols in a very similar way to classes, structures, and enumerations:
1

protocol SomeProtocol {

// protocol definition goes here

Custom types state that they adopt a particular protocol by placing the protocols
name after the types name, separated by a colon, as part of their definition. Multiple
protocols can be listed, and are separated by commas:
1

struct SomeStructure: FirstProtocol, AnotherProtocol {

// structure definition goes here

If a class has a superclass, list the superclass name before any protocols it adopts,
followed by a comma:

class SomeClass: SomeSuperclass, FirstProtocol, AnotherProtocol {

// class definition goes here

Property Requirements
A protocol can require any conforming type to provide an instance property or type
property with a particular name and type. The protocol doesnt specify whether the
property should be a stored property or a computed propertyit only specifies the
required property name and type. The protocol also specifies whether each property
must be gettable or gettable and settable.
If a protocol requires a property to be gettable and settable, that property
requirement cannot be fulfilled by a constant stored property or a read-only
computed property. If the protocol only requires a property to be gettable, the
requirement can be satisfied by any kind of property, and it is valid for the property
to be also settable if this is useful for your own code.
Property requirements are always declared as variable properties, prefixed with the
var keyword. Gettable and settable properties are indicated by writing { get set }
after their type declaration, and gettable properties are indicated by writing { get }.
1

protocol SomeProtocol {

var mustBeSettable: Int { get set }

var doesNotNeedToBeSettable: Int { get }

Always prefix type property requirements with the static keyword when you define
them in a protocol. This rule pertains even though type property requirements can
be prefixed with the class or static keyword when implemented by a class:

protocol AnotherProtocol {

static var someTypeProperty: Int { get set }

Heres an example of a protocol with a single instance property requirement:

1

protocol FullyNamed {

var fullName: String { get }

The FullyNamed protocol requires a conforming type to provide a fully-qualified

name. The protocol doesnt specify anything else about the nature of the
conforming typeit only specifies that the type must be able to provide a full name
for itself. The protocol states that any FullyNamed type must have a gettable instance
property called fullName, which is of type String.
Heres an example of a simple structure that adopts and conforms to the FullyNamed
protocol:
1

struct Person: FullyNamed {

var fullName: String

let john = Person(fullName: "John Appleseed")

// john.fullName is "John Appleseed"

This example defines a structure called Person, which represents a specific named
person. It states that it adopts the FullyNamed protocol as part of the first line of its
definition.
Each instance of Person has a single stored property called fullName, which is of
type String. This matches the single requirement of the FullyNamed protocol, and
means that Person has correctly conformed to the protocol. (Swift reports an error

at compile-time if a protocol requirement is not fulfilled.)

Heres a more complex class, which also adopts and conforms to the FullyNamed
protocol:
1

class Starship: FullyNamed {

var prefix: String?

var name: String

init(name: String, prefix: String? = nil) {

self.name = name

self.prefix = prefix

var fullName: String {

return (prefix != nil ? prefix! + " " : "") + name

}
}
var ncc1701 = Starship(name: "Enterprise", prefix: "USS")
// ncc1701.fullName is "USS Enterprise"

This class implements the fullName property requirement as a computed read-only

property for a starship. Each Starship class instance stores a mandatory name and an
optional prefix. The fullName property uses the prefix value if it exists, and
prepends it to the beginning of name to create a full name for the starship.

Method Requirements
Protocols can require specific instance methods and type methods to be
implemented by conforming types. These methods are written as part of the
protocols definition in exactly the same way as for normal instance and type

methods, but without curly braces or a method body. Variadic parameters are
allowed, subject to the same rules as for normal methods. Default values, however,
cannot be specified for method parameters within a protocols definition.
As with type property requirements, you always prefix type method requirements
with the static keyword when they are defined in a protocol. This is true even
though type method requirements are prefixed with the class or static keyword
when implemented by a class:
1

protocol SomeProtocol {

static func someTypeMethod()

The following example defines a protocol with a single instance method

requirement:
1

protocol RandomNumberGenerator {

func random() -> Double

This protocol, RandomNumberGenerator, requires any conforming type to have an

instance method called random, which returns a Double value whenever it is called.
Although it is not specified as part of the protocol, it is assumed that this value will
be a number from 0.0 up to (but not including) 1.0.
The RandomNumberGenerator protocol does not make any assumptions about how
each random number will be generatedit simply requires the generator to provide
a standard way to generate a new random number.
Heres an implementation of a class that adopts and conforms to the
RandomNumberGenerator protocol. This class implements a pseudorandom number
generator algorithm known as a linear congruential generator:

class LinearCongruentialGenerator: RandomNumberGenerator {

var lastRandom = 42.0

let m = 139968.0

let a = 3877.0

let c = 29573.0

func random() -> Double {

lastRandom = ((lastRandom * a + c) % m)

return lastRandom / m

}
}
let generator = LinearCongruentialGenerator()
print("Here's a random number: \(generator.random())")
// prints "Here's a random number: 0.37464991998171"
print("And another one: \(generator.random())")
// prints "And another one: 0.729023776863283"

Mutating Method Requirements

It is sometimes necessary for a method to modify (or mutate) the instance it belongs
to. For instance methods on value types (that is, structures and enumerations) you
place the mutating keyword before a methods func keyword to indicate that the
method is allowed to modify the instance it belongs to and any properties of that
instance. This process is described in Modifying Value Types from Within Instance
Methods.
If you define a protocol instance method requirement that is intended to mutate
instances of any type that adopts the protocol, mark the method with the mutating

keyword as part of the protocols definition. This enables structures and

enumerations to adopt the protocol and satisfy that method requirement.

N OTE
If you mark a protocol instance method requirement as mutating, you do not need to write the
mutating keyword when writing an implementation of that method for a class. The mutating
keyword is only used by structures and enumerations.

The example below defines a protocol called Togglable, which defines a single
instance method requirement called toggle. As its name suggests, the toggle()
method is intended to toggle or invert the state of any conforming type, typically by
modifying a property of that type.
The toggle() method is marked with the mutating keyword as part of the Togglable
protocol definition, to indicate that the method is expected to mutate the state of a
conforming instance when it is called:
1

protocol Togglable {

mutating func toggle()

If you implement the Togglable protocol for a structure or enumeration, that

structure or enumeration can conform to the protocol by providing an
implementation of the toggle() method that is also marked as mutating.
The example below defines an enumeration called OnOffSwitch. This enumeration
toggles between two states, indicated by the enumeration cases On and Off. The
enumerations toggle implementation is marked as mutating, to match the Togglable
protocols requirements:

enum OnOffSwitch: Togglable {

case Off, On

mutating func toggle() {

switch self {

case Off:

self = On

case On:

self = Off

}
}
}
var lightSwitch = OnOffSwitch.Off
lightSwitch.toggle()
// lightSwitch is now equal to .On

Initializer Requirements
Protocols can require specific initializers to be implemented by conforming types.
You write these initializers as part of the protocols definition in exactly the same
way as for normal initializers, but without curly braces or an initializer body:
1

protocol SomeProtocol {

init(someParameter: Int)

Class Implementations of Protocol Initializer Requirements

You can implement a protocol initializer requirement on a conforming class as
either a designated initializer or a convenience initializer. In both cases, you must
mark the initializer implementation with the required modifier:
1

class SomeClass: SomeProtocol {

required init(someParameter: Int) {

// initializer implementation goes here

The use of the required modifier ensures that you provide an explicit or inherited
implementation of the initializer requirement on all subclasses of the conforming
class, such that they also conform to the protocol.
For more information on required initializers, see Required Initializers.

N OTE
You do not need to mark protocol initializer implementations with the required modifier on classes
that are marked with the final modifier, because final classes cannot be subclassed. For more on the
final modifier, see Preventing Overrides.

If a subclass overrides a designated initializer from a superclass, and also

implements a matching initializer requirement from a protocol, mark the initializer
implementation with both the required and override modifiers:

protocol SomeProtocol {

init()

class SomeSuperClass {

init() {

// initializer implementation goes here

}

class SomeSubClass: SomeSuperClass, SomeProtocol {
// "required" from SomeProtocol conformance; "override" from
SomeSuperClass
required override init() {
// initializer implementation goes here
}
}

Failable Initializer Requirements

Protocols can define failable initializer requirements for conforming types, as
defined in Failable Initializers.
A failable initializer requirement can be satisfied by a failable or nonfailable
initializer on a conforming type. A nonfailable initializer requirement can be

satisfied by a nonfailable initializer or an implicitly unwrapped failable initializer.

Protocols as Types
Protocols do not actually implement any functionality themselves. Nonetheless, any
protocol you create will become a fully-fledged type for use in your code.
Because it is a type, you can use a protocol in many places where other types are
allowed, including:
As a parameter type or return type in a function, method, or initializer
As the type of a constant, variable, or property
As the type of items in an array, dictionary, or other container

N OTE
Because protocols are types, begin their names with a capital letter (such as FullyNamed and
RandomNumberGenerator) to match the names of other types in Swift (such as Int, String,
and Double).

Heres an example of a protocol used as a type:

class Dice {

let sides: Int

let generator: RandomNumberGenerator

init(sides: Int, generator: RandomNumberGenerator) {

self.sides = sides

self.generator = generator

func roll() -> Int {

return Int(generator.random() * Double(sides)) + 1

}
}

This example defines a new class called Dice, which represents an n-sided dice for
use in a board game. Dice instances have an integer property called sides, which
represents how many sides they have, and a property called generator, which
provides a random number generator from which to create dice roll values.
The generator property is of type RandomNumberGenerator. Therefore, you can set it
to an instance of any type that adopts the RandomNumberGenerator protocol. Nothing
else is required of the instance you assign to this property, except that the instance
must adopt the RandomNumberGenerator protocol.
Dice also has an initializer, to set up its initial state. This initializer has a parameter

called generator, which is also of type RandomNumberGenerator. You can pass a value
of any conforming type in to this parameter when initializing a new Dice instance.
Dice provides one instance method, roll, which returns an integer value between 1

and the number of sides on the dice. This method calls the generator s random()
method to create a new random number between 0.0 and 1.0, and uses this random
number to create a dice roll value within the correct range. Because generator is
known to adopt RandomNumberGenerator, it is guaranteed to have a random() method
to call.

Heres how the Dice class can be used to create a six-sided dice with a
LinearCongruentialGenerator instance as its random number generator:
1

var d6 = Dice(sides: 6, generator: LinearCongruentialGenerator())

for _ in 1...5 {

print("Random dice roll is \(d6.roll())")

// Random dice roll is 3

// Random dice roll is 5

// Random dice roll is 4

// Random dice roll is 5

// Random dice roll is 4

Delegation
Delegation is a design pattern that enables a class or structure to hand off (or
delegate) some of its responsibilities to an instance of another type. This design
pattern is implemented by defining a protocol that encapsulates the delegated
responsibilities, such that a conforming type (known as a delegate) is guaranteed to
provide the functionality that has been delegated. Delegation can be used to respond
to a particular action, or to retrieve data from an external source without needing to
know the underlying type of that source.
The example below defines two protocols for use with dice-based board games:

protocol DiceGame {

var dice: Dice { get }

func play()

protocol DiceGameDelegate {

func gameDidStart(game: DiceGame)

func game(game: DiceGame, didStartNewTurnWithDiceRoll diceRoll:

Int)

func gameDidEnd(game: DiceGame)

The DiceGame protocol is a protocol that can be adopted by any game that involves
dice. The DiceGameDelegate protocol can be adopted by any type to track the
progress of a DiceGame.
Heres a version of the Snakes and Ladders game originally introduced in Control
Flow. This version is adapted to use a Dice instance for its dice-rolls; to adopt the
DiceGame protocol; and to notify a DiceGameDelegate about its progress:
1

class SnakesAndLadders: DiceGame {

let finalSquare = 25

let dice = Dice(sides: 6, generator:

LinearCongruentialGenerator())

var square = 0

var board: [Int]

init() {

board = [Int](count: finalSquare + 1, repeatedValue: 0)

board[03] = +08; board[06] = +11; board[09] = +09;

board[10] = +02

board[14] = -10; board[19] = -11; board[22] = -02;

board[24] = -08
}
var delegate: DiceGameDelegate?
func play() {
square = 0
delegate?.gameDidStart(self)
gameLoop: while square != finalSquare {
let diceRoll = dice.roll()
delegate?.game(self, didStartNewTurnWithDiceRoll: diceRoll)
switch square + diceRoll {
case finalSquare:
break gameLoop
case let newSquare where newSquare > finalSquare:
continue gameLoop
default:
square += diceRoll
square += board[square]
}
}
delegate?.gameDidEnd(self)

 }
}

For a description of the Snakes and Ladders gameplay, see the Break section of the
Control Flow chapter.
This version of the game is wrapped up as a class called SnakesAndLadders, which
adopts the DiceGame protocol. It provides a gettable dice property and a play()
method in order to conform to the protocol. (The dice property is declared as a
constant property because it does not need to change after initialization, and the
protocol only requires that it is gettable.)
The Snakes and Ladders game board setup takes place within the classs init()
initializer. All game logic is moved into the protocols play method, which uses the
protocols required dice property to provide its dice roll values.
Note that the delegate property is defined as an optional DiceGameDelegate, because
a delegate isnt required in order to play the game. Because it is of an optional type,
the delegate property is automatically set to an initial value of nil. Thereafter, the
game instantiator has the option to set the property to a suitable delegate.
DiceGameDelegate provides three methods for tracking the progress of a game.

These three methods have been incorporated into the game logic within the play()
method above, and are called when a new game starts, a new turn begins, or the
game ends.
Because the delegate property is an optional DiceGameDelegate, the play() method
uses optional chaining each time it calls a method on the delegate. If the delegate
property is nil, these delegate calls fail gracefully and without error. If the delegate
property is non-nil, the delegate methods are called, and are passed the
SnakesAndLadders instance as a parameter.
This next example shows a class called DiceGameTracker, which adopts the
DiceGameDelegate protocol:

class DiceGameTracker: DiceGameDelegate {

var numberOfTurns = 0

func gameDidStart(game: DiceGame) {

numberOfTurns = 0

if game is SnakesAndLadders {

print("Started a new game of Snakes and Ladders")

print("The game is using a \(game.dice.sides)-sided dice")

}
func game(game: DiceGame, didStartNewTurnWithDiceRoll diceRoll:
Int) {
++numberOfTurns
print("Rolled a \(diceRoll)")
}
func gameDidEnd(game: DiceGame) {
print("The game lasted for \(numberOfTurns) turns")
}
}

DiceGameTracker implements all three methods required by DiceGameDelegate. It uses

these methods to keep track of the number of turns a game has taken. It resets a
numberOfTurns property to zero when the game starts, increments it each time a new
turn begins, and prints out the total number of turns once the game has ended.
The implementation of gameDidStart shown above uses the game parameter to print
some introductory information about the game that is about to be played. The game
parameter has a type of DiceGame, not SnakesAndLadders, and so gameDidStart can

access and use only methods and properties that are implemented as part of the
DiceGame protocol. However, the method is still able to use type casting to query the
type of the underlying instance. In this example, it checks whether game is actually an
instance of SnakesAndLadders behind the scenes, and prints an appropriate message
if so.
gameDidStart also accesses the dice property of the passed game parameter. Because
game is known to conform to the DiceGame protocol, it is guaranteed to have a dice

property, and so the gameDidStart(_:) method is able to access and print the dices
sides property, regardless of what kind of game is being played.
Heres how DiceGameTracker looks in action:
1

let tracker = DiceGameTracker()

let game = SnakesAndLadders()

game.delegate = tracker

game.play()

// Started a new game of Snakes and Ladders

// The game is using a 6-sided dice

// Rolled a 3

// Rolled a 5

// Rolled a 4
// Rolled a 5
// The game lasted for 4 turns

Adding Protocol Conformance with an Extension

You can extend an existing type to adopt and conform to a new protocol, even if you
do not have access to the source code for the existing type. Extensions can add new
properties, methods, and subscripts to an existing type, and are therefore able to add

any requirements that a protocol may demand. For more about extensions, see
Extensions.

N OTE
Existing instances of a type automatically adopt and conform to a protocol when that conformance is
added to the instances type in an extension.

For example, this protocol, called TextRepresentable, can be implemented by any

type that has a way to be represented as text. This might be a description of itself, or
a text version of its current state:
1

protocol TextRepresentable {

var textualDescription: String { get }

The Dice class from earlier can be extended to adopt and conform to
TextRepresentable:
1

extension Dice: TextRepresentable {

var textualDescription: String {

return "A \(sides)-sided dice"

This extension adopts the new protocol in exactly the same way as if Dice had
provided it in its original implementation. The protocol name is provided after the
type name, separated by a colon, and an implementation of all requirements of the
protocol is provided within the extensions curly braces.
Any Dice instance can now be treated as TextRepresentable:

let d12 = Dice(sides: 12, generator: LinearCongruentialGenerator())

print(d12.textualDescription)

// prints "A 12-sided dice"

Similarly, the SnakesAndLadders game class can be extended to adopt and conform to
the TextRepresentable protocol:
1

extension SnakesAndLadders: TextRepresentable {

var textualDescription: String {

return "A game of Snakes and Ladders with \(finalSquare)

squares"

print(game.textualDescription)

// prints "A game of Snakes and Ladders with 25 squares"

Declaring Protocol Adoption with an Extension

If a type already conforms to all of the requirements of a protocol, but has not yet
stated that it adopts that protocol, you can make it adopt the protocol with an empty
extension:

struct Hamster {

var name: String

var textualDescription: String {

return "A hamster named \(name)"

extension Hamster: TextRepresentable {}

Instances of Hamster can now be used wherever TextRepresentable is the required

type:
1

let simonTheHamster = Hamster(name: "Simon")

let somethingTextRepresentable: TextRepresentable = simonTheHamster

print(somethingTextRepresentable.textualDescription)

// prints "A hamster named Simon"

N OTE
Types do not automatically adopt a protocol just by satisfying its requirements. They must always
explicitly declare their adoption of the protocol.

Collections of Protocol Types

A protocol can be used as the type to be stored in a collection such as an array or a
dictionary, as mentioned in Protocols as Types. This example creates an array of
TextRepresentable things:

let things: [TextRepresentable] = [game, d12, simonTheHamster]

It is now possible to iterate over the items in the array, and print each items textual
description:
1

for thing in things {

print(thing.textualDescription)

// A game of Snakes and Ladders with 25 squares

// A 12-sided dice

// A hamster named Simon

Note that the thing constant is of type TextRepresentable. It is not of type Dice, or
DiceGame, or Hamster, even if the actual instance behind the scenes is of one of those
types. Nonetheless, because it is of type TextRepresentable, and anything that is
TextRepresentable is known to have a textualDescription property, it is safe to
access thing.textualDescription each time through the loop.

Protocol Inheritance
A protocol can inherit one or more other protocols and can add further
requirements on top of the requirements it inherits. The syntax for protocol
inheritance is similar to the syntax for class inheritance, but with the option to list
multiple inherited protocols, separated by commas:
1

protocol InheritingProtocol: SomeProtocol, AnotherProtocol {

// protocol definition goes here

Heres an example of a protocol that inherits the TextRepresentable protocol from

above:

protocol PrettyTextRepresentable: TextRepresentable {

var prettyTextualDescription: String { get }

This example defines a new protocol, PrettyTextRepresentable, which inherits

from TextRepresentable. Anything that adopts PrettyTextRepresentable must satisfy
all of the requirements enforced by TextRepresentable, plus the additional
requirements enforced by PrettyTextRepresentable. In this example,
PrettyTextRepresentable adds a single requirement to provide a gettable property
called prettyTextualDescription that returns a String.
The SnakesAndLadders class can be extended to adopt and conform to
PrettyTextRepresentable:

extension SnakesAndLadders: PrettyTextRepresentable {

var prettyTextualDescription: String {

var output = textualDescription + ":\n"

for index in 1...finalSquare {

switch board[index] {

case let ladder where ladder > 0:

output += " "

case let snake where snake < 0:

output += " "

default:
output += " "
}
}
return output
}
}

This extension states that it adopts the PrettyTextRepresentable protocol and

provides an implementation of the prettyTextualDescription property for the
SnakesAndLadders type. Anything that is PrettyTextRepresentable must also be
TextRepresentable, and so the implementation of prettyTextualDescription starts
by accessing the textualDescription property from the TextRepresentable protocol
to begin an output string. It appends a colon and a line break, and uses this as the
start of its pretty text representation. It then iterates through the array of board
squares, and appends a geometric shape to represent the contents of each square:
If the squares value is greater than 0, it is the base of a ladder, and is

represented by .
If the squares value is less than 0, it is the head of a snake, and is
represented by .
Otherwise, the squares value is 0, and it is a free square, represented by .
The prettyTextualDescription property can now be used to print a pretty text
description of any SnakesAndLadders instance:
1

print(game.prettyTextualDescription)

// A game of Snakes and Ladders with 25 squares:

//

Class-Only Protocols
You can limit protocol adoption to class types (and not structures or enumerations)
by adding the class keyword to a protocols inheritance list. The class keyword
must always appear first in a protocols inheritance list, before any inherited
protocols:
1

protocol SomeClassOnlyProtocol: class, SomeInheritedProtocol {

// class-only protocol definition goes here

In the example above, SomeClassOnlyProtocol can only be adopted by class types. It

is a compile-time error to write a structure or enumeration definition that tries to
adopt SomeClassOnlyProtocol.

N OTE
Use a class-only protocol when the behavior defined by that protocols requirements assumes or
requires that a conforming type has reference semantics rather than value semantics. For more on
reference and value semantics, see Structures and Enumerations Are Value Types and Classes Are
Reference Types.

Protocol Composition
It can be useful to require a type to conform to multiple protocols at once. You can
combine multiple protocols into a single requirement with a protocol composition.
Protocol compositions have the form protocol<SomeProtocol, AnotherProtocol>.
You can list as many protocols within the pair of angle brackets (<>) as you need,
separated by commas.
Heres an example that combines two protocols called Named and Aged into a single
protocol composition requirement on a function parameter:

protocol Named {

var name: String { get }

protocol Aged {

var age: Int { get }

struct Person: Named, Aged {

var name: String

var age: Int

}
func wishHappyBirthday(celebrator: protocol<Named, Aged>) {
print("Happy birthday \(celebrator.name) - you're \
(celebrator.age)!")
}
let birthdayPerson = Person(name: "Malcolm", age: 21)
wishHappyBirthday(birthdayPerson)
// prints "Happy birthday Malcolm - you're 21!"

This example defines a protocol called Named, with a single requirement for a
gettable String property called name. It also defines a protocol called Aged, with a
single requirement for a gettable Int property called age. Both of these protocols
are adopted by a structure called Person.
The example also defines a function called wishHappyBirthday, which takes a single
parameter called celebrator. The type of this parameter is protocol<Named, Aged>,
which means any type that conforms to both the Named and Aged protocols. It
doesnt matter what specific type is passed to the function, as long as it conforms to

both of the required protocols.

The example then creates a new Person instance called birthdayPerson and passes
this new instance to the wishHappyBirthday(_:) function. Because Person conforms
to both protocols, this is a valid call, and the wishHappyBirthday(_:) function is able
to print its birthday greeting.

N OTE
Protocol compositions do not define a new, permanent protocol type. Rather, they define a temporary
local protocol that has the combined requirements of all protocols in the composition.

Checking for Protocol Conformance

You can use the is and as operators described in Type Casting to check for protocol
conformance, and to cast to a specific protocol. Checking for and casting to a
protocol follows exactly the same syntax as checking for and casting to a type:
The is operator returns true if an instance conforms to a protocol and
returns false if it does not.
The as? version of the downcast operator returns an optional value of the
protocols type, and this value is nil if the instance does not conform to that
protocol.
The as! version of the downcast operator forces the downcast to the
protocol type and triggers a runtime error if the downcast does not succeed.
This example defines a protocol called HasArea, with a single property requirement
of a gettable Double property called area:
1

protocol HasArea {

var area: Double { get }

Here are two classes, Circle and Country, both of which conform to the HasArea
protocol:
1

class Circle: HasArea {

let pi = 3.1415927

var radius: Double

var area: Double { return pi * radius * radius }

init(radius: Double) { self.radius = radius }

class Country: HasArea {

var area: Double

init(area: Double) { self.area = area }

}

The Circle class implements the area property requirement as a computed property,
based on a stored radius property. The Country class implements the area
requirement directly as a stored property. Both classes correctly conform to the
HasArea protocol.
Heres a class called Animal, which does not conform to the HasArea protocol:
1

class Animal {

var legs: Int

init(legs: Int) { self.legs = legs }

The Circle, Country and Animal classes do not have a shared base class. Nonetheless,
they are all classes, and so instances of all three types can be used to initialize an
array that stores values of type AnyObject:

let objects: [AnyObject] = [

Circle(radius: 2.0),

Country(area: 243_610),

Animal(legs: 4)

The objects array is initialized with an array literal containing a Circle instance
with a radius of 2 units; a Country instance initialized with the surface area of the
United Kingdom in square kilometers; and an Animal instance with four legs.
The objects array can now be iterated, and each object in the array can be checked
to see if it conforms to the HasArea protocol:
1

for object in objects {

if let objectWithArea = object as? HasArea {

print("Area is \(objectWithArea.area)")

} else {

print("Something that doesn't have an area")

// Area is 12.5663708

// Area is 243610.0
// Something that doesn't have an area

Whenever an object in the array conforms to the HasArea protocol, the optional
value returned by the as? operator is unwrapped with optional binding into a
constant called objectWithArea. The objectWithArea constant is known to be of type
HasArea, and so its area property can be accessed and printed in a type-safe way.

Note that the underlying objects are not changed by the casting process. They
continue to be a Circle, a Country and an Animal. However, at the point that they are
stored in the objectWithArea constant, they are only known to be of type HasArea,
and so only their area property can be accessed.

Optional Protocol Requirements

You can define optional requirements for protocols, These requirements do not have
to be implemented by types that conform to the protocol. Optional requirements are
prefixed by the optional modifier as part of the protocols definition. When you use
a method or property in an optional requirement, its type automatically becomes an
optional. For example, a method of type (Int) -> String becomes ((Int) ->
String)?. Note that the entire function type is wrapped in the optional, not methods
the return value.
An optional protocol requirement can be called with optional chaining, to account
for the possibility that the requirement was not implemented by a type that conforms
to the protocol. You check for an implementation of an optional method by writing
a question mark after the name of the method when it is called, such as
someOptionalMethod?(someArgument). For information on optional chaining, see
Optional Chaining.

N OTE
Optional protocol requirements can only be specified if your protocol is marked with the @objc
attribute.
This attribute indicates that the protocol should be exposed to Objective-C code and is described in
Using Swift with Cocoa and Objective-C (Swift 2.1). Even if you are not interoperating with
Objective-C, you need to mark your protocols with the @objc attribute if you want to specify
optional requirements.
Note also that @objc protocols can be adopted only by classes that inherit from Objective-C classes
or other @objc classes. They cant be adopted by structures or enumerations.

The following example defines an integer-counting class called Counter, which uses
an external data source to provide its increment amount. This data source is defined
by the CounterDataSource protocol, which has two optional requirements:

@objc protocol CounterDataSource {

optional func incrementForCount(count: Int) -> Int

optional var fixedIncrement: Int { get }

The CounterDataSource protocol defines an optional method requirement called

incrementForCount(_:) and an optional property requirement called fixedIncrement.
These requirements define two different ways for data sources to provide an
appropriate increment amount for a Counter instance.

N OTE
Strictly speaking, you can write a custom class that conforms to CounterDataSource without
implementing either protocol requirement. They are both optional, after all. Although technically
allowed, this wouldnt make for a very good data source.

The Counter class, defined below, has an optional dataSource property of type
CounterDataSource?:

class Counter {

var count = 0

var dataSource: CounterDataSource?

func increment() {

if let amount = dataSource?.incrementForCount?(count) {

count += amount

} else if let amount = dataSource?.fixedIncrement {

count += amount

}
}
}

The Counter class stores its current value in a variable property called count. The
Counter class also defines a method called increment, which increments the count
property every time the method is called.
The increment() method first tries to retrieve an increment amount by looking for
an implementation of the incrementForCount(_:) method on its data source. The
increment() method uses optional chaining to try to call incrementForCount(_:), and
passes the current count value as the methods single argument.
Note that two levels of optional chaining are at play here. First, it is possible that
dataSource may be nil, and so dataSource has a question mark after its name to
indicate that incrementForCount(_:) should be called only if dataSource isnt nil.
Second, even if dataSource does exist, there is no guarantee that it implements
incrementForCount(_:), because it is an optional requirement. Here, the possibility
that incrementForCount(_:) might not be implemented is also handled by optional
chaining. The call to incrementForCount(_:) happens only if incrementForCount(_:)
existsthat is, if it isnt nil. This is why incrementForCount(_:) is also written with
a question mark after its name.
Because the call to incrementForCount(_:) can fail for either of these two reasons,

the call returns an optional Int value. This is true even though
incrementForCount(_:) is defined as returning a nonoptional Int value in the
definition of CounterDataSource. Even though there are two optional chaining
operations, one after another, the result is still wrapped in a single optional. For
more information about using multiple optional chaining operations, see Linking
Multiple Levels of Chaining.
After calling incrementForCount(_:), the optional Int that it returns is unwrapped
into a constant called amount, using optional binding. If the optional Int does contain
a valuethat is, if the delegate and method both exist, and the method returned a
valuethe unwrapped amount is added onto the stored count property, and
incrementation is complete.
If it is not possible to retrieve a value from the incrementForCount(_:) method
either because dataSource is nil, or because the data source does not implement
incrementForCount(_:)then the increment() method tries to retrieve a value from
the data sources fixedIncrement property instead. The fixedIncrement property is
also an optional requirement, so its value is an optional Int value, even though
fixedIncrement is defined as a nonoptional Int property as part of the
CounterDataSource protocol definition.
Heres a simple CounterDataSource implementation where the data source returns a
constant value of 3 every time it is queried. It does this by implementing the optional
fixedIncrement property requirement:
1

class ThreeSource: NSObject, CounterDataSource {

let fixedIncrement = 3

You can use an instance of ThreeSource as the data source for a new Counter
instance:

var counter = Counter()

counter.dataSource = ThreeSource()

for _ in 1...4 {

counter.increment()

print(counter.count)

// 3

// 6

// 9
// 12

The code above creates a new Counter instance; sets its data source to be a new
ThreeSource instance; and calls the counter s increment() method four times. As
expected, the counter s count property increases by three each time increment() is
called.
Heres a more complex data source called TowardsZeroSource, which makes a
Counter instance count up or down towards zero from its current count value:

@objc class TowardsZeroSource: NSObject, CounterDataSource {

func incrementForCount(count: Int) -> Int {

if count == 0 {

return 0

} else if count < 0 {

return 1

} else {

return -1

}
}
}

The TowardsZeroSource class implements the optional incrementForCount(_:)

method from the CounterDataSource protocol and uses the count argument value to
work out which direction to count in. If count is already zero, the method returns 0
to indicate that no further counting should take place.
You can use an instance of TowardsZeroSource with the existing Counter instance to
count from -4 to zero. Once the counter reaches zero, no more counting takes place:

counter.count = -4

counter.dataSource = TowardsZeroSource()

for _ in 1...5 {

counter.increment()

print(counter.count)

// -3

// -2

// -1
// 0
// 0

Protocol Extensions
Protocols can be extended to provide method and property implementations to
conforming types. This allows you to define behavior on protocols themselves,
rather than in each types individual conformance or in a global function.
For example, the RandomNumberGenerator protocol can be extended to provide a
randomBool() method, which uses the result of the required random() method to
return a random Bool value:

extension RandomNumberGenerator {

func randomBool() -> Bool {

return random() > 0.5

By creating an extension on the protocol, all conforming types automatically gain

this method implementation without any additional modification.
1

let generator = LinearCongruentialGenerator()

print("Here's a random number: \(generator.random())")

// prints "Here's a random number: 0.37464991998171"

print("And here's a random Boolean: \(generator.randomBool())")

// prints "And here's a random Boolean: true"

Providing Default Implementations

You can use protocol extensions to provide a default implementation to any method
or property requirement of that protocol. If a conforming type provides its own
implementation of a required method or property, that implementation will be used
instead of the one provided by the extension.

N OTE
Protocol requirements with default implementations provided by extensions are distinct from optional
protocol requirements. Although conforming types dont have to provide their own implementation of
either, requirements with default implementations can be called without optional chaining.

For example, the PrettyTextRepresentable protocol, which inherits the

TextRepresentable protocol can provide a default implementation of its required

prettyTextualDescription property to simply return the result of accessing the
textualDescription property:

extension PrettyTextRepresentable {

var prettyTextualDescription: String {

return textualDescription

Adding Constraints to Protocol Extensions

When you define a protocol extension, you can specify constraints that conforming
types must satisfy before the methods and properties of the extension are available.
You write these constraints after the name of the protocol youre extending using a
where clause, as described in Where Clauses.
For instance, you can define an extension to the CollectionType protocol that applies
to any collection whose elements conform to the TextRepresentable protocol from
the example above.
1

extension CollectionType where Generator.Element: TextRepresentable

{

var textualDescription: String {

let itemsAsText = self.map { $0.textualDescription }

return "[" + itemsAsText.joinWithSeparator(", ") + "]"

The textualDescription property returns the textual description of the entire

collection by concatenating the textual representation of each element in the
collection into a comma-separated list, enclosed in brackets.
Consider the Hamster structure from before, which conforms to the
TextRepresentable protocol, and an array of Hamster values:
1

let murrayTheHamster = Hamster(name: "Murray")

let morganTheHamster = Hamster(name: "Morgan")

let mauriceTheHamster = Hamster(name: "Maurice")

let hamsters = [murrayTheHamster, morganTheHamster,

mauriceTheHamster]

Because Array conforms to CollectionType and the arrays elements conform to the
TextRepresentable protocol, the array can use the textualDescription property to
get a textual representation of its contents:
1

print(hamsters.textualDescription)

// prints "[A hamster named Murray, A hamster named Morgan, A

hamster named Maurice]"

N OTE
If a conforming type satisfies the requirements for multiple constrained extensions that provide
implementations for the same method or property, Swift will use the implementation corresponding to
the most specialized constraints.

Generics
Generic code enables you to write flexible, reusable functions and types that can
work with any type, subject to requirements that you define. You can write code that
avoids duplication and expresses its intent in a clear, abstracted manner.
Generics are one of the most powerful features of Swift, and much of the Swift
standard library is built with generic code. In fact, youve been using generics
throughout the Language Guide, even if you didnt realize it. For example, Swifts
Array and Dictionary types are both generic collections. You can create an array that
holds Int values, or an array that holds String values, or indeed an array for any
other type that can be created in Swift. Similarly, you can create a dictionary to store
values of any specified type, and there are no limitations on what that type can be.

The Problem That Generics Solve

Heres a standard, non-generic function called swapTwoInts(_:_:), which swaps two
Int values:
1

func swapTwoInts(inout a: Int, inout _ b: Int) {

let temporaryA = a

a = b

b = temporaryA

This function makes use of in-out parameters to swap the values of a and b, as
described in In-Out Parameters.
The swapTwoInts(_:_:) function swaps the original value of b into a, and the
original value of a into b. You can call this function to swap the values in two Int
variables:

var someInt = 3

var anotherInt = 107

swapTwoInts(&someInt, &anotherInt)

print("someInt is now \(someInt), and anotherInt is now \

(anotherInt)")

// prints "someInt is now 107, and anotherInt is now 3"

The swapTwoInts(_:_:) function is useful, but it can only be used with Int values. If
you want to swap two String values, or two Double values, you have to write more
functions, such as the swapTwoStrings(_:_:) and swapTwoDoubles(_:_:) functions
shown below:
1

func swapTwoStrings(inout a: String, inout _ b: String) {

let temporaryA = a

a = b

b = temporaryA

func swapTwoDoubles(inout a: Double, inout _ b: Double) {

let temporaryA = a

a = b
b = temporaryA
}

You may have noticed that the bodies of the swapTwoInts(_:_:),

swapTwoStrings(_:_:), and swapTwoDoubles(_:_:) functions are identical. The only
difference is the type of the values that they accept (Int, String, and Double).

It would be much more useful, and considerably more flexible, to write a single
function that could swap two values of any type. Generic code enables you to write
such a function. (A generic version of these functions is defined below.)

N OTE
In all three functions, it is important that the types of a and b are defined to be the same as each other.
If a and b were not of the same type, it would not be possible to swap their values. Swift is a typesafe language, and does not allow (for example) a variable of type String and a variable of type
Double to swap values with each other. Attempting to do so would be reported as a compile-time
error.

Generic Functions
Generic functions can work with any type. Heres a generic version of the
swapTwoInts(_:_:) function from above, called swapTwoValues(_:_:):
1

func swapTwoValues<T>(inout a: T, inout _ b: T) {

let temporaryA = a

a = b

b = temporaryA

The body of the swapTwoValues(_:_:) function is identical to the body of the

swapTwoInts(_:_:) function. However, the first line of swapTwoValues(_:_:) is
slightly different from swapTwoInts(_:_:). Heres how the first lines compare:
1

func swapTwoInts(inout a: Int, inout _ b: Int)

func swapTwoValues<T>(inout a: T, inout _ b: T)

The generic version of the function uses a placeholder type name (called T, in this
case) instead of an actual type name (such as Int, String, or Double). The

placeholder type name doesnt say anything about what T must be, but it does say that
both a and b must be of the same type T, whatever T represents. The actual type to use
in place of T will be determined each time the swapTwoValues(_:_:) function is
called.
The other difference is that the generic functions name (swapTwoValues(_:_:)) is
followed by the placeholder type name (T) inside angle brackets (<T>). The brackets
tell Swift that T is a placeholder type name within the swapTwoValues(_:_:) function
definition. Because T is a placeholder, Swift does not look for an actual type called
T.
The swapTwoValues(_:_:) function can now be called in the same way as
swapTwoInts, except that it can be passed two values of any type, as long as both of
those values are of the same type as each other. Each time swapTwoValues(_:_:) is
called, the type to use for T is inferred from the types of values passed to the
function.
In the two examples below, T is inferred to be Int and String respectively:
1

var someInt = 3

var anotherInt = 107

swapTwoValues(&someInt, &anotherInt)

// someInt is now 107, and anotherInt is now 3

var someString = "hello"

var anotherString = "world"

swapTwoValues(&someString, &anotherString)

// someString is now "world", and anotherString is now "hello"

N OTE
The swapTwoValues(_:_:) function defined above is inspired by a generic function called swap,
which is part of the Swift standard library, and is automatically made available for you to use in your
apps. If you need the behavior of the swapTwoValues(_:_:) function in your own code, you can
use Swifts existing swap(_:_:) function rather than providing your own implementation.

Type Parameters
In the swapTwoValues(_:_:) example above, the placeholder type T is an example of a
type parameter. Type parameters specify and name a placeholder type, and are
written immediately after the functions name, between a pair of matching angle
brackets (such as <T>).
Once you specify a type parameter, you can use it to define the type of a functions
parameters (such as the a and b parameters of the swapTwoValues(_:_:) function), or
as the functions return type, or as a type annotation within the body of the function.
In each case, the type parameter is replaced with an actual type whenever the
function is called. (In the swapTwoValues(_:_:) example above, T was replaced with
Int the first time the function was called, and was replaced with String the second
time it was called.)
You can provide more than one type parameter by writing multiple type parameter
names within the angle brackets, separated by commas.

Naming Type Parameters

In most cases, type parameters have descriptive names, such as Key and Value in
Dictionary<Key, Value> and Element in Array<Element>, which tells the reader about
the relationship between the type parameter and the generic type or function its used
in. However, when there isnt a meaningful relationship between them, its
traditional to name them using single letters such as T, U, and V, such as T in the
swapTwoValues(_:_:) function above.

N OTE
Always give type parameters upper camel case names (such as T and MyTypeParameter) to
indicate that they are a placeholder for a type, not a value.

Generic Types
In addition to generic functions, Swift enables you to define your own generic types.
These are custom classes, structures, and enumerations that can work with any type,
in a similar way to Array and Dictionary.
This section shows you how to write a generic collection type called Stack. A stack
is an ordered set of values, similar to an array, but with a more restricted set of
operations than Swifts Array type. An array allows new items to be inserted and
removed at any location in the array. A stack, however, allows new items to be
appended only to the end of the collection (known as pushing a new value on to the
stack). Similarly, a stack allows items to be removed only from the end of the
collection (known as popping a value off the stack).

N OTE
The concept of a stack is used by the UINavigationController class to model the view
controllers in its navigation hierarchy. You call the UINavigationController class
pushViewController(_:animated:) method to add (or push) a view controller on to the
navigation stack, and its popViewControllerAnimated(_:) method to remove (or pop) a view
controller from the navigation stack. A stack is a useful collection model whenever you need a strict
last in, first out approach to managing a collection.

The illustration below shows the push / pop behavior for a stack:

1. There are currently three values on the stack.

2. A fourth value is pushed on to the top of the stack.
3. The stack now holds four values, with the most recent one at the top.
4. The top item in the stack is removed, or popped.
5. After popping a value, the stack once again holds three values.
Heres how to write a non-generic version of a stack, in this case for a stack of Int
values:
1

struct IntStack {

var items = [Int]()

mutating func push(item: Int) {

items.append(item)

mutating func pop() -> Int {

return items.removeLast()

This structure uses an Array property called items to store the values in the stack.
Stack provides two methods, push and pop, to push and pop values on and off the
stack. These methods are marked as mutating, because they need to modify (or
mutate) the structures items array.
The IntStack type shown above can only be used with Int values, however. It would
be much more useful to define a generic Stack class, that can manage a stack of any
type of value.
Heres a generic version of the same code:
1

struct Stack<Element> {

var items = [Element]()

mutating func push(item: Element) {

items.append(item)

mutating func pop() -> Element {

return items.removeLast()

Note how the generic version of Stack is essentially the same as the non-generic
version, but with a type parameter called Element instead of an actual type of Int.
This type parameter is written within a pair of angle brackets (<Element>)
immediately after the structures name.
Element defines a placeholder name for some type Element to be provided later

on. This future type can be referred to as Element anywhere within the structures
definition. In this case, Element is used as a placeholder in three places:
To create a property called items, which is initialized with an empty array
of values of type Element
To specify that the push(_:) method has a single parameter called item,

which must be of type Element

To specify that the value returned by the pop() method will be a value of
type Element
Because it is a generic type, Stack can be used to create a stack of any valid type in
Swift, in a similar manner to Array and Dictionary.
You create a new Stack instance by writing the type to be stored in the stack within
angle brackets. For example, to create a new stack of strings, you write
Stack<String>():
1

var stackOfStrings = Stack<String>()

stackOfStrings.push("uno")

stackOfStrings.push("dos")

stackOfStrings.push("tres")

stackOfStrings.push("cuatro")

// the stack now contains 4 strings

Heres how stackOfStrings looks after pushing these four values on to the stack:

Popping a value from the stack returns and removes the top value, "cuatro":

let fromTheTop = stackOfStrings.pop()

// fromTheTop is equal to "cuatro", and the stack now contains 3

strings

Heres how the stack looks after popping its top value:

Extending a Generic Type

When you extend a generic type, you do not provide a type parameter list as part of
the extensions definition. Instead, the type parameter list from the original type
definition is available within the body of the extension, and the original type
parameter names are used to refer to the type parameters from the original
definition.
The following example extends the generic Stack type to add a read-only computed
property called topItem, which returns the top item on the stack without popping it
from the stack:

extension Stack {

var topItem: Element? {

return items.isEmpty ? nil : items[items.count - 1]

The topItem property returns an optional value of type Element. If the stack is empty,
topItem returns nil; if the stack is not empty, topItem returns the final item in the
items array.
Note that this extension does not define a type parameter list. Instead, the Stack
types existing type parameter name, Element, is used within the extension to indicate
the optional type of the topItem computed property.
The topItem computed property can now be used with any Stack instance to access
and query its top item without removing it:
1

if let topItem = stackOfStrings.topItem {

print("The top item on the stack is \(topItem).")

// prints "The top item on the stack is tres."

Type Constraints
The swapTwoValues(_:_:) function and the Stack type can work with any type.
However, it is sometimes useful to enforce certain type constraints on the types that
can be used with generic functions and generic types. Type constraints specify that a
type parameter must inherit from a specific class, or conform to a particular
protocol or protocol composition.
For example, Swifts Dictionary type places a limitation on the types that can be
used as keys for a dictionary. As described in Dictionaries, the type of a dictionarys

keys must be hashable. That is, it must provide a way to make itself uniquely
representable. Dictionary needs its keys to be hashable so that it can check whether it
already contains a value for a particular key. Without this requirement, Dictionary
could not tell whether it should insert or replace a value for a particular key, nor
would it be able to find a value for a given key that is already in the dictionary.
This requirement is enforced by a type constraint on the key type for Dictionary,
which specifies that the key type must conform to the Hashable protocol, a special
protocol defined in the Swift standard library. All of Swifts basic types (such as
String, Int, Double, and Bool) are hashable by default.
You can define your own type constraints when creating custom generic types, and
these constraints provide much of the power of generic programming. Abstract
concepts like Hashable characterize types in terms of their conceptual
characteristics, rather than their explicit type.

Type Constraint Syntax

You write type constraints by placing a single class or protocol constraint after a
type parameter s name, separated by a colon, as part of the type parameter list. The
basic syntax for type constraints on a generic function is shown below (although the
syntax is the same for generic types):
1

func someFunction<T: SomeClass, U: SomeProtocol>(someT: T, someU:

U) {

// function body goes here

The hypothetical function above has two type parameters. The first type parameter,
T, has a type constraint that requires T to be a subclass of SomeClass. The second type
parameter, U, has a type constraint that requires U to conform to the protocol
SomeProtocol.

Type Constraints in Action

Heres a non-generic function called findStringIndex, which is given a String value

to find and an array of String values within which to find it. The
findStringIndex(_:_:) function returns an optional Int value, which will be the
index of the first matching string in the array if it is found, or nil if the string
cannot be found:
1

func findStringIndex(array: [String], _ valueToFind: String) ->

Int? {

for (index, value) in array.enumerate() {

if value == valueToFind {

return index

return nil

The findStringIndex(_:_:) function can be used to find a string value in an array of

strings:
1

let strings = ["cat", "dog", "llama", "parakeet", "terrapin"]

if let foundIndex = findStringIndex(strings, "llama") {

print("The index of llama is \(foundIndex)")

// prints "The index of llama is 2"

The principle of finding the index of a value in an array isnt useful only for
strings, however. You can write the same functionality as a generic function called
findIndex, by replacing any mention of strings with values of some type T instead.
Heres how you might expect a generic version of findStringIndex, called

findIndex, to be written. Note that the return type of this function is still Int?,

because the function returns an optional index number, not an optional value from
the array. Be warned, thoughthis function does not compile, for reasons explained
after the example:
1

func findIndex<T>(array: [T], _ valueToFind: T) -> Int? {

for (index, value) in array.enumerate() {

if value == valueToFind {

return index

return nil

This function does not compile as written above. The problem lies with the equality
check, if value == valueToFind. Not every type in Swift can be compared with
the equal to operator (==). If you create your own class or structure to represent a
complex data model, for example, then the meaning of equal to for that class or
structure is not something that Swift can guess for you. Because of this, it is not
possible to guarantee that this code will work for every possible type T, and an
appropriate error is reported when you try to compile the code.
All is not lost, however. The Swift standard library defines a protocol called
Equatable, which requires any conforming type to implement the equal to operator
(==) and the not equal to operator (!=) to compare any two values of that type. All of
Swifts standard types automatically support the Equatable protocol.
Any type that is Equatable can be used safely with the findIndex(_:_:) function,
because it is guaranteed to support the equal to operator. To express this fact, you
write a type constraint of Equatable as part of the type parameter s definition when
you define the function:

func findIndex<T: Equatable>(array: [T], _ valueToFind: T) -> Int?

{

for (index, value) in array.enumerate() {

if value == valueToFind {

return index

return nil

The single type parameter for findIndex is written as T: Equatable, which means
any type T that conforms to the Equatable protocol.
The findIndex(_:_:) function now compiles successfully and can be used with any
type that is Equatable, such as Double or String:
1

let doubleIndex = findIndex([3.14159, 0.1, 0.25], 9.3)

// doubleIndex is an optional Int with no value, because 9.3 is not

in the array

let stringIndex = findIndex(["Mike", "Malcolm", "Andrea"],

"Andrea")

// stringIndex is an optional Int containing a value of 2

Associated Types
When defining a protocol, it is sometimes useful to declare one or more associated
types as part of the protocols definition. An associated type gives a placeholder
name (or alias) to a type that is used as part of the protocol. The actual type to use

for that associated type is not specified until the protocol is adopted. Associated
types are specified with the typealias keyword.

Associated Types in Action

Heres an example of a protocol called Container, which declares an associated type
called ItemType:
1

protocol Container {

typealias ItemType

mutating func append(item: ItemType)

var count: Int { get }

subscript(i: Int) -> ItemType { get }

The Container protocol defines three required capabilities that any container must
provide:
It must be possible to add a new item to the container with an append(_:)
method.
It must be possible to access a count of the items in the container through a
count property that returns an Int value.
It must be possible to retrieve each item in the container with a subscript that
takes an Int index value.
This protocol doesnt specify how the items in the container should be stored or
what type they are allowed to be. The protocol only specifies the three bits of
functionality that any type must provide in order to be considered a Container. A
conforming type can provide additional functionality, as long as it satisfies these
three requirements.
Any type that conforms to the Container protocol must be able to specify the type of

values it stores. Specifically, it must ensure that only items of the right type are
added to the container, and it must be clear about the type of the items returned by its
subscript.
To define these requirements, the Container protocol needs a way to refer to the
type of the elements that a container will hold, without knowing what that type is for
a specific container. The Container protocol needs to specify that any value passed
to the append(_:) method must have the same type as the container s element type,
and that the value returned by the container s subscript will be of the same type as
the container s element type.
To achieve this, the Container protocol declares an associated type called ItemType,
written as typealias ItemType. The protocol does not define what ItemType is an
alias forthat information is left for any conforming type to provide. Nonetheless,
the ItemType alias provides a way to refer to the type of the items in a Container, and
to define a type for use with the append(_:) method and subscript, to ensure that the
expected behavior of any Container is enforced.
Heres a version of the non-generic IntStack type from earlier, adapted to conform
to the Container protocol:

struct IntStack: Container {

// original IntStack implementation

var items = [Int]()

mutating func push(item: Int) {

items.append(item)

mutating func pop() -> Int {

return items.removeLast()

}
// conformance to the Container protocol
typealias ItemType = Int
mutating func append(item: Int) {
self.push(item)
}
var count: Int {
return items.count
}
subscript(i: Int) -> Int {
return items[i]
}
}

The IntStack type implements all three of the Container protocols requirements,
and in each case wraps part of the IntStack types existing functionality to satisfy

these requirements.
Moreover, IntStack specifies that for this implementation of Container, the
appropriate ItemType to use is a type of Int. The definition of typealias ItemType =
Int turns the abstract type of ItemType into a concrete type of Int for this
implementation of the Container protocol.
Thanks to Swifts type inference, you dont actually need to declare a concrete
ItemType of Int as part of the definition of IntStack. Because IntStack conforms to
all of the requirements of the Container protocol, Swift can infer the appropriate
ItemType to use, simply by looking at the type of the append(_:) methods item
parameter and the return type of the subscript. Indeed, if you delete the typealias
ItemType = Int line from the code above, everything still works, because it is clear
what type should be used for ItemType.
You can also make the generic Stack type conform to the Container protocol:

struct Stack<Element>: Container {

// original Stack<Element> implementation

var items = [Element]()

mutating func push(item: Element) {

items.append(item)

mutating func pop() -> Element {

return items.removeLast()

}
// conformance to the Container protocol
mutating func append(item: Element) {
self.push(item)
}
var count: Int {
return items.count
}
subscript(i: Int) -> Element {
return items[i]
}
}

This time, the type parameter Element is used as the type of the append(_:) methods
item parameter and the return type of the subscript. Swift can therefore infer that
Element is the appropriate type to use as the ItemType for this particular container.

Extending an Existing Type to Specify an Associated Type

You can extend an existing type to add conformance to a protocol, as described in
Adding Protocol Conformance with an Extension. This includes a protocol with an
associated type.
Swifts Array type already provides an append(_:) method, a count property, and a
subscript with an Int index to retrieve its elements. These three capabilities match
the requirements of the Container protocol. This means that you can extend Array to
conform to the Container protocol simply by declaring that Array adopts the
protocol. You do this with an empty extension, as described in Declaring Protocol
Adoption with an Extension:

extension Array: Container {}

Arrays existing append(_:) method and subscript enable Swift to infer the
appropriate type to use for ItemType, just as for the generic Stack type above. After
defining this extension, you can use any Array as a Container.

Where Clauses
Type constraints, as described in Type Constraints, enable you to define
requirements on the type parameters associated with a generic function or type.
It can also be useful to define requirements for associated types. You do this by
defining where clauses as part of a type parameter list. A where clause enables you
to require that an associated type must conform to a certain protocol, or that certain
type parameters and associated types must be the same. You write a where clause by
placing the where keyword immediately after the list of type parameters, followed
by constraints for associated types or equality relationships between types and
associated types.
The example below defines a generic function called allItemsMatch, which checks
to see if two Container instances contain the same items in the same order. The
function returns a Boolean value of true if all items match and a value of false if
they do not.

The two containers to be checked do not have to be the same type of container
(although they can be), but they do have to hold the same type of items. This
requirement is expressed through a combination of type constraints and where
clauses:

func allItemsMatch<

C1: Container, C2: Container

where C1.ItemType == C2.ItemType, C1.ItemType: Equatable>

(someContainer: C1, _ anotherContainer: C2) -> Bool {

// check that both containers contain the same number of

items

if someContainer.count != anotherContainer.count {

return false

}

// check each pair of items to see if they are equivalent
for i in 0..<someContainer.count {
if someContainer[i] != anotherContainer[i] {
return false
}
}

// all items match, so return true
return true

}

This function takes two arguments called someContainer and anotherContainer. The
someContainer argument is of type C1, and the anotherContainer argument is of type
C2. Both C1 and C2 are type parameters for two container types to be determined
when the function is called.
The functions type parameter list places the following requirements on the two type
parameters:
C1 must conform to the Container protocol (written as C1: Container).
C2 must also conform to the Container protocol (written as C2: Container).
The ItemType for C1 must be the same as the ItemType for C2 (written as
C1.ItemType == C2.ItemType).
The ItemType for C1 must conform to the Equatable protocol (written as
C1.ItemType: Equatable).
The third and fourth requirements are defined as part of a where clause, and are
written after the where keyword as part of the functions type parameter list.
These requirements mean:
someContainer is a container of type C1.
anotherContainer is a container of type C2.
someContainer and anotherContainer contain the same type of items.
The items in someContainer can be checked with the not equal operator (!=)
to see if they are different from each other.
The third and fourth requirements combine to mean that the items in
anotherContainer can also be checked with the != operator, because they are exactly
the same type as the items in someContainer.
These requirements enable the allItemsMatch(_:_:) function to compare the two
containers, even if they are of a different container type.
The allItemsMatch(_:_:) function starts by checking that both containers contain the
same number of items. If they contain a different number of items, there is no way
that they can match, and the function returns false.
After making this check, the function iterates over all of the items in someContainer

with a for-in loop and the half-open range operator (..<). For each item, the
function checks whether the item from someContainer is not equal to the
corresponding item in anotherContainer. If the two items are not equal, then the two
containers do not match, and the function returns false.
If the loop finishes without finding a mismatch, the two containers match, and the
function returns true.
Heres how the allItemsMatch(_:_:) function looks in action:
1

var stackOfStrings = Stack<String>()

stackOfStrings.push("uno")

stackOfStrings.push("dos")

stackOfStrings.push("tres")

var arrayOfStrings = ["uno", "dos", "tres"]

if allItemsMatch(stackOfStrings, arrayOfStrings) {

print("All items match.")

} else {
print("Not all items match.")
}
// prints "All items match."

The example above creates a Stack instance to store String values, and pushes three
strings onto the stack. The example also creates an Array instance initialized with an
array literal containing the same three strings as the stack. Even though the stack and
the array are of a different type, they both conform to the Container protocol, and
both contain the same type of values. You can therefore call the allItemsMatch(_:_:)
function with these two containers as its arguments. In the example above, the
allItemsMatch(_:_:) function correctly reports that all of the items in the two

containers match.

Access Control
Access control restricts access to parts of your code from code in other source files
and modules. This feature enables you to hide the implementation details of your
code, and to specify a preferred interface through which that code can be accessed
and used.
You can assign specific access levels to individual types (classes, structures, and
enumerations), as well as to properties, methods, initializers, and subscripts
belonging to those types. Protocols can be restricted to a certain context, as can
global constants, variables, and functions.
In addition to offering various levels of access control, Swift reduces the need to
specify explicit access control levels by providing default access levels for typical
scenarios. Indeed, if you are writing a single-target app, you may not need to
specify explicit access control levels at all.

N OTE
The various aspects of your code that can have access control applied to them (properties, types,
functions, and so on) are referred to as entities in the sections below, for brevity.

Modules and Source Files

Swifts access control model is based on the concept of modules and source files.
A module is a single unit of code distributiona framework or application that is
built and shipped as a single unit and that can be imported by another module with
Swifts import keyword.
Each build target (such as an app bundle or framework) in Xcode is treated as a
separate module in Swift. If you group together aspects of your apps code as a
stand-alone frameworkperhaps to encapsulate and reuse that code across multiple
applicationsthen everything you define within that framework will be part of a

separate module when it is imported and used within an app, or when it is used
within another framework.
A source file is a single Swift source code file within a module (in effect, a single
file within an app or framework). Although it is common to define individual types
in separate source files, a single source file can contain definitions for multiple
types, functions, and so on.

Access Levels
Swift provides three different access levels for entities within your code. These
access levels are relative to the source file in which an entity is defined, and also
relative to the module that source file belongs to.
Public access enables entities to be used within any source file from their
defining module, and also in a source file from another module that imports
the defining module. You typically use public access when specifying the
public interface to a framework.
Internal access enables entities to be used within any source file from their
defining module, but not in any source file outside of that module. You
typically use internal access when defining an apps or a frameworks
internal structure.
Private access restricts the use of an entity to its own defining source file.
Use private access to hide the implementation details of a specific piece of
functionality.
Public access is the highest (least restrictive) access level and private access is the
lowest (or most restrictive) access level.

N OTE
Private access in Swift differs from private access in most other languages, as its scoped to the
enclosing source file rather than to the enclosing declaration. This means that a type can access any
private entities that are defined in the same source file as itself, but an extension cannot access that
types private members if its defined in a separate source file.

Guiding Principle of Access Levels

Access levels in Swift follow an overall guiding principle: No entity can be defined
in terms of another entity that has a lower (more restrictive) access level.
For example:
A public variable cannot be defined as having an internal or private type,
because the type might not be available everywhere that the public variable
is used.
A function cannot have a higher access level than its parameter types and
return type, because the function could be used in situations where its
constituent types are not available to the surrounding code.
The specific implications of this guiding principle for different aspects of the
language are covered in detail below.

Default Access Levels

All entities in your code (with a few specific exceptions, as described later in this
chapter) have a default access level of internal if you do not specify an explicit
access level yourself. As a result, in many cases you do not need to specify an
explicit access level in your code.

Access Levels for Single-Target Apps

When you write a simple single-target app, the code in your app is typically selfcontained within the app and does not need to be made available outside of the apps
module. The default access level of internal already matches this requirement.
Therefore, you do not need to specify a custom access level. You may, however,
want to mark some parts of your code as private in order to hide their
implementation details from other code within the apps module.

Access Levels for Frameworks

When you develop a framework, mark the public-facing interface to that framework
as public so that it can be viewed and accessed by other modules, such as an app that
imports the framework. This public-facing interface is the application
programming interface (or API) for the framework.

N OTE
Any internal implementation details of your framework can still use the default access level of
internal, or can be marked as private if you want to hide them from other parts of the frameworks
internal code. You need to mark an entity as public only if you want it to become part of your
frameworks API.

Access Levels for Unit Test Targets

When you write an app with a unit test target, the code in your app needs to be made
available to that module in order to be tested. By default, only entities marked as
public are accessible to other modules. However, a unit test target can access any
internal entity, if you mark the import declaration for a product module with the
@testable attribute and compile that product module with testing enabled.

Access Control Syntax

Define the access level for an entity by placing one of the public, internal, or
private modifiers before the entitys introducer:

public class SomePublicClass {}

internal class SomeInternalClass {}

private class SomePrivateClass {}

public var somePublicVariable = 0

internal let someInternalConstant = 0

private func somePrivateFunction() {}

Unless otherwise specified, the default access level is internal, as described in

Default Access Levels. This means that SomeInternalClass and
someInternalConstant can be written without an explicit access level modifier, and
will still have an access level of internal:
1

class SomeInternalClass {} // implicitly internal

let someInternalConstant = 0 // implicitly internal

Custom Types
If you want to specify an explicit access level for a custom type, do so at the point
that you define the type. The new type can then be used wherever its access level
permits. For example, if you define a private class, that class can only be used as the
type of a property, or as a function parameter or return type, in the source file in
which the private class is defined.
The access control level of a type also affects the default access level of that types
members (its properties, methods, initializers, and subscripts). If you define a types
access level as private, the default access level of its members will also be private. If
you define a types access level as internal or public (or use the default access level
of internal without specifying an access level explicitly), the default access level of
the types members will be internal.

N OTE
As mentioned above, a public type defaults to having internal members, not public members. If you
want a type member to be public, you must explicitly mark it as such. This requirement ensures that the
public-facing API for a type is something you opt in to publishing, and avoids presenting the internal
workings of a type as public API by mistake.

public class SomePublicClass { // explicitly public class

public var somePublicProperty = 0 // explicitly public class

member

var someInternalProperty = 0 // implicitly internal

class member

private func somePrivateMethod() {} // explicitly private

class member

class SomeInternalClass { // implicitly internal

class

var someInternalProperty = 0 // implicitly internal

class member

private func somePrivateMethod() {} // explicitly private

class member
}

private class SomePrivateClass { // explicitly private class
var somePrivateProperty = 0 // implicitly private class
member
func somePrivateMethod() {} // implicitly private class
member
}

Tuple Types
The access level for a tuple type is the most restrictive access level of all types used
in that tuple. For example, if you compose a tuple from two different types, one with
internal access and one with private access, the access level for that compound tuple
type will be private.

N OTE
Tuple types do not have a standalone definition in the way that classes, structures, enumerations, and
functions do. A tuple types access level is deduced automatically when the tuple type is used, and
cannot be specified explicitly.

Function Types
The access level for a function type is calculated as the most restrictive access level
of the functions parameter types and return type. You must specify the access level
explicitly as part of the functions definition if the functions calculated access level
does not match the contextual default.
The example below defines a global function called someFunction, without
providing a specific access level modifier for the function itself. You might expect
this function to have the default access level of internal, but this is not the case. In
fact, someFunction will not compile as written below:
1

func someFunction() -> (SomeInternalClass, SomePrivateClass) {

// function implementation goes here

The functions return type is a tuple type composed from two of the custom classes
defined above in Custom Types. One of these classes was defined as internal, and
the other was defined as private. Therefore, the overall access level of the
compound tuple type is private (the minimum access level of the tuples

constituent types).
Because the functions return type is private, you must mark the functions overall
access level with the private modifier for the function declaration to be valid:
1

private func someFunction() -> (SomeInternalClass,

SomePrivateClass) {

// function implementation goes here

It is not valid to mark the definition of someFunction with the public or internal
modifiers, or to use the default setting of internal, because public or internal users
of the function might not have appropriate access to the private class used in the
functions return type.

Enumeration Types
The individual cases of an enumeration automatically receive the same access level
as the enumeration they belong to. You cannot specify a different access level for
individual enumeration cases.
In the example below, the CompassPoint enumeration has an explicit access level of
public. The enumeration cases North, South, East, and West therefore also have an
access level of public:
1

public enum CompassPoint {

case North

case South

case East

case West

Raw Values and Associated Values

The types used for any raw values or associated values in an enumeration definition
must have an access level at least as high as the enumerations access level. You
cannot use a private type as the raw-value type of an enumeration with an internal
access level, for example.

Nested Types
Nested types defined within a private type have an automatic access level of private.
Nested types defined within a public type or an internal type have an automatic
access level of internal. If you want a nested type within a public type to be publicly
available, you must explicitly declare the nested type as public.

Subclassing
You can subclass any class that can be accessed in the current access context. A
subclass cannot have a higher access level than its superclassfor example, you
cannot write a public subclass of an internal superclass.
In addition, you can override any class member (method, property, initializer, or
subscript) that is visible in a certain access context.
An override can make an inherited class member more accessible than its superclass
version. In the example below, class A is a public class with a private method called
someMethod(). Class B is a subclass of A, with a reduced access level of internal.
Nonetheless, class B provides an override of someMethod() with an access level of
internal, which is higher than the original implementation of someMethod():

public class A {

private func someMethod() {}

internal class B: A {

override internal func someMethod() {}

It is even valid for a subclass member to call a superclass member that has lower
access permissions than the subclass member, as long as the call to the superclasss
member takes place within an allowed access level context (that is, within the same
source file as the superclass for a private member call, or within the same module
as the superclass for an internal member call):
1

public class A {

private func someMethod() {}

internal class B: A {

override internal func someMethod() {

super.someMethod()

Because superclass A and subclass B are defined in the same source file, it is valid
for the B implementation of someMethod() to call super.someMethod().

Constants, Variables, Properties, and Subscripts

A constant, variable, or property cannot be more public than its type. It is not valid
to write a public property with a private type, for example. Similarly, a subscript
cannot be more public than either its index type or return type.
If a constant, variable, property, or subscript makes use of a private type, the
constant, variable, property, or subscript must also be marked as private:

private var privateInstance = SomePrivateClass()

Getters and Setters

Getters and setters for constants, variables, properties, and subscripts automatically
receive the same access level as the constant, variable, property, or subscript they
belong to.
You can give a setter a lower access level than its corresponding getter, to restrict
the read-write scope of that variable, property, or subscript. You assign a lower
access level by writing private(set) or internal(set) before the var or subscript
introducer.

N OTE
This rule applies to stored properties as well as computed properties. Even though you do not write an
explicit getter and setter for a stored property, Swift still synthesizes an implicit getter and setter for
you to provide access to the stored propertys backing storage. Use private(set) and
internal(set) to change the access level of this synthesized setter in exactly the same way as
for an explicit setter in a computed property.

The example below defines a structure called TrackedString, which keeps track of
the number of times a string property is modified:

struct TrackedString {

private(set) var numberOfEdits = 0

var value: String = "" {

didSet {

numberOfEdits++

The TrackedString structure defines a stored string property called value, with an
initial value of "" (an empty string). The structure also defines a stored integer
property called numberOfEdits, which is used to track the number of times that value
is modified. This modification tracking is implemented with a didSet property
observer on the value property, which increments numberOfEdits every time the
value property is set to a new value.
The TrackedString structure and the value property do not provide an explicit
access level modifier, and so they both receive the default access level of internal.
However, the access level for the numberOfEdits property is marked with a
private(set) modifier to indicate that the property should be settable only from
within the same source file as the TrackedString structures definition. The
propertys getter still has the default access level of internal, but its setter is now
private to the source file in which TrackedString is defined. This enables
TrackedString to modify the numberOfEdits property internally, but to present the
property as a read-only property when it is used by other source files within the
same module.
If you create a TrackedString instance and modify its string value a few times, you
can see the numberOfEdits property value update to match the number of
modifications:

var stringToEdit = TrackedString()

stringToEdit.value = "This string will be tracked."

stringToEdit.value += " This edit will increment numberOfEdits."

stringToEdit.value += " So will this one."

print("The number of edits is \(stringToEdit.numberOfEdits)")

// prints "The number of edits is 3"

Although you can query the current value of the numberOfEdits property from
within another source file, you cannot modify the property from another source file.
This restriction protects the implementation details of the TrackedString edittracking functionality, while still providing convenient access to an aspect of that
functionality.
Note that you can assign an explicit access level for both a getter and a setter if
required. The example below shows a version of the TrackedString structure in
which the structure is defined with an explicit access level of public. The structures
members (including the numberOfEdits property) therefore have an internal access
level by default. You can make the structures numberOfEdits property getter public,
and its property setter private, by combining the public and private(set) access
level modifiers:

public struct TrackedString {

public private(set) var numberOfEdits = 0

public var value: String = "" {

didSet {

numberOfEdits++

public init() {}

Initializers
Custom initializers can be assigned an access level less than or equal to the type that
they initialize. The only exception is for required initializers (as defined in Required
Initializers). A required initializer must have the same access level as the class it
belongs to.
As with function and method parameters, the types of an initializer s parameters
cannot be more private than the initializer s own access level.

Default Initializers
As described in Default Initializers, Swift automatically provides a default
initializer without any arguments for any structure or base class that provides
default values for all of its properties and does not provide at least one initializer
itself.
A default initializer has the same access level as the type it initializes, unless that
type is defined as public. For a type that is defined as public, the default initializer is
considered internal. If you want a public type to be initializable with a no-argument

initializer when used in another module, you must explicitly provide a public noargument initializer yourself as part of the types definition.

Default Memberwise Initializers for Structure Types

The default memberwise initializer for a structure type is considered private if any
of the structures stored properties are private. Otherwise, the initializer has an
access level of internal.
As with the default initializer above, if you want a public structure type to be
initializable with a memberwise initializer when used in another module, you must
provide a public memberwise initializer yourself as part of the types definition.

Protocols
If you want to assign an explicit access level to a protocol type, do so at the point
that you define the protocol. This enables you to create protocols that can only be
adopted within a certain access context.
The access level of each requirement within a protocol definition is automatically
set to the same access level as the protocol. You cannot set a protocol requirement to
a different access level than the protocol it supports. This ensures that all of the
protocols requirements will be visible on any type that adopts the protocol.

N OTE
If you define a public protocol, the protocols requirements require a public access level for those
requirements when they are implemented. This behavior is different from other types, where a public
type definition implies an access level of internal for the types members.

Protocol Inheritance
If you define a new protocol that inherits from an existing protocol, the new

protocol can have at most the same access level as the protocol it inherits from. You
cannot write a public protocol that inherits from an internal protocol, for example.

Protocol Conformance
A type can conform to a protocol with a lower access level than the type itself. For
example, you can define a public type that can be used in other modules, but whose
conformance to an internal protocol can only be used within the internal protocols
defining module.
The context in which a type conforms to a particular protocol is the minimum of the
types access level and the protocols access level. If a type is public, but a protocol
it conforms to is internal, the types conformance to that protocol is also internal.
When you write or extend a type to conform to a protocol, you must ensure that the
types implementation of each protocol requirement has at least the same access
level as the types conformance to that protocol. For example, if a public type
conforms to an internal protocol, the types implementation of each protocol
requirement must be at least internal.

N OTE
In Swift, as in Objective-C, protocol conformance is globalit is not possible for a type to conform
to a protocol in two different ways within the same program.

Extensions
You can extend a class, structure, or enumeration in any access context in which the
class, structure, or enumeration is available. Any type members added in an
extension have the same default access level as type members declared in the
original type being extended. If you extend a public or internal type, any new type
members you add will have a default access level of internal. If you extend a private
type, any new type members you add will have a default access level of private.
Alternatively, you can mark an extension with an explicit access level modifier (for

example, private extension) to set a new default access level for all members
defined within the extension. This new default can still be overridden within the
extension for individual type members.

Adding Protocol Conformance with an Extension

You cannot provide an explicit access level modifier for an extension if you are
using that extension to add protocol conformance. Instead, the protocols own
access level is used to provide the default access level for each protocol
requirement implementation within the extension.

Generics
The access level for a generic type or generic function is the minimum of the access
level of the generic type or function itself and the access level of any type
constraints on its type parameters.

Type Aliases
Any type aliases you define are treated as distinct types for the purposes of access
control. A type alias can have an access level less than or equal to the access level of
the type it aliases. For example, a private type alias can alias a private, internal, or
public type, but a public type alias cannot alias an internal or private type.

N OTE
This rule also applies to type aliases for associated types used to satisfy protocol conformances.

Advanced Operators
In addition to the operators described in Basic Operators, Swift provides several
advanced operators that perform more complex value manipulation. These include
all of the bitwise and bit shifting operators you will be familiar with from C and
Objective-C.
Unlike arithmetic operators in C, arithmetic operators in Swift do not overflow by
default. Overflow behavior is trapped and reported as an error. To opt in to
overflow behavior, use Swifts second set of arithmetic operators that overflow by
default, such as the overflow addition operator (&+). All of these overflow operators
begin with an ampersand (&).
When you define your own structures, classes, and enumerations, it can be useful to
provide your own implementations of the standard Swift operators for these custom
types. Swift makes it easy to provide tailored implementations of these operators
and to determine exactly what their behavior should be for each type you create.
Youre not limited to the predefined operators. Swift gives you the freedom to
define your own custom infix, prefix, postfix, and assignment operators, with
custom precedence and associativity values. These operators can be used and
adopted in your code like any of the predefined operators, and you can even extend
existing types to support the custom operators you define.

Bitwise Operators
Bitwise operators enable you to manipulate the individual raw data bits within a data
structure. They are often used in low-level programming, such as graphics
programming and device driver creation. Bitwise operators can also be useful when
you work with raw data from external sources, such as encoding and decoding data
for communication over a custom protocol.
Swift supports all of the bitwise operators found in C, as described below.

Bitwise NOT Operator

The bitwise NOT operator (~) inverts all bits in a number:

The bitwise NOT operator is a prefix operator, and appears immediately before the
value it operates on, without any white space:
1

let initialBits: UInt8 = 0b00001111

let invertedBits = ~initialBits // equals 11110000

UInt8 integers have eight bits and can store any value between 0 and 255. This

example initializes a UInt8 integer with the binary value 00001111, which has its first
four bits set to 0, and its second four bits set to 1. This is equivalent to a decimal
value of 15.
The bitwise NOT operator is then used to create a new constant called invertedBits,
which is equal to initialBits, but with all of the bits inverted. Zeros become ones,
and ones become zeros. The value of invertedBits is 11110000, which is equal to an
unsigned decimal value of 240.

Bitwise AND Operator

The bitwise AND operator (&) combines the bits of two numbers. It returns a new
number whose bits are set to 1 only if the bits were equal to 1 in both input numbers:

In the example below, the values of firstSixBits and lastSixBits both have four
middle bits equal to 1. The bitwise AND operator combines them to make the
number 00111100, which is equal to an unsigned decimal value of 60:
1

let firstSixBits: UInt8 = 0b11111100

let lastSixBits: UInt8 = 0b00111111

let middleFourBits = firstSixBits & lastSixBits // equals 00111100

Bitwise OR Operator
The bitwise OR operator (|) compares the bits of two numbers. The operator returns
a new number whose bits are set to 1 if the bits are equal to 1 in either input number:

In the example below, the values of someBits and moreBits have different bits set to
1. The bitwise OR operator combines them to make the number 11111110, which

equals an unsigned decimal of 254:

1

let someBits: UInt8 = 0b10110010

let moreBits: UInt8 = 0b01011110

let combinedbits = someBits | moreBits // equals 11111110

Bitwise XOR Operator

The bitwise XOR operator, or exclusive OR operator (^), compares the bits of two
numbers. The operator returns a new number whose bits are set to 1 where the input
bits are different and are set to 0 where the input bits are the same:

In the example below, the values of firstBits and otherBits each have a bit set to 1
in a location that the other does not. The bitwise XOR operator sets both of these
bits to 1 in its output value. All of the other bits in firstBits and otherBits match
and are set to 0 in the output value:
1

let firstBits: UInt8 = 0b00010100

let otherBits: UInt8 = 0b00000101

let outputBits = firstBits ^ otherBits // equals 00010001

Bitwise Left and Right Shift Operators

The bitwise left shift operator (<<) and bitwise right shift operator (>>) move all bits
in a number to the left or the right by a certain number of places, according to the
rules defined below.
Bitwise left and right shifts have the effect of multiplying or dividing an integer
number by a factor of two. Shifting an integer s bits to the left by one position
doubles its value, whereas shifting it to the right by one position halves its value.

Shifting Behavior for Unsigned Integers

The bit-shifting behavior for unsigned integers is as follows:
1. Existing bits are moved to the left or right by the requested number of places.
2. Any bits that are moved beyond the bounds of the integer s storage are
discarded.
3. Zeros are inserted in the spaces left behind after the original bits are moved to
the left or right.
This approach is known as a logical shift.
The illustration below shows the results of 11111111 << 1 (which is 11111111 shifted
to the left by 1 place), and 11111111 >> 1 (which is 11111111 shifted to the right by 1
place). Blue numbers are shifted, gray numbers are discarded, and orange zeros are
inserted:

Heres how bit shifting looks in Swift code:

let shiftBits: UInt8 = 4 // 00000100 in binary

shiftBits << 1 // 00001000

shiftBits << 2 // 00010000

shiftBits << 5 // 10000000

shiftBits << 6 // 00000000

shiftBits >> 2 // 00000001

You can use bit shifting to encode and decode values within other data types:
1

let pink: UInt32 = 0xCC6699

let redComponent = (pink & 0xFF0000) >> 16 // redComponent is

0xCC, or 204

let greenComponent = (pink & 0x00FF00) >> 8 // greenComponent is

0x66, or 102

let blueComponent = pink & 0x0000FF // blueComponent is

0x99, or 153

This example uses a UInt32 constant called pink to store a Cascading Style Sheets
color value for the color pink. The CSS color value #CC6699 is written as 0xCC6699
in Swifts hexadecimal number representation. This color is then decomposed into
its red (CC), green (66), and blue (99) components by the bitwise AND operator (&)
and the bitwise right shift operator (>>).
The red component is obtained by performing a bitwise AND between the numbers
0xCC6699 and 0xFF0000. The zeros in 0xFF0000 effectively mask the second and
third bytes of 0xCC6699, causing the 6699 to be ignored and leaving 0xCC0000 as the
result.
This number is then shifted 16 places to the right (>> 16). Each pair of characters in
a hexadecimal number uses 8 bits, so a move 16 places to the right will convert
0xCC0000 into 0x0000CC. This is the same as 0xCC, which has a decimal value of 204.

Similarly, the green component is obtained by performing a bitwise AND between

the numbers 0xCC6699 and 0x00FF00, which gives an output value of 0x006600. This
output value is then shifted eight places to the right, giving a value of 0x66, which
has a decimal value of 102.
Finally, the blue component is obtained by performing a bitwise AND between the
numbers 0xCC6699 and 0x0000FF, which gives an output value of 0x000099. Theres
no need to shift this to the right, as 0x000099 already equals 0x99, which has a
decimal value of 153.

Shifting Behavior for Signed Integers

The shifting behavior is more complex for signed integers than for unsigned
integers, because of the way signed integers are represented in binary. (The
examples below are based on 8-bit signed integers for simplicity, but the same
principles apply for signed integers of any size.)
Signed integers use their first bit (known as the sign bit) to indicate whether the
integer is positive or negative. A sign bit of 0 means positive, and a sign bit of 1
means negative.
The remaining bits (known as the value bits) store the actual value. Positive
numbers are stored in exactly the same way as for unsigned integers, counting
upwards from 0. Heres how the bits inside an Int8 look for the number 4:

The sign bit is 0 (meaning positive), and the seven value bits are just the number 4,
written in binary notation.
Negative numbers, however, are stored differently. They are stored by subtracting
their absolute value from 2 to the power of n, where n is the number of value bits.
An eight-bit number has seven value bits, so this means 2 to the power of 7, or 128.
Heres how the bits inside an Int8 look for the number -4:

This time, the sign bit is 1 (meaning negative), and the seven value bits have a
binary value of 124 (which is 128 - 4):

The encoding for negative numbers is known as a twos complement representation.

It may seem an unusual way to represent negative numbers, but it has several
advantages.
First, you can add -1 to -4, simply by performing a standard binary addition of all
eight bits (including the sign bit), and discarding anything that doesnt fit in the eight
bits once youre done:

Second, the twos complement representation also lets you shift the bits of negative
numbers to the left and right like positive numbers, and still end up doubling them
for every shift you make to the left, or halving them for every shift you make to the
right. To achieve this, an extra rule is used when signed integers are shifted to the
right:
When you shift signed integers to the right, apply the same rules as for
unsigned integers, but fill any empty bits on the left with the sign bit, rather
than with a zero.

This action ensures that signed integers have the same sign after they are shifted to
the right, and is known as an arithmetic shift.
Because of the special way that positive and negative numbers are stored, shifting
either of them to the right moves them closer to zero. Keeping the sign bit the same
during this shift means that negative integers remain negative as their value moves
closer to zero.

Overflow Operators
If you try to insert a number into an integer constant or variable that cannot hold that
value, by default Swift reports an error rather than allowing an invalid value to be
created. This behavior gives extra safety when you work with numbers that are too
large or too small.
For example, the Int16 integer type can hold any signed integer number between
-32768 and 32767. Trying to set an Int16 constant or variable to a number outside of
this range causes an error:
1

var potentialOverflow = Int16.max

// potentialOverflow equals 32767, which is the maximum value an

Int16 can hold

potentialOverflow += 1

// this causes an error

Providing error handling when values get too large or too small gives you much
more flexibility when coding for boundary value conditions.

However, when you specifically want an overflow condition to truncate the number
of available bits, you can opt in to this behavior rather than triggering an error.
Swift provides three arithmetic overflow operators that opt in to the overflow
behavior for integer calculations. These operators all begin with an ampersand (&):
Overflow addition (&+)
Overflow subtraction (&-)
Overflow multiplication (&*)

Value Overflow
Numbers can overflow in both the positive and negative direction.
Heres an example of what happens when an unsigned integer is allowed to
overflow in the positive direction, using the overflow addition operator (&+):
1

var unsignedOverflow = UInt8.max

// unsignedOverflow equals 255, which is the maximum value a UInt8

can hold

unsignedOverflow = unsignedOverflow &+ 1

// unsignedOverflow is now equal to 0

The variable unsignedOverflow is initialized with the maximum value a UInt8 can
hold (255, or 11111111 in binary). It is then incremented by 1 using the overflow
addition operator (&+). This pushes its binary representation just over the size that a
UInt8 can hold, causing it to overflow beyond its bounds, as shown in the diagram
below. The value that remains within the bounds of the UInt8 after the overflow
addition is 00000000, or zero.

Something similar happens when an unsigned integer is allowed to overflow in the

negative direction. Heres an example using the overflow subtraction operator (&-):
1

var unsignedOverflow = UInt8.min

// unsignedOverflow equals 0, which is the minimum value a UInt8

can hold

unsignedOverflow = unsignedOverflow &- 1

// unsignedOverflow is now equal to 255

The minimum value that a UInt8 can hold is zero, or 00000000 in binary. If you
subtract 1 from 00000000 using the overflow subtraction operator (&-), the number
will overflow and wrap around to 11111111, or 255 in decimal.

Overflow also occurs for signed integers. All addition and subtraction for signed
integers is performed in bitwise fashion, with the sign bit included as part of the
numbers being added or subtracted, as described in Bitwise Left and Right Shift
Operators.

var signedOverflow = Int8.min

// signedOverflow equals -128, which is the minimum value an Int8

can hold

signedOverflow = signedOverflow &- 1

// signedOverflow is now equal to 127

The minimum value that an Int8 can hold is -128, or 10000000 in binary. Subtracting
1 from this binary number with the overflow operator gives a binary value of
01111111, which toggles the sign bit and gives positive 127, the maximum positive
value that an Int8 can hold.

For both signed and unsigned integers, overflow in the positive direction wraps
around from the maximum valid integer value back to the minimum, and overflow
in the negative direction wraps around from the minimum value to the maximum.

Precedence and Associativity

Operator precedence gives some operators higher priority than others; these
operators are applied first.
Operator associativity defines how operators of the same precedence are grouped
togethereither grouped from the left, or grouped from the right. Think of it as
meaning they associate with the expression to their left, or they associate with the
expression to their right.

It is important to consider each operator s precedence and associativity when

working out the order in which a compound expression will be calculated. For
example, operator precedence explains why the following expression equals 17.
1

2 + 3 % 4 * 5

// this equals 17

If you read strictly from left to right, you might expect the expression to be
calculated as follows:

2 plus 3 equals 5
5 remainder 4 equals 1
1 times 5 equals 5

However, the actual answer is 17, not 5. Higher-precedence operators are evaluated
before lower-precedence ones. In Swift, as in C, the remainder operator (%) and the
multiplication operator (*) have a higher precedence than the addition operator (+).
As a result, they are both evaluated before the addition is considered.
However, remainder and multiplication have the same precedence as each other. To
work out the exact evaluation order to use, you also need to consider their
associativity. Remainder and multiplication both associate with the expression to
their left. Think of this as adding implicit parentheses around these parts of the
expression, starting from their left:

2 + ((3 % 4) * 5)

(3 % 4) is 3, so this is equivalent to:

2 + (3 * 5)

(3 * 5) is 15, so this is equivalent to:

2 + 15

This calculation yields the final answer of 17.

For a complete list of Swift operator precedences and associativity rules, see
Expressions. For information about the operators provided by the Swift standard
library, see Swift Standard Library Operators Reference.

N OTE
Swifts operator precedences and associativity rules are simpler and more predictable than those found
in C and Objective-C. However, this means that they are not exactly the same as in C-based
languages. Be careful to ensure that operator interactions still behave in the way you intend when
porting existing code to Swift.

Operator Functions
Classes and structures can provide their own implementations of existing operators.
This is known as overloading the existing operators.
The example below shows how to implement the arithmetic addition operator (+)
for a custom structure. The arithmetic addition operator is a binary operator
because it operates on two targets and is said to be infix because it appears in
between those two targets.
The example defines a Vector2D structure for a two-dimensional position vector (x,
y), followed by a definition of an operator function to add together instances of the
Vector2D structure:
1

struct Vector2D {

var x = 0.0, y = 0.0

func + (left: Vector2D, right: Vector2D) -> Vector2D {

return Vector2D(x: left.x + right.x, y: left.y + right.y)

The operator function is defined as a global function with a function name that
matches the operator to be overloaded (+). Because the arithmetic addition operator
is a binary operator, this operator function takes two input parameters of type
Vector2D and returns a single output value, also of type Vector2D.
In this implementation, the input parameters are named left and right to represent
the Vector2D instances that will be on the left side and right side of the + operator.
The function returns a new Vector2D instance, whose x and y properties are
initialized with the sum of the x and y properties from the two Vector2D instances
that are added together.
The function is defined globally, rather than as a method on the Vector2D structure,
so that it can be used as an infix operator between existing Vector2D instances:
1

let vector = Vector2D(x: 3.0, y: 1.0)

let anotherVector = Vector2D(x: 2.0, y: 4.0)

let combinedVector = vector + anotherVector

// combinedVector is a Vector2D instance with values of (5.0, 5.0)

This example adds together the vectors (3.0, 1.0) and (2.0, 4.0) to make the
vector (5.0, 5.0), as illustrated below.

Prefix and Postfix Operators

The example shown above demonstrates a custom implementation of a binary infix
operator. Classes and structures can also provide implementations of the standard
unary operators. Unary operators operate on a single target. They are prefix if they
precede their target (such as -a) and postfix operators if they follow their target
(such as i++).
You implement a prefix or postfix unary operator by writing the prefix or postfix
modifier before the func keyword when declaring the operator function:
1

prefix func - (vector: Vector2D) -> Vector2D {

return Vector2D(x: -vector.x, y: -vector.y)

The example above implements the unary minus operator (-a) for Vector2D
instances. The unary minus operator is a prefix operator, and so this function has to
be qualified with the prefix modifier.

For simple numeric values, the unary minus operator converts positive numbers
into their negative equivalent and vice versa. The corresponding implementation for
Vector2D instances performs this operation on both the x and y properties:
1

let positive = Vector2D(x: 3.0, y: 4.0)

let negative = -positive

// negative is a Vector2D instance with values of (-3.0, -4.0)

let alsoPositive = -negative

// alsoPositive is a Vector2D instance with values of (3.0, 4.0)

Compound Assignment Operators

Compound assignment operators combine assignment (=) with another operation.
For example, the addition assignment operator (+=) combines addition and
assignment into a single operation. You mark a compound assignment operator s
left input parameter as inout, because the parameter s value will be modified
directly from within the operator function.
The example below implements an addition assignment operator function for
Vector2D instances:
1

func += (inout left: Vector2D, right: Vector2D) {

left = left + right

Because an addition operator was defined earlier, you dont need to reimplement the
addition process here. Instead, the addition assignment operator function takes
advantage of the existing addition operator function, and uses it to set the left value
to be the left value plus the right value:

var original = Vector2D(x: 1.0, y: 2.0)

let vectorToAdd = Vector2D(x: 3.0, y: 4.0)

original += vectorToAdd

// original now has values of (4.0, 6.0)

You can combine assignment with either the prefix or postfix modifier, as in this
implementation of the prefix increment operator (++a) for Vector2D instances:
1

prefix func ++ (inout vector: Vector2D) -> Vector2D {

vector += Vector2D(x: 1.0, y: 1.0)

return vector

The prefix increment operator function above takes advantage of the addition
assignment operator defined earlier. It adds a Vector2D with x and y values of 1.0 to
the Vector2D on which it is called, and returns the result:
1

var toIncrement = Vector2D(x: 3.0, y: 4.0)

let afterIncrement = ++toIncrement

// toIncrement now has values of (4.0, 5.0)

// afterIncrement also has values of (4.0, 5.0)

N OTE
It is not possible to overload the default assignment operator (=). Only the compound assignment
operators can be overloaded. Similarly, the ternary conditional operator (a ? b : c) cannot be
overloaded.

Equivalence Operators
Custom classes and structures do not receive a default implementation of the
equivalence operators, known as the equal to operator (==) and not equal to
operator (!=). It is not possible for Swift to guess what would qualify as equal for
your own custom types, because the meaning of equal depends on the roles that
those types play in your code.
To use the equivalence operators to check for equivalence of your own custom type,
provide an implementation of the operators in the same way as for other infix
operators:
1

func == (left: Vector2D, right: Vector2D) -> Bool {

return (left.x == right.x) && (left.y == right.y)

func != (left: Vector2D, right: Vector2D) -> Bool {

return !(left == right)

The above example implements an equal to operator (==) to check if two Vector2D
instances have equivalent values. In the context of Vector2D, it makes sense to
consider equal as meaning both instances have the same x values and y values,
and so this is the logic used by the operator implementation. The example also
implements the not equal to operator (!=), which simply returns the inverse of the
result of the equal to operator.
You can now use these operators to check whether two Vector2D instances are
equivalent:

let twoThree = Vector2D(x: 2.0, y: 3.0)

let anotherTwoThree = Vector2D(x: 2.0, y: 3.0)

if twoThree == anotherTwoThree {

print("These two vectors are equivalent.")

// prints "These two vectors are equivalent."

Custom Operators
You can declare and implement your own custom operators in addition to the
standard operators provided by Swift. For a list of characters that can be used to
define custom operators, see Operators.
New operators are declared at a global level using the operator keyword, and are
marked with the prefix, infix or postfix modifiers:

prefix operator +++ {}

The example above defines a new prefix operator called +++. This operator does not
have an existing meaning in Swift, and so it is given its own custom meaning below
in the specific context of working with Vector2D instances. For the purposes of this
example, +++ is treated as a new prefix doubling incrementer operator. It doubles
the x and y values of a Vector2D instance, by adding the vector to itself with the
addition assignment operator defined earlier:
1

prefix func +++ (inout vector: Vector2D) -> Vector2D {

vector += vector

return vector

This implementation of +++ is very similar to the implementation of ++ for Vector2D,

except that this operator function adds the vector to itself, rather than adding
Vector2D(1.0, 1.0):
1

var toBeDoubled = Vector2D(x: 1.0, y: 4.0)

let afterDoubling = +++toBeDoubled

// toBeDoubled now has values of (2.0, 8.0)

// afterDoubling also has values of (2.0, 8.0)

Precedence and Associativity for Custom Infix Operators

Custom infix operators can also specify a precedence and an associativity. See
Precedence and Associativity for an explanation of how these two characteristics
affect an infix operator s interaction with other infix operators.
The possible values for associativity are left, right, and none. Left-associative
operators associate to the left if written next to other left-associative operators of
the same precedence. Similarly, right-associative operators associate to the right if
written next to other right-associative operators of the same precedence. Nonassociative operators cannot be written next to other operators with the same
precedence.
The associativity value defaults to none if it is not specified. The precedence value
defaults to 100 if it is not specified.
The following example defines a new custom infix operator called +-, with left
associativity and a precedence of 140:

infix operator +- { associativity left precedence 140 }

func +- (left: Vector2D, right: Vector2D) -> Vector2D {

return Vector2D(x: left.x + right.x, y: left.y - right.y)

let firstVector = Vector2D(x: 1.0, y: 2.0)

let secondVector = Vector2D(x: 3.0, y: 4.0)

let plusMinusVector = firstVector +- secondVector

// plusMinusVector is a Vector2D instance with values of (4.0,

-2.0)

This operator adds together the x values of two vectors, and subtracts the y value of
the second vector from the first. Because it is in essence an additive operator, it
has been given the same associativity and precedence values (left and 140) as
default additive infix operators such as + and -. For a complete list of the operator
precedence and associativity settings, for the operators provided by the Swift
standard library, see Swift Standard Library Operators Reference.

N OTE
You do not specify a precedence when defining a prefix or postfix operator. However, if you apply
both a prefix and a postfix operator to the same operand, the postfix operator is applied first.

Language Reference

About the Language Reference

This part of the book describes the formal grammar of the Swift programming
language. The grammar described here is intended to help you understand the
language in more detail, rather than to allow you to directly implement a parser or
compiler.
The Swift language is relatively small, because many common types, functions, and
operators that appear virtually everywhere in Swift code are actually defined in the
Swift standard library. Although these types, functions, and operators are not part of
the Swift language itself, they are used extensively in the discussions and code
examples in this part of the book.

How to Read the Grammar

The notation used to describe the formal grammar of the Swift programming
language follows a few conventions:
An arrow () is used to mark grammar productions and can be read as
can consist of.
Syntactic categories are indicated by italic text and appear on both sides of a
grammar production rule.
Literal words and punctuation are indicated by boldface constant width text
and appear only on the right-hand side of a grammar production rule.
Alternative grammar productions are separated by vertical bars (|). When
alternative productions are too long to read easily, they are broken into
multiple grammar production rules on new lines.
In a few cases, regular font text is used to describe the right-hand side of a
grammar production rule.
Optional syntactic categories and literals are marked by a trailing subscript,
opt.

As an example, the grammar of a getter-setter block is defined as follows:

G RA M M A R O F A G E T T E R- S E T T E R B L O C K

getter-setter-block { getter-clause setter-clause opt

clause getter-clause }

} | {

setter-

This definition indicates that a getter-setter block can consist of a getter clause
followed by an optional setter clause, enclosed in braces, or a setter clause followed
by a getter clause, enclosed in braces. The grammar production above is equivalent
to the following two productions, where the alternatives are spelled out explicitly:
G RA M M A R O F A G E T T E R- S E T T E R B L O C K

getter-setter-block { getter-clause setter-clause opt

getter-setter-block { setter-clause getter-clause }

Lexical Structure
The lexical structure of Swift describes what sequence of characters form valid
tokens of the language. These valid tokens form the lowest-level building blocks of
the language and are used to describe the rest of the language in subsequent
chapters. A token consists of an identifier, keyword, punctuation, literal, or operator.
In most cases, tokens are generated from the characters of a Swift source file by
considering the longest possible substring from the input text, within the constraints
of the grammar that are specified below. This behavior is referred to as longest
match or maximal munch.

Whitespace and Comments

Whitespace has two uses: to separate tokens in the source file and to help determine
whether an operator is a prefix or postfix (see Operators), but is otherwise ignored.
The following characters are considered whitespace: space (U+0020), line feed
(U+000A), carriage return (U+000D), horizontal tab (U+0009), vertical tab
(U+000B), form feed (U+000C) and null (U+0000).
Comments are treated as whitespace by the compiler. Single line comments begin
with // and continue until a line feed (U+000A) or carriage return (U+000D).
Multiline comments begin with /* and end with */. Nesting multiline comments is
allowed, but the comment markers must be balanced.
Comments can contain additional formatting and markup, as described in Markup
Formatting Reference.

Identifiers
Identifiers begin with an uppercase or lowercase letter A through Z, an underscore
(_), a noncombining alphanumeric Unicode character in the Basic Multilingual
Plane, or a character outside the Basic Multilingual Plane that isnt in a Private Use
Area. After the first character, digits and combining Unicode characters are also

allowed.
To use a reserved word as an identifier, put a backtick (`) before and after it. For
example, class is not a valid identifier, but `class` is valid. The backticks are not
considered part of the identifier; `x` and x have the same meaning.
Inside a closure with no explicit parameter names, the parameters are implicitly
named $0, $1, $2, and so on. These names are valid identifiers within the scope of the
closure.
G RA M M A R O F A N I D E N T I F I E R

identifier identifier-head identifier-characters opt

identifier ` identifier-head identifier-characters opt `
identifier implicit-parameter-name
identifier-list identifier | identifier , identifier-list
identifier-head Upper- or lowercase letter A through Z
identifier-head _
identifier-head U+00A8, U+00AA, U+00AD, U+00AF, U+00B2U+00B5, or
U+00B7U+00BA
identifier-head U+00BCU+00BE, U+00C0U+00D6, U+00D8U+00F6, or
U+00F8U+00FF
identifier-head U+0100U+02FF, U+0370U+167F, U+1681U+180D, or
U+180FU+1DBF
identifier-head U+1E00U+1FFF
identifier-head U+200BU+200D, U+202AU+202E, U+203FU+2040,
U+2054, or U+2060U+206F
identifier-head U+2070U+20CF, U+2100U+218F, U+2460U+24FF, or
U+2776U+2793
identifier-head U+2C00U+2DFF or U+2E80U+2FFF
identifier-head U+3004U+3007, U+3021U+302F, U+3031U+303F, or
U+3040U+D7FF
identifier-head U+F900U+FD3D, U+FD40U+FDCF, U+FDF0U+FE1F, or
U+FE30U+FE44
identifier-head U+FE47U+FFFD
identifier-head U+10000U+1FFFD, U+20000U+2FFFD, U+30000
U+3FFFD, or U+40000U+4FFFD

 identifier-head U+50000U+5FFFD, U+60000U+6FFFD, U+70000

U+7FFFD, or U+80000U+8FFFD
identifier-head U+90000U+9FFFD, U+A0000U+AFFFD, U+B0000
U+BFFFD, or U+C0000U+CFFFD
identifier-head U+D0000U+DFFFD or U+E0000U+EFFFD
identifier-character Digit 0 through 9
identifier-character U+0300U+036F, U+1DC0U+1DFF, U+20D0U+20FF,
or U+FE20U+FE2F
identifier-character identifier-head
identifier-characters identifier-character identifier-characters opt
implicit-parameter-name $ decimal-digits

Keywords and Punctuation

The following keywords are reserved and cant be used as identifiers, unless theyre
escaped with backticks, as described above in Identifiers.
Keywords used in declarations: class, deinit, enum, extension, func, import,
init, inout, internal, let, operator, private, protocol, public, static,
struct, subscript, typealias, and var.
Keywords used in statements: break, case, continue, default, defer, do, else,
fallthrough, for, guard, if, in, repeat, return, switch, where, and while.
Keywords used in expressions and types: as, catch, dynamicType, false, is,
nil, rethrows, super, self, Self, throw, throws, true, try, __COLUMN__,
__FILE__, __FUNCTION__, and __LINE__.
Keywords used in patterns: _.
Keywords reserved in particular contexts: associativity, convenience,
dynamic, didSet, final, get, infix, indirect, lazy, left, mutating, none,
nonmutating, optional, override, postfix, precedence, prefix, Protocol,
required, right, set, Type, unowned, weak, and willSet. Outside the context in
which they appear in the grammar, they can be used as identifiers.

The following tokens are reserved as punctuation and cant be used as custom
operators: (, ), {, }, [, ], ., ,, :, ;, =, @, #, & (as a prefix operator), ->, `, ?, and ! (as a
postfix operator).

Literals
A literal is the source code representation of a value of a type, such as a number or
string.
The following are examples of literals:
1

42 // Integer literal

3.14159 // Floating-point literal

"Hello, world!" // String literal

true // Boolean literal

A literal doesnt have a type on its own. Instead, a literal is parsed as having infinite
precision and Swifts type inference attempts to infer a type for the literal. For
example, in the declaration let x: Int8 = 42, Swift uses the explicit type annotation
(: Int8) to infer that the type of the integer literal 42 is Int8. If there isnt suitable
type information available, Swift infers that the literals type is one of the default
literal types defined in the Swift standard library. The default types are Int for
integer literals, Double for floating-point literals, String for string literals, and Bool
for Boolean literals. For example, in the declaration let str = "Hello, world", the
default inferred type of the string literal "Hello, world" is String.
When specifying the type annotation for a literal value, the annotations type must be
a type that can be instantiated from that literal value. That is, the type must conform
to one of the following Swift standard library protocols:
IntegerLiteralConvertible for integer literals, FloatingPointLiteralConvertible
for floating-point literals, StringLiteralConvertible for string literals, and
BooleanLiteralConvertible for Boolean literals. For example, Int8 conforms to the
IntegerLiteralConvertible protocol, and therefore it can be used in the type
annotation for the integer literal 42 in the declaration let x: Int8 = 42.

G RA M M A R O F A L I T E RA L

literal numeric-literal | string-literal | boolean-literal | nil-literal

numeric-literal - opt integer-literal | - opt floating-point-literal
boolean-literal true | false
nil-literal nil

Integer Literals
Integer literals represent integer values of unspecified precision. By default, integer
literals are expressed in decimal; you can specify an alternate base using a prefix.
Binary literals begin with 0b, octal literals begin with 0o, and hexadecimal literals
begin with 0x.
Decimal literals contain the digits 0 through 9. Binary literals contain 0 and 1, octal
literals contain 0 through 7, and hexadecimal literals contain 0 through 9 as well as A
through F in upper- or lowercase.
Negative integers literals are expressed by prepending a minus sign (-) to an integer
literal, as in -42.
Underscores (_) are allowed between digits for readability, but they are ignored and
therefore dont affect the value of the literal. Integer literals can begin with leading
zeros (0), but they are likewise ignored and dont affect the base or value of the
literal.
Unless otherwise specified, the default inferred type of an integer literal is the Swift
standard library type Int. The Swift standard library also defines types for various
sizes of signed and unsigned integers, as described in Integers.

G RA M M A R O F A N I N T E G E R L I T E RA L

integer-literal binary-literal
integer-literal octal-literal
integer-literal decimal-literal
integer-literal hexadecimal-literal
binary-literal 0b binary-digit binary-literal-characters opt
binary-digit Digit 0 or 1
binary-literal-character binary-digit | _
binary-literal-characters binary-literal-character binary-literalcharacters opt
octal-literal 0o octal-digit octal-literal-characters opt
octal-digit Digit 0 through 7
octal-literal-character octal-digit | _
octal-literal-characters octal-literal-character octal-literal-characters opt
decimal-literal decimal-digit decimal-literal-characters opt
decimal-digit Digit 0 through 9
decimal-digits decimal-digit decimal-digits opt
decimal-literal-character decimal-digit | _
decimal-literal-characters decimal-literal-character decimal-literalcharacters opt
hexadecimal-literal 0x hexadecimal-digit hexadecimal-literal-characters opt
hexadecimal-digit Digit 0 through 9, a through f, or A through F
hexadecimal-literal-character hexadecimal-digit | _
hexadecimal-literal-characters hexadecimal-literal-character hexadecimalliteral-characters opt

Floating-Point Literals
Floating-point literals represent floating-point values of unspecified precision.
By default, floating-point literals are expressed in decimal (with no prefix), but they

can also be expressed in hexadecimal (with a 0x prefix).

Decimal floating-point literals consist of a sequence of decimal digits followed by
either a decimal fraction, a decimal exponent, or both. The decimal fraction consists
of a decimal point (.) followed by a sequence of decimal digits. The exponent
consists of an upper- or lowercase e prefix followed by a sequence of decimal
digits that indicates what power of 10 the value preceding the e is multiplied by. For
example, 1.25e2 represents 1.25 x 102, which evaluates to 125.0. Similarly, 1.25e-2
represents 1.25 x 10-2, which evaluates to 0.0125.
Hexadecimal floating-point literals consist of a 0x prefix, followed by an optional
hexadecimal fraction, followed by a hexadecimal exponent. The hexadecimal
fraction consists of a decimal point followed by a sequence of hexadecimal digits.
The exponent consists of an upper- or lowercase p prefix followed by a sequence of
decimal digits that indicates what power of 2 the value preceding the p is multiplied
by. For example, 0xFp2 represents 15 x 22, which evaluates to 60. Similarly, 0xFp-2
represents 15 x 2-2, which evaluates to 3.75.
Negative floating-point literals are expressed by prepending a minus sign (-) to a
floating-point literal, as in -42.5.
Underscores (_) are allowed between digits for readability, but are ignored and
therefore dont affect the value of the literal. Floating-point literals can begin with
leading zeros (0), but are likewise ignored and dont affect the base or value of the
literal.
Unless otherwise specified, the default inferred type of a floating-point literal is the
Swift standard library type Double, which represents a 64-bit floating-point number.
The Swift standard library also defines a Float type, which represents a 32-bit
floating-point number.

G RA M M A R O F A F L O AT I N G - P O I N T L I T E RA L

floating-point-literal decimal-literal decimal-fraction opt decimalexponent opt

floating-point-literal hexadecimal-literal hexadecimalfraction opt hexadecimal-exponent
decimal-fraction . decimal-literal
decimal-exponent floating-point-e sign opt decimal-literal
hexadecimal-fraction . hexadecimal-digit hexadecimal-literal-characters opt
hexadecimal-exponent floating-point-p sign opt decimal-literal
floating-point-e e | E
floating-point-p p | P
sign + | -

String Literals
A string literal is a sequence of characters surrounded by double quotes, with the
following form:
" characters "

String literals cannot contain an unescaped double quote ("), an unescaped backslash
(\), a carriage return, or a line feed.
Special characters can be included in string literals using the following escape
sequences:

Null Character (\0)

Backslash (\\)
Horizontal Tab (\t)
Line Feed (\n)
Carriage Return (\r)
Double Quote (\")

 Single Quote (\')

Unicode scalar (\u{n}), where n is between one and eight hexadecimal
digits
The value of an expression can be inserted into a string literal by placing the
expression in parentheses after a backslash (\). The interpolated expression can
contain a string literal, but cant contain an unescaped backslash (\), a carriage
return, or a line feed.
For example, all the following string literals have the same value:
1

"1 2 3"

"1 2 \("3")"

"1 2 \(3)"

"1 2 \(1 + 2)"

let x = 3; "1 2 \(x)"

The default inferred type of a string literal is String. For more information about
the String type, see Strings and Characters and String Structure Reference.
String literals that are concatenated by the + operator are concatenated at compile
time. For example, the values of textA and textB in the example below are identical
no runtime concatenation is performed.
1

let textA = "Hello " + "world"

let textB = "Hello world"

G RA M M A R O F A S T RI N G L I T E RA L

string-literal static-string-literal | interpolated-string-literal

static-string-literal " quoted-text opt "
quoted-text quoted-text-item quoted-text opt
quoted-text-item escaped-character
quoted-text-item Any Unicode scalar value except " , \ , U+000A, or U+000D
interpolated-string-literal " interpolated-text opt "
interpolated-text interpolated-text-item interpolated-text opt
interpolated-text-item \( expression ) | quoted-text-item
escaped-character \0 | \\ | \t | \n | \r | \" | \'
escaped-character \u { unicode-scalar-digits }
unicode-scalar-digits Between one and eight hexadecimal digits

Operators
The Swift standard library defines a number of operators for your use, many of
which are discussed in Basic Operators and Advanced Operators. The present
section describes which characters can be used to define custom operators.
Custom operators can begin with one of the ASCII characters /, =, -, +, !, *, %, <, >, &,
|, ^, ?, or ~, or one of the Unicode characters defined in the grammar below (which
include characters from the Mathematical Operators, Miscellaneous Symbols, and
Dingbats Unicode blocks, among others). After the first character, combining
Unicode characters are also allowed. You can also define custom operators as a
sequence of two or more dots (for example, ....). Although you can define custom
operators that contain a question mark character (?), they cant consist of a single
question mark character only.

N OTE
The tokens =, ->, //, /*, */, ., the prefix operators <, &, and ?, the infix operator ?, and the postfix
operators >, !, and ? are reserved. These tokens cant be overloaded, nor can they be used as
custom operators.

The whitespace around an operator is used to determine whether an operator is used

as a prefix operator, a postfix operator, or a binary operator. This behavior is
summarized in the following rules:
If an operator has whitespace around both sides or around neither side, it is
treated as a binary operator. As an example, the + operator in a+b and a + b
is treated as a binary operator.
If an operator has whitespace on the left side only, it is treated as a prefix
unary operator. As an example, the ++ operator in a ++b is treated as a prefix
unary operator.
If an operator has whitespace on the right side only, it is treated as a postfix
unary operator. As an example, the ++ operator in a++ b is treated as a
postfix unary operator.
If an operator has no whitespace on the left but is followed immediately by a
dot (.), it is treated as a postfix unary operator. As an example, the ++
operator in a++.b is treated as a postfix unary operator (a++ .b rather than a
++ .b).
For the purposes of these rules, the characters (, [, and { before an operator, the
characters ), ], and } after an operator, and the characters ,, ;, and : are also
considered whitespace.
There is one caveat to the rules above. If the ! or ? predefined operator has no
whitespace on the left, it is treated as a postfix operator, regardless of whether it has
whitespace on the right. To use the ? as the optional-chaining operator, it must not
have whitespace on the left. To use it in the ternary conditional (? :) operator, it
must have whitespace around both sides.
In certain constructs, operators with a leading < or > may be split into two or more
tokens. The remainder is treated the same way and may be split again. As a result,
there is no need to use whitespace to disambiguate between the closing > characters
in constructs like Dictionary<String, Array<Int>>. In this example, the closing >
characters are not treated as a single token that may then be misinterpreted as a bit
shift >> operator.
To learn how to define new, custom operators, see Custom Operators and Operator
Declaration. To learn how to overload existing operators, see Operator Functions.

G RA M M A R O F O P E RAT O RS

operator operator-head operator-characters opt

operator dot-operator-head dot-operator-characters opt
operator-head / | = | - | + | ! | * | % | < | > | & | | | ^ | ~ | ?
operator-head U+00A1U+00A7
operator-head U+00A9 or U+00AB
operator-head U+00AC or U+00AE
operator-head U+00B0U+00B1, U+00B6, U+00BB, U+00BF, U+00D7, or
U+00F7
operator-head U+2016U+2017 or U+2020U+2027
operator-head U+2030U+203E
operator-head U+2041U+2053
operator-head U+2055U+205E
operator-head U+2190U+23FF
operator-head U+2500U+2775
operator-head U+2794U+2BFF
operator-head U+2E00U+2E7F
operator-head U+3001U+3003
operator-head U+3008U+3030
operator-character operator-head
operator-character U+0300U+036F
operator-character U+1DC0U+1DFF
operator-character U+20D0U+20FF
operator-character U+FE00U+FE0F
operator-character U+FE20U+FE2F
operator-character U+E0100U+E01EF
operator-characters operator-character operator-characters opt
dot-operator-head ..
dot-operator-character . | operator-character
dot-operator-characters dot-operator-character dot-operator-characters opt
binary-operator operator
prefix-operator operator
postfix-operator operator

Types
In Swift, there are two kinds of types: named types and compound types. A named
type is a type that can be given a particular name when it is defined. Named types
include classes, structures, enumerations, and protocols. For example, instances of a
user-defined class named MyClass have the type MyClass. In addition to user-defined
named types, the Swift standard library defines many commonly used named types,
including those that represent arrays, dictionaries, and optional values.
Data types that are normally considered basic or primitive in other languagessuch
as types that represent numbers, characters, and stringsare actually named types,
defined and implemented in the Swift standard library using structures. Because they
are named types, you can extend their behavior to suit the needs of your program,
using an extension declaration, discussed in Extensions and Extension Declaration.
A compound type is a type without a name, defined in the Swift language itself.
There are two compound types: function types and tuple types. A compound type
may contain named types and other compound types. For instance, the tuple type
(Int, (Int, Int)) contains two elements: The first is the named type Int, and the
second is another compound type (Int, Int).
This chapter discusses the types defined in the Swift language itself and describes
the type inference behavior of Swift.
G RA M M A R O F A T Y P E

type array-type | dictionary-type | function-type | type-identifier | tupletype | optional-type | implicitly-unwrapped-optional-type | protocolcomposition-type | metatype-type

Type Annotation
A type annotation explicitly specifies the type of a variable or expression. Type
annotations begin with a colon (:) and end with a type, as the following examples
show:

let someTuple: (Double, Double) = (3.14159, 2.71828)

func someFunction(a: Int) { /* ... */ }

In the first example, the expression someTuple is specified to have the tuple type
(Double, Double). In the second example, the parameter a to the function
someFunction is specified to have the type Int.
Type annotations can contain an optional list of type attributes before the type.
G RA M M A R O F A T Y P E A N N O T AT I O N

type-annotation : attributes opt type

Type Identifier
A type identifier refers to either a named type or a type alias of a named or
compound type.
Most of the time, a type identifier directly refers to a named type with the same
name as the identifier. For example, Int is a type identifier that directly refers to the
named type Int, and the type identifier Dictionary<String, Int> directly refers to
the named type Dictionary<String, Int>.
There are two cases in which a type identifier does not refer to a type with the same
name. In the first case, a type identifier refers to a type alias of a named or
compound type. For instance, in the example below, the use of Point in the type
annotation refers to the tuple type (Int, Int).
1

typealias Point = (Int, Int)

let origin: Point = (0, 0)

In the second case, a type identifier uses dot (.) syntax to refer to named types
declared in other modules or nested within other types. For example, the type
identifier in the following code references the named type MyType that is declared in
the ExampleModule module.

var someValue: ExampleModule.MyType

G RA M M A R O F A T Y P E I D E N T I F I E R

type-identifier type-name generic-argument-clause opt | type-name genericargument-clause opt . type-identifier

type-name identifier

Tuple Type
A tuple type is a comma-separated list of zero or more types, enclosed in
parentheses.
You can use a tuple type as the return type of a function to enable the function to
return a single tuple containing multiple values. You can also name the elements of a
tuple type and use those names to refer to the values of the individual elements. An
element name consists of an identifier followed immediately by a colon (:). For an
example that demonstrates both of these features, see Functions with Multiple Return
Values.
Void is a typealias for the empty tuple type, (). If there is only one element inside the

parentheses, the type is simply the type of that element. For example, the type of
(Int) is Int, not (Int). As a result, you can name a tuple element only when the
tuple type has two or more elements.
G RA M M A R O F A T U P L E T Y P E

tuple-type ( tuple-type-body opt )

tuple-type-body tuple-type-element-list ... opt
tuple-type-element-list tuple-type-element | tuple-type-element , tuple-typeelement-list
tuple-type-element attributes opt inout opt type | inout opt elementname type-annotation
element-name identifier

Function Type
A function type represents the type of a function, method, or closure and consists of
a parameter and return type separated by an arrow (->):
parameter type -> return type

Because the parameter type and the return type can be a tuple type, function types
support functions and methods that take multiple parameters and return multiple
values.
A parameter declaration for a function type with a parameter type of Void can apply
the autoclosure attribute to capture an implicit closure over a specified expression
instead of the expression itself. This provides a syntactically convenient way to
defer the evaluation of an expression until its value is used in the function body. For
an example of an autoclosure function type parameter, see Autoclosures.
A function type can have a variadic parameter in its parameter type. Syntactically, a
variadic parameter consists of a base type name followed immediately by three dots
(...), as in Int.... A variadic parameter is treated as an array that contains elements
of the base type name. For instance, the variadic parameter Int... is treated as
[Int]. For an example that uses a variadic parameter, see Variadic Parameters.
To specify an in-out parameter, prefix the parameter type with the inout keyword.
You cant mark a variadic parameter or a return type with the inout keyword. In-out
parameters are discussed in In-Out Parameters.
The function types of a curried function are grouped from right to left. For instance,
the function type Int -> Int -> Int is understood as Int -> (Int -> Int)that is,
a function that takes an Int and returns another function that takes and returns an Int.
Curried function are described in Curried Functions.
Function types that can throw an error must be marked with the throws keyword, and
function types that can rethrow an error must be marked with the rethrows keyword.
The throws keyword is part of a functions type, and nonthrowing functions are
subtypes of throwing functions. As a result, you can use a nonthrowing function in
the same places as a throwing one. For curried functions, the throws keyword
applies only to the innermost function. Throwing and rethrowing functions are
described in Throwing Functions and Methods and Rethrowing Functions and
Methods.

G RA M M A R O F A F U N C T I O N T Y P E

function-type type
function-type type

throws opt ->

rethrows ->

type
type

Array Type
The Swift language provides the following syntactic sugar for the Swift standard
library Array<Element> type:
[ type ]

In other words, the following two declarations are equivalent:

1

let someArray: Array<String> = ["Alex", "Brian", "Dave"]

let someArray: [String] = ["Alex", "Brian", "Dave"]

In both cases, the constant someArray is declared as an array of strings. The elements
of an array can be accessed through subscripting by specifying a valid index value
in square brackets: someArray[0] refers to the element at index 0, "Alex".
You can create multidimensional arrays by nesting pairs of square brackets, where
the name of the base type of the elements is contained in the innermost pair of
square brackets. For example, you can create a three-dimensional array of integers
using three sets of square brackets:

var array3D: [[[Int]]] = [[[1, 2], [3, 4]], [[5, 6], [7, 8]]]

When accessing the elements in a multidimensional array, the left-most subscript

index refers to the element at that index in the outermost array. The next subscript
index to the right refers to the element at that index in the array thats nested one
level in. And so on. This means that in the example above, array3D[0] refers to [[1,
2], [3, 4]], array3D[0][1] refers to [3, 4], and array3D[0][1][1] refers to the
value 4.
For a detailed discussion of the Swift standard library Array type, see Arrays.

G RA M M A R O F A N A RRA Y T Y P E

array-type [ type

Dictionary Type
The Swift language provides the following syntactic sugar for the Swift standard
library Dictionary<Key, Value> type:
[ key type : value type ]

In other words, the following two declarations are equivalent:

1

let someDictionary: [String: Int] = ["Alex": 31, "Paul": 39]

let someDictionary: Dictionary<String, Int> = ["Alex": 31, "Paul":

39]

In both cases, the constant someDictionary is declared as a dictionary with strings as

keys and integers as values.
The values of a dictionary can be accessed through subscripting by specifying the
corresponding key in square brackets: someDictionary["Alex"] refers to the value
associated with the key "Alex". The subscript returns an optional value of the
dictionarys value type. If the specified key isnt contained in the dictionary, the
subscript returns nil.
The key type of a dictionary must conform to the Swift standard library Hashable
protocol.
For a detailed discussion of the Swift standard library Dictionary type, see
Dictionaries.
G RA M M A R O F A D I C T I O N A RY T Y P E

dictionary-type [ type

type

Optional Type
The Swift language defines the postfix ? as syntactic sugar for the named type
Optional<Wrapped>, which is defined in the Swift standard library. In other words,
the following two declarations are equivalent:
1

var optionalInteger: Int?

var optionalInteger: Optional<Int>

In both cases, the variable optionalInteger is declared to have the type of an

optional integer. Note that no whitespace may appear between the type and the ?.
The type Optional<Wrapped> is an enumeration with two cases, None and
Some(Wrapped), which are used to represent values that may or may not be present.
Any type can be explicitly declared to be (or implicitly converted to) an optional
type. If you dont provide an initial value when you declare an optional variable or
property, its value automatically defaults to nil.
If an instance of an optional type contains a value, you can access that value using
the postfix operator !, as shown below:
1

optionalInteger = 42

optionalInteger! // 42

Using the ! operator to unwrap an optional that has a value of nil results in a
runtime error.
You can also use optional chaining and optional binding to conditionally perform
an operation on an optional expression. If the value is nil, no operation is
performed and therefore no runtime error is produced.
For more information and to see examples that show how to use optional types, see
Optionals.
G RA M M A R O F A N O P T I O N A L T Y P E

optional-type type

Implicitly Unwrapped Optional Type

The Swift language defines the postfix ! as syntactic sugar for the named type
ImplicitlyUnwrappedOptional<Wrapped>, which is defined in the Swift standard
library. In other words, the following two declarations are equivalent:
1

var implicitlyUnwrappedString: String!

var implicitlyUnwrappedString: ImplicitlyUnwrappedOptional<String>

In both cases, the variable implicitlyUnwrappedString is declared to have the type of

an implicitly unwrapped optional string. Note that no whitespace may appear
between the type and the !.
You can use implicitly unwrapped optionals in all the same places in your code that
you can use optionals. For instance, you can assign values of implicitly unwrapped
optionals to variables, constants, and properties of optionals, and vice versa.
As with optionals, if you dont provide an initial value when you declare an
implicitly unwrapped optional variable or property, its value automatically defaults
to nil.
Because the value of an implicitly unwrapped optional is automatically unwrapped
when you use it, theres no need to use the ! operator to unwrap it. That said, if you
try to use an implicitly unwrapped optional that has a value of nil, youll get a
runtime error.
Use optional chaining to conditionally perform an operation on an implicitly
unwrapped optional expression. If the value is nil, no operation is performed and
therefore no runtime error is produced.
For more information about implicitly unwrapped optional types, see Implicitly
Unwrapped Optionals.
G RA M M A R O F A N I M P L I C I T LY U N W RA P P E D O P T I O N A L T Y P E

implicitly-unwrapped-optional-type type

Protocol Composition Type

A protocol composition type describes a type that conforms to each protocol in a
list of specified protocols. Protocol composition types may be used in type
annotations and in generic parameters.
Protocol composition types have the following form:
protocol< Protocol 1 , Protocol 2 >

A protocol composition type allows you to specify a value whose type conforms to
the requirements of multiple protocols without having to explicitly define a new,
named protocol that inherits from each protocol you want the type to conform to.
For example, specifying a protocol composition type protocol<ProtocolA,
ProtocolB, ProtocolC> is effectively the same as defining a new protocol ProtocolD
that inherits from ProtocolA, ProtocolB, and ProtocolC, but without having to
introduce a new name.
Each item in a protocol composition list must be either the name of protocol or a
type alias of a protocol composition type. If the list is empty, it specifies the empty
protocol composition type, which every type conforms to.
G RA M M A R O F A P RO T O C O L C O M P O S I T I O N T Y P E

protocol-composition-type protocol < protocol-identifier-list opt >

protocol-identifier-list protocol-identifier | protocol-identifier , protocolidentifier-list
protocol-identifier type-identifier

Metatype Type
A metatype type refers to the type of any type, including class types, structure types,
enumeration types, and protocol types.
The metatype of a class, structure, or enumeration type is the name of that type
followed by .Type. The metatype of a protocol typenot the concrete type that
conforms to the protocol at runtimeis the name of that protocol followed by
.Protocol. For example, the metatype of the class type SomeClass is SomeClass.Type

and the metatype of the protocol SomeProtocol is SomeProtocol.Protocol.

You can use the postfix self expression to access a type as a value. For example,
SomeClass.self returns SomeClass itself, not an instance of SomeClass. And
SomeProtocol.self returns SomeProtocol itself, not an instance of a type that
conforms to SomeProtocol at runtime. You can use a dynamicType expression with an
instance of a type to access that instances dynamic, runtime type as a value, as the
following example shows:
1

class SomeBaseClass {

class func printClassName() {

print("SomeBaseClass")

class SomeSubClass: SomeBaseClass {

override class func printClassName() {

print("SomeSubClass")

}
}
let someInstance: SomeBaseClass = SomeSubClass()
// The compile-time type of someInstance is SomeBaseClass,
// and the runtime type of someInstance is SomeBaseClass
someInstance.dynamicType.printClassName()
// prints "SomeSubClass"

Use the identity operators (=== and !==) to test whether an instances runtime type is
the same as its compile-time type.

if someInstance.dynamicType === someInstance.self {

print("The dynamic type of someInstance is SomeBaseCass")

} else {

print("The dynamic type of someInstance isn't SomeBaseClass")

// prints "The dynamic type of someInstance isn't SomeBaseClass"

Use an initializer expression to construct an instance of a type from that types

metatype value. For class instances, the initializer thats called must be marked with
the required keyword or the entire class marked with the final keyword.
1

class AnotherSubClass: SomeBaseClass {

let string: String

required init(string: String) {

self.string = string

override class func printClassName() {

print("AnotherSubClass")

}
let metatype: AnotherSubClass.Type = AnotherSubClass.self
let anotherInstance = metatype.init(string: "some string")

G RA M M A R O F A M E T AT Y P E T Y P E

metatype-type type

. Type | type . Protocol

Type Inheritance Clause

A type inheritance clause is used to specify which class a named type inherits from
and which protocols a named type conforms to. A type inheritance clause is also
used to specify a class requirement on a protocol. A type inheritance clause begins
with a colon (:), followed by either a class requirement, a list of type identifiers, or
both.
Class types can inherit from a single superclass and conform to any number of
protocols. When defining a class, the name of the superclass must appear first in the
list of type identifiers, followed by any number of protocols the class must conform
to. If the class does not inherit from another class, the list can begin with a protocol
instead. For an extended discussion and several examples of class inheritance, see
Inheritance.
Other named types can only inherit from or conform to a list of protocols. Protocol
types can inherit from any number of other protocols. When a protocol type inherits
from other protocols, the set of requirements from those other protocols are
aggregated together, and any type that inherits from the current protocol must
conform to all of those requirements. As discussed in Protocol Declaration, you can
include the class keyword as the first item in the type inheritance clause to mark a
protocol declaration with a class requirement.
A type inheritance clause in an enumeration definition can be either a list of
protocols, or in the case of an enumeration that assigns raw values to its cases, a
single, named type that specifies the type of those raw values. For an example of an
enumeration definition that uses a type inheritance clause to specify the type of its
raw values, see Raw Values.
G RA M M A R O F A T Y P E I N H E RI T A N C E C L A U S E

type-inheritance-clause : class-requirement , type-inheritance-list

type-inheritance-clause : class-requirement
type-inheritance-clause : type-inheritance-list
type-inheritance-list type-identifier | type-identifier , type-inheritance-list
class-requirement class

Type Inference
Swift uses type inference extensively, allowing you to omit the type or part of the
type of many variables and expressions in your code. For example, instead of
writing var x: Int = 0, you can write var x = 0, omitting the type completelythe
compiler correctly infers that x names a value of type Int. Similarly, you can omit
part of a type when the full type can be inferred from context. For instance, if you
write let dict: Dictionary = ["A": 1], the compiler infers that dict has the type
Dictionary<String, Int>.
In both of the examples above, the type information is passed up from the leaves of
the expression tree to its root. That is, the type of x in var x: Int = 0 is inferred by
first checking the type of 0 and then passing this type information up to the root (the
variable x).
In Swift, type information can also flow in the opposite directionfrom the root
down to the leaves. In the following example, for instance, the explicit type
annotation (: Float) on the constant eFloat causes the numeric literal 2.71828 to
have an inferred type of Float instead of Double.
1

let e = 2.71828 // The type of e is inferred to be Double.

let eFloat: Float = 2.71828 // The type of eFloat is Float.

Type inference in Swift operates at the level of a single expression or statement.

This means that all of the information needed to infer an omitted type or part of a
type in an expression must be accessible from type-checking the expression or one
of its subexpressions.

Expressions
In Swift, there are four kinds of expressions: prefix expressions, binary
expressions, primary expressions, and postfix expressions. Evaluating an
expression returns a value, causes a side effect, or both.
Prefix and binary expressions let you apply operators to smaller expressions.
Primary expressions are conceptually the simplest kind of expression, and they
provide a way to access values. Postfix expressions, like prefix and binary
expressions, let you build up more complex expressions using postfixes such as
function calls and member access. Each kind of expression is described in detail in
the sections below.
G RA M M A R O F A N E X P RE S S I O N

expression try-operator opt prefix-expression binary-expressions opt

expression-list expression | expression , expression-list

Prefix Expressions
Prefix expressions combine an optional prefix operator with an expression. Prefix
operators take one argument, the expression that follows them.
For information about the behavior of these operators, see Basic Operators and
Advanced Operators.
For information about the operators provided by the Swift standard library, see
Swift Standard Library Operators Reference.
In addition to the standard library operators, you use & immediately before the name
of a variable thats being passed as an in-out argument to a function call expression.
For more information and to see an example, see In-Out Parameters.

G RA M M A R O F A P RE F I X E X P RE S S I O N

prefix-expression prefix-operator opt postfix-expression

prefix-expression in-out-expression
in-out-expression & identifier

Try Operator
A try expression consists of the try operator followed by an expression that can
throw an error. It has the following form:
try expression

An optional-try expression consists of the try? operator followed by an expression

that can throw an error. It has the following form:
try? expression

If the expression does not throw an error, the value of the optional-try expression is
an optional containing the value of the expression. Otherwise, the value of the
optional-try expression is nil.
A forced-try expression consists of the try! operator followed by an expression that
can throw an error. It has the following form:
try! expression

If the expression throws an error, a runtime error is produced.

When the expression on the left hand side of a binary operator is marked with try,
try?, or try!, that operator applies to the whole binary expression. That said, you
can use parentheses to be explicit about the scope of the operator s application.

sum = try someThrowingFunction() + anotherThrowingFunction() //

try applies to both function calls

sum = try (someThrowingFunction() + anotherThrowingFunction()) //

try apllies to both function calls

sum = (try someThrowingFunction()) + anotherThrowingFunction() //

Error: try applies only to the first function call

A try expression cant appear on the right hand side of a binary operator, unless the
binary operator is the assignment operator or the try expression is enclosed in
parentheses.
For more information and to see examples of how to use try, try?, and try!, see
Error Handling.
G RA M M A R O F A T RY E X P RE S S I O N

try-operator try | try

? | try !

Binary Expressions
Binary expressions combine an infix binary operator with the expression that it takes
as its left-hand and right-hand arguments. It has the following form:
left-hand argument operator right-hand argument

For information about the behavior of these operators, see Basic Operators and
Advanced Operators.
For information about the operators provided by the Swift standard library, see
Swift Standard Library Operators Reference.

N OTE
At parse time, an expression made up of binary operators is represented as a flat list. This list is
transformed into a tree by applying operator precedence. For example, the expression 2 + 3 * 5 is
initially understood as a flat list of five items, 2, +, 3, *, and 5. This process transforms it into the tree
(2 + (3 * 5)).

G RA M M A R O F A B I N A RY E X P RE S S I O N

binary-expression binary-operator prefix-expression

binary-expression assignment-operator try-operator opt prefix-expression
binary-expression conditional-operator try-operator opt prefix-expression
binary-expression type-casting-operator
binary-expressions binary-expression binary-expressions opt

Assignment Operator
The assignment operator sets a new value for a given expression. It has the
following form:
expression = value

The value of the expression is set to the value obtained by evaluating the value. If the
expression is a tuple, the value must be a tuple with the same number of elements.
(Nested tuples are allowed.) Assignment is performed from each part of the value to
the corresponding part of the expression. For example:
1

(a, _, (b, c)) = ("test", 9.45, (12, 3))

// a is "test", b is 12, c is 3, and 9.45 is ignored

The assignment operator does not return any value.

G RA M M A R O F A N A S S I G N M E N T O P E RAT O R

assignment-operator =

Ternary Conditional Operator

The ternary conditional operator evaluates to one of two given values based on the
value of a condition. It has the following form:
condition ? expression used if true : expression used if false

If the condition evaluates to true, the conditional operator evaluates the first
expression and returns its value. Otherwise, it evaluates the second expression and
returns its value. The unused expression is not evaluated.
For an example that uses the ternary conditional operator, see Ternary Conditional
Operator.
G RA M M A R O F A C O N D I T I O N A L O P E RAT O R

conditional-operator ? try-operator opt expression

Type-Casting Operators
There are four type-casting operators: the is operator, the as operator, the as?
operator, and the as! operator.
They have the following form:
expression is type
expression as type
expression as? type
expression as! type

The is operator checks at runtime whether the expression can be cast to the specified
type. It returns true if the expression can be cast to the specified type; otherwise, it
returns false.
The as operator performs a cast when it is known at compile time that the cast

always succeeds, such as upcasting or bridging. Upcasting lets you use an

expression as an instance of its types supertype, without using an intermediate
variable. The following approaches are equivalent:
1

func f(any: Any) { print("Function for Any") }

func f(int: Int) { print("Function for Int") }

let x = 10

f(x)

// prints "Function for Int"

let y: Any = x

f(y)

// prints "Function for Any"

f(x as Any)
// prints "Function for Any"

Bridging lets you use an expression of a Swift standard library type such as String
as its corresponding Foundation type such as NSString without needing to create a
new instance. For more information on bridging, see Working with Cocoa Data
Types in Using Swift with Cocoa and Objective-C (Swift 2.1).
The as? operator performs a conditional cast of the expression to the specified type.
The as? operator returns an optional of the specified type. At runtime, if the cast
succeeds, the value of expression is wrapped in an optional and returned; otherwise,
the value returned is nil. If casting to the specified type is guaranteed to fail or is
guaranteed to succeed, a compile-time error is raised.
The as! operator performs a forced cast of the expression to the specified type. The
as! operator returns a value of the specified type, not an optional type. If the cast
fails, a runtime error is raised. The behavior of x as! T is the same as the behavior

of (x as? T)!.
For more information about type casting and to see examples that use the typecasting operators, see Type Casting.
G RA M M A R O F A T Y P E - C A S T I N G O P E RAT O R

type-casting-operator is type
type-casting-operator as type
type-casting-operator as ? type
type-casting-operator as ! type

Primary Expressions
Primary expressions are the most basic kind of expression. They can be used as
expressions on their own, and they can be combined with other tokens to make
prefix expressions, binary expressions, and postfix expressions.
G RA M M A R O F A P RI M A RY E X P RE S S I O N

primary-expression identifier generic-argument-clause opt

primary-expression literal-expression
primary-expression self-expression
primary-expression superclass-expression
primary-expression closure-expression
primary-expression parenthesized-expression
primary-expression implicit-member-expression
primary-expression wildcard-expression

Literal Expression
A literal expression consists of either an ordinary literal (such as a string or a
number), an array or dictionary literal, or one of the following special literals:

Literal

Type

Value

__FILE__

String

The name of the file in which it appears.

__LINE__

Int

The line number on which it appears.

__COLUMN__

Int

The column number in which it begins.

__FUNCTION__

String

The name of the declaration in which it appears.

Inside a function, the value of __FUNCTION__ is the name of that function, inside a
method it is the name of that method, inside a property getter or setter it is the name
of that property, inside special members like init or subscript it is the name of that
keyword, and at the top level of a file it is the name of the current module.
When used as the default value of a function or method, the special literals value is
determined when the default value expression is evaluated at the call site.
1

func logFunctionName(string: String = __FUNCTION__) {

print(string)

func myFunction() {

logFunctionName() // Prints "myFunction()".

myFunction()

namedArgs(1, withJay: 2)

An array literal is an ordered collection of values. It has the following form:

[ value 1 , value 2 , ... ]

The last expression in the array can be followed by an optional comma. The value
of an array literal has type [T], where T is the type of the expressions inside it. If
there are expressions of multiple types, T is their closest common supertype. Empty
array literals are written using an empty pair of square brackets and can be used to
create an empty array of a specified type.

var emptyArray: [Double] = []

A dictionary literal is an unordered collection of key-value pairs. It has the

following form:
[ key 1 : value 1 , key 2 : value 2 , ... ]

The last expression in the dictionary can be followed by an optional comma. The
value of a dictionary literal has type [Key: Value], where Key is the type of its key
expressions and Value is the type of its value expressions. If there are expressions of
multiple types, Key and Value are the closest common supertype for their respective
values. An empty dictionary literal is written as a colon inside a pair of brackets
([:]) to distinguish it from an empty array literal. You can use an empty dictionary
literal to create an empty dictionary literal of specified key and value types.

var emptyDictionary: [String: Double] = [:]

G RA M M A R O F A L I T E RA L E X P RE S S I O N

literal-expression literal
literal-expression array-literal | dictionary-literal
literal-expression __FILE__ | __LINE__ | __COLUMN__ | __FUNCTION__
array-literal [ array-literal-items opt ]
array-literal-items array-literal-item , opt | array-literal-item
literal-items
array-literal-item expression

array-

dictionary-literal [ dictionary-literal-items ] | [ : ]
dictionary-literal-items dictionary-literal-item , opt | dictionary-literalitem , dictionary-literal-items
dictionary-literal-item expression : expression

Self Expression
The self expression is an explicit reference to the current type or instance of the
type in which it occurs. It has the following forms:
self
self. member name
self[ subscript index ]
self( initializer arguments )
self.init( initializer arguments )

In an initializer, subscript, or instance method, self refers to the current instance of

the type in which it occurs. In a type method, self refers to the current type in which
it occurs.
The self expression is used to specify scope when accessing members, providing
disambiguation when there is another variable of the same name in scope, such as a
function parameter. For example:

class SomeClass {

var greeting: String

init(greeting: String) {

self.greeting = greeting

In a mutating method of a value type, you can assign a new instance of that value
type to self. For example:
1

struct Point {

var x = 0.0, y = 0.0

mutating func moveByX(deltaX: Double, y deltaY: Double) {

self = Point(x: x + deltaX, y: y + deltaY)

G RA M M A R O F A S E L F E X P RE S S I O N

self-expression self
self-expression self
self-expression self
self-expression self

.
[

identifier
expression-list

. init

Superclass Expression
A superclass expression lets a class interact with its superclass. It has one of the
following forms:

super. member name

super[ subscript index ]
super.init( initializer arguments )

The first form is used to access a member of the superclass. The second form is
used to access the superclasss subscript implementation. The third form is used to
access an initializer of the superclass.
Subclasses can use a superclass expression in their implementation of members,
subscripting, and initializers to make use of the implementation in their superclass.
G RA M M A R O F A S U P E RC L A S S E X P RE S S I O N

superclass-expression superclass-method-expression | superclass-subscriptexpression | superclass-initializer-expression

superclass-method-expression super . identifier
superclass-subscript-expression super [ expression-list
superclass-initializer-expression super . init

Closure Expression
A closure expression creates a closure, also known as a lambda or an anonymous
function in other programming languages. Like a function declaration, a closure
contains statements which it executes, and it captures constants and variables from
its enclosing scope. It has the following form:
{ ( parameters ) -> return type in
statements
}

The parameters have the same form as the parameters in a function declaration, as
described in Function Declaration.
There are several special forms that allow closures to be written more concisely:

 A closure can omit the types of its parameters, its return type, or both. If you
omit the parameter names and both types, omit the in keyword before the
statements. If the omitted types cant be inferred, a compile-time error is
raised.
A closure may omit names for its parameters. Its parameters are then
implicitly named $ followed by their position: $0, $1, $2, and so on.
A closure that consists of only a single expression is understood to return
the value of that expression. The contents of this expression are also
considered when performing type inference on the surrounding expression.
The following closure expressions are equivalent:
1

myFunction {

(x: Int, y: Int) -> Int in

return x + y

myFunction {

(x, y) in

return x + y

}

myFunction { return $0 + $1 }

myFunction { $0 + $1 }

For information about passing a closure as an argument to a function, see Function

Call Expression.

Capture Lists
By default, a closure expression captures constants and variables from its
surrounding scope with strong references to those values. You can use a capture list
to explicitly control how values are captured in a closure.
A capture list is written as a comma separated list of expressions surrounded by
square brackets, before the list of parameters. If you use a capture list, you must also
use the in keyword, even if you omit the parameter names, parameter types, and
return type.
The entries in the capture list are initialized when the closure is created. For each
entry in the capture list, a constant is initialized to the value of the constant or
variable that has the same name in the surrounding scope. For example in the code
below, a is included in the capture list but b is not, which gives them different
behavior.
1

var a = 0

var b = 0

let closure = { [a] in

print(a, b)

a = 10

b = 10

closure()
// prints "0 10"

There are two different things named a, the variable in the surrounding scope and
the constant in the closures scope, but only one variable named b. The a in the inner
scope is initialized with the value of the a in the outer scope when the closure is

created, but their values are not connected in any special way. This means that the
change to the value of a in the outer scope does not effect the value of a in the inner
scope, nor do changes to a inside the closure effect the value of a outside the
closure. In contrast, there is only one variable named bthe b in the outer scope
so changes from inside or outside the closure are visible in both places.
This distinction is not visible when the captured variables type has reference
semantics. For example, there are two things named x in the code below, a variable
in the outer scope and a constant in the inner scope, but they both refer to the same
object because of reference semantics.
1

class SimpleClass {

var value: Int = 0

var x = SimpleClass()

var y = SimpleClass()

let closure = { [x] in

print(x.value, y.value)

x.value = 10
y.value = 10
closure()
// prints "10 10"

If the type of the expressions value is a class, you can mark the expression in a
capture list with weak or unowned to capture a weak or unowned reference to the
expressions value.

myFunction { print(self.title) } // strong

capture

myFunction { [weak self] in print(self!.title) } // weak capture

myFunction { [unowned self] in print(self.title) } // unowned

capture

You can also bind an arbitrary expression to a named value in a capture list. The
expression is evaluated when the closure is created, and the value is captured with
the specified strength. For example:
1

// Weak capture of "self.parent" as "parent"

myFunction { [weak parent = self.parent] in print(parent!.title) }

For more information and examples of closure expressions, see Closure

Expressions. For more information and examples of capture lists, see Resolving
Strong Reference Cycles for Closures.
G RA M M A R O F A C L O S U RE E X P RE S S I O N

closure-expression { closure-signature opt statements

closure-signature parameter-clause function-result opt in

closure-signature identifier-list function-result opt in
closure-signature capture-list parameter-clause function-result opt
closure-signature capture-list identifier-list function-result opt in
closure-signature capture-list in

in

capture-list [ capture-list-items ]
capture-list-items capture-list-item | capture-list-item , capture-list-items
capture-list-item capture-specifier opt expression
capture-specifier weak | unowned | unowned(safe) | unowned(unsafe)

Implicit Member Expression

An implicit member expression is an abbreviated way to access a member of a type,
such as an enumeration case or a type method, in a context where type inference can
determine the implied type. It has the following form:
. member name

For example:
1

var x = MyEnumeration.SomeValue

x = .AnotherValue

G RA M M A R O F A I M P L I C I T M E M B E R E X P RE S S I O N

implicit-member-expression . identifier

Parenthesized Expression
A parenthesized expression consists of a comma-separated list of expressions
surrounded by parentheses. Each expression can have an optional identifier before
it, separated by a colon (:). It has the following form:
( identifier 1 : expression 1 , identifier 2 : expression 2 , ... )

Use parenthesized expressions to create tuples and to pass arguments to a function

call. If there is only one value inside the parenthesized expression, the type of the
parenthesized expression is the type of that value. For example, the type of the
parenthesized expression (1) is Int, not (Int).
G RA M M A R O F A PA RE N T H E S I Z E D E X P RE S S I O N

parenthesized-expression ( expression-element-list opt )

expression-element-list expression-element | expressionelement , expression-element-list
expression-element expression | identifier : expression

Wildcard Expression
A wildcard expression is used to explicitly ignore a value during an assignment. For
example, in the following assignment 10 is assigned to x and 20 is ignored:
1

(x, _) = (10, 20)

// x is 10, and 20 is ignored

G RA M M A R O F A W I L D C A RD E X P RE S S I O N

wildcard-expression _

Postfix Expressions
Postfix expressions are formed by applying a postfix operator or other postfix
syntax to an expression. Syntactically, every primary expression is also a postfix
expression.
For information about the behavior of these operators, see Basic Operators and
Advanced Operators.
For information about the operators provided by the Swift standard library, see
Swift Standard Library Operators Reference.

G RA M M A R O F A P O S T F I X E X P RE S S I O N

postfix-expression primary-expression
postfix-expression postfix-expression postfix-operator
postfix-expression function-call-expression
postfix-expression initializer-expression
postfix-expression explicit-member-expression
postfix-expression postfix-self-expression
postfix-expression dynamic-type-expression
postfix-expression subscript-expression
postfix-expression forced-value-expression
postfix-expression optional-chaining-expression

Function Call Expression

A function call expression consists of a function name followed by a commaseparated list of the functions arguments in parentheses. Function call expressions
have the following form:
function name ( argument value 1 , argument value 2 )

The function name can be any expression whose value is of a function type.
If the function definition includes names for its parameters, the function call must
include names before its argument values separated by a colon (:). This kind of
function call expression has the following form:
function name ( argument name 1 : argument value 1 , argument name 2 :
argument value 2 )

A function call expression can include a trailing closure in the form of a closure
expression immediately after the closing parenthesis. The trailing closure is
understood as an argument to the function, added after the last parenthesized
argument. The following function calls are equivalent:

// someFunction takes an integer and a closure as its arguments

someFunction(x, f: {$0 == 13})

someFunction(x) {$0 == 13}

If the trailing closure is the functions only argument, the parentheses can be
omitted.
1

// someFunction takes a closure as its only argument

myData.someMethod() {$0 == 13}

myData.someMethod {$0 == 13}

G RA M M A R O F A F U N C T I O N C A L L E X P RE S S I O N

function-call-expression postfix-expression parenthesized-expression

function-call-expression postfix-expression parenthesizedexpression opt trailing-closure
trailing-closure closure-expression

Initializer Expression
An initializer expression provides access to a types initializer. It has the following
form:
expression .init( initializer arguments )

You use the initializer expression in a function call expression to initialize a new
instance of a type. You also use an initializer expression to delegate to the initializer
of a superclass.

class SomeSubClass: SomeSuperClass {

override init() {

// subclass initialization goes here

super.init()

Like a function, an initializer can be used as a value. For example:

1

// Type annotation is required because String has multiple

initializers.

let initializer: Int -> String = String.init

let oneTwoThree = [1, 2, 3].map(initializer).reduce("", combine: +)

print(oneTwoThree)

// prints "123"

If you specify a type by name, you can access the types initializer without using an
initializer expression. In all other cases, you must use an initializer expression.
1

let s1 = SomeType.init(data: 3) // Valid

let s2 = SomeType(data: 1) // Also valid

let s4 = someValue.dynamicType(data: 5) // Error

let s3 = someValue.dynamicType.init(data: 7) // Valid

G RA M M A R O F A N I N I T I A L I Z E R E X P RE S S I O N

initializer-expression postfix-expression

. init

Explicit Member Expression

An explicit member expression allows access to the members of a named type, a
tuple, or a module. It consists of a period (.) between the item and the identifier of
its member.
expression . member name

The members of a named type are named as part of the types declaration or
extension. For example:
1

class SomeClass {

var someProperty = 42

let c = SomeClass()

let y = c.someProperty // Member access

The members of a tuple are implicitly named using integers in the order they
appear, starting from zero. For example:
1

var t = (10, 20, 30)

t.0 = t.1

// Now t is (20, 20, 30)

The members of a module access the top-level declarations of that module.

If a period appears at the beginning of a line, it is understood as part of an explicit
member expression, not as an implicit member expression. For example, the
following listing shows chained method calls split over several lines:

let x = [10, 3, 20, 15, 4]

.sort()

.filter { $0 > 5 }

.map { $0 * 100 }

G RA M M A R O F A N E X P L I C I T M E M B E R E X P RE S S I O N

explicit-member-expression postfix-expression
explicit-member-expression postfix-expression
argument-clause opt

.
.

decimal-digits
identifier generic-

Postfix Self Expression

A postfix self expression consists of an expression or the name of a type,
immediately followed by .self. It has the following forms:
expression .self
type .self

The first form evaluates to the value of the expression. For example, x.self
evaluates to x.
The second form evaluates to the value of the type. Use this form to access a type as
a value. For example, because SomeClass.self evaluates to the SomeClass type itself,
you can pass it to a function or method that accepts a type-level argument.
G RA M M A R O F A S E L F E X P RE S S I O N

postfix-self-expression postfix-expression

Dynamic Type Expression

. self

A dynamicType expression consists of an expression, immediately followed by

.dynamicType. It has the following form:
expression .dynamicType

The expression cant be the name of a type. The entire dynamicType expression
evaluates to the value of the runtime type of the expression, as the following
example shows:
1

class SomeBaseClass {

class func printClassName() {

print("SomeBaseClass")

class SomeSubClass: SomeBaseClass {

override class func printClassName() {

print("SomeSubClass")

}
}
let someInstance: SomeBaseClass = SomeSubClass()
// someInstance has a static type of SomeBaseClass at compile time, and
// it has a dynamc type of SomeSubClass at runtime
someInstance.dynamicType.printClassName()
// prints "SomeSubClass"

G RA M M A R O F A D Y N A M I C T Y P E E X P RE S S I O N

dynamic-type-expression postfix-expression

. dynamicType

Subscript Expression
A subscript expression provides subscript access using the getter and setter of the
corresponding subscript declaration. It has the following form:
expression [ index expressions ]

To evaluate the value of a subscript expression, the subscript getter for the
expressions type is called with the index expressions passed as the subscript
parameters. To set its value, the subscript setter is called in the same way.
For information about subscript declarations, see Protocol Subscript Declaration.
G RA M M A R O F A S U B S C RI P T E X P RE S S I O N

subscript-expression postfix-expression

expression-list

Forced-Value Expression
A forced-value expression unwraps an optional value that you are certain is not nil.
It has the following form:
expression !

If the value of the expression is not nil, the optional value is unwrapped and
returned with the corresponding nonoptional type. Otherwise, a runtime error is
raised.
The unwrapped value of a forced-value expression can be modified, either by
mutating the value itself, or by assigning to one of the values members. For
example:

var x: Int? = 0

x!++

// x is now 1

var someDictionary = ["a": [1, 2, 3], "b": [10, 20]]

someDictionary["a"]![0] = 100

// someDictionary is now ["b": [10, 20], "a": [100, 2, 3]]

G RA M M A R O F A F O RC E D - VA L U E E X P RE S S I O N

forced-value-expression postfix-expression

Optional-Chaining Expression
An optional-chaining expression provides a simplified syntax for using optional
values in postfix expressions. It has the following form:
expression ?

The postfix ? operator makes an optional-chaining expression from an expression

without changing the expressions value.
Optional-chaining expressions must appear within a postfix expression, and they
cause the postfix expression to be evaluated in a special way. If the value of the
optional-chaining expression is nil, all of the other operations in the postfix
expression are ignored and the entire postfix expression evaluates to nil. If the
value of the optional-chaining expression is not nil, the value of the optionalchaining expression is unwrapped and used to evaluate the rest of the postfix
expression. In either case, the value of the postfix expression is still of an optional
type.
If a postfix expression that contains an optional-chaining expression is nested inside
other postfix expressions, only the outermost expression returns an optional type. In

the example below, when c is not nil, its value is unwrapped and used to evaluate
.property, the value of which is used to evaluate .performAction(). The entire
expression c?.property.performAction() has a value of an optional type.
1

var c: SomeClass?

var result: Bool? = c?.property.performAction()

The following example shows the behavior of the example above without using
optional chaining.
1

var result: Bool? = nil

if let unwrappedC = c {

result = unwrappedC.property.performAction()

The unwrapped value of an optional-chaining expression can be modified, either by

mutating the value itself, or by assigning to one of the values members. If the value
of the optional-chaining expression is nil, the expression on the right hand side of
the assignment operator is not evaluated. For example:

func someFunctionWithSideEffects() -> Int {

return 42 // No actual side effects.

var someDictionary = ["a": [1, 2, 3], "b": [10, 20]]

someDictionary["not here"]?[0] = someFunctionWithSideEffects()

// someFunctionWithSideEffects is not evaluated

// someDictionary is still ["b": [10, 20], "a": [1, 2, 3]]

someDictionary["a"]?[0] = someFunctionWithSideEffects()
// someFunctionWithSideEffects is evaluated and returns 42
// someDictionary is now ["b": [10, 20], "a": [42, 2, 3]]

G RA M M A R O F A N O P T I O N A L - C H A I N I N G E X P RE S S I O N

optional-chaining-expression postfix-expression

Statements
In Swift, there are three kinds of statements: simple statements, compiler control
statements, and control flow statements. Simple statements are the most common
and consist of either an expression or a declaration. Compiler control statements
allow the program to change aspects of the compiler s behavior and include a build
configuration and line control statement.
Control flow statements are used to control the flow of execution in a program.
There are several types of control flow statements in Swift, including loop
statements, branch statements, and control transfer statements. Loop statements
allow a block of code to be executed repeatedly, branch statements allow a certain
block of code to be executed only when certain conditions are met, and control
transfer statements provide a way to alter the order in which code is executed. In
addition, Swift provides a do statement to introduce scope, and catch and handle
errors, and a defer statement for running clean-up actions just before the current
scope exits.
A semicolon (;) can optionally appear after any statement and is used to separate
multiple statements if they appear on the same line.
G RA M M A R O F A S T AT E M E N T

statement expression ; opt

statement declaration ; opt
statement loop-statement ; opt
statement branch-statement ; opt
statement labeled-statement ; opt
statement control-transfer-statement ; opt
statement defer-statement ; opt
statement do-statement : opt
statement compiler-control-statement
statements statement statements opt

Loop Statements
Loop statements allow a block of code to be executed repeatedly, depending on the
conditions specified in the loop. Swift has four loop statements: a for statement, a
for-in statement, a while statement, and a repeat-while statement.
Control flow in a loop statement can be changed by a break statement and a continue
statement and is discussed in Break Statement and Continue Statement below.
G RA M M A R O F A L O O P S T AT E M E N T

loop-statement for-statement
loop-statement for-in-statement
loop-statement while-statement
loop-statement repeat-while-statement

For Statement
A for statement allows a block of code to be executed repeatedly while incrementing
a counter, as long as a condition remains true.
A for statement has the following form:
for initialization ; condition ; increment {
statements
}

The semicolons between the initialization, condition, and increment are required.
The braces around the statements in the body of the loop are also required.
A for statement is executed as follows:
1. The initialization is evaluated only once. It is typically used to declare and
initialize any variables that are needed for the remainder of the loop.
2. The condition expression is evaluated.
If true, the program executes the statements, and execution continues to step 3.
If false, the program does not execute the statements or the increment

expression, and the program is finished executing the for statement.

3. The increment expression is evaluated, and execution returns to step 2.
Variables defined within the initialization are valid only within the scope of the for
statement itself.
The value of the condition expression must have a type that conforms to the
BooleanType protocol.
G RA M M A R O F A F O R S T AT E M E N T

for-statement for for-init opt ; expression opt ; expression opt code-block

for-statement for ( for-init opt ; expression opt ; expression opt ) code-block
for-init variable-declaration | expression-list

For-In Statement
A for-in statement allows a block of code to be executed once for each item in a
collection (or any type) that conforms to the SequenceType protocol.
A for-in statement has the following form:
for item in collection {
statements
}

The generate() method is called on the collection expression to obtain a value of a

generator typethat is, a type that conforms to the GeneratorType protocol. The
program begins executing a loop by calling the next() method on the stream. If the
value returned is not None, it is assigned to the item pattern, the program executes the
statements, and then continues execution at the beginning of the loop. Otherwise, the
program does not perform assignment or execute the statements, and it is finished
executing the for-in statement.

G RA M M A R O F A F O R- I N S T AT E M E N T

for-in-statement for
block

case opt

pattern

in

expression where-clause opt code-

While Statement
A while statement allows a block of code to be executed repeatedly, as long as a
condition remains true.
A while statement has the following form:
while condition {
statements
}

A while statement is executed as follows:

1. The condition is evaluated.
If true, execution continues to step 2. If false, the program is finished
executing the while statement.
2. The program executes the statements, and execution returns to step 1.
Because the value of the condition is evaluated before the statements are executed,
the statements in a while statement can be executed zero or more times.
The value of the condition must have a type that conforms to the BooleanType
protocol. The condition can also be an optional binding declaration, as discussed in
Optional Binding.

G RA M M A R O F A W H I L E S T AT E M E N T

while-statement while condition-clause code-block

condition-clause expression
condition-clause expression , condition-list
condition-clause condition-list
condition-clause availability-condition , expression
condition-list condition | condition , condition-list
condition availability-condition | case-condition | optional-bindingcondition
case-condition case pattern initializer where-clause opt
optional-binding-condition optional-binding-head optional-bindingcontinuation-list opt where-clause opt
optional-binding-head let pattern initializer | var pattern initializer
optional-binding-continuation-list optional-binding-continuation | optionalbinding-continuation , optional-binding-continuation-list
optional-binding-continuation pattern initializer | optional-binding-head

Repeat-While Statement
A repeat-while statement allows a block of code to be executed one or more times,
as long as a condition remains true.
A repeat-while statement has the following form:
repeat {
statements
} while condition

A repeat-while statement is executed as follows:

1. The program executes the statements, and execution continues to step 2.
2. The condition is evaluated.

If true, execution returns to step 1. If false, the program is finished executing

the repeat-while statement.
Because the value of the condition is evaluated after the statements are executed, the
statements in a repeat-while statement are executed at least once.
The value of the condition must have a type that conforms to the BooleanType
protocol. The condition can also be an optional binding declaration, as discussed in
Optional Binding.
G RA M M A R O F A RE P E AT - W H I L E S T AT E M E N T

repeat-while-statement repeat code-block

while

expression

Branch Statements
Branch statements allow the program to execute certain parts of code depending on
the value of one or more conditions. The values of the conditions specified in a
branch statement control how the program branches and, therefore, what block of
code is executed. Swift has three branch statements: an if statement, a guard
statement, and a switch statement.
Control flow in an if statement or a switch statement can be changed by a break
statement and is discussed in Break Statement below.
G RA M M A R O F A B RA N C H S T AT E M E N T

branch-statement if-statement
branch-statement guard-statement
branch-statement switch-statement

If Statement
An if statement is used for executing code based on the evaluation of one or more
conditions.
There are two basic forms of an if statement. In each form, the opening and closing

braces are required.

The first form allows code to be executed only when a condition is true and has the
following form:
if condition {
statements
}

The second form of an if statement provides an additional else clause (introduced

by the else keyword) and is used for executing one part of code when the condition
is true and another part of code when the same condition is false. When a single else
clause is present, an if statement has the following form:
if condition {
statements to execute if condition is true
} else {
statements to execute if condition is false
}

The else clause of an if statement can contain another if statement to test more than
one condition. An if statement chained together in this way has the following form:
if condition 1 {
statements to execute if condition 1 is true
} else if condition 2 {
statements to execute if condition 2 is true
} else {
statements to execute if both conditions are false
}

The value of any condition in an if statement must have a type that conforms to the

BooleanType protocol. The condition can also be an optional binding declaration, as

discussed in Optional Binding.

G RA M M A R O F A N I F S T AT E M E N T

if-statement if condition-clause code-block else-clause opt

else-clause else code-block | else if-statement

Guard Statement
A guard statement is used to transfer program control out of a scope if one or more
conditions arent met.
A guard statement has the following form:
guard condition else {
statements
}

The value of any condition in a guard statement must have a type that conforms to
the BooleanType protocol. The condition can also be an optional binding declaration,
as discussed in Optional Binding.
Any constants or variables assigned a value from an optional binding declaration in
a guard statement condition can be used for the rest of the guard statements
enclosing scope.
The else clause of a guard statement is required, and must either call a function
marked with the noreturn attribute or transfer program control outside the guard
statements enclosing scope using one of the following statements:

return
break
continue
throw

Control transfer statements are discussed in Control Transfer Statements below.

G RA M M A R O F A G U A RD S T AT E M E N T

guard-statement guard condition-clause

else

code-block

Switch Statement
A switch statement allows certain blocks of code to be executed depending on the
value of a control expression.
A switch statement has the following form:
switch control expression {
case pattern 1 :
statements
case pattern 2 where condition :
statements
case pattern 3 where condition ,
pattern 4 where condition :
statements
default:
statements
}

The control expression of the switch statement is evaluated and then compared with
the patterns specified in each case. If a match is found, the program executes the
statements listed within the scope of that case. The scope of each case cant be
empty. As a result, you must include at least one statement following the colon (:) of
each case label. Use a single break statement if you dont intend to execute any code
in the body of a matched case.
The values of expressions your code can branch on are very flexible. For instance,
in addition to the values of scalar types, such as integers and characters, your code

can branch on the values of any type, including floating-point numbers, strings,
tuples, instances of custom classes, and optionals. The value of the control
expression can even be matched to the value of a case in an enumeration and
checked for inclusion in a specified range of values. For examples of how to use
these various types of values in switch statements, see Switch in the Control Flow
chapter.
A switch case can optionally contain a where clause after each pattern. A where
clause is introduced by the where keyword followed by an expression, and is used to
provide an additional condition before a pattern in a case is considered matched to
the control expression. If a where clause is present, the statements within the relevant
case are executed only if the value of the control expression matches one of the
patterns of the case and the expression of the where clause evaluates to true. For
instance, a control expression matches the case in the example below only if it is a
tuple that contains two elements of the same value, such as (1, 1).

case let (x, y) where x == y:

As the above example shows, patterns in a case can also bind constants using the let
keyword (they can also bind variables using the var keyword). These constants (or
variables) can then be referenced in a corresponding where clause and throughout
the rest of the code within the scope of the case. That said, if the case contains
multiple patterns that match the control expression, none of those patterns can
contain constant or variable bindings.
A switch statement can also include a default case, introduced by the default
keyword. The code within a default case is executed only if no other cases match the
control expression. A switch statement can include only one default case, which
must appear at the end of the switch statement.
Although the actual execution order of pattern-matching operations, and in
particular the evaluation order of patterns in cases, is unspecified, pattern matching
in a switch statement behaves as if the evaluation is performed in source orderthat
is, the order in which they appear in source code. As a result, if multiple cases
contain patterns that evaluate to the same value, and thus can match the value of the
control expression, the program executes only the code within the first matching
case in source order.

Switch Statements Must Be Exhaustive

In Swift, every possible value of the control expressions type must match the value
of at least one pattern of a case. When this simply isnt feasible (for instance, when
the control expressions type is Int), you can include a default case to satisfy the
requirement.

Execution Does Not Fall Through Cases Implicitly

After the code within a matched case has finished executing, the program exits from
the switch statement. Program execution does not continue or fall through to the
next case or default case. That said, if you want execution to continue from one case
to the next, explicitly include a fallthrough statement, which simply consists of the
fallthrough keyword, in the case from which you want execution to continue. For
more information about the fallthrough statement, see Fallthrough Statement below.
G RA M M A R O F A S W I T C H S T AT E M E N T

switch-statement switch expression { switch-cases opt }

switch-cases switch-case switch-cases opt
switch-case case-label statements | default-label statements
case-label case case-item-list :
case-item-list pattern where-clause opt | pattern where-clause opt
item-list
default-label default :

case-

where-clause where where-expression

where-expression expression

Labeled Statement
You can prefix a loop statement, an if statement, or a switch statement with a
statement label, which consists of the name of the label followed immediately by a
colon (:). Use statement labels with break and continue statements to be explicit

about how you want to change control flow in a loop statement or a switch
statement, as discussed in Break Statement and Continue Statement below.
The scope of a labeled statement is the entire statement following the statement
label. You can nest labeled statements, but the name of each statement label must be
unique.
For more information and to see examples of how to use statement labels, see
Labeled Statements in the Control Flow chapter.
G RA M M A R O F A L A B E L E D S T AT E M E N T

labeled-statement statement-label loop-statement | statement-label ifstatement | statement-label switch-statement

statement-label label-name :
label-name identifier

Control Transfer Statements

Control transfer statements can change the order in which code in your program is
executed by unconditionally transferring program control from one piece of code
to another. Swift has five control transfer statements: a break statement, a continue
statement, a fallthrough statement, a return statement, and a throw statement.
G RA M M A R O F A C O N T RO L T RA N S F E R S T AT E M E N T

control-transfer-statement break-statement
control-transfer-statement continue-statement
control-transfer-statement fallthrough-statement
control-transfer-statement return-statement
control-transfer-statement throw-statement

Break Statement
A break statement ends program execution of a loop, an if statement, or a switch
statement. A break statement can consist of only the break keyword, or it can consist

of the break keyword followed by the name of a statement label, as shown below.
break
break label name

When a break statement is followed by the name of a statement label, it ends

program execution of the loop, if statement, or switch statement named by that
label.
When a break statement is not followed by the name of a statement label, it ends
program execution of the switch statement or the innermost enclosing loop
statement in which it occurs. You cant use an unlabeled break statement to break out
of an if statement.
In both cases, program control is then transferred to the first line of code following
the enclosing loop or switch statement, if any.
For examples of how to use a break statement, see Break and Labeled Statements in
the Control Flow chapter.
G RA M M A R O F A B RE A K S T AT E M E N T

break-statement break label-name opt

Continue Statement
A continue statement ends program execution of the current iteration of a loop
statement but does not stop execution of the loop statement. A continue statement can
consist of only the continue keyword, or it can consist of the continue keyword
followed by the name of a statement label, as shown below.
continue
continue label name

When a continue statement is followed by the name of a statement label, it ends

program execution of the current iteration of the loop statement named by that label.

When a continue statement is not followed by the name of a statement label, it ends
program execution of the current iteration of the innermost enclosing loop
statement in which it occurs.
In both cases, program control is then transferred to the condition of the enclosing
loop statement.
In a for statement, the increment expression is still evaluated after the continue
statement is executed, because the increment expression is evaluated after the
execution of the loops body.
For examples of how to use a continue statement, see Continue and Labeled
Statements in the Control Flow chapter.
G RA M M A R O F A C O N T I N U E S T AT E M E N T

continue-statement continue label-name opt

Fallthrough Statement
A fallthrough statement consists of the fallthrough keyword and occurs only in a
case block of a switch statement. A fallthrough statement causes program execution
to continue from one case in a switch statement to the next case. Program execution
continues to the next case even if the patterns of the case label do not match the value
of the switch statements control expression.
A fallthrough statement can appear anywhere inside a switch statement, not just as
the last statement of a case block, but it cant be used in the final case block. It also
cannot transfer control into a case block whose pattern contains value binding
patterns.
For an example of how to use a fallthrough statement in a switch statement, see
Control Transfer Statements in the Control Flow chapter.
G RA M M A R O F A FA L LT H RO U G H S T AT E M E N T

fallthrough-statement fallthrough

Return Statement
A return statement occurs in the body of a function or method definition and causes
program execution to return to the calling function or method. Program execution
continues at the point immediately following the function or method call.
A return statement can consist of only the return keyword, or it can consist of the
return keyword followed by an expression, as shown below.
return
return expression

When a return statement is followed by an expression, the value of the expression is

returned to the calling function or method. If the value of the expression does not
match the value of the return type declared in the function or method declaration, the
expressions value is converted to the return type before it is returned to the calling
function or method.

N OTE
As described in Failable Initializers, a special form of the return statement (return nil) can be
used in a failable initializer to indicate initialization failure.

When a return statement is not followed by an expression, it can be used only to

return from a function or method that does not return a value (that is, when the
return type of the function or method is Void or ()).
G RA M M A R O F A RE T U RN S T AT E M E N T

return-statement return expression opt

Availability Condition
An availability condition is used as a condition of an if, while, and guard statement
to query the availability of APIs at runtime, based on specified platforms arguments.

An availability condition has the following form:

if #available( platform name version , ... , *) {
statements to execute if the APIs are available
} else {
fallback statements to execute if the APIs are unavailable
}

You use an availability condition to execute a block of code, depending on whether

the APIs you want to use are available at runtime. The compiler uses the information
from the availability condition when it verifies that the APIs in that block of code
are available.
The availability condition takes a comma-separated list of platform names and
versions. Use iOS, OSX, and watchOS for the platform names, and include the
corresponding version numbers. The * argument is required and specifies that on
any other platform, the body of the code block guarded by the availability condition
executes on the minimum deployment target specified by your target.
Unlike Boolean conditions, you cant combine availability conditions using logical
operators such as && and ||.
G RA M M A R O F A N AVA I L A B I L I T Y C O N D I T I O N

availability-condition #available ( availability-arguments )

availability-arguments availability-argument | availabilityargument , availability-arguments
availability-argument platform-name platform-version
availability-argument *
platform-name iOS | iOSApplicationExtension
platform-name OSX | OSXApplicationExtension
platform-name watchOS
platform-version decimal-digits
platform-version decimal-digits . decimal-digits
platform-version decimal-digits . decimal-digits

decimal-digits

Throw Statement
A throw statement occurs in the body of a throwing function or method, or in the
body of a closure expression whose type is marked with the throws keyword.
A throw statement causes a program to end execution of the current scope and begin
error propagation to its enclosing scope. The error thats thrown continues to
propagate until its handled by a catch clause of a do statement.
A throw statement consists of the throw keyword followed by an expression, as
shown below.
throw expression

The value of the expression must have a type that conforms to the ErrorType
protocol.
For an example of how to use a throw statement, see Propagating Errors Using
Throwing Functions in the Error Handling chapter.
G RA M M A R O F A T H RO W S T AT E M E N T

throw-statement throw expression

Defer Statement
A defer statement is used for executing code just before transferring program
control outside of the scope that the defer statement appears in.
A defer statement has the following form:
defer {
statements
}

The statements within the defer statement are executed no matter how program
control is transferred. This means that a defer statement can be used, for example, to
perform manual resource management such as closing file descriptors, and to
perform actions that need to happen even if an error is thrown.
If multiple defer statements appear in the same scope, the order they appear is the
reverse of the order they are executed. Executing the last defer statement in a given
scope first means that statements inside that last defer statement can refer to
resources that will be cleaned up by other defer statements.
1

func f() {

defer { print("First") }

defer { print("Second") }

defer { print("Third") }

f()

// prints "Third"

// prints "Second"

// prints "First"

The statements in the defer statement cant transfer program control outside of the
defer statement.
G RA M M A R O F A D E F E R S T AT E M E N T

defer-statement defer code-block

Do Statement
The do statement is used to introduce a new scope and can optionally contain one or
more catch clauses, which contain patterns that match against defined error
conditions. Variables and constants declared in the scope of a do statement can be

accessed only within that scope.

A do statement in Swift is similar to curly braces ({}) in C used to delimit a code
block, and does not incur a performance cost at runtime.
A do statement has the following form:
do {
try expression
statements
} catch pattern 1 {
statements
} catch pattern 2 where condition {
statements
}

Like a switch statement, the compiler attempts to infer whether catch clauses are
exhaustive. If such a determination can be made, the error is considered handled.
Otherwise, the error automatically propagates out of the containing scope, either to
an enclosing catch clause or out of the throwing function must handle the error, or
the containing function must be declared with throws.
To ensure that an error is handled, use a catch clause with a pattern that matches all
errors, such as a wildcard pattern (_). If a catch clause does not specify a pattern, the
catch clause matches and binds any error to a local constant named error. For more
information about the pattens you can use in a catch clause, see Patterns.
To see an example of how to use a do statement with several catch clauses, see
Handling Errors.
G RA M M A R O F A D O S T AT E M E N T

do-statement do code-block catch-clauses opt

catch-clauses catch-clause catch-clauses opt
catch-clause catch pattern opt where-clause opt code-block

Compiler Control Statements

Compiler control statements allow the program to change aspects of the compiler s
behavior. Swift has two complier control statements: a build configuration statement
and a line control statement.
G RA M M A R O F A C O M P I L E R C O N T RO L S T AT E M E N T

compiler-control-statement build-configuration-statement
compiler-control-statement line-control-statement

Build Configuration Statement

A build configuration statement allows code to be conditionally compiled
depending on the value of one or more build configurations.
Every build configuration statement begins with #if and ends with #endif. A simple
build configuration statement has the following form:
#if build configuration
statements
#endif

Unlike the condition of an if statement, the build configuration is evaluated at

compile time. As a result, the statements are compiled and executed only if the build
configuration evaluates to true at compile time.
The build configuration can include the true and false Boolean literals, an
identifier used with the -D command line flag, or any of the platform testing
functions listed in the table below.
Function

Valid arguments

os()

OSX, iOS, watchOS, tvOS

arch()

i386, x86_64, arm, arm64

N OTE
The arch(arm) build configuration does not return true for ARM 64 devices. The arch(i386)
build configuration returns true when code is compiled for the 32bit iOS simulator.

You can combine build configurations using the logical operators &&, ||, and ! and
use parentheses for grouping.
Similar to an if statement, you can add multiple conditional branches to test for
different build configurations. You can add any number of additional branches
using #elseif clauses. You can also add a final additional branch using an #else
clause. Build configuration statements that contain multiple branches have the
following form:
#if build configuration 1
statements to compile if build configuration 1 is true
#elseif build configuration 2
statements to compile if build configuration 2 is true
#else
statements to compile if both build configurations are false
#endif

N OTE
Each statement in the body of a build configuration statement is parsed even if its not complied.

G RA M M A R O F A B U I L D C O N F I G U RAT I O N S T AT E M E N T

build-configuration-statement #if build-configuration statements opt buildconfiguration-elseif-clauses opt build-configuration-else-clause opt #endif
build-configuration-elseif-clauses build-configuration-elseif-clause buildconfiguration-elseif-clauses opt
build-configuration-elseif-clause #elseif build-configuration statements opt
build-configuration-else-clause #else statements opt
build-configuration platform-testing-function
build-configuration identifier
build-configuration boolean-literal
build-configuration ( build-configuration )
build-configuration ! build-configuration
build-configuration build-configuration && build-configuration
build-configuration build-configuration || build-configuration
platform-testing-function os ( operating-system
platform-testing-function arch ( architecture )
operating-system OSX | iOS | watchOS | tvOS
architecture i386 | x86_64 | arm | arm64

Line Control Statement

A line control statement is used to specify a line number and filename that can be
different from the line number and filename of the source code being compiled. Use
a line control statement to change the source code location used by Swift for
diagnostic and debugging purposes.
A line control statement has the following form:
#line line number filename

A line control statement changes the values of the __LINE__ and __FILE__ literal
expressions, beginning with the line of code following the line control statement.
The line number changes the value of __LINE__ and is any integer literal greater than

zero. The filename changes the value of __FILE__ and is a string literal.
You can reset the source code location back to the default line numbering and
filename by writing a line control statement without specifying a line number and
filename.
A line control statement must appear on its own line and cant be the last line of a
source code file.
G RA M M A R O F A L I N E C O N T RO L S T AT E M E N T

line-control-statement #line
line-control-statement #line line-number file-name
line-number A decimal integer greater than zero
file-name static-string-literal

Declarations
A declaration introduces a new name or construct into your program. For example,
you use declarations to introduce functions and methods, variables and constants,
and to define new, named enumeration, structure, class, and protocol types. You can
also use a declaration to extend the behavior of an existing named type and to
import symbols into your program that are declared elsewhere.
In Swift, most declarations are also definitions in the sense that they are
implemented or initialized at the same time they are declared. That said, because
protocols dont implement their members, most protocol members are declarations
only. For convenience and because the distinction isnt that important in Swift, the
term declaration covers both declarations and definitions.
G RA M M A R O F A D E C L A RAT I O N

declaration import-declaration
declaration constant-declaration
declaration variable-declaration
declaration typealias-declaration
declaration function-declaration
declaration enum-declaration
declaration struct-declaration
declaration class-declaration
declaration protocol-declaration
declaration initializer-declaration
declaration deinitializer-declaration
declaration extension-declaration
declaration subscript-declaration
declaration operator-declaration
declarations declaration declarations opt

Top-Level Code

The top-level code in a Swift source file consists of zero or more statements,
declarations, and expressions. By default, variables, constants, and other named
declarations that are declared at the top-level of a source file are accessible to code
in every source file that is part of the same module. You can override this default
behavior by marking the declaration with an access level modifier, as described in
Access Control Levels.
G RA M M A R O F A T O P - L E V E L D E C L A RAT I O N

top-level-declaration statements opt

Code Blocks
A code block is used by a variety of declarations and control structures to group
statements together. It has the following form:
{
statements
}

The statements inside a code block include declarations, expressions, and other
kinds of statements and are executed in order of their appearance in source code.
G RA M M A R O F A C O D E B L O C K

code-block { statements opt

Import Declaration
An import declaration lets you access symbols that are declared outside the current
file. The basic form imports the entire module; it consists of the import keyword
followed by a module name:
import module

Providing more detail limits which symbols are importedyou can specify a
specific submodule or a specific declaration within a module or submodule. When
this detailed form is used, only the imported symbol (and not the module that
declares it) is made available in the current scope.
import import kind module . symbol name
import module . submodule

G RA M M A R O F A N I M P O RT D E C L A RAT I O N

import-declaration attributes opt

import

import-kind opt import-path

import-kind typealias | struct | class | enum | protocol | var | func

import-path import-path-identifier | import-path-identifier . import-path
import-path-identifier identifier | operator

Constant Declaration
A constant declaration introduces a constant named value into your program.
Constant declarations are declared using the let keyword and have the following
form:
let constant name : type = expression

A constant declaration defines an immutable binding between the constant name and
the value of the initializer expression; after the value of a constant is set, it cannot be
changed. That said, if a constant is initialized with a class object, the object itself can
change, but the binding between the constant name and the object it refers to cant.
When a constant is declared at global scope, it must be initialized with a value.
When a constant declaration occurs in the context of a class or structure declaration,
it is considered a constant property. Constant declarations are not computed
properties and therefore do not have getters or setters.
If the constant name of a constant declaration is a tuple pattern, the name of each
item in the tuple is bound to the corresponding value in the initializer expression.

let (firstNumber, secondNumber) = (10, 42)

In this example, firstNumber is a named constant for the value 10, and secondNumber
is a named constant for the value 42. Both constants can now be used independently:
1

print("The first number is \(firstNumber).")

// prints "The first number is 10."

print("The second number is \(secondNumber).")

// prints "The second number is 42."

The type annotation (: type) is optional in a constant declaration when the type of
the constant name can be inferred, as described in Type Inference.
To declare a constant type property, mark the declaration with the static declaration
modifier. Type properties are discussed in Type Properties.
For more information about constants and for guidance about when to use them, see
Constants and Variables and Stored Properties.
G RA M M A R O F A C O N S T A N T D E C L A RAT I O N

constant-declaration attributes opt declaration-modifiers opt

initializer-list

let

pattern-initializer-list pattern-initializer | pattern-initializer

initializer-list
pattern-initializer pattern initializer opt
initializer = expression

patternpattern-

Variable Declaration
A variable declaration introduces a variable named value into your program and is
declared using the var keyword.
Variable declarations have several forms that declare different kinds of named,

mutable values, including stored and computed variables and properties, stored
variable and property observers, and static variable properties. The appropriate
form to use depends on the scope at which the variable is declared and the kind of
variable you intend to declare.

N OTE
You can also declare properties in the context of a protocol declaration, as described in Protocol
Property Declaration.

You can override a property in a subclass by marking the subclasss property

declaration with the override declaration modifier, as described in Overriding.

Stored Variables and Stored Variable Properties

The following form declares a stored variable or stored variable property:
var variable name : type = expression

You define this form of a variable declaration at global scope, the local scope of a
function, or in the context of a class or structure declaration. When a variable
declaration of this form is declared at global scope or the local scope of a function,
it is referred to as a stored variable. When it is declared in the context of a class or
structure declaration, it is referred to as a stored variable property.
The initializer expression cant be present in a protocol declaration, but in all other
contexts, the initializer expression is optional. That said, if no initializer expression
is present, the variable declaration must include an explicit type annotation (: type).
As with constant declarations, if the variable name is a tuple pattern, the name of
each item in the tuple is bound to the corresponding value in the initializer
expression.
As their names suggest, the value of a stored variable or a stored variable property
is stored in memory.

Computed Variables and Computed Properties

The following form declares a computed variable or computed property:
var variable name : type {
get {
statements
}
set( setter name ) {
statements
}
}

You define this form of a variable declaration at global scope, the local scope of a
function, or in the context of a class, structure, enumeration, or extension
declaration. When a variable declaration of this form is declared at global scope or
the local scope of a function, it is referred to as a computed variable. When it is
declared in the context of a class, structure, or extension declaration, it is referred to
as a computed property.
The getter is used to read the value, and the setter is used to write the value. The
setter clause is optional, and when only a getter is needed, you can omit both clauses
and simply return the requested value directly, as described in Read-Only Computed
Properties. But if you provide a setter clause, you must also provide a getter clause.
The setter name and enclosing parentheses is optional. If you provide a setter name,
it is used as the name of the parameter to the setter. If you do not provide a setter
name, the default parameter name to the setter is newValue, as described in Shorthand
Setter Declaration.
Unlike stored named values and stored variable properties, the value of a computed
named value or a computed property is not stored in memory.
For more information and to see examples of computed properties, see Computed
Properties.

Stored Variable Observers and Property Observers

You can also declare a stored variable or property with willSet and didSet
observers. A stored variable or property declared with observers has the following
form:
var variable name : type = expression {
willSet( setter name ) {
statements
}
didSet( setter name ) {
statements
}
}

You define this form of a variable declaration at global scope, the local scope of a
function, or in the context of a class or structure declaration. When a variable
declaration of this form is declared at global scope or the local scope of a function,
the observers are referred to as stored variable observers. When it is declared in the
context of a class or structure declaration, the observers are referred to as property
observers.
You can add property observers to any stored property. You can also add property
observers to any inherited property (whether stored or computed) by overriding the
property within a subclass, as described in Overriding Property Observers.
The initializer expression is optional in the context of a class or structure
declaration, but required elsewhere. The type annotation is optional when the type
can be inferred from the initializer expression.
The willSet and didSet observers provide a way to observe (and to respond
appropriately) when the value of a variable or property is being set. The observers
are not called when the variable or property is first initialized. Instead, they are
called only when the value is set outside of an initialization context.
A willSet observer is called just before the value of the variable or property is set.

The new value is passed to the willSet observer as a constant, and therefore it cant
be changed in the implementation of the willSet clause. The didSet observer is
called immediately after the new value is set. In contrast to the willSet observer, the
old value of the variable or property is passed to the didSet observer in case you
still need access to it. That said, if you assign a value to a variable or property
within its own didSet observer clause, that new value that you assign will replace the
one that was just set and passed to the willSet observer.
The setter name and enclosing parentheses in the willSet and didSet clauses are
optional. If you provide setter names, they are used as the parameter names to the
willSet and didSet observers. If you do not provide setter names, the default
parameter name to the willSet observer is newValue and the default parameter name
to the didSet observer is oldValue.
The didSet clause is optional when you provide a willSet clause. Likewise, the
willSet clause is optional when you provide a didSet clause.
For more information and to see an example of how to use property observers, see
Property Observers.

Type Variable Properties

To declare a type variable property, mark the declaration with the static declaration
modifier. Classes may mark type computed properties with the class declaration
modifier instead to allow subclasses to override the superclasss implementation.
Type properties are discussed in Type Properties.

N OTE
In a class declaration, the static keyword has the same effect as marking the declaration with both
the class and final declaration modifiers.

G RA M M A R O F A VA RI A B L E D E C L A RAT I O N

variable-declaration variable-declaration-head
variable-declaration variable-declaration-head
annotation code-block
variable-declaration variable-declaration-head
annotation getter-setter-block
variable-declaration variable-declaration-head
annotation getter-setter-keyword-block
variable-declaration variable-declaration-head
name initializer willSet-didSet-block
variable-declaration variable-declaration-head
annotation initializer opt willSet-didSet-block

pattern-initializer-list
variable-name typevariable-name typevariable-name typevariablevariable-name type-

variable-declaration-head attributes opt declaration-modifiers opt

variable-name identifier

var

getter-setter-block code-block
getter-setter-block { getter-clause setter-clause opt }
getter-setter-block { setter-clause getter-clause }
getter-clause attributes opt get code-block
setter-clause attributes opt set setter-name opt code-block
setter-name ( identifier )
getter-setter-keyword-block { getter-keyword-clause setter-keywordclause opt }
getter-setter-keyword-block { setter-keyword-clause getter-keywordclause }
getter-keyword-clause attributes opt get
setter-keyword-clause attributes opt set
willSet-didSet-block { willSet-clause didSet-clause opt }
willSet-didSet-block { didSet-clause willSet-clause opt }
willSet-clause attributes opt willSet setter-name opt code-block
didSet-clause attributes opt didSet setter-name opt code-block

Type Alias Declaration

A type alias declaration introduces a named alias of an existing type into your
program. Type alias declarations are declared using the typealias keyword and
have the following form:
typealias name = existing type

After a type alias is declared, the aliased name can be used instead of the existing
type everywhere in your program. The existing type can be a named type or a
compound type. Type aliases do not create new types; they simply allow a name to
refer to an existing type.
See also Protocol Associated Type Declaration.
G RA M M A R O F A T Y P E A L I A S D E C L A RAT I O N

typealias-declaration typealias-head typealias-assignment

typealias-head attributes opt access-level-modifier opt typealias typealiasname
typealias-name identifier
typealias-assignment = type

Function Declaration
A function declaration introduces a function or method into your program. A
function declared in the context of class, structure, enumeration, or protocol is
referred to as a method. Function declarations are declared using the func keyword
and have the following form:
func function name ( parameters ) -> return type {
statements
}

If the function has a return type of Void, the return type can be omitted as follows:

func function name ( parameters ) {

statements
}

The type of each parameter must be includedit cant be inferred. Although the
parameters to a function are constants by default, you can write let in front of a
parameter s name to emphasize this behavior. Write var in front of a parameter s
name to make it a variable, scoping any changes made to the variable just to the
function body, or write inout to make those changes also apply to the argument that
was passed in the caller s scope. In-out parameters are discussed in detail in In-Out
Parameters, below.
Functions can return multiple values using a tuple type as the return type of the
function.
A function definition can appear inside another function declaration. This kind of
function is known as a nested function. For a discussion of nested functions, see
Nested Functions.

Parameter Names
Function parameters are a comma separated list where each parameter has one of
several forms. The order of arguments in a function call must match the order of
parameters in the functions declaration. The simplest entry in a parameter list has
the following form:
parameter name : parameter type

A parameter has a local name, which is used within the function body, as well as an
external name, which is used as a label for the argument when calling the method.
By default, the external name of the first parameter is omitted, and the second and
subsequent parameters use their local names as external names. For example:
1

func f(x: Int, y: Int) -> Int { return x + y }

f(1, y: 2) // y is labeled, x is not

You can override the default behavior for how parameter names are used with one
of the following forms:
external parameter name local parameter name : parameter type
_ local parameter name : parameter type

A name before the local parameter name gives the parameter an external name,
which can be different from the local parameter name. The external parameter name
must be used when the function is called. The corresponding argument must have
the external name in function or method calls.
An underscore (_) before a local parameter name gives that parameter no name to
be used in function calls. The corresponding argument must have no name in
function or method calls.
1

func f(x x: Int, withY y: Int, _ z: Int) -> Int { return x + y + z

}

f(x: 1, withY: 2, 3) // x and y are labeled, z is not

In-Out Parameters
In-out parameters are passed as follows:
1. When the function is called, the value of the argument is copied.
2. In the body of the function, the copy is modified.
3. When the function returns, the copys value is assigned to the original
argument.
This behavior is known as copy-in copy-out or call by value result. For example,
when a computed property or a property with observers is passed as an in-out
parameter, its getter is called as part of the function call and its setter is called as
part of the function return.
As an optimization, when the argument is a value stored at a physical address in
memory, the same memory location is used both inside and outside the function

body. The optimized behavior is known as call by reference; it satisfies all of the
requirements of the copy-in copy-out model while removing the overhead of
copying. Do not depend on the behavioral differences between copy-in copy-out and
call by reference.
Do not access the value that was passed as an in-out argument, even if the original
argument is available in the current scope. When the function returns, your changes
to the original are overwritten with the value of the copy. Do not depend on the
implementation of the call-by-reference optimization to try to keep the changes
from being overwritten.
You cant pass the same argument to multiple in-out parameters because the order in
which the copies are written back is not well defined, which means the final value of
the original would also not be well defined. For example:
1

var x = 10

func f(inout a: Int, inout _ b: Int) {

a += 1

b += 10

f(&x, &x) // Invalid, in-out arguments alias each other

There is no copy-out at the end of closures or nested functions. This means if a

closure is called after the function returns, any changes that closure makes to the inout parameters do not get copied back to the original. For example:

func outer(inout a: Int) -> () -> Void {

func inner() {

a += 1

return inner

var x = 10

let f = outer(&x)
f()
print(x)
// prints "10"

The value of x is not changed by inner() incrementing a, because inner() is called

after outer() returns. To change the value of x, inner() would need to be called
before outer() returned.
For more discussion and examples of in-out parameters, see In-Out Parameters.

Special Kinds of Parameters

Parameters can be ignored, take a variable number of values, and provide default
values using the following forms:
_ : parameter type
parameter name : parameter type ...
parameter name : parameter type = default argument value

An underscore (_) parameter is explicitly ignored and cant be accessed within the
body of the function.
A parameter with a base type name followed immediately by three dots (...) is
understood as a variadic parameter. A function can have at most one variadic
parameter. A variadic parameter is treated as an array that contains elements of the
base type name. For instance, the variadic parameter Int... is treated as [Int]. For
an example that uses a variadic parameter, see Variadic Parameters.
A parameter with an equals sign (=) and an expression after its type is understood to
have a default value of the given expression. The given expression is evaluated
when the function is called. If the parameter is omitted when calling the function, the
default value is used instead.
1

func f(x: Int = 42) -> Int { return x }

f() // Valid, uses default value

f(7) // Valid, value provided without its name

f(x: 7) // Invalid, name and value provided

Special Kinds of Methods

Methods on an enumeration or a structure that modify self must be marked with the
mutating declaration modifier.
Methods that override a superclass method must be marked with the override
declaration modifier. Its a compile-time error to override a method without the
override modifier or to use the override modifier on a method that doesnt override
a superclass method.
Methods associated with a type rather than an instance of a type must be marked with
the static declaration modifier for enumerations and structures or the class
declaration modifier for classes.

Curried Functions

You can rewrite a function that takes multiple parameters as an equivalent function
that takes a single parameter and returns a function. The returned function takes the
next parameter and returns another function. This continues until there are no
remaining parameters, at which point the last function returns the return value of the
original multiparameter function. The rewritten function is known as a curried
function. For example, you can rewrite the addTwoInts(a:b:) function as the
equivalent addTwoIntsCurried(a:)(b:) function:
1

func addTwoInts(a a: Int, b: Int) -> Int {

return a + b

func addTwoIntsCurried(a a: Int) -> (Int -> Int) {

func addTheOtherInt(b: Int) -> Int {

return a + b

return addTheOtherInt

The addTwoInts(a:b:) function takes two integers and returns the result of adding
them together. The addTwoIntsCurried(a:)(b:) function takes a single integer, and
returns another function that takes the second integer and adds it to the first. (The
nested function captures the value of the first integer argument from the enclosing
function.)
In Swift, you can write a curried function more concisely using the following
syntax:
func function name ( parameter )( parameter ) -> return type {
statements
}

For example, the following two declarations are equivalent:

func addTwoIntsCurried(a a: Int)(b: Int) -> Int {

return a + b

func addTwoIntsCurried(a a: Int) -> (Int -> Int) {

func addTheOtherInt(b: Int) -> Int {

return a + b

return addTheOtherInt

In order to use the addTwoIntsCurried(a:)(b:) function in the same way as the

noncurried addTwoInts(a:b:) function, you must call the addTwoIntsCurried(a:)(b:)
function with the first integer argument and then call its returned function with the
second integer argument:
1

addTwoInts(a: 4, b: 5)

// returns a value of 9

addTwoIntsCurried(a: 4)(b: 5)

// returns a value of 9

Although you must provide the arguments to a noncurried function all at once in a
single call, you can use the curried form of a function to provide arguments in
several function calls, one at a time (even in different places in your code). This is
known as partial function application. For example, you can apply the
addTwoIntsCurried(a:)(b:) function to an integer argument 1 and assign the result
to the constant plusOne:

let plusOne = addTwoIntsCurried(a: 1)

// plusOne is a function of type Int -> Int

Because plusOne refers to the addTwoIntsCurried(a:)(b:) function with its argument

bound as the value 1, calling plusOne with an integer argument simply adds 1 to the
argument.
1

plusOne(10)

// returns a value of 11

Throwing Functions and Methods

Functions and methods that can throw an error must be marked with the throws
keyword. These functions and methods are known as throwing functions and
throwing methods. They have the following form:
func function name ( parameters ) throws -> return type {
statements
}

Calls to a throwing function or method must be wrapped in a try or try! expression

(that is, in the scope a try or try! operator).
The throws keyword is part of a functions type, and nonthrowing functions are
subtypes of throwing functions. As a result, you can use a nonthrowing function in
the same places as a throwing one. For curried functions, the throws keyword
applies only to the innermost function.
You cant overload a function based only on whether the function can throw an
error. That said, you can overload a function based on whether a function parameter
can throw an error.
A throwing method cant override a nonthrowing method, and a throwing method
cant satisfy a protocol requirement for a nonthrowing method. That said, a

nonthrowing method can override a throwing method, and a nonthrowing method

can satisfy a protocol requirement for a throwing.

Rethrowing Functions and Methods

A function or method can be declared with the rethrows keyword to indicate that it
throws an error only if one of its function parameters throws an error. These
functions and methods are known as rethrowing functions and rethrowing methods.
Rethrowing functions and methods must have at least one throwing function
parameter.
1

func functionWithCallback(callback: () throws -> Int) rethrows {

try callback()

A throwing method cant override a rethrowing method, and a throwing method

cant satisfy a protocol requirement for a rethrowing method. That said, a
rethrowing method can override a throwing method, and a rethrowing method can
satisfy a protocol requirement for a throwing method.

G RA M M A R O F A F U N C T I O N D E C L A RAT I O N

function-declaration function-head function-name generic-parameterclause opt function-signature function-body opt

function-head attributes opt declaration-modifiers opt
function-name identifier | operator
function-signature parameter-clauses
function-signature parameter-clauses
function-result -> attributes opt type
function-body code-block

throws opt
rethrows

func

function-result opt
function-result opt

parameter-clauses parameter-clause parameter-clauses opt

parameter-clause ( ) | ( parameter-list )
parameter-list parameter | parameter , parameter-list
parameter let opt external-parameter-name opt local-parameter-name typeannotation default-argument-clause opt
parameter var external-parameter-name opt local-parameter-name typeannotation default-argument-clause opt
parameter inout external-parameter-name opt local-parameter-name typeannotation
parameter external-parameter-name opt local-parameter-name typeannotation ...
external-parameter-name identifier | _
local-parameter-name identifier | _
default-argument-clause = expression

Enumeration Declaration
An enumeration declaration introduces a named enumeration type into your
program.
Enumeration declarations have two basic forms and are declared using the enum
keyword. The body of an enumeration declared using either form contains zero or

more valuescalled enumeration casesand any number of declarations,

including computed properties, instance methods, type methods, initializers, type
aliases, and even other enumeration, structure, and class declarations. Enumeration
declarations cant contain deinitializer or protocol declarations.
Enumeration types can adopt any number of protocols, but cant inherit from
classes, structures, or other enumerations.
Unlike classes and structures, enumeration types do not have an implicitly provided
default initializer; all initializers must be declared explicitly. Initializers can
delegate to other initializers in the enumeration, but the initialization process is
complete only after an initializer assigns one of the enumeration cases to self.
Like structures but unlike classes, enumerations are value types; instances of an
enumeration are copied when assigned to variables or constants, or when passed as
arguments to a function call. For information about value types, see Structures and
Enumerations Are Value Types.
You can extend the behavior of an enumeration type with an extension declaration,
as discussed in Extension Declaration.

Enumerations with Cases of Any Type

The following form declares an enumeration type that contains enumeration cases
of any type:
enum enumeration name : adopted protocols {
case enumeration case 1
case enumeration case 2 ( associated value types )
}

Enumerations declared in this form are sometimes called discriminated unions in

other programming languages.
In this form, each case block consists of the case keyword followed by one or more
enumeration cases, separated by commas. The name of each case must be unique.
Each case can also specify that it stores values of a given type. These types are

specified in the associated value types tuple, immediately following the name of the
case.
Enumeration cases that store associated values can be used as functions that create
instances of the enumeration with the specified associated values. And just like
functions, you can get a reference to an enumeration case and apply it later in your
code.
1

enum Number {

case Integer(Int)

case Real(Double)

let f = Number.Integer

// f is a function of type (Int) -> Number

// Apply f to create an array of Number instances with integer

values

let evenInts: [Number] = [0, 2, 4, 6].map(f)

For more information and to see examples of cases with associated value types, see
Associated Values.

Enumerations with Indirection

Enumerations can have a recursive structure, that is, they can have cases with
associated values that are instances of the enumeration type itself. However,
instances of enumeration types have value semantics, which means they have a fixed
layout in memory. To support recursion, the compiler must insert a layer of
indirection.
To enable indirection for a particular enumeration case, mark it with the indirect

declaration modifier.
1

enum Tree<T> {

case Empty

indirect case Node(value: T, left: Tree, right: Tree)

To enable indirection for all the cases of an enumeration, mark the entire
enumeration with the indirect modifierthis is convenient when the enumeration
contains many cases that would each need to be marked with the indirect modifier.
An enumeration case thats marked with the indirect modifier must have an
associated value. An enumeration that is marked with the indirect modifier can
contain a mixture of cases that have associated values and cases those that dont.
That said, it cant contain any cases that are also marked with the indirect modifier.

Enumerations with Cases of a Raw-Value Type

The following form declares an enumeration type that contains enumeration cases
of the same basic type:
enum enumeration name : raw-value type , adopted protocols {
case enumeration case 1 = raw value 1
case enumeration case 2 = raw value 2
}

In this form, each case block consists of the case keyword, followed by one or more
enumeration cases, separated by commas. Unlike the cases in the first form, each
case has an underlying value, called a raw value, of the same basic type. The type of
these values is specified in the raw-value type and must represent an integer,
floating-point number, string, or single character. In particular, the raw-value type
must conform to the Equatable protocol and one of the following literal-convertible
protocols: IntegerLiteralConvertible for integer literals,

FloatingPointLiteralConvertible for floating-point literals,

StringLiteralConvertible for string literals that contain any number of characters,

and ExtendedGraphemeClusterLiteralConvertible for string literals that contain only

a single character. Each case must have a unique name and be assigned a unique raw
value.
If the raw-value type is specified as Int and you dont assign a value to the cases
explicitly, they are implicitly assigned the values 0, 1, 2, and so on. Each unassigned
case of type Int is implicitly assigned a raw value that is automatically incremented
from the raw value of the previous case.
1

enum ExampleEnum: Int {

case A, B, C = 5, D

In the above example, the raw value of ExampleEnum.A is 0 and the value of
ExampleEnum.B is 1. And because the value of ExampleEnum.C is explicitly set to 5, the
value of ExampleEnum.D is automatically incremented from 5 and is therefore 6.
If the raw-value type is specified as String and you dont assign values to the cases
explicitly, each unassigned case is implicitly assigned a string with the same text as
the name of that case.
1

enum WeekendDay: String {

case Saturday, Sunday

In the above example, the raw value of WeekendDay.Saturday is "Saturday", and the
raw value of WeekendDay.Sunday is "Sunday".
Enumerations that have cases of a raw-value type implicitly conform to the
RawRepresentable protocol, defined in the Swift standard library. As a result, they
have a rawValue property and a failable initializer with the signature init?
(rawValue: RawValue). You can use the rawValue property to access the raw value of
an enumeration case, as in ExampleEnum.B.rawValue. You can also use a raw value to
find a corresponding case, if there is one, by calling the enumerations failable

initializer, as in ExampleEnum(rawValue: 5), which returns an optional case. For

more information and to see examples of cases with raw-value types, see Raw
Values.

Accessing Enumeration Cases

To reference the case of an enumeration type, use dot (.) syntax, as in
EnumerationType.EnumerationCase. When the enumeration type can be inferred from
context, you can omit it (the dot is still required), as described in Enumeration
Syntax and Implicit Member Expression.
To check the values of enumeration cases, use a switch statement, as shown in
Matching Enumeration Values with a Switch Statement. The enumeration type is
pattern-matched against the enumeration case patterns in the case blocks of the
switch statement, as described in Enumeration Case Pattern.

G RA M M A R O F A N E N U M E RAT I O N D E C L A RAT I O N

enum-declaration attributes opt access-level-modifier opt union-style-enum

enum-declaration attributes opt access-level-modifier opt raw-value-styleenum
union-style-enum indirect opt enum enum-name generic-parameterclause opt type-inheritance-clause opt { union-style-enum-members opt }
union-style-enum-members union-style-enum-member union-style-enummembers opt
union-style-enum-member declaration | union-style-enum-case-clause
union-style-enum-case-clause attributes opt indirect opt case union-styleenum-case-list
union-style-enum-case-list union-style-enum-case | union-style-enumcase , union-style-enum-case-list
union-style-enum-case enum-case-name tuple-type opt
enum-name identifier
enum-case-name identifier
raw-value-style-enum enum enum-name generic-parameter-clause opt typeinheritance-clause { raw-value-style-enum-members }
raw-value-style-enum-members raw-value-style-enum-member raw-valuestyle-enum-members opt
raw-value-style-enum-member declaration | raw-value-style-enum-caseclause
raw-value-style-enum-case-clause attributes opt case raw-value-style-enumcase-list
raw-value-style-enum-case-list raw-value-style-enum-case | raw-valuestyle-enum-case , raw-value-style-enum-case-list
raw-value-style-enum-case enum-case-name raw-value-assignment opt
raw-value-assignment = raw-value-literal
raw-value-literal numeric-literal | static-string-literal | boolean-literal

Structure Declaration

A structure declaration introduces a named structure type into your program.

Structure declarations are declared using the struct keyword and have the
following form:
struct structure name : adopted protocols {
declarations
}

The body of a structure contains zero or more declarations. These declarations can
include both stored and computed properties, type properties, instance methods, type
methods, initializers, subscripts, type aliases, and even other structure, class, and
enumeration declarations. Structure declarations cant contain deinitializer or
protocol declarations. For a discussion and several examples of structures that
include various kinds of declarations, see Classes and Structures.
Structure types can adopt any number of protocols, but cant inherit from classes,
enumerations, or other structures.
There are three ways create an instance of a previously declared structure:
Call one of the initializers declared within the structure, as described in
Initializers.
If no initializers are declared, call the structures memberwise initializer, as
described in Memberwise Initializers for Structure Types.
If no initializers are declared, and all properties of the structure declaration
were given initial values, call the structures default initializer, as described
in Default Initializers.
The process of initializing a structures declared properties is described in
Initialization.
Properties of a structure instance can be accessed using dot (.) syntax, as described
in Accessing Properties.
Structures are value types; instances of a structure are copied when assigned to
variables or constants, or when passed as arguments to a function call. For
information about value types, see Structures and Enumerations Are Value Types.

You can extend the behavior of a structure type with an extension declaration, as
discussed in Extension Declaration.
G RA M M A R O F A S T RU C T U RE D E C L A RAT I O N

struct-declaration attributes opt access-level-modifier opt struct structname generic-parameter-clause opt type-inheritance-clause opt struct-body
struct-name identifier
struct-body { declarations opt }

Class Declaration
A class declaration introduces a named class type into your program. Class
declarations are declared using the class keyword and have the following form:
class class name : superclass , adopted protocols {
declarations
}

The body of a class contains zero or more declarations. These declarations can
include both stored and computed properties, instance methods, type methods,
initializers, a single deinitializer, subscripts, type aliases, and even other class,
structure, and enumeration declarations. Class declarations cant contain protocol
declarations. For a discussion and several examples of classes that include various
kinds of declarations, see Classes and Structures.
A class type can inherit from only one parent class, its superclass, but can adopt any
number of protocols. The superclass appears first after the class name and colon,
followed by any adopted protocols. Generic classes can inherit from other generic
and nongeneric classes, but a nongeneric class can inherit only from other
nongeneric classes. When you write the name of a generic superclass class after the
colon, you must include the full name of that generic class, including its generic
parameter clause.
As discussed in Initializer Declaration, classes can have designated and convenience
initializers. The designated initializer of a class must initialize all of the classs

declared properties and it must do so before calling any of its superclasss

designated initializers.
A class can override properties, methods, subscripts, and initializers of its
superclass. Overridden properties, methods, subscripts, and designated initializers
must be marked with the override declaration modifier.
To require that subclasses implement a superclasss initializer, mark the superclasss
initializer with the required declaration modifier. The subclasss implementation of
that initializer must also be marked with the required declaration modifier.
Although properties and methods declared in the superclass are inherited by the
current class, designated initializers declared in the superclass are not. That said, if
the current class overrides all of the superclasss designated initializers, it inherits
the superclasss convenience initializers. Swift classes do not inherit from a
universal base class.
There are two ways create an instance of a previously declared class:
Call one of the initializers declared within the class, as described in
Initializers.
If no initializers are declared, and all properties of the class declaration
were given initial values, call the classs default initializer, as described in
Default Initializers.
Access properties of a class instance with dot (.) syntax, as described in Accessing
Properties.
Classes are reference types; instances of a class are referred to, rather than copied,
when assigned to variables or constants, or when passed as arguments to a function
call. For information about reference types, see Structures and Enumerations Are
Value Types.
You can extend the behavior of a class type with an extension declaration, as
discussed in Extension Declaration.

G RA M M A R O F A C L A S S D E C L A RAT I O N

class-declaration attributes opt access-level-modifier opt class classname generic-parameter-clause opt type-inheritance-clause opt class-body
class-name identifier
class-body { declarations opt }

Protocol Declaration
A protocol declaration introduces a named protocol type into your program.
Protocol declarations are declared at global scope using the protocol keyword and
have the following form:
protocol protocol name : inherited protocols {
protocol member declarations
}

The body of a protocol contains zero or more protocol member declarations, which
describe the conformance requirements that any type adopting the protocol must
fulfill. In particular, a protocol can declare that conforming types must implement
certain properties, methods, initializers, and subscripts. Protocols can also declare
special kinds of type aliases, called associated types, that can specify relationships
among the various declarations of the protocol. Protocol declarations cant contain
class, structure, enumeration, or other protocol declarations. The protocol member
declarations are discussed in detail below.
Protocol types can inherit from any number of other protocols. When a protocol
type inherits from other protocols, the set of requirements from those other
protocols are aggregated, and any type that inherits from the current protocol must
conform to all those requirements. For an example of how to use protocol
inheritance, see Protocol Inheritance.

N OTE
You can also aggregate the conformance requirements of multiple protocols using protocol
composition types, as described in Protocol Composition Type and Protocol Composition.

You can add protocol conformance to a previously declared type by adopting the
protocol in an extension declaration of that type. In the extension, you must
implement all of the adopted protocols requirements. If the type already
implements all of the requirements, you can leave the body of the extension
declaration empty.
By default, types that conform to a protocol must implement all properties,
methods, and subscripts declared in the protocol. That said, you can mark these
protocol member declarations with the optional declaration modifier to specify that
their implementation by a conforming type is optional. The optional modifier can
be applied only to protocols that are marked with the objc attribute. As a result, only
class types can adopt and conform to a protocol that contains optional member
requirements. For more information about how to use the optional declaration
modifier and for guidance about how to access optional protocol membersfor
example, when youre not sure whether a conforming type implements themsee
Optional Protocol Requirements.
To restrict the adoption of a protocol to class types only, mark the protocol with the
class requirement by writing the class keyword as the first item in the inherited
protocols list after the colon. For example, the following protocol can be adopted
only by class types:
1

protocol SomeProtocol: class {

/* Protocol members go here */

Any protocol that inherits from a protocol thats marked with the class requirement
can likewise be adopted only by class types.

N OTE
If a protocol is marked with the objc attribute, the class requirement is implicitly applied to that
protocol; theres no need to mark the protocol with the class requirement explicitly.

Protocols are named types, and thus they can appear in all the same places in your
code as other named types, as discussed in Protocols as Types. However, you cant
construct an instance of a protocol, because protocols do not actually provide the
implementations for the requirements they specify.
You can use protocols to declare which methods a delegate of a class or structure
should implement, as described in Delegation.
G RA M M A R O F A P RO T O C O L D E C L A RAT I O N

protocol-declaration attributes opt access-levelmodifier opt protocol protocol-name type-inheritance-clause opt protocol-body
protocol-name identifier
protocol-body { protocol-member-declarations opt }
protocol-member-declaration protocol-property-declaration
protocol-member-declaration protocol-method-declaration
protocol-member-declaration protocol-initializer-declaration
protocol-member-declaration protocol-subscript-declaration
protocol-member-declaration protocol-associated-type-declaration
protocol-member-declarations protocol-member-declaration protocolmember-declarations opt

Protocol Property Declaration

Protocols declare that conforming types must implement a property by including a
protocol property declaration in the body of the protocol declaration. Protocol
property declarations have a special form of a variable declaration:
var property name : type { get set }

As with other protocol member declarations, these property declarations declare

only the getter and setter requirements for types that conform to the protocol. As a
result, you dont implement the getter or setter directly in the protocol in which it is
declared.
The getter and setter requirements can be satisfied by a conforming type in a variety
of ways. If a property declaration includes both the get and set keywords, a
conforming type can implement it with a stored variable property or a computed
property that is both readable and writeable (that is, one that implements both a
getter and a setter). However, that property declaration cant be implemented as a
constant property or a read-only computed property. If a property declaration
includes only the get keyword, it can be implemented as any kind of property. For
examples of conforming types that implement the property requirements of a
protocol, see Property Requirements.
See also Variable Declaration.
G RA M M A R O F A P RO T O C O L P RO P E RT Y D E C L A RAT I O N

protocol-property-declaration variable-declaration-head variablename type-annotation getter-setter-keyword-block

Protocol Method Declaration

Protocols declare that conforming types must implement a method by including a
protocol method declaration in the body of the protocol declaration. Protocol
method declarations have the same form as function declarations, with two
exceptions: They dont include a function body, and you cant provide any default
parameter values as part of the function declaration. For examples of conforming
types that implement the method requirements of a protocol, see Method
Requirements.
To declare a class or static method requirement in a protocol declaration, mark the
method declaration with the static declaration modifier. Classes that implement this
method declare the method with the class modifier. Structures that implement it
must declare the method with the static declaration modifier instead. If youre
implementing the method in an extension, use the class modifier if youre
extending a class and the static modifier if youre extending a structure.

See also Function Declaration.

G RA M M A R O F A P RO T O C O L M E T H O D D E C L A RAT I O N

protocol-method-declaration function-head function-name genericparameter-clause opt function-signature

Protocol Initializer Declaration

Protocols declare that conforming types must implement an initializer by including
a protocol initializer declaration in the body of the protocol declaration. Protocol
initializer declarations have the same form as initializer declarations, except they
dont include the initializer s body.
A conforming type can satisfy a nonfailable protocol initializer requirement by
implementing a nonfailable initializer or an init! failable initializer. A conforming
type can satisfy a failable protocol initializer requirement by implementing any kind
of initializer.
When a class implements an initializer to satisfy a protocols initializer
requirement, the initializer must be marked with the required declaration modifier
if the class is not already marked with the final declaration modifier.
See also Initializer Declaration.
G RA M M A R O F A P RO T O C O L I N I T I A L I Z E R D E C L A RAT I O N

protocol-initializer-declaration initializer-head generic-parameterclause opt parameter-clause throws opt

protocol-initializer-declaration initializer-head generic-parameterclause opt parameter-clause rethrows

Protocol Subscript Declaration

Protocols declare that conforming types must implement a subscript by including a
protocol subscript declaration in the body of the protocol declaration. Protocol
subscript declarations have a special form of a subscript declaration:

subscript ( parameters ) -> return type { get set }

Subscript declarations only declare the minimum getter and setter implementation
requirements for types that conform to the protocol. If the subscript declaration
includes both the get and set keywords, a conforming type must implement both a
getter and a setter clause. If the subscript declaration includes only the get keyword,
a conforming type must implement at least a getter clause and optionally can
implement a setter clause.
See also Subscript Declaration.
G RA M M A R O F A P RO T O C O L S U B S C RI P T D E C L A RAT I O N

protocol-subscript-declaration subscript-head subscript-result getter-setterkeyword-block

Protocol Associated Type Declaration

Protocols declare associated types using the typealias keyword. An associated type
provides an alias for a type that is used as part of a protocols declaration.
Associated types are similar to type parameters in generic parameter clauses, but
theyre associated with Self in the protocol in which theyre declared. In that
context, Self refers to the eventual type that conforms to the protocol. For more
information and examples, see Associated Types.
See also Type Alias Declaration.
G RA M M A R O F A P RO T O C O L A S S O C I AT E D T Y P E D E C L A RAT I O N

protocol-associated-type-declaration typealias-head type-inheritanceclause opt typealias-assignment opt

Initializer Declaration
An initializer declaration introduces an initializer for a class, structure, or
enumeration into your program. Initializer declarations are declared using the init
keyword and have two basic forms.

Structure, enumeration, and class types can have any number of initializers, but the
rules and associated behavior for class initializers are different. Unlike structures
and enumerations, classes have two kinds of initializers: designated initializers and
convenience initializers, as described in Initialization.
The following form declares initializers for structures, enumerations, and
designated initializers of classes:
init( parameters ) {
statements
}

A designated initializer of a class initializes all of the classs properties directly. It

cant call any other initializers of the same class, and if the class has a superclass, it
must call one of the superclasss designated initializers. If the class inherits any
properties from its superclass, one of the superclasss designated initializers must
be called before any of these properties can be set or modified in the current class.
Designated initializers can be declared in the context of a class declaration only and
therefore cant be added to a class using an extension declaration.
Initializers in structures and enumerations can call other declared initializers to
delegate part or all of the initialization process.
To declare convenience initializers for a class, mark the initializer declaration with
the convenience declaration modifier.
convenience init( parameters ) {
statements
}

Convenience initializers can delegate the initialization process to another

convenience initializer or to one of the classs designated initializers. That said, the
initialization processes must end with a call to a designated initializer that ultimately
initializes the classs properties. Convenience initializers cant call a superclasss
initializers.

You can mark designated and convenience initializers with the required declaration
modifier to require that every subclass implement the initializer. A subclasss
implementation of that initializer must also be marked with the required declaration
modifier.
By default, initializers declared in a superclass are not inherited by subclasses. That
said, if a subclass initializes all of its stored properties with default values and
doesnt define any initializers of its own, it inherits all of the superclasss
initializers. If the subclass overrides all of the superclasss designated initializers, it
inherits the superclasss convenience initializers.
As with methods, properties, and subscripts, you need to mark overridden
designated initializers with the override declaration modifier.

N OTE
If you mark an initializer with the required declaration modifier, you dont also mark the initializer
with the override modifier when you override the required initializer in a subclass.

Just like functions and methods, initializers can throw or rethrow errors. And just
like functions and methods, you use the throws or rethrows keyword after an
initializer s parameters to indicate the appropriate behavior.
To see examples of initializers in various type declarations, see Initialization.

Failable Initializers
A failable initializer is a type of initializer that produces an optional instance or an
implicitly unwrapped optional instance of the type the initializer is declared on. As a
result, a failable initializer can return nil to indicate that initialization failed.
To declare a failable initializer that produces an optional instance, append a question
mark to the init keyword in the initializer declaration (init?). To declare a failable
initializer that produces an implicitly unwrapped optional instance, append an
exclamation mark instead (init!). The example below shows an init? failable
initializer that produces an optional instance of a structure.

struct SomeStruct {

let string: String

// produces an optional instance of 'SomeStruct'

init?(input: String) {

if input.isEmpty {

// discard 'self' and return 'nil'

return nil

string = input
}
}

You call an init? failable initializer in the same way that you call a nonfailable
initializer, except that you must deal with the optionality of the result.
1

if let actualInstance = SomeStruct(input: "Hello") {

// do something with the instance of 'SomeStruct'

} else {

// initialization of 'SomeStruct' failed and the initializer

returned 'nil'

A failable initializer of a structure or an enumeration can return nil at any point in

the implementation of the initializer s body. A failable initializer of a class,
however, can return nil only after all stored properties of that class are initialized
and self.init or super.init is called (that is, any initializer delegation is
performed).

A failable initializer can delegate to any kind of initializer. A nonfailable initializer

can delegate to another nonfailable initializer or to an init! failable initializer. A
nonfailable initializer can delegate to an init? failable initializer by forceunwrapping the result of the superclasss initializerfor example, by writing
super.init()!.
Initialization failure propagates through initializer delegation. Specifically, if a
failable initializer delegates to an initializer that fails and returns nil, then the
initializer that delegated also fails and implicitly returns nil. If a nonfailable
initializer delegates to an init! failable initializer that fails and returns nil, then a
runtime error is raised (as if you used the ! operator to unwrap an optional that has
a nil value).
A failable designated initializer can be overridden in a subclass by any kind of
designated initializer. A nonfailable designated initializer can be overridden in a
subclass by a nonfailable designated initializer only.
For more information and to see examples of failable initializers, see Failable
Initializers.
G RA M M A R O F A N I N I T I A L I Z E R D E C L A RAT I O N

initializer-declaration initializer-head generic-parameterclause opt parameter-clause throws opt initializer-body

initializer-declaration initializer-head generic-parameterclause opt parameter-clause rethrows initializer-body
initializer-head attributes opt declaration-modifiers opt init
initializer-head attributes opt declaration-modifiers opt init
initializer-head attributes opt declaration-modifiers opt init
initializer-body code-block

?
!

Deinitializer Declaration
A deinitializer declaration declares a deinitializer for a class type. Deinitializers
take no parameters and have the following form:

deinit {
statements
}

A deinitializer is called automatically when there are no longer any references to a

class object, just before the class object is deallocated. A deinitializer can be
declared only in the body of a class declarationbut not in an extension of a class
and each class can have at most one.
A subclass inherits its superclasss deinitializer, which is implicitly called just
before the subclass object is deallocated. The subclass object is not deallocated until
all deinitializers in its inheritance chain have finished executing.
Deinitializers are not called directly.
For an example of how to use a deinitializer in a class declaration, see
Deinitialization.
G RA M M A R O F A D E I N I T I A L I Z E R D E C L A RAT I O N

deinitializer-declaration attributes opt

deinit

code-block

Extension Declaration
An extension declaration allows you to extend the behavior of existing class,
structure, and enumeration types. Extension declarations are declared using the
extension keyword and have the following form:
extension type name : adopted protocols {
declarations
}

The body of an extension declaration contains zero or more declarations. These

declarations can include computed properties, computed type properties, instance
methods, type methods, initializers, subscript declarations, and even class, structure,
and enumeration declarations. Extension declarations cant contain deinitializer or

protocol declarations, stored properties, property observers, or other extension

declarations. For a discussion and several examples of extensions that include
various kinds of declarations, see Extensions.
Extension declarations can add protocol conformance to an existing class, structure,
and enumeration type in the adopted protocols. Extension declarations cant add
class inheritance to an existing class, and therefore you can specify only a list of
protocols after the type name and colon.
Properties, methods, and initializers of an existing type cant be overridden in an
extension of that type.
Extension declarations can contain initializer declarations. That said, if the type
youre extending is defined in another module, an initializer declaration must
delegate to an initializer already defined in that module to ensure members of that
type are properly initialized.
G RA M M A R O F A N E X T E N S I O N D E C L A RAT I O N

extension-declaration access-level-modifier opt extension typeidentifier type-inheritance-clause opt extension-body

extension-body { declarations opt }

Subscript Declaration
A subscript declaration allows you to add subscripting support for objects of a
particular type and are typically used to provide a convenient syntax for accessing
the elements in a collection, list, or sequence. Subscript declarations are declared
using the subscript keyword and have the following form:

subscript ( parameters ) -> return type {

get {
statements
}
set( setter name ) {
statements
}
}

Subscript declarations can appear only in the context of a class, structure,

enumeration, extension, or protocol declaration.
The parameters specify one or more indexes used to access elements of the
corresponding type in a subscript expression (for example, the i in the expression
object[i]). Although the indexes used to access the elements can be of any type,
each parameter must include a type annotation to specify the type of each index. The
return type specifies the type of the element being accessed.
As with computed properties, subscript declarations support reading and writing the
value of the accessed elements. The getter is used to read the value, and the setter is
used to write the value. The setter clause is optional, and when only a getter is
needed, you can omit both clauses and simply return the requested value directly.
That said, if you provide a setter clause, you must also provide a getter clause.
The setter name and enclosing parentheses are optional. If you provide a setter
name, it is used as the name of the parameter to the setter. If you do not provide a
setter name, the default parameter name to the setter is value. The type of the setter
name must be the same as the return type.
You can overload a subscript declaration in the type in which it is declared, as long
as the parameters or the return type differ from the one youre overloading. You
can also override a subscript declaration inherited from a superclass. When you do
so, you must mark the overridden subscript declaration with the override
declaration modifier.
You can also declare subscripts in the context of a protocol declaration, as described

in Protocol Subscript Declaration.

For more information about subscripting and to see examples of subscript
declarations, see Subscripts.
G RA M M A R O F A S U B S C RI P T D E C L A RAT I O N

subscript-declaration subscript-head subscript-result code-block

subscript-declaration subscript-head subscript-result getter-setter-block
subscript-declaration subscript-head subscript-result getter-setter-keywordblock
subscript-head attributes opt declaration-modifiers opt subscript parameterclause
subscript-result -> attributes opt type

Operator Declaration
An operator declaration introduces a new infix, prefix, or postfix operator into
your program and is declared using the operator keyword.
You can declare operators of three different fixities: infix, prefix, and postfix. The
fixity of an operator specifies the relative position of an operator to its operands.
There are three basic forms of an operator declaration, one for each fixity. The
fixity of the operator is specified by marking the operator declaration with the
infix, prefix, or postfix declaration modifier before the operator keyword. In each
form, the name of the operator can contain only the operator characters defined in
Operators.
The following form declares a new infix operator:
infix operator operator name {
precedence precedence level
associativity associativity
}

An infix operator is a binary operator that is written between its two operands, such

as the familiar addition operator (+) in the expression 1 + 2.

Infix operators can optionally specify a precedence, associativity, or both.
The precedence of an operator specifies how tightly an operator binds to its
operands in the absence of grouping parentheses. You specify the precedence of an
operator by writing the context-sensitive precedence keyword followed by the
precedence level. The precedence level can be any whole number (decimal integer)
from 0 to 255; unlike decimal integer literals, it cant contain any underscore
characters. Although the precedence level is a specific number, it is significant only
relative to another operator. That is, when two operators compete with each other
for their operands, such as in the expression 2 + 3 * 5, the operator with the higher
precedence level binds more tightly to its operands.
The associativity of an operator specifies how a sequence of operators with the
same precedence level are grouped together in the absence of grouping parentheses.
You specify the associativity of an operator by writing the context-sensitive
associativity keyword followed by the associativity, which is one of the contextsensitive keywords left, right, or none. Operators that are left-associative group
left-to-right. For example, the subtraction operator (-) is left-associative, and
therefore the expression 4 - 5 - 6 is grouped as (4 - 5) - 6 and evaluates to -7.
Operators that are right-associative group right-to-left, and operators that are
specified with an associativity of none dont associate at all. Nonassociative
operators of the same precedence level cant appear adjacent to each to other. For
example, 1 < 2 < 3 is not a valid expression.
Infix operators that are declared without specifying a precedence or associativity
are initialized with a precedence level of 100 and an associativity of none.
The following form declares a new prefix operator:
prefix operator operator name {}

A prefix operator is a unary operator that is written immediately before its operand,
such as the prefix increment operator (++) is in the expression ++i.
Prefix operators declarations dont specify a precedence level. Prefix operators are
nonassociative.
The following form declares a new postfix operator:

postfix operator operator name {}

A postfix operator is a unary operator that is written immediately after its operand,
such as the postfix increment operator (++) is in the expression i++.
As with prefix operators, postfix operator declarations dont specify a precedence
level. Postfix operators are nonassociative.
After declaring a new operator, you implement it by declaring a function that has the
same name as the operator. If youre implementing a prefix or postfix operator, you
must also mark that function declaration with the corresponding prefix or postfix
declaration modifier. If youre implementing an infix operator, you dont mark that
function declaration with the infix declaration modifier. To see an example of how
to create and implement a new operator, see Custom Operators.
G RA M M A R O F A N O P E RAT O R D E C L A RAT I O N

operator-declaration prefix-operator-declaration | postfix-operatordeclaration | infix-operator-declaration

prefix-operator-declaration prefix operator operator { }
postfix-operator-declaration postfix operator operator { }
infix-operator-declaration infix operator operator { infix-operatorattributes opt }
infix-operator-attributes precedence-clause opt associativity-clause opt
precedence-clause precedence precedence-level
precedence-level A decimal integer between 0 and 255, inclusive
associativity-clause associativity associativity
associativity left | right | none

Declaration Modifiers
Declaration modifiers are keywords or context-sensitive keywords that modify the
behavior or meaning of a declaration. You specify a declaration modifier by writing
the appropriate keyword or context-sensitive keyword between a declarations
attributes (if any) and the keyword that introduces the declaration.

dynamic

Apply this modifier to any member of a class that can be represented by

Objective-C. When you mark a member declaration with the dynamic modifier,
access to that member is always dynamically dispatched using the Objective-C
runtime. Access to that member is never inlined or devirtualized by the
compiler.
Because declarations marked with the dynamic modifier are dispatched using
the Objective-C runtime, theyre implicitly marked with the objc attribute.
final

Apply this modifier to a class or to a property, method, or subscript member of

a class. Its applied to a class to indicate that the class cant be subclassed. Its
applied to a property, method, or subscript of a class to indicate that a class
member cant be overridden in any subclass.
lazy

Apply this modifier to a stored variable property of a class or structure to

indicate that the propertys initial value is calculated and stored at most once,
when the property is first accessed. For an example of how to use the lazy
modifier, see Lazy Stored Properties.
optional

Apply this modifier to a protocols property, method, or subscript members to

indicate that a conforming type isnt required to implement those members.
You can apply the optional modifier only to protocols that are marked with the
objc attribute. As a result, only class types can adopt and conform to a protocol
that contains optional member requirements. For more information about how
to use the optional modifier and for guidance about how to access optional
protocol membersfor example, when youre not sure whether a conforming
type implements themsee Optional Protocol Requirements.
required

Apply this modifier to a designated or convenience initializer of a class to

indicate that every subclass must implement that initializer. The subclasss
implementation of that initializer must also be marked with the required
modifier.
weak

The weak modifier is applied to a variable or a stored variable property to

indicate that the variable or property has a weak reference to the object stored
as its value. The type of the variable or property must be an optional class type.
Use the weak modifier to avoid strong reference cycles. For an example and
more information about the weak modifier, see Weak References.

Access Control Levels

Swift provides three levels of access control: public, internal, and private. You can
mark a declaration with one of the access-level modifiers below to specify the
declarations access level. Access control is discussed in detail in Access Control.
public

Apply this modifier to a declaration to indicate the declaration can be accessed

by code in the same module as the declaration. Declarations marked with the
public access-level modifier can also be accessed by code in a module that
imports the module that contains that declaration.
internal

Apply this modifier to a declaration to indicate the declaration can be accessed

only by code in the same module as the declaration. By default, most
declarations are implicitly marked with the internal access-level modifier.
private

Apply this modifier to a declaration to indicate the declaration can be accessed

only by code in the same source file as the declaration.
Each access-level modifier above optionally accepts a single argument, which
consists of the set keyword enclosed in parentheses (for instance, private(set)).
Use this form of an access-level modifier when you want to specify an access level
for the setter of a variable or subscript thats less than or equal to the access level of
the variable or subscript itself, as discussed in Getters and Setters.

G RA M M A R O F A D E C L A RAT I O N M O D I F I E R

declaration-modifier class | convenience | dynamic | final | infix |

lazy | mutating | nonmutating | optional | override | postfix | prefix |
required | static | unowned | unowned ( safe ) | unowned ( unsafe ) |
weak

declaration-modifier access-level-modifier
declaration-modifiers declaration-modifier declaration-modifiers opt
access-level-modifier internal | internal ( set
access-level-modifier private | private ( set )
access-level-modifier public | public ( set )

Attributes
Attributes provide more information about a declaration or type. There are two
kinds of attributes in Swift, those that apply to declarations and those that apply to
types.
You specify an attribute by writing the @ symbol followed by the attributes name
and any arguments that the attribute accepts:
@ attribute name
@ attribute name ( attribute arguments )

Some declaration attributes accept arguments that specify more information about
the attribute and how it applies to a particular declaration. These attribute arguments
are enclosed in parentheses, and their format is defined by the attribute they belong
to.

Declaration Attributes
You can apply a declaration attribute to declarations only. However, you can also
apply the noreturn attribute to a function or method type.
autoclosure

This attribute is used to delay the evaluation of an expression by automatically

wrapping that expression in a closure with no arguments. Apply this attribute to
a parameter declaration for a function or method type that takes no arguments
and that returns the type of the expression. Declarations with the autoclosure
attribute imply noescape as well, except when passed the optional attribute
argument escaping. For an example of how to use the autoclosure attribute, see
Autoclosures and Function Type.
available

Apply this attribute to any declaration to indicate the declarations lifecycle

relative to certain platforms and operating system versions.

The available attribute always appears with a list of two or more commaseparated attribute arguments. These arguments begin with one of the
following platform names:

iOS
iOSApplicationExtension
OSX
OSXApplicationExtension
watchOS
watchOSApplicationExtension
tvOS
tvOSApplicationExtension

You can also use an asterisk (*) to indicate the availability of the declaration on
all of the platform names listed above.
The remaining arguments can appear in any order and specify additional
information about the declarations lifecycle, including important milestones.
The unavailable argument indicates that the declaration isnt available
on the specified platform.
The introduced argument indicates the first version of the specified
platform in which the declaration was introduced. It has the following
form:
introduced= version number

The version number consists of a positive integer or floating-point

decimal number.
The deprecated argument indicates the first version of the specified
platform in which the declaration was deprecated. It has the following
form:
deprecated= version number

The version number consists of a positive integer or floating-point

decimal number.

 The obsoleted argument indicates the first version of the specified

platform in which the declaration was obsoleted. When a declaration is
obsoleted, its removed from the specified platform and can no longer
be used. It has the following form:
obsoleted= version number

The version number consists of a positive integer or floating-point

decimal number.
The message argument is used to provide a textual message thats
displayed by the compiler when emitting a warning or error about the
use of a deprecated or obsoleted declaration. It has the following form:
message= message

The message consists of a string literal.

The renamed argument is used to provide a textual message that
indicates the new name for a declaration thats been renamed. The new
name is displayed by the compiler when emitting an error about the use
of a renamed declaration. It has the following form:
renamed= new name

The new name consists of a string literal.

You can use the renamed argument in conjunction with the unavailable
argument and a type alias declaration to indicate to clients of your code
that a declaration has been renamed. For example, this is useful when
the name of a declaration is changed between releases of a framework
or library.
1

// First release

protocol MyProtocol {

// protocol definition

// Subsequent release renames MyProtocol

protocol MyRenamedProtocol {

// protocol definition

@available(*, unavailable, renamed="MyRenamedProtocol")

typealias MyProtocol = MyRenamedProtocol

You can apply multiple available attributes on a single declaration to specify

the declarations availability on different platforms. The compiler uses an
available attribute only when the attribute specifies a platform that matches the
current target platform.
If an available attribute only specifies an introduced argument in addition to a
platform name argument, the following shorthand syntax can be used instead:
@available( platform name version number , *)

The shorthand syntax for available attributes allows for availability for
multiple platforms to be expressed concisely. Although the two forms are
functionally equivalent, the shorthand form is preferred whenever possible.
1

@available(iOS 8.0, OSX 10.10, *)

class MyClass {

// class definition

objc

Apply this attribute to any declaration that can be represented in Objective-C

for example, non-nested classes, protocols, nongeneric enumerations
(constrained to integer raw-value types), properties and methods (including

getters and setters) of classes and protocols, initializers, deinitializers, and

subscripts. The objc attribute tells the compiler that a declaration is available to
use in Objective-C code.
Classes marked with the objc attribute must inherit from a class defined in
Objective-C. If you apply the objc attribute to a class or protocol, its implicitly
applied to the Objective-C compatible members of that class or protocol. The
compiler also implicitly adds the objc attribute to a class that inherits from
another class marked with the objc attribute or a class defined in Objective-C.
Protocols marked with the objc attribute cant inherit from protocols that
arent.
If you apply the objc attribute to an enumeration, each enumeration case is
exposed to Objective-C code as the concatenation of the enumeration name and
the case name. For example, a case named Venus in a Swift Planet enumeration
is exposed to Objective-C code as a case named PlanetVenus.
The objc attribute optionally accepts a single attribute argument, which consists
of an identifier. Use this attribute when you want to expose a different name to
Objective-C for the entity the objc attribute applies to. You can use this
argument to name classes, protocols, methods, getters, setters, and initializers.
The example below exposes the getter for the enabled property of the
ExampleClass to Objective-C code as isEnabled rather than just as the name of
the property itself.
1

@objc

class ExampleClass: NSObject {

var enabled: Bool {

@objc(isEnabled) get {

// Return the appropriate value

noescape

Apply this attribute to a function or method declaration to indicate that a

parameter will not be stored for later execution, such that it is guaranteed not to
outlive the lifetime of the call. Function type parameters with the noescape
declaration attribute do not require explicit use of self. for properties or
methods. For an example of how to use the noescape attribute, see Nonescaping
Closures.
nonobjc

Apply this attribute to a method, property, subscript, or initializer declaration

that can be represented in Objective-C. The nonobjc attribute tells the compiler
that a declaration is not available to use in Objective-C code.
You use the nonobjc attribute to resolve circularity for bridging methods in a
class marked with the objc attribute, and to allow overloading of methods and
initializers in a class marked with the objc attribute.
A method marked with the nonobjc attribute cannot override a method marked
with the objc attribute. However, a method marked with the objc attribute can
override a method marked with the nonobjc attribute. Similarly, a method
marked with the nonobjc attribute cannot satisfy a protocol requirement for a
method marked with the @objc attribute.
noreturn

Apply this attribute to a function or method declaration to indicate that the

corresponding type of that function or method, T, is @noreturn T. You can mark
a function or method type with this attribute to indicate that the function or
method doesnt return to its caller.
You can override a function or method that is not marked with the noreturn
attribute with a function or method that is. That said, you cant override a
function or method that is marked with the noreturn attribute with a function or
method that is not. Similar rules apply when you implement a protocol method
in a conforming type.
NSApplicationMain

Apply this attribute to a class to indicate that it is the application delegate. Using
this attribute is equivalent to calling the NSApplicationMain(_:_:) function and
passing this classs name as the name of the delegate class.
If you do not use this attribute, supply a main.swift file with a main() function
that calls the NSApplicationMain(_:_:) function. For example, if your app uses
a custom subclass of NSApplication as its principal class, call the

NSApplicationMain function instead of using this attribute.

NSCopying

Apply this attribute to a stored variable property of a class. This attribute

causes the propertys setter to be synthesized with a copy of the propertys
valuereturned by the copyWithZone(_:) methodinstead of the value of the
property itself. The type of the property must conform to the NSCopying
protocol.
The NSCopying attribute behaves in a way similar to the Objective-C copy
property attribute.
NSManaged

Apply this attribute to an instance method or stored variable property of a class

that inherits from NSManagedObject to indicate that Core Data dynamically
provides its implementation at runtime, based on the associated entity
description. For a property marked with the NSManaged attribute, Core Data also
provides the storage at runtime.
testable

Apply this attribute to import declarations for modules compiled with testing
enabled to access any entities marked with the internal access level modifier
as if they were declared with the public access level modifier.
UIApplicationMain

Apply this attribute to a class to indicate that it is the application delegate. Using
this attribute is equivalent to calling the UIApplicationMain function and
passing this classs name as the name of the delegate class.
If you do not use this attribute, supply a main.swift file with a main function that
calls the UIApplicationMain(_:_:_:) function. For example, if your app uses a
custom subclass of UIApplication as its principal class, call the
UIApplicationMain(_:_:_:) function instead of using this attribute.
warn_unused_result

Apply this attribute to a method or function declaration to have the compiler

emit a warning when the method or function is called without using its result.
You can use this attribute to provide a warning message about incorrect usage
of a nonmutating method that has a mutating counterpart.
The warn_unused_result attribute optionally accepts one of the two attribute

arguments below.
The message argument is used to provide a textual warning message
thats displayed when the function or method is called, but its result
isnt used. It has the following form:
message= message

The message consists of a string literal.

The mutable_variant argument is used to provide the name of the
mutating version of the method that should be used if the nonmutating
method is called on a mutable value and the result isnt used. It has the
following form, where the method name consists of a string literal:
mutable_variant= method name

For example, the Swift standard library provides both the mutating
method sortInPlace() and the nonmutating method sort() to
collections whose generator element conforms to the Comparable
protocol. If you call the sort() method without using its result, its
likely that you actually intended to use the mutating variant,
sortInPlace() instead.

Declaration Attributes Used by Interface Builder

Interface Builder attributes are declaration attributes used by Interface Builder to
synchronize with Xcode. Swift provides the following Interface Builder attributes:
IBAction, IBDesignable, IBInspectable, and IBOutlet. These attributes are
conceptually the same as their Objective-C counterparts.
You apply the IBOutlet and IBInspectable attributes to property declarations of a
class. You apply the IBAction attribute to method declarations of a class and the
IBDesignable attribute to class declarations.

Type Attributes
You can apply type attributes to types only. However, you can also apply the
noreturn attribute to a function or method declaration.
convention

Apply this attribute to the type of a function to indicate its calling conventions.
The convention attribute always appears with one of the attribute arguments
below.
The swift argument is used to indicate a Swift function reference. This
is the standard calling convention for function values in Swift.
The block argument is used to indicate an Objective-C compatible
block reference. The function value is represented as a reference to the
block object, which is an id-compatible Objective-C object that embeds
its invocation function within the object. The invocation function uses
the C calling convention.
The c argument is used to indicate a C function reference. The function
value carries no context and uses the C calling convention.
A function with C function calling conventions can be used as a function with
Objective-C block calling conventions, and a function with Objective-C block
calling conventions can be used as a function with Swift function calling
conventions. However, only nongeneric global functions, and local functions
or closures that dont capture any local variables, can be used as a function
with C function calling conventions.
noreturn

Apply this attribute to the type of a function or method to indicate that the
function or method doesnt return to its caller. You can also mark a function or
method declaration with this attribute to indicate that the corresponding type of
that function or method, T, is @noreturn T.

G RA M M A R O F A N AT T RI B U T E

attribute @ attribute-name attribute-argument-clause opt

attribute-name identifier
attribute-argument-clause ( balanced-tokens opt )
attributes attribute attributes opt
balanced-tokens balanced-token balanced-tokens opt
balanced-token ( balanced-tokens opt )
balanced-token [ balanced-tokens opt ]
balanced-token { balanced-tokens opt }
balanced-token Any identifier, keyword, literal, or operator
balanced-token Any punctuation except ( , ) , [ , ] , { , or }

Patterns
A pattern represents the structure of a single value or a composite value. For
example, the structure of a tuple (1, 2) is a comma-separated list of two elements.
Because patterns represent the structure of a value rather than any one particular
value, you can match them with a variety of values. For instance, the pattern (x, y)
matches the tuple (1, 2) and any other two-element tuple. In addition to matching a
pattern with a value, you can extract part or all of a composite value and bind each
part to a constant or variable name.
In Swift, there are two basic kinds of patterns: those that successfully match any kind
of value, and those that may fail to match a specified value at runtime.
The first kind of pattern is used for destructuring values in simple variable,
constant, and optional bindings. These include wildcard patterns, identifier patterns,
and any value binding or tuple patterns containing them. You can specify a type
annotation for these patterns to constrain them to match only values of a certain
type.
The second kind of pattern is used for full pattern matching, where the values
youre trying to match against may not be there at runtime. These include
enumeration case patterns, optional patterns, expression patterns, and type-casting
patterns. You use these patterns in a case label of a switch statement, a catch clause
of a do statement, or in the case condition of an if, while, guard, or for-in statement.
G RA M M A R O F A PAT T E RN

pattern wildcard-pattern type-annotation opt

pattern identifier-pattern type-annotation opt
pattern value-binding-pattern
pattern tuple-pattern type-annotation opt
pattern enum-case-pattern
pattern optional-pattern
pattern type-casting-pattern
pattern expression-pattern

Wildcard Pattern
A wildcard pattern matches and ignores any value and consists of an underscore (_).
Use a wildcard pattern when you dont care about the values being matched against.
For example, the following code iterates through the closed range 1...3, ignoring
the current value of the range on each iteration of the loop:
1

for _ in 1...3 {

// Do something three times.

G RA M M A R O F A W I L D C A RD PAT T E RN

wildcard-pattern _

Identifier Pattern
An identifier pattern matches any value and binds the matched value to a variable or
constant name. For example, in the following constant declaration, someValue is an
identifier pattern that matches the value 42 of type Int:

let someValue = 42

When the match succeeds, the value 42 is bound (assigned) to the constant name
someValue.
When the pattern on the left-hand side of a variable or constant declaration is an
identifier pattern, the identifier pattern is implicitly a subpattern of a value-binding
pattern.
G RA M M A R O F A N I D E N T I F I E R PAT T E RN

identifier-pattern identifier

Value-Binding Pattern
A value-binding pattern binds matched values to variable or constant names. Valuebinding patterns that bind a matched value to the name of a constant begin with the
let keyword; those that bind to the name of variable begin with the var keyword.
Identifiers patterns within a value-binding pattern bind new named variables or
constants to their matching values. For example, you can decompose the elements of
a tuple and bind the value of each element to a corresponding identifier pattern.
1

let point = (3, 2)

switch point {

// Bind x and y to the elements of point.

case let (x, y):

print("The point is at (\(x), \(y)).")

// prints "The point is at (3, 2)."

In the example above, let distributes to each identifier pattern in the tuple pattern
(x, y). Because of this behavior, the switch cases case let (x, y): and case (let
x, let y): match the same values.
G RA M M A R O F A VA L U E - B I N D I N G PAT T E RN

value-binding-pattern var pattern | let pattern

Tuple Pattern
A tuple pattern is a comma-separated list of zero or more patterns, enclosed in
parentheses. Tuple patterns match values of corresponding tuple types.
You can constrain a tuple pattern to match certain kinds of tuple types by using type
annotations. For example, the tuple pattern (x, y): (Int, Int) in the constant

declaration let (x, y): (Int, Int) = (1, 2) matches only tuple types in which
both elements are of type Int.
When a tuple pattern is used as the pattern in a for-in statement or in a variable or
constant declaration, it can contain only wildcard patterns, identifier patterns,
optional patterns, or other tuple patterns that contain those. For example, the
following code isnt valid because the element 0 in the tuple pattern (x, 0) is an
expression pattern:
1

let points = [(0, 0), (1, 0), (1, 1), (2, 0), (2, 1)]

// This code isn't valid.

for (x, 0) in points {

/* ... */

The parentheses around a tuple pattern that contains a single element have no effect.
The pattern matches values of that single elements type. For example, the following
are equivalent:
1

let a = 2 // a: Int = 2

let (a) = 2 // a: Int = 2

let (a): Int = 2 // a: Int = 2

G RA M M A R O F A T U P L E PAT T E RN

tuple-pattern ( tuple-pattern-element-list opt )

tuple-pattern-element-list tuple-pattern-element | tuple-patternelement , tuple-pattern-element-list
tuple-pattern-element pattern

Enumeration Case Pattern

An enumeration case pattern matches a case of an existing enumeration type.

Enumeration case patterns appear in switch statement case labels and in the case
conditions of if, while, guard, and for-in statements.
If the enumeration case youre trying to match has any associated values, the
corresponding enumeration case pattern must specify a tuple pattern that contains
one element for each associated value. For an example that uses a switch statement
to match enumeration cases containing associated values, see Associated Values.
G RA M M A R O F A N E N U M E RAT I O N C A S E PAT T E RN

enum-case-pattern type-identifier opt

enum-case-name tuple-pattern opt

Optional Pattern
An optional pattern matches values wrapped in a Some(Wrapped) case of an
Optional<Wrapped> or ImplicitlyUnwrappedOptional<Wrapped> enumeration.
Optional patterns consist of an identifier pattern followed immediately by a question
mark and appear in the same places as enumeration case patterns.
Because optional patterns are syntactic sugar for Optional and
ImplicitlyUnwrappedOptional enumeration case patterns, the following are
equivalent:

let someOptional: Int? = 42

// Match using an enumeration case pattern

if case .Some(let x) = someOptional {

print(x)

// Match using an optional pattern

if case let x? = someOptional {

print(x)
}

The optional pattern provides a convenient way to iterate over an array of optional
values in a for-in statement, executing the body of the loop only for non-nil
elements.
1

let arrayOfOptionalInts: [Int?] = [nil, 2, 3, nil, 5]

// Match only non-nil values

for case let number? in arrayOfOptionalInts {

print("Found a \(number)")

// Found a 2

// Found a 3

// Found a 5

G RA M M A R O F A N O P T I O N A L PAT T E RN

optional-pattern identifier-pattern

Type-Casting Patterns
There are two type-casting patterns, the is pattern and the as pattern. The is pattern
appears only in switch statement case labels. The is and as patterns have the
following form:
is type
pattern as type

The is pattern matches a value if the type of that value at runtime is the same as the
type specified in the right-hand side of the is patternor a subclass of that type. The
is pattern behaves like the is operator in that they both perform a type cast but
discard the returned type.
The as pattern matches a value if the type of that value at runtime is the same as the
type specified in the right-hand side of the as patternor a subclass of that type. If
the match succeeds, the type of the matched value is cast to the pattern specified in
the left-hand side of the as pattern.
For an example that uses a switch statement to match values with is and as patterns,
see Type Casting for Any and AnyObject.
G RA M M A R O F A T Y P E C A S T I N G PAT T E RN

type-casting-pattern is-pattern | as-pattern

is-pattern is type
as-pattern pattern as type

Expression Pattern
An expression pattern represents the value of an expression. Expression patterns
appear only in switch statement case labels.
The expression represented by the expression pattern is compared with the value of
an input expression using the Swift standard library ~= operator. The matches
succeeds if the ~= operator returns true. By default, the ~= operator compares two

values of the same type using the == operator. It can also match an integer value with
a range of integers in an Range object, as the following example shows:
1

let point = (1, 2)

switch point {

case (0, 0):

print("(0, 0) is at the origin.")

case (-2...2, -2...2):

print("(\(point.0), \(point.1)) is near the origin.")

default:

print("The point is at (\(point.0), \(point.1)).")

}
// prints "(1, 2) is near the origin."

You can overload the ~= operator to provide custom expression matching behavior.
For example, you can rewrite the above example to compare the point expression
with a string representations of points.

// Overload the ~= operator to match a string with an integer

func ~=(pattern: String, value: Int) -> Bool {

return pattern == "\(value)"

switch point {

case ("0", "0"):

print("(0, 0) is at the origin.")

default:

print("The point is at (\(point.0), \(point.1)).")

}
// prints "The point is at (1, 2)."

G RA M M A R O F A N E X P RE S S I O N PAT T E RN

expression-pattern expression

Generic Parameters and Arguments

This chapter describes parameters and arguments for generic types, functions, and
initializers. When you declare a generic type, function, or initializer, you specify the
type parameters that the generic type, function, or initializer can work with. These
type parameters act as placeholders that are replaced by actual concrete type
arguments when an instance of a generic type is created or a generic function or
initializer is called.
For an overview of generics in Swift, see Generics.

Generic Parameter Clause

A generic parameter clause specifies the type parameters of a generic type or
function, along with any associated constraints and requirements on those
parameters. A generic parameter clause is enclosed in angle brackets (<>) and has
one of the following forms:
< generic parameter list >
< generic parameter list where requirements >

The generic parameter list is a comma-separated list of generic parameters, each of

which has the following form:
type parameter : constraint

A generic parameter consists of a type parameter followed by an optional

constraint. A type parameter is simply the name of a placeholder type (for instance,
T, U, V, Key, Value, and so on). You have access to the type parameters (and any of
their associated types) in the rest of the type, function, or initializer declaration,
including in the signature of the function or initializer.
The constraint specifies that a type parameter inherits from a specific class or
conforms to a protocol or protocol composition. For instance, in the generic

function below, the generic parameter T: Comparable indicates that any type
argument substituted for the type parameter T must conform to the Comparable
protocol.
1

func simpleMax<T: Comparable>(x: T, _ y: T) -> T {

if x < y {

return y

return x

Because Int and Double, for example, both conform to the Comparable protocol, this
function accepts arguments of either type. In contrast with generic types, you dont
specify a generic argument clause when you use a generic function or initializer.
The type arguments are instead inferred from the type of the arguments passed to
the function or initializer.
1

simpleMax(17, 42) // T is inferred to be Int

simpleMax(3.14159, 2.71828) // T is inferred to be Double

Where Clauses
You can specify additional requirements on type parameters and their associated
types by including a where clause after the generic parameter list. A where clause
consists of the where keyword, followed by a comma-separated list of one or more
requirements.
The requirements in a where clause specify that a type parameter inherits from a
class or conforms to a protocol or protocol composition. Although the where clause
provides syntactic sugar for expressing simple constraints on type parameters (for
instance, T: Comparable is equivalent to T where T: Comparable and so on), you can
use it to provide more complex constraints on type parameters and their associated

types. For instance, you can express the constraints that a generic type T inherits
from a class C and conforms to a protocol P as <T where T: C, T: P>.
As mentioned above, you can constrain the associated types of type parameters to
conform to protocols. For example, the generic parameter clause <S: SequenceType
where S.Generator.Element: Equatable> specifies that S conforms to the
SequenceType protocol and that the associated type S.Generator.Element conforms to
the Equatable protocol. This constraint ensures that each element of the sequence is
equatable.
You can also specify the requirement that two types be identical, using the ==
operator. For example, the generic parameter clause <S1: SequenceType, S2:
SequenceType where S1.Generator.Element == S2.Generator.Element> expresses the
constraints that S1 and S2 conform to the SequenceType protocol and that the
elements of both sequences must be of the same type.
Any type argument substituted for a type parameter must meet all the constraints and
requirements placed on the type parameter.
You can overload a generic function or initializer by providing different
constraints, requirements, or both on the type parameters in the generic parameter
clause. When you call an overloaded generic function or initializer, the compiler
uses these constraints to resolve which overloaded function or initializer to invoke.
G RA M M A R O F A G E N E RI C PA RA M E T E R C L A U S E

generic-parameter-clause < generic-parameter-list requirement-clause opt >

generic-parameter-list generic-parameter | generic-parameter , genericparameter-list
generic-parameter type-name
generic-parameter type-name : type-identifier
generic-parameter type-name : protocol-composition-type
requirement-clause where requirement-list
requirement-list requirement | requirement , requirement-list
requirement conformance-requirement | same-type-requirement
conformance-requirement type-identifier : type-identifier
conformance-requirement type-identifier : protocol-composition-type
same-type-requirement type-identifier == type

Generic Argument Clause

A generic argument clause specifies the type arguments of a generic type. A generic
argument clause is enclosed in angle brackets (<>) and has the following form:
< generic argument list >

The generic argument list is a comma-separated list of type arguments. A type

argument is the name of an actual concrete type that replaces a corresponding type
parameter in the generic parameter clause of a generic type. The result is a
specialized version of that generic type. As an example, the Swift standard library
defines a generic dictionary type as:
1

struct Dictionary<Key: Hashable, Value>: CollectionType,

DictionaryLiteralConvertible {

/* ... */

The specialized version of the generic Dictionary type, Dictionary<String, Int> is

formed by replacing the generic parameters Key: Hashable and Value with the
concrete type arguments String and Int. Each type argument must satisfy all the
constraints of the generic parameter it replaces, including any additional
requirements specified in a where clause. In the example above, the Key type
parameter is constrained to conform to the Hashable protocol and therefore String
must also conform to the Hashable protocol.
You can also replace a type parameter with a type argument that is itself a
specialized version of a generic type (provided it satisfies the appropriate
constraints and requirements). For example, you can replace the type parameter
Element in Array<Element> with a specialized version of an array, Array<Int>, to
form an array whose elements are themselves arrays of integers.

let arrayOfArrays: Array<Array<Int>> = [[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6], [7,

8, 9]]

As mentioned in Generic Parameter Clause, you dont use a generic argument

clause to specify the type arguments of a generic function or initializer.
G RA M M A R O F A G E N E RI C A RG U M E N T C L A U S E

generic-argument-clause < generic-argument-list >

generic-argument-list generic-argument | generic-argument
argument-list
generic-argument type

generic-

Summary of the Grammar

Statements
G RA M M A R O F A S T AT E M E N T

statement expression ; opt

statement declaration ; opt
statement loop-statement ; opt
statement branch-statement ; opt
statement labeled-statement ; opt
statement control-transfer-statement ; opt
statement defer-statement ; opt
statement do-statement : opt
statement compiler-control-statement
statements statement statements opt
G RA M M A R O F A L O O P S T AT E M E N T

loop-statement for-statement
loop-statement for-in-statement
loop-statement while-statement
loop-statement repeat-while-statement
G RA M M A R O F A F O R S T AT E M E N T

for-statement for for-init opt ; expression opt ; expression opt code-block

for-statement for ( for-init opt ; expression opt ; expression opt ) code-block
for-init variable-declaration | expression-list

G RA M M A R O F A F O R- I N S T AT E M E N T

for-in-statement for
block

case opt

pattern

in

expression where-clause opt code-

G RA M M A R O F A W H I L E S T AT E M E N T

while-statement while condition-clause code-block

condition-clause expression
condition-clause expression , condition-list
condition-clause condition-list
condition-clause availability-condition , expression
condition-list condition | condition , condition-list
condition availability-condition | case-condition | optional-bindingcondition
case-condition case pattern initializer where-clause opt
optional-binding-condition optional-binding-head optional-bindingcontinuation-list opt where-clause opt
optional-binding-head let pattern initializer | var pattern initializer
optional-binding-continuation-list optional-binding-continuation | optionalbinding-continuation , optional-binding-continuation-list
optional-binding-continuation pattern initializer | optional-binding-head
G RA M M A R O F A RE P E AT - W H I L E S T AT E M E N T

repeat-while-statement repeat code-block

while

expression

G RA M M A R O F A B RA N C H S T AT E M E N T

branch-statement if-statement
branch-statement guard-statement
branch-statement switch-statement
G RA M M A R O F A N I F S T AT E M E N T

if-statement if condition-clause code-block else-clause opt

else-clause else code-block | else if-statement

G RA M M A R O F A G U A RD S T AT E M E N T

guard-statement guard condition-clause

else

code-block

G RA M M A R O F A S W I T C H S T AT E M E N T

switch-statement switch expression { switch-cases opt }

switch-cases switch-case switch-cases opt
switch-case case-label statements | default-label statements
case-label case case-item-list :
case-item-list pattern where-clause opt | pattern where-clause opt
item-list
default-label default :

case-

where-clause where where-expression

where-expression expression
G RA M M A R O F A L A B E L E D S T AT E M E N T

labeled-statement statement-label loop-statement | statement-label ifstatement | statement-label switch-statement

statement-label label-name :
label-name identifier
G RA M M A R O F A C O N T RO L T RA N S F E R S T AT E M E N T

control-transfer-statement break-statement
control-transfer-statement continue-statement
control-transfer-statement fallthrough-statement
control-transfer-statement return-statement
control-transfer-statement throw-statement
G RA M M A R O F A B RE A K S T AT E M E N T

break-statement break label-name opt

G RA M M A R O F A C O N T I N U E S T AT E M E N T

continue-statement continue label-name opt

G RA M M A R O F A FA L LT H RO U G H S T AT E M E N T

fallthrough-statement fallthrough
G RA M M A R O F A RE T U RN S T AT E M E N T

return-statement return expression opt

G RA M M A R O F A N AVA I L A B I L I T Y C O N D I T I O N

availability-condition #available ( availability-arguments )

availability-arguments availability-argument | availabilityargument , availability-arguments
availability-argument platform-name platform-version
availability-argument *
platform-name iOS | iOSApplicationExtension
platform-name OSX | OSXApplicationExtension
platform-name watchOS
platform-version decimal-digits
platform-version decimal-digits . decimal-digits
platform-version decimal-digits . decimal-digits

decimal-digits

G RA M M A R O F A T H RO W S T AT E M E N T

throw-statement throw expression

G RA M M A R O F A D E F E R S T AT E M E N T

defer-statement defer code-block

G RA M M A R O F A D O S T AT E M E N T

do-statement do code-block catch-clauses opt

catch-clauses catch-clause catch-clauses opt
catch-clause catch pattern opt where-clause opt code-block
G RA M M A R O F A C O M P I L E R C O N T RO L S T AT E M E N T

compiler-control-statement build-configuration-statement
compiler-control-statement line-control-statement

G RA M M A R O F A B U I L D C O N F I G U RAT I O N S T AT E M E N T

build-configuration-statement #if build-configuration statements opt buildconfiguration-elseif-clauses opt build-configuration-else-clause opt #endif
build-configuration-elseif-clauses build-configuration-elseif-clause buildconfiguration-elseif-clauses opt
build-configuration-elseif-clause #elseif build-configuration statements opt
build-configuration-else-clause #else statements opt
build-configuration platform-testing-function
build-configuration identifier
build-configuration boolean-literal
build-configuration ( build-configuration )
build-configuration ! build-configuration
build-configuration build-configuration && build-configuration
build-configuration build-configuration || build-configuration
platform-testing-function os ( operating-system
platform-testing-function arch ( architecture )
operating-system OSX | iOS | watchOS | tvOS
architecture i386 | x86_64 | arm | arm64

G RA M M A R O F A L I N E C O N T RO L S T AT E M E N T

line-control-statement #line
line-control-statement #line line-number file-name
line-number A decimal integer greater than zero
file-name static-string-literal

Generic Parameters and Arguments

G RA M M A R O F A G E N E RI C PA RA M E T E R C L A U S E

generic-parameter-clause < generic-parameter-list requirement-clause opt >

generic-parameter-list generic-parameter | generic-parameter , genericparameter-list
generic-parameter type-name
generic-parameter type-name : type-identifier
generic-parameter type-name : protocol-composition-type
requirement-clause where requirement-list
requirement-list requirement | requirement , requirement-list
requirement conformance-requirement | same-type-requirement
conformance-requirement type-identifier : type-identifier
conformance-requirement type-identifier : protocol-composition-type
same-type-requirement type-identifier == type
G RA M M A R O F A G E N E RI C A RG U M E N T C L A U S E

generic-argument-clause < generic-argument-list >

generic-argument-list generic-argument | generic-argument
argument-list
generic-argument type

Declarations

generic-

G RA M M A R O F A D E C L A RAT I O N

declaration import-declaration
declaration constant-declaration
declaration variable-declaration
declaration typealias-declaration
declaration function-declaration
declaration enum-declaration
declaration struct-declaration
declaration class-declaration
declaration protocol-declaration
declaration initializer-declaration
declaration deinitializer-declaration
declaration extension-declaration
declaration subscript-declaration
declaration operator-declaration
declarations declaration declarations opt
G RA M M A R O F A T O P - L E V E L D E C L A RAT I O N

top-level-declaration statements opt

G RA M M A R O F A C O D E B L O C K

code-block { statements opt

G RA M M A R O F A N I M P O RT D E C L A RAT I O N

import-declaration attributes opt

import

import-kind opt import-path

import-kind typealias | struct | class | enum | protocol | var | func

import-path import-path-identifier | import-path-identifier . import-path
import-path-identifier identifier | operator

G RA M M A R O F A C O N S T A N T D E C L A RAT I O N

constant-declaration attributes opt declaration-modifiers opt

initializer-list

let

pattern-initializer-list pattern-initializer | pattern-initializer

initializer-list
pattern-initializer pattern initializer opt
initializer = expression

patternpattern-

G RA M M A R O F A VA RI A B L E D E C L A RAT I O N

variable-declaration variable-declaration-head
variable-declaration variable-declaration-head
annotation code-block
variable-declaration variable-declaration-head
annotation getter-setter-block
variable-declaration variable-declaration-head
annotation getter-setter-keyword-block
variable-declaration variable-declaration-head
name initializer willSet-didSet-block
variable-declaration variable-declaration-head
annotation initializer opt willSet-didSet-block

pattern-initializer-list
variable-name typevariable-name typevariable-name typevariablevariable-name type-

variable-declaration-head attributes opt declaration-modifiers opt

variable-name identifier

var

getter-setter-block code-block
getter-setter-block { getter-clause setter-clause opt }
getter-setter-block { setter-clause getter-clause }
getter-clause attributes opt get code-block
setter-clause attributes opt set setter-name opt code-block
setter-name ( identifier )
getter-setter-keyword-block { getter-keyword-clause setter-keywordclause opt }
getter-setter-keyword-block { setter-keyword-clause getter-keywordclause }
getter-keyword-clause attributes opt get
setter-keyword-clause attributes opt set
willSet-didSet-block { willSet-clause didSet-clause opt }
willSet-didSet-block { didSet-clause willSet-clause opt }
willSet-clause attributes opt willSet setter-name opt code-block
didSet-clause attributes opt didSet setter-name opt code-block

G RA M M A R O F A T Y P E A L I A S D E C L A RAT I O N

typealias-declaration typealias-head typealias-assignment

typealias-head attributes opt access-level-modifier opt typealias typealiasname
typealias-name identifier
typealias-assignment = type
G RA M M A R O F A F U N C T I O N D E C L A RAT I O N

function-declaration function-head function-name generic-parameterclause opt function-signature function-body opt

function-head attributes opt declaration-modifiers opt
function-name identifier | operator
function-signature parameter-clauses
function-signature parameter-clauses
function-result -> attributes opt type
function-body code-block

throws opt
rethrows

func

function-result opt
function-result opt

parameter-clauses parameter-clause parameter-clauses opt

parameter-clause ( ) | ( parameter-list )
parameter-list parameter | parameter , parameter-list
parameter let opt external-parameter-name opt local-parameter-name typeannotation default-argument-clause opt
parameter var external-parameter-name opt local-parameter-name typeannotation default-argument-clause opt
parameter inout external-parameter-name opt local-parameter-name typeannotation
parameter external-parameter-name opt local-parameter-name typeannotation ...
external-parameter-name identifier | _
local-parameter-name identifier | _
default-argument-clause = expression

G RA M M A R O F A N E N U M E RAT I O N D E C L A RAT I O N

enum-declaration attributes opt access-level-modifier opt union-style-enum

enum-declaration attributes opt access-level-modifier opt raw-value-styleenum
union-style-enum indirect opt enum enum-name generic-parameterclause opt type-inheritance-clause opt { union-style-enum-members opt }
union-style-enum-members union-style-enum-member union-style-enummembers opt
union-style-enum-member declaration | union-style-enum-case-clause
union-style-enum-case-clause attributes opt indirect opt case union-styleenum-case-list
union-style-enum-case-list union-style-enum-case | union-style-enumcase , union-style-enum-case-list
union-style-enum-case enum-case-name tuple-type opt
enum-name identifier
enum-case-name identifier
raw-value-style-enum enum enum-name generic-parameter-clause opt typeinheritance-clause { raw-value-style-enum-members }
raw-value-style-enum-members raw-value-style-enum-member raw-valuestyle-enum-members opt
raw-value-style-enum-member declaration | raw-value-style-enum-caseclause
raw-value-style-enum-case-clause attributes opt case raw-value-style-enumcase-list
raw-value-style-enum-case-list raw-value-style-enum-case | raw-valuestyle-enum-case , raw-value-style-enum-case-list
raw-value-style-enum-case enum-case-name raw-value-assignment opt
raw-value-assignment = raw-value-literal
raw-value-literal numeric-literal | static-string-literal | boolean-literal

G RA M M A R O F A S T RU C T U RE D E C L A RAT I O N

struct-declaration attributes opt access-level-modifier opt struct structname generic-parameter-clause opt type-inheritance-clause opt struct-body
struct-name identifier
struct-body { declarations opt }
G RA M M A R O F A C L A S S D E C L A RAT I O N

class-declaration attributes opt access-level-modifier opt class classname generic-parameter-clause opt type-inheritance-clause opt class-body
class-name identifier
class-body { declarations opt }
G RA M M A R O F A P RO T O C O L D E C L A RAT I O N

protocol-declaration attributes opt access-levelmodifier opt protocol protocol-name type-inheritance-clause opt protocol-body
protocol-name identifier
protocol-body { protocol-member-declarations opt }
protocol-member-declaration protocol-property-declaration
protocol-member-declaration protocol-method-declaration
protocol-member-declaration protocol-initializer-declaration
protocol-member-declaration protocol-subscript-declaration
protocol-member-declaration protocol-associated-type-declaration
protocol-member-declarations protocol-member-declaration protocolmember-declarations opt
G RA M M A R O F A P RO T O C O L P RO P E RT Y D E C L A RAT I O N

protocol-property-declaration variable-declaration-head variablename type-annotation getter-setter-keyword-block

G RA M M A R O F A P RO T O C O L M E T H O D D E C L A RAT I O N

protocol-method-declaration function-head function-name genericparameter-clause opt function-signature

G RA M M A R O F A P RO T O C O L I N I T I A L I Z E R D E C L A RAT I O N

protocol-initializer-declaration initializer-head generic-parameterclause opt parameter-clause throws opt

protocol-initializer-declaration initializer-head generic-parameterclause opt parameter-clause rethrows
G RA M M A R O F A P RO T O C O L S U B S C RI P T D E C L A RAT I O N

protocol-subscript-declaration subscript-head subscript-result getter-setterkeyword-block

G RA M M A R O F A P RO T O C O L A S S O C I AT E D T Y P E D E C L A RAT I O N

protocol-associated-type-declaration typealias-head type-inheritanceclause opt typealias-assignment opt

G RA M M A R O F A N I N I T I A L I Z E R D E C L A RAT I O N

initializer-declaration initializer-head generic-parameterclause opt parameter-clause throws opt initializer-body

initializer-declaration initializer-head generic-parameterclause opt parameter-clause rethrows initializer-body
initializer-head attributes opt declaration-modifiers opt init
initializer-head attributes opt declaration-modifiers opt init
initializer-head attributes opt declaration-modifiers opt init
initializer-body code-block

?
!

G RA M M A R O F A D E I N I T I A L I Z E R D E C L A RAT I O N

deinitializer-declaration attributes opt

deinit

code-block

G RA M M A R O F A N E X T E N S I O N D E C L A RAT I O N

extension-declaration access-level-modifier opt extension typeidentifier type-inheritance-clause opt extension-body

extension-body { declarations opt }

G RA M M A R O F A S U B S C RI P T D E C L A RAT I O N

subscript-declaration subscript-head subscript-result code-block

subscript-declaration subscript-head subscript-result getter-setter-block
subscript-declaration subscript-head subscript-result getter-setter-keywordblock
subscript-head attributes opt declaration-modifiers opt subscript parameterclause
subscript-result -> attributes opt type
G RA M M A R O F A N O P E RAT O R D E C L A RAT I O N

operator-declaration prefix-operator-declaration | postfix-operatordeclaration | infix-operator-declaration

prefix-operator-declaration prefix operator operator { }
postfix-operator-declaration postfix operator operator { }
infix-operator-declaration infix operator operator { infix-operatorattributes opt }
infix-operator-attributes precedence-clause opt associativity-clause opt
precedence-clause precedence precedence-level
precedence-level A decimal integer between 0 and 255, inclusive
associativity-clause associativity associativity
associativity left | right | none
G RA M M A R O F A D E C L A RAT I O N M O D I F I E R

declaration-modifier class | convenience | dynamic | final | infix |

lazy | mutating | nonmutating | optional | override | postfix | prefix |
required | static | unowned | unowned ( safe ) | unowned ( unsafe ) |
weak

declaration-modifier access-level-modifier
declaration-modifiers declaration-modifier declaration-modifiers opt
access-level-modifier internal | internal ( set
access-level-modifier private | private ( set )
access-level-modifier public | public ( set )

Patterns
G RA M M A R O F A PAT T E RN

pattern wildcard-pattern type-annotation opt

pattern identifier-pattern type-annotation opt
pattern value-binding-pattern
pattern tuple-pattern type-annotation opt
pattern enum-case-pattern
pattern optional-pattern
pattern type-casting-pattern
pattern expression-pattern
G RA M M A R O F A W I L D C A RD PAT T E RN

wildcard-pattern _
G RA M M A R O F A N I D E N T I F I E R PAT T E RN

identifier-pattern identifier
G RA M M A R O F A VA L U E - B I N D I N G PAT T E RN

value-binding-pattern var pattern | let pattern

G RA M M A R O F A T U P L E PAT T E RN

tuple-pattern ( tuple-pattern-element-list opt )

tuple-pattern-element-list tuple-pattern-element | tuple-patternelement , tuple-pattern-element-list
tuple-pattern-element pattern
G RA M M A R O F A N E N U M E RAT I O N C A S E PAT T E RN

enum-case-pattern type-identifier opt

G RA M M A R O F A N O P T I O N A L PAT T E RN

optional-pattern identifier-pattern

enum-case-name tuple-pattern opt

G RA M M A R O F A T Y P E C A S T I N G PAT T E RN

type-casting-pattern is-pattern | as-pattern

is-pattern is type
as-pattern pattern as type
G RA M M A R O F A N E X P RE S S I O N PAT T E RN

expression-pattern expression

Attributes
G RA M M A R O F A N AT T RI B U T E

attribute @ attribute-name attribute-argument-clause opt

attribute-name identifier
attribute-argument-clause ( balanced-tokens opt )
attributes attribute attributes opt
balanced-tokens balanced-token balanced-tokens opt
balanced-token ( balanced-tokens opt )
balanced-token [ balanced-tokens opt ]
balanced-token { balanced-tokens opt }
balanced-token Any identifier, keyword, literal, or operator
balanced-token Any punctuation except ( , ) , [ , ] , { , or }

Expressions
G RA M M A R O F A N E X P RE S S I O N

expression try-operator opt prefix-expression binary-expressions opt

expression-list expression | expression , expression-list

G RA M M A R O F A P RE F I X E X P RE S S I O N

prefix-expression prefix-operator opt postfix-expression

prefix-expression in-out-expression
in-out-expression & identifier
G RA M M A R O F A T RY E X P RE S S I O N

try-operator try | try

? | try !

G RA M M A R O F A B I N A RY E X P RE S S I O N

binary-expression binary-operator prefix-expression

binary-expression assignment-operator try-operator opt prefix-expression
binary-expression conditional-operator try-operator opt prefix-expression
binary-expression type-casting-operator
binary-expressions binary-expression binary-expressions opt
G RA M M A R O F A N A S S I G N M E N T O P E RAT O R

assignment-operator =
G RA M M A R O F A C O N D I T I O N A L O P E RAT O R

conditional-operator ? try-operator opt expression

G RA M M A R O F A T Y P E - C A S T I N G O P E RAT O R

type-casting-operator is type
type-casting-operator as type
type-casting-operator as ? type
type-casting-operator as ! type

G RA M M A R O F A P RI M A RY E X P RE S S I O N

primary-expression identifier generic-argument-clause opt

primary-expression literal-expression
primary-expression self-expression
primary-expression superclass-expression
primary-expression closure-expression
primary-expression parenthesized-expression
primary-expression implicit-member-expression
primary-expression wildcard-expression
G RA M M A R O F A L I T E RA L E X P RE S S I O N

literal-expression literal
literal-expression array-literal | dictionary-literal
literal-expression __FILE__ | __LINE__ | __COLUMN__ | __FUNCTION__
array-literal [ array-literal-items opt ]
array-literal-items array-literal-item , opt | array-literal-item
literal-items
array-literal-item expression

array-

dictionary-literal [ dictionary-literal-items ] | [ : ]
dictionary-literal-items dictionary-literal-item , opt | dictionary-literalitem , dictionary-literal-items
dictionary-literal-item expression : expression
G RA M M A R O F A S E L F E X P RE S S I O N

self-expression self
self-expression self
self-expression self
self-expression self

.
[

identifier
expression-list

. init

G RA M M A R O F A S U P E RC L A S S E X P RE S S I O N

superclass-expression superclass-method-expression | superclass-subscriptexpression | superclass-initializer-expression

superclass-method-expression super . identifier
superclass-subscript-expression super [ expression-list
superclass-initializer-expression super . init

G RA M M A R O F A C L O S U RE E X P RE S S I O N

closure-expression { closure-signature opt statements

closure-signature parameter-clause function-result opt in

closure-signature identifier-list function-result opt in
closure-signature capture-list parameter-clause function-result opt
closure-signature capture-list identifier-list function-result opt in
closure-signature capture-list in

in

capture-list [ capture-list-items ]
capture-list-items capture-list-item | capture-list-item , capture-list-items
capture-list-item capture-specifier opt expression
capture-specifier weak | unowned | unowned(safe) | unowned(unsafe)
G RA M M A R O F A I M P L I C I T M E M B E R E X P RE S S I O N

implicit-member-expression . identifier
G RA M M A R O F A PA RE N T H E S I Z E D E X P RE S S I O N

parenthesized-expression ( expression-element-list opt )

expression-element-list expression-element | expressionelement , expression-element-list
expression-element expression | identifier : expression
G RA M M A R O F A W I L D C A RD E X P RE S S I O N

wildcard-expression _

G RA M M A R O F A P O S T F I X E X P RE S S I O N

postfix-expression primary-expression
postfix-expression postfix-expression postfix-operator
postfix-expression function-call-expression
postfix-expression initializer-expression
postfix-expression explicit-member-expression
postfix-expression postfix-self-expression
postfix-expression dynamic-type-expression
postfix-expression subscript-expression
postfix-expression forced-value-expression
postfix-expression optional-chaining-expression
G RA M M A R O F A F U N C T I O N C A L L E X P RE S S I O N

function-call-expression postfix-expression parenthesized-expression

function-call-expression postfix-expression parenthesizedexpression opt trailing-closure
trailing-closure closure-expression
G RA M M A R O F A N I N I T I A L I Z E R E X P RE S S I O N

initializer-expression postfix-expression

. init

G RA M M A R O F A N E X P L I C I T M E M B E R E X P RE S S I O N

explicit-member-expression postfix-expression
explicit-member-expression postfix-expression
argument-clause opt

.
.

decimal-digits
identifier generic-

G RA M M A R O F A S E L F E X P RE S S I O N

postfix-self-expression postfix-expression

. self

G RA M M A R O F A D Y N A M I C T Y P E E X P RE S S I O N

dynamic-type-expression postfix-expression

. dynamicType

G RA M M A R O F A S U B S C RI P T E X P RE S S I O N

subscript-expression postfix-expression

expression-list

G RA M M A R O F A F O RC E D - VA L U E E X P RE S S I O N

forced-value-expression postfix-expression

G RA M M A R O F A N O P T I O N A L - C H A I N I N G E X P RE S S I O N

optional-chaining-expression postfix-expression

Lexical Structure
G RA M M A R O F A N I D E N T I F I E R

identifier identifier-head identifier-characters opt

identifier ` identifier-head identifier-characters opt `
identifier implicit-parameter-name
identifier-list identifier | identifier , identifier-list
identifier-head Upper- or lowercase letter A through Z
identifier-head _
identifier-head U+00A8, U+00AA, U+00AD, U+00AF, U+00B2U+00B5, or
U+00B7U+00BA
identifier-head U+00BCU+00BE, U+00C0U+00D6, U+00D8U+00F6, or
U+00F8U+00FF
identifier-head U+0100U+02FF, U+0370U+167F, U+1681U+180D, or
U+180FU+1DBF
identifier-head U+1E00U+1FFF
identifier-head U+200BU+200D, U+202AU+202E, U+203FU+2040,
U+2054, or U+2060U+206F
identifier-head U+2070U+20CF, U+2100U+218F, U+2460U+24FF, or
U+2776U+2793
identifier-head U+2C00U+2DFF or U+2E80U+2FFF
identifier-head U+3004U+3007, U+3021U+302F, U+3031U+303F, or
U+3040U+D7FF
identifier-head U+F900U+FD3D, U+FD40U+FDCF, U+FDF0U+FE1F, or
U+FE30U+FE44
identifier-head U+FE47U+FFFD

 identifier-head U+10000U+1FFFD, U+20000U+2FFFD, U+30000

U+3FFFD, or U+40000U+4FFFD
identifier-head U+50000U+5FFFD, U+60000U+6FFFD, U+70000
U+7FFFD, or U+80000U+8FFFD
identifier-head U+90000U+9FFFD, U+A0000U+AFFFD, U+B0000
U+BFFFD, or U+C0000U+CFFFD
identifier-head U+D0000U+DFFFD or U+E0000U+EFFFD
identifier-character Digit 0 through 9
identifier-character U+0300U+036F, U+1DC0U+1DFF, U+20D0U+20FF,
or U+FE20U+FE2F
identifier-character identifier-head
identifier-characters identifier-character identifier-characters opt
implicit-parameter-name $ decimal-digits
G RA M M A R O F A L I T E RA L

literal numeric-literal | string-literal | boolean-literal | nil-literal

numeric-literal - opt integer-literal | - opt floating-point-literal
boolean-literal true | false
nil-literal nil

G RA M M A R O F A N I N T E G E R L I T E RA L

integer-literal binary-literal
integer-literal octal-literal
integer-literal decimal-literal
integer-literal hexadecimal-literal
binary-literal 0b binary-digit binary-literal-characters opt
binary-digit Digit 0 or 1
binary-literal-character binary-digit | _
binary-literal-characters binary-literal-character binary-literalcharacters opt
octal-literal 0o octal-digit octal-literal-characters opt
octal-digit Digit 0 through 7
octal-literal-character octal-digit | _
octal-literal-characters octal-literal-character octal-literal-characters opt
decimal-literal decimal-digit decimal-literal-characters opt
decimal-digit Digit 0 through 9
decimal-digits decimal-digit decimal-digits opt
decimal-literal-character decimal-digit | _
decimal-literal-characters decimal-literal-character decimal-literalcharacters opt
hexadecimal-literal 0x hexadecimal-digit hexadecimal-literal-characters opt
hexadecimal-digit Digit 0 through 9, a through f, or A through F
hexadecimal-literal-character hexadecimal-digit | _
hexadecimal-literal-characters hexadecimal-literal-character hexadecimalliteral-characters opt

G RA M M A R O F A F L O AT I N G - P O I N T L I T E RA L

floating-point-literal decimal-literal decimal-fraction opt decimalexponent opt

floating-point-literal hexadecimal-literal hexadecimalfraction opt hexadecimal-exponent
decimal-fraction . decimal-literal
decimal-exponent floating-point-e sign opt decimal-literal
hexadecimal-fraction . hexadecimal-digit hexadecimal-literal-characters opt
hexadecimal-exponent floating-point-p sign opt decimal-literal
floating-point-e e | E
floating-point-p p | P
sign + | G RA M M A R O F A S T RI N G L I T E RA L

string-literal static-string-literal | interpolated-string-literal

static-string-literal " quoted-text opt "
quoted-text quoted-text-item quoted-text opt
quoted-text-item escaped-character
quoted-text-item Any Unicode scalar value except " , \ , U+000A, or U+000D
interpolated-string-literal " interpolated-text opt "
interpolated-text interpolated-text-item interpolated-text opt
interpolated-text-item \( expression ) | quoted-text-item
escaped-character \0 | \\ | \t | \n | \r | \" | \'
escaped-character \u { unicode-scalar-digits }
unicode-scalar-digits Between one and eight hexadecimal digits

G RA M M A R O F O P E RAT O RS

operator operator-head operator-characters opt

operator dot-operator-head dot-operator-characters opt
operator-head / | = | - | + | ! | * | % | < | > | & | | | ^ | ~ | ?
operator-head U+00A1U+00A7
operator-head U+00A9 or U+00AB
operator-head U+00AC or U+00AE
operator-head U+00B0U+00B1, U+00B6, U+00BB, U+00BF, U+00D7, or
U+00F7
operator-head U+2016U+2017 or U+2020U+2027
operator-head U+2030U+203E
operator-head U+2041U+2053
operator-head U+2055U+205E
operator-head U+2190U+23FF
operator-head U+2500U+2775
operator-head U+2794U+2BFF
operator-head U+2E00U+2E7F
operator-head U+3001U+3003
operator-head U+3008U+3030
operator-character operator-head
operator-character U+0300U+036F
operator-character U+1DC0U+1DFF
operator-character U+20D0U+20FF
operator-character U+FE00U+FE0F
operator-character U+FE20U+FE2F
operator-character U+E0100U+E01EF
operator-characters operator-character operator-characters opt
dot-operator-head ..
dot-operator-character . | operator-character
dot-operator-characters dot-operator-character dot-operator-characters opt
binary-operator operator
prefix-operator operator
postfix-operator operator

Types
G RA M M A R O F A T Y P E

type array-type | dictionary-type | function-type | type-identifier | tupletype | optional-type | implicitly-unwrapped-optional-type | protocolcomposition-type | metatype-type
G RA M M A R O F A T Y P E A N N O T AT I O N

type-annotation : attributes opt type

G RA M M A R O F A T Y P E I D E N T I F I E R

type-identifier type-name generic-argument-clause opt | type-name genericargument-clause opt . type-identifier

type-name identifier
G RA M M A R O F A T U P L E T Y P E

tuple-type ( tuple-type-body opt )

tuple-type-body tuple-type-element-list ... opt
tuple-type-element-list tuple-type-element | tuple-type-element , tuple-typeelement-list
tuple-type-element attributes opt inout opt type | inout opt elementname type-annotation
element-name identifier
G RA M M A R O F A F U N C T I O N T Y P E

function-type type
function-type type

throws opt ->

rethrows ->

G RA M M A R O F A N A RRA Y T Y P E

array-type [ type

type
type

G RA M M A R O F A D I C T I O N A RY T Y P E

dictionary-type [ type

type

G RA M M A R O F A N O P T I O N A L T Y P E

optional-type type

G RA M M A R O F A N I M P L I C I T LY U N W RA P P E D O P T I O N A L T Y P E

implicitly-unwrapped-optional-type type

G RA M M A R O F A P RO T O C O L C O M P O S I T I O N T Y P E

protocol-composition-type protocol < protocol-identifier-list opt >

protocol-identifier-list protocol-identifier | protocol-identifier , protocolidentifier-list
protocol-identifier type-identifier
G RA M M A R O F A M E T AT Y P E T Y P E

metatype-type type

. Type | type . Protocol

G RA M M A R O F A T Y P E I N H E RI T A N C E C L A U S E

type-inheritance-clause : class-requirement , type-inheritance-list

type-inheritance-clause : class-requirement
type-inheritance-clause : type-inheritance-list
type-inheritance-list type-identifier | type-identifier , type-inheritance-list
class-requirement class

Revision History

Document Revision History

This table describes the changes to The Swift Programming Language.
Date

Notes
Updated for Swift 2.1.
Updated the String Interpolation and String Literals sections
now that string interpolations can contain string literals.
Added the Nonescaping Closures section with information
about the @noescape attribute.
Updated the Declaration Attributes and Build Configuration
Statement sections with information about tvOS.

201510-20

Added information about the behavior of in-out parameters

to the In-Out Parameters section.
Added information to the Capture Lists section about how
values specified in closure capture lists are captured.
Updated the Accessing Properties Through Optional
Chaining section to clarify how assignment through optional
chaining behaves.
Improved the discussion of autoclosures in the Autoclosures
section.
Added an example that uses the ?? operator to the A Swift
Tour chapter.

Updated for Swift 2.0.

Added information about error handling to the Error

Handling chapter, the Do Statement section, the Throw

Statement section, the Defer Statement section, and the Try
Operator section.
Updated the Representing and Throwing Errors section, now
that all types can conform to the ErrorType protocol.
Added information about the new try? keyword to the
Converting Errors to Optional Values section.
Added information about recursive enumerations to the
Recursive Enumerations section of the Enumerations chapter
and the Enumerations with Cases of Any Type section of the
Declarations chapter.
Added information about API availability checking to the
Checking API Availability section of the Control Flow
chapter and the Availability Condition section of the
Statements chapter.
Added information about the new guard statement to the
Early Exit section of the Control Flow chapter and the Guard
Statement section of the Statements chapter.
Added information about protocol extensions to the Protocol
Extensions section of the Protocols chapter.
Added information about access control for unit testing to the
Access Levels for Unit Test Targets section of the Access
Control chapter.
Added information about the new optional pattern to the
Optional Pattern section of the Patterns chapter.
Updated the Repeat-While section with information about the
repeat-while loop.
Updated the Strings and Characters chapter, now that String
no longer conforms to the CollectionType protocol from
the Swift standard library.
Added information about the new Swift standard library
print(_:separator:terminator) function to the Printing
Constants and Variables section.

 Added information about the behavior of enumeration cases

with String raw values to the Implicitly Assigned Raw
Values section of the Enumerations chapter and the
Enumerations with Cases of a Raw-Value Type section of the
Declarations chapter.
Added information about the @autoclosure attribute
including its @autoclosure(escaping) formto the
Autoclosures section.
Updated the Declaration Attributes section with information
about the @available and @warn_unused_result attributes.
Updated the Type Attributes section with information about
the @convention attribute.
Added an example of using multiple optional bindings with a
where clause to the Optional Binding section.

201509-16

Added information to the String Literals section about how

concatenating string literals using the + operator happens at
compile time.
Added information to the Metatype Type section about
comparing metatype values and using them to construct
instances with initializer expressions.
Added a note to the Debugging with Assertions section about
when user-defined assertions are disabled.
Updated the discussion of the @NSManaged attribute in the
Declaration Attributes section, now that the attribute can be
applied to certain instance methods.
Updated the Variadic Parameters section, now that variadic
parameters can be declared in any position in a functions
parameter list.
Added information to the Overriding a Failable Initializer
section about how a nonfailable initializer can delegate up to
a failable initializer by force-unwrapping the result of the
superclasss initializer.
Added information about using enumeration cases as

functions to the Enumerations with Cases of Any Type

section.
Added information about explicitly referencing an initializer
to the Initializer Expression section.
Added information about build configuration and line
control statements to the Compiler Control Statements
section.
Added a note to the Metatype Type section about constructing
class instances from metatype values.
Added a note to the Weak References section about weak
references being unsuitable for caching.
Updated a note in the Type Properties section to mention that
stored type properties are lazily initialized.
Updated the Capturing Values section to clarify how variables
and constants are captured in closures.
Updated the Declaration Attributes section to describe when
you can apply the @objc attribute to classes.
Added a note to the Handling Errors section about the
performance of executing a throw statement. Added similar
information about the do statement in the Do Statement
section.
Updated the Type Properties section with information about
stored and computed type properties for classes, structures,
and enumerations.
Updated the Break Statement section with information about
labeled break statements.
Updated a note in the Property Observers section to clarify
the behavior of willSet and didSet observers.
Added a note to the Access Levels section with information
about the scope of private access.
Added a note to the Weak References section about the

differences in weak references between garbage collected

systems and ARC.
Updated the Special Characters in String Literals section with
a more precise definition of Unicode scalars.

Updated for Swift 1.2.

Swift now has a native Set collection type. For more
information, see Sets.

@autoclosure is now an attribute of the parameter

declaration, not its type. There is also a new @noescape

parameter declaration attribute. For more information, see

Declaration Attributes.
Type methods and properties now use the static keyword as
a declaration modifier. For more information see Type
Variable Properties.
Swift now includes the as? and as! failable downcast
operators. For more information, see Checking for Protocol
Conformance.
Added a new guide section about String Indices.
Removed the overflow division (&/) and overflow remainder
(&%) operators from Overflow Operators.
Updated the rules for constant and constant property
declaration and initialization. For more information, see
Constant Declaration.
Updated the definition of Unicode scalars in string literals.
See Special Characters in String Literals.
Updated Range Operators to note that a half-open range with
the same start and end index will be empty.

2015-

Updated Closures Are Reference Types to clarify the

capturing rules for variables.

04-08

Updated Value Overflow to clarify the overflow behavior of

signed and unsigned integers
Updated Protocol Declaration to clarify protocol declaration
scope and members.
Updated Defining a Capture List to clarify the syntax for
weak and unowned references in closure capture lists.
Updated Operators to explicitly mention examples of
supported characters for custom operators, such as those in
the Mathematical Operators, Miscellaneous Symbols, and
Dingbats Unicode blocks.
Constants can now be declared without being initialized in
local function scope. They must have a set value before first
use. For more information, see Constant Declaration.
In an initializer, constant properties can now only assign a
value once. For more information, see Assigning Constant
Properties During Initialization.
Multiple optional bindings can now appear in a single if
statement as a comma-separated list of assignment
expressions. For more information, see Optional Binding.
An Optional-Chaining Expression must appear within a
postfix expression.
Protocol casts are no longer limited to @objc protocols.
Type casts that can fail at runtime now use the as? or as!
operator, and type casts that are guaranteed not to fail use the
as operator. For more information, see Type-Casting
Operators.

Updated for Swift 1.1.

Added a full guide to Failable Initializers.
Added a description of Failable Initializer Requirements for

protocols.
Constants and variables of type Any can now contain function
instances. Updated the example for Any to show how to check
for and cast to a function type within a switch statement.
201410-16

Enumerations with raw values now have a rawValue property

rather than a toRaw() method and a failable initializer with a
rawValue parameter rather than a fromRaw() method. For
more information, see Raw Values and Enumerations with
Cases of a Raw-Value Type.
Added a new reference section about Failable Initializers,
which can trigger initialization failure.
Custom operators can now contain the ? character. Updated
the Operators reference to describe the revised rules.
Removed a duplicate description of the valid set of operator
characters from Custom Operators.

New document that describes Swift 1.0, Apples new

programming language for building iOS and OS X apps.
Added a new section about Initializer Requirements in
protocols.
Added a new section about Class-Only Protocols.
Assertions can now use string interpolation. Removed a note
to the contrary.
Updated the Concatenating Strings and Characters section to
reflect the fact that String and Character values can no
longer be combined with the addition operator (+) or
addition assignment operator (+=). These operators are now
used only with String values. Use the String types
append(_:) method to append a single Character value onto
the end of a string.
Added information about the availability attribute to the
Declaration Attributes section.

 Optionals no longer implicitly evaluate to true when they

have a value and false when they do not, to avoid confusion
when working with optional Bool values. Instead, make an
explicit check against nil with the == or != operators to find
out if an optional contains a value.
Swift now has a Nil Coalescing Operator (a ?? b), which
unwraps an optionals value if it exists, or returns a default
value if the optional is nil.
Updated and expanded the Comparing Strings section to
reflect and demonstrate that string and character comparison
and prefix / suffix comparison are now based on Unicode
canonical equivalence of extended grapheme clusters.
You can now try to set a propertys value, assign to a
subscript, or call a mutating method or operator through
Optional Chaining. The information about Accessing
Properties Through Optional Chaining has been updated
accordingly, and the examples of checking for method call
success in Calling Methods Through Optional Chaining have
been expanded to show how to check for property setting
success.
Added a new section about Accessing Subscripts of Optional
Type through optional chaining.
Updated the Accessing and Modifying an Array section to
note that you can no longer append a single item to an array
with the += operator. Instead, use the append(_:) method, or
append a single-item array with the += operator.
Added a note that the start value a for the Range Operators
a...b and a..<b must not be greater than the end value b.
Rewrote the Inheritance chapter to remove its introductory
coverage of initializer overrides. This chapter now focuses
more on the addition of new functionality in a subclass, and
the modification of existing functionality with overrides. The
chapter s example of Overriding Property Getters and Setters
has been rewritten to show how to override a description
property. (The examples of modifying an inherited
propertys default value in a subclass initializer have been

moved to the Initialization chapter.)

Updated the Initializer Inheritance and Overriding section to
note that overrides of a designated initializer must now be
marked with the override modifier.
Updated the Required Initializers section to note that the
required modifier is now written before every subclass
implementation of a required initializer, and that the
requirements for required initializers can now be satisfied by
automatically inherited initializers.
Infix Operator Functions no longer require the @infix
attribute.
The @prefix and @postfix attributes for Prefix and Postfix
Operators have been replaced by prefix and postfix
declaration modifiers.
Added a note about the order in which Prefix and Postfix
Operators are applied when both a prefix and a postfix
operator are applied to the same operand.
201408-18

Operator functions for Compound Assignment Operators no

longer use the @assignment attribute when defining the
function.
The order in which modifiers are specified when defining
Custom Operators has changed. You now write prefix
operator rather than operator prefix, for example.
Added information about the dynamic declaration modifier
in Declaration Modifiers.
Added information about how type inference works with
Literals.
Added more information about Curried Functions.
Added a new chapter about Access Control.
Updated the Strings and Characters chapter to reflect the fact
that Swifts Character type now represents a single Unicode
extended grapheme cluster. Includes a new section on

Extended Grapheme Clusters and more information about

Unicode Scalars and Comparing Strings.
Updated the String Literals section to note that Unicode
scalars inside string literals are now written as \u{n}, where
n is a hexadecimal number between 0 and 10FFFF, the range
of Unicodes codespace.
The NSString length property is now mapped onto Swifts
native String type as utf16Count, not utf16count.
Swifts native String type no longer has an
uppercaseString or lowercaseString property. The
corresponding section in Strings and Characters has been
removed, and various code examples have been updated.
Added a new section about Initializer Parameters Without
External Names.
Added a new section about Required Initializers.
Added a new section about Optional Tuple Return Types.
Updated the Type Annotations section to note that multiple
related variables can be defined on a single line with one type
annotation.
The @optional, @lazy, @final, and @required attributes are
now the optional, lazy, final, and required Declaration
Modifiers.
Updated the entire book to refer to ..< as the Half-Open
Range Operator (rather than the half-closed range
operator).
Updated the Accessing and Modifying a Dictionary section to
note that Dictionary now has a Boolean isEmpty property.
Clarified the full list of characters that can be used when
defining Custom Operators.

nil and the Booleans true and false are now Literals.

Swifts Array type now has full value semantics. Updated the

information about Mutability of Collections and Arrays to

reflect the new approach. Also clarified the Assignment and
Copy Behavior for Strings, Arrays, and Dictionaries.
Array Type Shorthand Syntax is now written as [SomeType]
rather than SomeType[].
Added a new section about Dictionary Type Shorthand
Syntax, which is written as [KeyType: ValueType].
Added a new section about Hash Values for Set Types.
Examples of Closure Expressions now use the global
sorted(_:_:) function rather than the global sort(_:_:)
function, to reflect the new array value semantics.
Updated the information about Memberwise Initializers for
Structure Types to clarify that the memberwise structure
initializer is made available even if a structures stored
properties do not have default values.
Updated to ..< rather than .. for the Half-Open Range
Operator.
Added an example of Extending a Generic Type.

Copyright and Notices

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