Antrapology Final 2

UNIT
ANTHROPOLOGICAL RESEARCH
METHODS AND TECHNIQUES
SIGNIFICANT
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After completing this unit the learner will
be able to:
n
Develop scientific outlook, approach and

attitude to understand social aspects,
events and issues.
Identify and distinguish the different

stages of scientific method and uphold
objectivity in anthropological research.
Distinguish research method and

methodology, approach and perspectives
to employ judiciously in anthropological
research.
Use various methods and techniques of

data collection in field research.
Design suitable research tools for

anthropological research.
Desribe classical anthropological

fieldworks conducted by the famous
anthropologists in India and abroad.
Plan the entire process involved in

conducting a research study and create
a research proposal.
CONTENTS
Scientific Research in Anthropology
Science and Scientific Method
Characteristics of Scientific Method
Steps of scientific Method
Subjectivity and Objectivity
Anthropology as a Science
Method and Methodology, Approaches and
Perspectives
Approaches of Anthropological Research
Comparative Method
Cross-cultural Comparison
Historical Method
Ethnographic Method
Anthropological Data
Primary and Secondary Data
Qualitative and Quantitative Data
Qualitative and Quantitative Research
Methods in Anthropology
Observation as a Method
Case study Method
Genealogical Method
Survey Method
Tools and Techniques of Anthropological
Research
Questionnaire
Interview
Schedule
Research Design
Essentials of a good Research Design
Steps in preparing a Research Design
Writing a Research Report
Anthropology
n
Sir Isaac Newton asked the

question:
Why do apples regularly fall to
the ground instead of floating off
into space?
Charles Darwin asked the

question:
How did the humans evolve
from the pre-human forms?
EB Tylor asked the question:

What makes all human beings
to develop similar institutions
and culture throughout, in spite of the several differences across space and
time?
Several questions are being raised pertaining to a score of problems confronted day in and
day out by several people:
What? Why? When? Where? How?
Such types of questions rise up from curiosity, which is one of the basic qualities of
all humans. When such enquiry is made scientifically, it becomes a scientific research.
Scientific enquiry helps to develop new concepts, and ultimately leads to discover new
laws and theories or to improve or modify the existing ones.
Research implies a search and
re-search or a re-examination into the Research is to see what everybody
existing situations of humans. It can be else has seen, and to think what nobody
conducted by anyone who is interested to else has thought.
- Albert Szent-Gyorgyi
explore truth. However, the manner of
investigation may be different in each. It
varies according to the subject of study, skill of the investigator, aims and objectives of
investigation and the methodology that they use.
A researcher should have the skill and ability to choose appropriate and specific
tools and techniques. It is also important to follow a set of procedural rules, while conducting
Unit- 1: Anthropological Research Methods and Techniques
research. These structural procedures and rules are known as methodology. It is the
methodology that differentiates a scientific research from a non-scientific investigation.
If so, what is a scientific research?
Scientific Research could be defined as an organised and systematic enquiry into a
(physical or social-cultural) phenomenon to discover new or to verify the existing
knowledge.
Scientific Research in Anthropology
There are disciplines like Chemistry and Physics which can experiment with different
chemical and physical elements. They can dissolve their objects of study, change their form
from one state into another, measure them, twist them or bend them. However, there is
little chance for such drastic transformation in subjects like biology or social science as
they deal with living matters. In social science, the subjects of research are human beings.
So, making alteration in such subjects is not at all possible for a social scientist.
You have already learned that Anthropology is a bio-social science which studies
humans in totality. Our concern here is to learn the Anthropological approaches in
understanding the social cultural dimensions of human life. With this limited purpose,
Anthropology could not be said to be experimental or laboratory-based science but mainly
an observational and a field-based science, which is the heart and soul of Anthropology.
Anthropological research is different from other social science researches. For
example, sociologists, by and large, work in complex societies. They often conduct surveys,
use structured interviews, and administer questionnaires. Hence, sociology generally comes
under the realm of survey research. Psychologists conduct experiments with clients and
hence, Psychology is generally included under the realm of clinical research. On the other
hand, anthropologists being field scientists, learn from their informants. Traditionally, they
are known for their work among smallscale societies, and have devised specific methods
and techniques for undertaking holistic research.
However, today Anthropology focuses on all kinds of human societies, using different
methods and techniques for their research without losing its integrative and holistic approach
and field orientation. This is done in a systematic way by following scientific methods.
Let us examine how science and scientific methods are related.
Anthropology
Science and Scientific Method

The term science has been used differently by different people in different contexts.
We often come across in newspapers and advertisements, statements such as the product
is scientifically proved/verified, Tests are carried out scientifically here etc. The
word science is derived from the Latin word scientia which means to know. The following
are some of the dictionary meanings of the word science:
n
n
n
n
Knowledge
Systematic knowledge
Observation, experimentation, and theoretical explanation of a phenomena.
Field of study concerned with discovering and describing the world around us by
observation and experimentation.
Oxford Dictionary defines science as a way of acquiring systematic knowledge.
From the above understanding, it is clear that
Science is the method of obtaining objective knowledge about the world through
systematic observation
Science is the study of facts and a method of investigation. Its aim is to discover
truths.
A closer examination of the above statements reveals that science includes two
aspects. One is the fact or objective knowledge and the other is the method of
investigation. Thus, science includes both the process and the product.
Scientific Process: Scientific process includes all the activities of the researcher as part
of attaining knowledge. The process of identification of problem, formulation of hypothesis,
the methods or techniques of data collection, conduct of fieldwork/experiments, classification,
analysis and interpretation of data and the logical inference of generalisation would all
come under the purview of the scientific process.
Can you identify other scientific processes that lead to the attainment of scientific knowledge?
Scientific Products: It is the end result of scientific process. The facts, figures, formulae,
concepts, equations, principles, theories, laws, generalisations and conclusions are
considered as the products of science. All these products are the outcome of the application
of scientific attitude and scientific method.
10
Prepare a table showing the process and product of science.

From the above discussion we can infer that in order to attain scientific knowledge,
it is mandatory to go through certain scientific processes. We call it scientific method.
Knowledge of scientific methods helps researchers to design and organise their research
activities. This would help them to differentiate facts from speculations.
Scientific method: It is a system used by scientists to generate data to understand a
phenomenon, and to test hypothesis or to develop new theories or to confirm or reject old
theories. It involves systematic observation,collection, classification, analysis and
interpretation of data.
The term systematic implies the procedure adopted to undertake an investigation
through a logical sequence.
Can you find out examples of studies through scientific method?
How do they differ from non-scientific studies like astrology, palm reading etc.?
Now you can understand that scientific method is distinctive in many respects. Let
us examine the characteristics of scientific method.
Characteristics of Scientific Method
n
It is empirical Scientific method gives importance to direct observation and

collection of data through field interaction.
It is systematic It relies on carefully planned studies rather than on random
observation.
It is replicable Scientific experiments or studies are replicable as the repetition of
experiments in similar conditions produce similar results everywhere.
It searches for causes It is based on the assumption that there exists cause and
effect relationship of factors in every phenomenon.
Result is provisional Results of scientific method are open to question and debate
and are subject to modification with new knowledge.
It is objective scientific method yields unbiased facts rather than subjective beliefs
and speculations.
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Anthropology
In order to ensure the attainment of characteristics scientific method has to follow

certain steps. Let us familiarise ourselves with these steps.
Steps of Scientific Method
Formulation of a problem: In order to conduct a research, the first condition is to select
a problem.
Preparation of research design: Research design is the 'plan of action' of a research. In
other words, research design gives a vivid idea of all the processes in the research, including
collection, classification, analysis and interpretation of data. We shall deal with it in detail
later on.
Collection of data: In order to make a research scientific, accurate data are to be collected
using appropriate methods and techniques.
Analysis and interpretation of data: Data are to be analysed and interpreted along the
lines of the objectives and hypothesis of the research.
Drawing conclusion: Conclusion is the end product of the research.
Are you now in a position to draw a chart showing the steps of scientific method?
Did your classmates prepare it properly?

Human beings, by nature, are not free from bias. That is why the understandings of
objectivity and subjectivity assume immense significance in scientific research and much
more so in anthropological research.
Let us discuss the role of subjectivity and objectivity in scientific research in general and in
anthropological research in particular.
Subjectivity and Objectivity
Subjectivity: It refers to the condition in which the researcher's likes, dislikes, feelings,
emotions and attitudes influence the study. The outcome of such research may not be
totally valid and reliable.
Objectivity: Objectivity is the unbiased condition of any scientific research. It is free from
ones likes, dislikes, feelings, emotions and attitudes. Unless the study is objective, it cannot
be considered scientific.
Discuss in your class how far the news that appear in media is objective?
Anthropological research is different from such media reports. Why is it so? Because
Anthropology follows scientific method in research and it is a science.
12
Anthropology as a Science
We have seen that any subject is called science because of its adoption of scientific
method. Anthropology applies the principles of science to study human behaviour in the
same way as natural, physical and biological sciences do. Hence, Anthropology is a science
like any other science.
Anthropologists study the different aspects of human behaviour like family structure,
way of acquiring mate, dispute settlement, religious rituals and infanticide by applying
scientific methods. In the following pages different approaches and methods of
anthropological research are discussed.
However, the terms, methodology, approach and perspective are used interchangeably. Each of these terms is sometimes replaced with the term method as well.
It is also important to understand the usage and distinction of the term method,
technique and tools.
Method and Methodology Approaches and Perspectives
The terms method, methodology, approaches and perspectives have many times
been used without much conceptual and operational clarity. It is very difficult to demarcate
each of these terms. A method is a way of conducting and implementing research, while
methodology is the science and philosophy behind all research (Adams John et.al 2007).
Thus in the strict sense, a method refers to a particular methodological tool such as case
study, participant observation etc. The term approach implies the line of thinking one
adopts. The term perspective implies how something is viewed or percieved. If approach
could be conceived as a procedure, perspective could be seen as a frame work.
Research Methods, Techniques and Tools
In general usage, a method is a broader term than a technique, which is very specific.
A method could make use of more than one technique to achieve a given end. In this sense,
a case study could be said to be a method, for which one might have to use different
techniques such as interview, observation, questionnaire etc. However, it is not uncommon
to call an interview or observation a method, though they would strictly fit into the label of
technique.
A tool merely refers to the specific devices or instruments that are required to use a
particular technique in a particular context. For instance, if one has to carry out an interview,
13
Anthropology
it is not possible without a set of wellplanned interview guide or interview schedule which
are merely the devices for carrying out the interview.
In the forthcoming paragraphs we will discuss different approaches of anthropological
research in detail.
Approaches of Anthropological Research
Generally, anthropological research adopts comparative, historical or ethnographic
approach to the study of society and culture.
Comparative Method or Approach: We have seen that Anthropology is unique in the
sense that it is holistic and comparative in nature. It employs the comparative method to
examine all societies, ancient and modern, simple and complex. It offers a unique crosscultural perspective by constantly comparing the customs of one society with those of
others. Comparative method refers to the method of comparing different societies,
groups or social institutions within the same society or between societies to show
whether and why they are similar or different in certain aspects.
What benefit would we get when comparing two or more social situations or phenomenon?
n
Thus if we are conducting research on the topic Institution of family among the
Hindus during ancient and modern period, we can resort to comparative method.
Could you state similar topics using comparative method?
n
Cross-Cultural Comparison: Comparative method could be used to study different

cultures of same period. It is known as cross-cultural approach. The history of crosscultural comparison dates back to the late 19th century when E B Tylor and L H Morgan
developed early cultural evolution. Later this approach was advanced by G P Murdock.
Culture and its peculiarities cannot be adequately understood simply by studying
single cultures. Cultures should be studied in comparison with one another to interpret the
similarities and differences across cultures.
In Anthropology cross-cultural comparison is a method of studying cultural
phenomena across cultures of the same period.
14
Comparative study of American and African cultures can be considered as an example.

Could you state similar topics using cross-cultural comparative method?
n
Ethnology, a branch of Social Cultural Anthropology is nothing but a comparative

study of different cultures involving cross-cultural comparison. It examines, interprets,
analyses, and compares the results of ethnography - the data gathered about different
societies. It uses such data to compare and contrast and to make generalisations about
society and culture.
Historical Method: History is the study of the past. Nobody can negate history. Each
and every social and cultural phenomenon has its roots in the past. Hence, if anybody
wants to study the origin, development and evolution of a social institution, societies and
cultures, historical method is one of the options. What is historical method?
We have already pointed out that historical method is nothing but studying a
phenomenon in historical sequence and hence it facilitates comparison across time. In
historical method, the origin, development and gradual evolution of institutions,
societies and cultures are studied. The principles of biological evolution have definitely
influenced the historical method. It studies social institutions in the background of whole
human history. The famous book History of Human Marriage written by Westermark is
an excellent example of study in historical method wherein he studied the gradual evolution
of the institution of marriage.
An example of a research topic requiring historical method would be:
n
The origin, development and evolution of death rites among the Parsis of Bombay.
Suggest similar topics:

n
The major sources of historical method are given below:

Folklore, monuments, inscriptions, autobiographies, coins, materials kept in archives,
travelogues and museum specimens.
15
Anthropology
These are helpful in collecting historical data and studying the origin and evolution of
societies and cultures through historical method.
Which are the sources of data you should resort to, for conducting a historical study
of a social institution? For instance, if you want to study the Development of Educational
system in Kerala what are the historical sources of data you should resort to?
Ethnographic Method
Ethnography means to write about a particular culture. It emphasises the perspective
of those being studied. You could recollect the details of the early ethnographic studies
and fieldwork tradition that you have studied in the previous year.
Ethnographic method is the core of anthropological research. The traditional
ethnographic approach assumes that cultures are whole units and can be comprehended
as such. It tries to interpret and describe the symbolic and contextual meanings of the
everyday practices in their natural setting. Any anthropological research is essentially based
on ethnographic fieldwork, involving mainly participant observation, case study and
genealogical method. Each of these methods is discussed in detail in the subsequent sections.
Today the ethnographic fieldwork could be even a virtual site, where people interact
with each other, sometimes with high intensity. The different forms of such social networking
sites include facebook, twitter, whatsApp etc. whichever may be the field, one of the most
important aspects of ethnographic research is to develop the skill to systematically record
the field data.
How to take field notes
Remember the following points while taking field notes.
l Spend time to take field notes on the same day of your observation.
l Listen to the recorded interview first and transcribe the recorded interview on the same day
itself as far as possible.
l Write many small notes rather than long running commentaries.
l Write your field experience in a separate diary.
l Notes can be prepared through jottings, diary, log and actual field notes.
l Jottings are on the spot short recordings. So keep a note pad with you all the time and field
jottings on the spot. Otherwise you will forget many things.
16

l A diary is a personal account where you can hide all your emotions and personal relationships
in the field. It is an essential element in an ethnographic study.
l Also keep a log which is a running account of how you plan and spend your time. You can
use a note book for this beginning from pages2 and 3. Put the date on the even numbered
page on the left and list the plan of your work on the given day. The facing page will narrate
what you actually do each day.
l Field notes are three kinds- methodological notes, descriptive notes and analytic notes.
Methodological notes deal with the techniques in collecting data. Descriptive notes are
indispensible part of field work. The sources of descriptive notes are watching and listening.
Analytic notes are where you write your ideas about how you think the culture you are
studying is organised.
l Some field workers use electronic devices like laptops, desktops, note pads, and tablets for
taking field notes. In such cases the data may be emailed or stored in internet to avoid loss of
electronic data.
[Adapted from Bernard Russell H (2008 p 387-398)]
Can you suggest suitable research topic for conducting an ethnographic research?
Whatever may be the approach, in order to make the research scientific, the data
gathered during the study need to be clear and correct? The success of the research
depends upon the data gathered for it. The term data is often confusing and misleading.
Hence, it needs elaboration.
Anthropological Data
Data is the basic unit of any scientific research. The term data usually refers to
distinct pieces of information in raw or unorganised form, such as alphabets, numbers or
symbols. It can represent conditions, ideas, or objects. Thus data means any information
collected for research.
Can you prepare a comprehensive definition of data?
As we said earlier, collection of data is of utmost importance for a research. Discuss
what will happen if a researcher fails to collect accurate and appropriate data?
n
Definitely the findings of the research are bound to be misleading.
Result will become speculative.
17
Anthropology
n
There will be chances of becoming

subjective.
The whole research will become unscientific.
Government use census

data to formulate and implement
development programmes. So it is
primary data to the
government
How can a researcher overcome such difficulties?

A researcher has to collect reliable and
accurate data systematically. The researcher should also follow specific research procedures
that include appropriate techniques, methods and a methodology. The researcher should
decide what methodology, method and technique are to be employed for data collection
and how the data are to be processed, analysed and conclusions arrived at.
You may have also come across different types of data such as primary and secondary
data, qualitative and quantitative data. What are the major differences between these
concepts? Let us examine.
Primary and Secondary Data: Depending on the sources of data, it can be classified in
to primary or secondary. Primary data need to be collected by the researcher directly from
the field or from the subjects of research. Thus, it is the first hand information collected by
the researcher directly. At the same time if the researcher uses the data collected earlier by
another person or agency, it is considered secondary data. Here researcher gets data not
directly, but through second hand source.
In economics, the data may be primarily in the form of prices of goods and cost of
production, or in other words, in the form of numbers. In Anthropology, it may be in the
form of kinship terms, customs, rituals, texts of a native culture, and descriptions of material
and non-material culture, or in other words, in the form of words. That means, data can
be represented in words as well as in numbers. Thus the data could also be classified either
as qualitative or as quantitative based on the nature of the data. Depending on the type
of data in a particular research, a research can be called qualitative research or
quantitative research.
Qualitative Data and Quantitative Data: The qualitative data are expressed in the
form of words, whereas quantitative data are expressed in the form of numbers. The data
collected directly from the field could be analysed statistically, or without statistics.
18
In social science research, different methodologies are used for arriving at results or
conclusions. In a way, it is classified as either qualitative research or quantitative research.
Qualitative and Quantitative Research: Qualitative research is carried out in natural
field settings. Hence, it is also known as field research. In qualitative research, data
collection appears spontaneous and open-ended, and usually has less structure and planning
than in quantitative research. The data obtained in qualitative research is analysed without
statistics. Research methods like participant observation and Case Study, used in qualitative
research, are called qualitative methods or field methods
Quantitative research involves statistical analysis. Hence, it is also known as
statistical research. Objectivity is the prime merit of quantitative research, while it also
claims to have higher reliability and validity. In physical anthropology and demographic
studies, where statistical techniques are not only possible but also unavoidable, the methods
such as Survey, Census etc. are used and hence these methods are called quantitative
methods or statistical methods.
However, the distinction between the two are not water-tight, and today, it is even
desirable to have a qualitative-quantitative mix in Social Science research in general,
and in anthropological research in particular.
Prepare a table explaining the major difference between qualitative and quantitative
research in terms of the objective, purpose, data, population, data collection methods,
analysis and outcome of a research.
Let us now examine the methods and techniques in Anthropology.
Methods and Techniques in Anthropology
Ethnographic method, as discussed earlier, is essentially based upon field observation,
as one of the primary methods of obtaining data about the world around us.
Observation as a Method
In the contemporary western world, the people are under constant observation
wherever they go, as they come under the close circute television. The non-western world
is also fast catching up with it. Observing and being observed are two important features of
modern society. It is said that ours is becoming an observation society (Silverman; 25,
2012). In social research, one of the most important and extensively used methods is
19
Anthropology
observation. All observations are not scientific. An observation becomes scientific only if it
is planned and executed systematically. It may take place in real life setting or in a laboratory.
An anthropologist as an ethnographer observes individual and collective behaviour in reallife settings. Hence, Herskovits, the American Anthropologist terms the field as the
'ethnographers laboratory'.
How can a researcher conduct observation in the field?
n
n
n
By establishing good rapport friendly relation based on personal

contact with the members.
By paying attention to every minute detail of life and situations in life.
By recording what you see exactly as you see it (without interpreting
or attributing any of your own meaning to it).
By recording your impression in your personal diary or field notes.
You may now select a place a market, bus shelter, inside the bus, school premises
or any other place you like for observation. Just watch and note the events that
occur there, for an hour. Present your findings in groups and discuss how far you
could observe the events occurred there. One of the group members can present
the findings. Find out the merits and demerits of observation as a method of primary
data collection.
Did you actively participate in the events that occurred there in the field? In other
words, did you observe things as an insider or as an outsider?
What is the difference between just observing an event as an outsider, and observing
the event by participating in it?
You may now select an event for observation by participating in it. The event selected
for observation may be your own household activities such as cooking, gardening,
life cycle rituals such as marriage ceremony or naming ceremony or any other similar
events. Present your findings for group discussion and find out how the previous
observation is different from this.
n
n
20
Which type of observation is ideal for anthropological field work? Why?

Would an intimate relationship with the group members adversely affect the data
collection process?
How can we overcome such difficulties in the field?
Present your conclusions in the class.

Observation is more than seeing. Seeing and perceiving are different.
Observation must be accompanied by perceiving, that is, capturing it with the
mind if what is observed is to be fruitful.
From the above discussion, could you define what observation is?
Several types of field observation have been used in anthropological research. A researcher
can observe the day-to-day life of the group under study either by participating or without
participating in it. Observation is divided mainly into two types: Uncontrolled observation
and Controlled observation.
1.
Uncontrolled Observation
Observation is the accurate watching

and noting of phenomena as being
occured in nature.
Uncontrolled observation is a form of

observation which is made in the natural
environment without being influenced by
outside control or external factors. Most of the knowledge about the social phenomena is
generally derived through uncontrolled observation. There are two types of uncontrolled
observations, participant observation and non-participant observation.
a)
Participant Observation: When the researcher actively participates in the activities

of the group under investigation, it is known as participant observation. In the extreme
level of participant observation, the researcher might conceal ones identity. It can
be called total participant observation. Such kind of observation is resorted to
when the researcher intends to keep the natural setting intact, without any kind of
disturbance. In situations in which ones role is confined to that of a researcher and
it is openly declared, is known as quasi-participant observation.
The features of participant observation are detailed below:

The observer l
Takes part in the social events which she or he is observing.
l
Assumes a role or undertakes a job that is acceptable in the given social
context.
l
Ensures that the observers presence in the group does not disturb the normal
life of the group.
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Anthropology
l
l
l
l
l
l
Generally lives, shares and participates in the everyday life of the group.
Associates with the group not as a researcher but as a full-fledged member of
the group.
Observe the behaviour of the members of the community.
Discerns the inter-action and relationship between them.
Engages in conversation with them to find out their responses, meanings and
explanations of the events that occur.
Studies the life of a community or social unit as a whole (holistic study).
The success of the participant observation depends on ones skill and personality.
The observers task is to place oneself in a best position for getting a complete and unbiased
picture of the life of the community. Generally, participant observation is considered as
the king of uncontrolled observation. That is why, sometimes it is also called
uncontrolled participant observation.
Before going to the field, the participant observer should take a few important
safeguards regarding the content and recording of observation and the relationship with
the members of the society. Let us examine each of these.
Content of observation: The observer must decide what is to be observed, how to
observe, who the participants are and in what way they are related to each other.
Recording of observation: It is essential that what is observed should be immediately
recorded because memory is likely to fail at any time. When it is not possible to record on
the spot, it should be done as early as possible.
Relationship between the observer and the members of society: The observer should
establish and maintain a good rapport with the members of the group. A good rapport
means friendly relationship and understanding with the members of the society. This will
help the observer to acquire their co-operation in all activities. Most participant observations
normally fall under the category of quasi-participant observation.
Precautions to be taken in Participant Observation: The observers are expected to
take certain precautions while undertaking an ethnographic research. The observer is
expected to
l
l
22
Be highly sensitive to the situations and social contexts of the research

Behave in a responsible manner; otherwise the task becomes more complicated.

l
l
l
Claim no superiority over the group.

Seek no special status, lest it destroys
the very purpose of the study.
Maintain objectivity, irrespective of
developing a high level of proximity
through a successful rapport
establishment with the group in the
course of ones research.
Is fully participant
observation possible?How far you
can fully participate while observing
and fully observe while
participating?
Merits or Advantages of Participant

Observation: There are several merits in
participant observation.
Check the following questions in groups and find out the merits of participant
observation.
How helpful is participant observation to:
l
Acquire information that is true and extensive?
l
Observe Natural Behaviour?
l
Gain greater insights of the phenomena?
However, participant observation also has certain inherent limitations.
Check the following questions in groups and find out the demerits of participant
observation.
l
l
l
l
l
l
How much time does participant observer require to spend with the group?
What about observers bias or emotional attachment?
Are all the phenomena and behaviour subjected to observation?
How effectively one could maintain the objective of the research?
Is it conducive to collect historical data?
What about the resources like, time and money that are required to carry out
participant observation?
You have learned what participant observation is and what its merits and demerits
are. Now, you can conduct a participant observation in a group, minimising its
demerits, and present your observation report.
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Anthropology
b)
l
l
l
Non-participant observation: You

have conducted an observation
earlier, without actively participating
in the activities of the group. How
do you feel about that observation?
Let us discuss the following points
in groups:
Did you get involved in their
activities?
Did the group members know your
identity?
How do the lack of rapport and
the presence of the outsider in the
group affect the behaviour of the
group members?
How reliable do you think the data
is?
Self observation
It may be suggested that the
observer should discover what
prejudices and biases will
prevent impartial study and disinterested
points of view. At times, emotional
reactions are so deeply imbedded and so
subtly expressed that they are difficult to
detect. Persistent self criticism and
criticism by others may ultimately
overcome prejudices and biases. In order
to minimise the errors of observation,
Margaret Mead alluded to the need for
training anthropology students to form an
estimate of their own strengths and
weaknesses as observers.Such
introspection creates empathetic insight
which facilitates the understanding of
peoples behaviour in similar
circumstances and cultural contexts.
(Excerpts from P.V.Young, 2009; pp
183)
When the observer does not actively

participate in the activities of the group
and simply observes them as a total
outsider, it is known as non-participant
observation. This can be conducted by
the researcher either by keeping away from the group, without revealing the identity to the
subjects or by being present in the group, but without involving in their activities. Sometimes,
it is impossible for a non-participant observer to be totally passive and therefore might try
to associate with the group. In such an event, a Non-participant observer would be moving
from a total non-participation to become a Quasi-participant observer.
You have learned and practically conducted non-participant observation. What are the
advantages and disadvantages of non-participant observation? Some of them are listed
below. You can enhance the list by adding more from your own experience.
Merits of Non-participant observation:
l
24
Objectivity and neutrality could be maintained because of detachment with the

activities of the group,

l
By keeping a distance from the group, it would be easier for the observer to learn
the weakness as well as strength of the group.
However, non-participant observation is not free from limitations.

Demerits of Non-participant observation:
l
The dangers of subjectivity are more pronounced.
As the group might feel uncomfortable in the presence of a third person, it might lead
to an artificial alteration of the groups bahaviour.
Nobody would like to open their true feelings, actions, attitude and opinion before a
stranger, with whom they hardly have any kind of rapport.
Due to conscious effort to keep a detachment, the non-participant observer may

even be looked with suspicion, which is again a serious limitation. Thus, the nonparticipant observer may not gain real insight into the phenomena.
Which of the above types of observation will you use, if you were a researcher,
studying about the Drug Addiction and Anti-Social Activities in a Community? Why?
In the above two types - participant and non-participant observation - there is a
chance of bias due to a possible defective perception of the phenomena. In order to avoid
such drawbacks, different kinds of controls are exercised over the phenomena as well as
over the observation. That type of observation is termed as controlled observation.
2.
Controlled Observation
In this type, an attempt is made to exercise control over the phenomena or

observation. This is done according to a particular plan. Thus, it is possible to make an
objective study and keep the observation free from biases and prejudices. As it is difficult
to impose control on the phenomena in Anthropological observation, generally controls
are imposed on the observer. Such controls increase precision, ensure reliability and increase
objectivity.
The devices used for making control over the observer are given below. Could you complete
the list?
l
l
Detailed observation plan

Use of schedules and check-lists
25
Anthropology
l
l
l
l
l
Use of socio-metric scales

Use of hypothesis
Mechanical instruments like
.
.
You can discuss how the above measuring devices of

observation lessen the chance of bias and prejudices in
observation.
Stuart Chapin had

once said that
observation instruments
are just as truly as the
thermometer or the
stethoscope of the
physician
Mind map/prepare a chart showing the different

types of observation
Though anthropologists widely make use of observation for data collection, many
other data collection methods are also extensively employed. Case Study is one such
method which is used by Anthropologists to undertake exhaustive study of a person, a
group or institution, a place or an event. Case study research in social Cultural and Linguistic
Anthropology consists of intensive periods of ethnographic field work.
Case Study method
Case Study means intensive study of a case. Case is a social unit with a deviant
bahaviour. It is a method of qualitative analysis. It is extensively used in psychology, education,
sociology, anthropology, economics and political science. It aims at obtaining a complete
and detailed account of a social phenomenon or a social unit, which may be a person,
family, community, institution or an event.
Essential characteristics of Case Study are:
n
n
It is an intensive, comprehensive and detailed study of a social unit

It helps to understand the personal as well as the hidden dimensions of human life
The Case study method helps retaining the holistic and meaningful characteristics of
real life events such as individual life cycles, small group behaviuor, etc.
It is like a case history of a patient. As a patient goes to the doctor with some serious
disease, the doctor records the case history. Analysis of case history helps in the diagnosis
of the patients illness. Anthropologists study the case history of a group. Case history may
26
be obtained, using a combination of different methods and techniques such as interview,

participant observation etc. However, questionnaire and schedule are highly ineffective in
the Case Study.
Sources of Data for Case Study: In Case Study, information may be collected from
various sources. The important sources include
l
Life histories
Personal documents, letters and records
Biographies
Information obtained through interviews
Observation
Like every method, Case Study also has its own advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages of Case Study: The following are some of the advantages of Case
Study.Enhance the list, by adding your own understanding.
n
A Case Study helps to probe the indepth analysis of a social unit.
It is suitable for collecting data pertaining to sensitive areas of a social phenomenon.
It helps to collect details regarding the diverse habits, traits and qualities of the unit
under investigation.
The data obtained through Case Study is useful for formulation of hypothesis and
also to provide clues for further research.
n
Limitations of Case Study

n
Case history records could be open to errors due to faulty selection of case and
inaccurate observation.
It is very difficult to draw generalisations on the basis of a few cases.
No uniform and standardised system has been developed for recording case history.
The investigators bias might distort the quality of the Case Study.
Case Study is time-consuming and costly in certain cases
27
Anthropology
Select a case from your own surroundings and study it intensively following the
steps noted below. Your teacher will guide you to follow the steps of Case Study
method.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Select a case/ problem for investigation-consider the time constraint while

selecting a case.
Determine the status of the unit/phenomena under study.
Formulate a hypothesis on the individual case.
Collect data using appropriate methods and techniques such as observation,
interview etc.
Analyse the data by comparing, and reviewing the same with past experiences.
Arrive at conclusions
We have seen that case study is the detailed study of a social unit, whether it is a
family, or any other phenomena or event under study. The analysis of family, social
organisation or interpersonal relationships can be done through other methods also.
Genealogical method is one among them.
Genealogical Method
Genealogy is the study of ones ancestors - parents, grandparents great grandparents
and so on. The genealogical method was originally developed by W.H.R. Rivers during
the Torres Straits expedition of 1898-99. Later it became one of the standard procedures
adopted in ethnographic researches in Social Anthropology. The primary aim of genealogical
method is the analysis of social organisation, i.e. the interpersonal relations and living
arrangements between members of a society. The method required extensive interviewing
of individuals in order to record their descent, succession and inheritance.
The genealogical method was used, along with observation method census and
settlement plans, first by W H R Rivers in field research and produced his classical
monograph on the Todas, and later by many anthropologists.
Genealogical method is very much helpful in studying kinship, and thereby in
understanding the social structure or network of relationship among individuals. It is done
through the collection of demographic and social data and by charting pedigrees and mapping
residence details. In the studies of migration and to trace out early migrants, genealogical
method is found very useful.
28
Internationally accepted simple set of kinship symbols are used in Anthropology to

draw kinship diagrams or genealogical chart.Recollect the set of symbols you have studied
in the previous year in the unit on Marriage, Family and Kinship.
Select a household known to you (or your own) and draw the connections of kinship,
descent and marriage using genealogical diagrams and symbols.
Survey Method
Survey method is systematic collection of data from a population or sample of
population through the use of personal interviews, questionnaires, schedules or other data
gathering tools/devices. It is the most traditional and common form of data collection method.
Through surveys, a researcher can elicit the views, attitudes, perceptions and sometimes
bahaviour of different groups or individuals.
Surveys are the only data collection method through which desired information can
be obtained more easily and less expensively from a large population.
Normally in a survey method, data can be collected through either conducting an
interview or administering a questionnaire. You shall familiarise with interview and
questionnaire techniques in the later part of this unit.
Characteristics of Survey method
l
Survey mostly involves a representative sample of a population and enables to
describe and generalise about the entire population.
l
Survey seeks response directly from the respondents.
l
Conclusions are drawn from the data collected from the sample population.
Procedures in survey method: The major stages involved in the Survey Method are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Selecting the universe or field of study

Choosing the sample from the universe, selected for study
Selecting the tool and methods for collecting data
Analysis of data collected
Generalisation on the basis of analysis from the collected samples
Survey requires skilled personnel to gather data. Careful selection and training of
interviewers is essential for conducting survey. Careful preparation of questionnaires and
interview schedule is another important factor.
29
Anthropology
Types of surveys
A survey method is used to cover wider geographical area involving various languages,
customs, races etc. On the basis of the subject matter and technique of data collection, it
may be classified under the following heads:
General Survey: In this survey, data are collected in a general manner without any specific
objective.
Specific Survey: Specific survey is just the reverse of general survey. When the survey is
conducted for testing the validity of some hypothesis, it is called specific survey.
Regular survey: When the survey is conducted at regular intervals it is called regular
survey. Banking, marketing and economic institutions generally conduct this type of surveys
to frame and implement their policies and programmes concerning economic matters.
Sample Survey: When the survey is done only among a fraction of a total population, it is
called sample survey. It is applied when one studies very large population where house to
house survey is not possible. Samples are the representative unit of total population.
Generalisation can be made on the basis of sample survey.
Advantages of Survey Method: Social science methodology today heavily depends
upon survey methods in research activities.
l
Data could be collected from a large population covering an extensive area.
Survey research has its broadest application in public issues.
It also has a great impact on political research especially in the area of voting studies.
It is also used to study community and market bahaviour.
Data obtained through this method are considered as more reliable and valid because
survey method is based on statistical analysis, which is an objective method of data
collection.
Even though survey method has many advantages, it is not free from disadvantages.
Disadvantages of Survey Method: The important problems associated with the survey
methods are detailed below:
30

l
l
l
l
l
Low response rate or non-response rate where the questionnaires are mailed to
respondents.
Possibility of recording biased responses, especially if the interviewer is inexperienced
Historical events cannot be studied through this method.
Sampling error might affect the results of the research.
Survey method consumes longer time and greater human resource.
Apart from the above methods, anthropologists usually employ a variety of techniques
to gather information pertaining to the social and cultural life.
You have already studied that the research methods can be classified into qualitative
and quantitative. Now you may classify the above listed methods under these categories
and prepare a chart on it.
Tools and Techniques of Anthropological Research
Questionnaire and interview are two
important techniques adopted in
anthropological research. Different tools are
used while using techniques. Schedule is a
tool to conduct interview or observation.
According to Bogardus, a questionnaire is

a list of questions sent to a number of
persons for them to answer.
Questionnaire
Questionnaire is considered as the heart of social survey because it is the main
technique of data collection employed in survey method. It is a better instrument for obtaining
information about personal life, feelings, expectations or future plans.
n
A questionnaire consists of a set of questions in a definite order and form.
n
The systematic compiling of questions is necessary in a questionnaire.
n
It is distributed to obtain responses from respondents.
n
The respondent is expected to fill up the form by her/him self.
From the above description, the important features of questionnaire are obvious.
Could you make a definition of questionnaire based on your understanding?
Format of Questions in a Questionnaire
Most of the questions in a questionnaire can be classified into factual questions and
opinion questions. Two formats are given below: Could you find out whether it is a factual
question or an opinion question?
31
Anthropology
Ex.
1.
What is your educational status (please tick the answer)

o Non- literate
o 1-4 standard
o 5-10 standard
o plus two
o graduate
Ex.
2.
Most of the teachers do not understand the feelings of students

o Strongly Agree
o Strongly Disagree
o Agree
o Undecided
o Disagree
Types of Questions in Questionnaire

Three types of questions are generally adopted in a questionnaire. They are openended questions, closed questions and contingency questions.
1.
2.
3.
Open ended questions are not followed by any type of specific answers. The
respondents are free to answer the way one wants. An example of open ended
question is given below:
Which one do you think is the best teaching method?
In a closed-ended question the respondents are asked to select the response from
the options provided. For example: Do you think nuclear family system is suitable
for Kerala?
o Very suitable
o not suitable
o suitable
o not at all suitable
The contingency question is a special case of close ended question which applies to
only a sub-group of respondents. The questions that need to be answered only
when the respondent provides a particular response to a question prior to them are
called contingency questions. For example:
Have you ever participated in a tribal marriage?
o Yes
o No
If yes how many times have you participated in a tribal marriage?
o Once
o Twice
o Thrice
o More than thrice
Types of Questionnaire
Questionnaires are divided into structured questionnaire, unstructured questionnaire,
mixed questionnaire and pictorial questionnaire.
32
Structured questionnaire:- In structured questionnaires, the questions are prepared in

advance and not constructed on the spot during the question period. In this type of
questionnaire, same wording and same order are maintained to all respondents.
Unstructured questionnaire: - In unstructured questionnaires, the questions are not
structured in advance. The questions may be adjusted according to the needs of the situation,
with maximum flexibility to collect as much information as possible.
Mixed questionnaire: - A partly structured and partly unstructured questionnaire is called
mixed questionnaire. This has the quality of both types of questionnaire.
Pictorial questionnaire:- In pictorial questionnaire, the selected alternative answers are
given in the form of pictures. An example is given below. (Fig. 1)
Question:- How large is your family?
The respondent has to select the appropriate picture from the given options. Could you
say for which type of respondents the pictorial questionnaire would be helpful?
Would it be helpful to collect data from very young children and non-literate persons?
It is important to learn how to make a good questionnaire?
Characteristics of a Good Questionnaire
Construction of a good questionnaire is not easy. The following are some of the
guidelines to be followed in making a good questionnaire.
a)
b)
c)
d)
The physical form of the questionnaire should be attractive i.e. the size of the questions
must be small.
The appearance should evoke the interest of the respondents.
It should be printed legibly with a good lay out.
The item-wise classification should be done in the questionnaire. In the first part, the
space may be provided for writing the name of the organisation and the name and
address of the respondents. Space for factual data like age, members of family,
33
Anthropology
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)
k)
l)
m)
n)
education, marital status and religion are to be provided. The subject matter or
theme should be given in a separate section.
The questions should be analytical, clear, short and understandable.
Emotional, embarrassing and threatening questions should be avoided.
Questions must be asked according to the level of the respondent. Never assume
that the respondent knows everything about the problem.
Never ask two or more questions at a time.
Questions should be well arranged to enable tabulation and analysis.
Correct instructions should be provided to make the questionnaire self explanatory.
After constructing the questionnaire a pre-test or trial in a sample of respondents is
to be done. This will help to overcome the draw back in the questionnaire.
Selection of respondents should be done thoughtfully.
A carefully-worded introduction or covering letter should be prepared. It should
explain the purpose and importance of the study.
Method of administering-whether mailed, personal interview, telephonic
interview - should be decided in advance.
Merits and Demerits of Questionnaire

Some of the points regarding the merits and demerits of questionnaire are given
below in the form of questions. Could you discuss these points or questions in groups and
prepare a report on the merits and demerits of questionnaire including those points.
For merits
l
How large the coverage could be in a questionnaire?
l
Would it be expensive compared to other methods of research?
l
Would it be easy to plan, construct and administer?
l
Can we keep the anonymity of the respondents?
l
Can we use it as a preliminary tool for conducting an in-depth study, later?
For demerrits
l
Could it be used to collect information from non-literate or less educated persons?
l
Could it ensure adequate response rate respondents who return the questionnaire
l
What will happen if a respondent misinterpret a question or gives an incomplete
answer?
34

l
l
l
Is questionnaire suitable for collecting private or controversial information?

How does lack of rapport affect the data collection through questionnaire?
How reliable it is?
1.
From the above discussion you will now be in a position to prepare a chart
comparing the merits and demerits of questionnaire.
2.
Decide a topic for research with the help of your teacher and prepare a
questionnaire containing both closed and open-ended questions. Collect data

using the questionnaire, analyse them and prepare a report.
Are there other tools and techniques available for data collection? How can we
elicit information from another person through conversation? This is possible through
interview.
Interview
We often come across interviews with different personalities in Media. Interview is
universally used for the study of human behaviour. In social life, the Lawyer, physician,
journalist, social worker, and salesman depend partly on interviews to carry out their
professional demands. Likewise, Anthropological researchers often use key informants as
valuable sources of information, by carrying out frequent conversations with them, what is
commonly known as key informant interview. They are persons identified by the
anthropologists, in the course of one's field research, as those possessing valuable information
than others about the people, incidents and social processes under study.
In simple terms, interview means conversation with a purpose. It is a procedure
used for collecting data through a person to person contact between an interviewer and
respondent(s). In interview, data collection is done mainly through the verbal interaction
between the respondent(s) and the interviewer. The views and ideas of other persons can
be elicited through interview.
Interview can be defined as a system in which both the investigator as well as the
informant discuss the problem under research, the former usually taking the initiative with
the object of extracting maximum information from the latter.
According to Goode and Hatt, interviewing is fundamentally a process of social
interaction.
From the above description the important characteristics of interview can be drawn.
35
Anthropology
Characteristics of Interview
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
Interview is a direct method of data collection.

In interview there is a face-to-face contact between the individuals.
It is mainly through close contact or interaction including dialogue between two or
more persons.
It can be used for all segments of population.
Past events can be studied through interview.
Information that could not be collected through survey method and questionnaire
can be collected through interview.
It is possible to study the events that are not open to observation.
Interview is also helpful to find out the reactions of different individuals in different
situations.
However, in interview, too much importance is given to the respondents. The

researcher is fully at the mercy of the respondent and has to believe in what the respondents
say. Lot of subjectivity and individual feelings may creep in interview.
From the above discussion, you will be able to list out the merits and demerits of
interview. You can prepare a chart based on it.
Interviewing is not an easy task. A lot of care and skill are required for a successful
conduct of an interview. An interviewer may have to interview more than one person at a
time. Moreover, the researcher may or may not interview an interviewee with pre-determined
questions. In order to understand these aspects, we have to examine the different types of
interviews.
Different Types of Interviews
Interviews can be categorised based on different criteria. On the basis of persons
involved, there are Individual interview and Group interview. On the basis of nature of
questions included, it could be classified as structured interview (Formal interview) and
unstructured interview (Informal interview). Let us examine each.
Individual Interview: When an interview is confined to an individual informant it is called
individual interview or personal interview.
Group interview: If a group of persons is interviewed for ascertaining their views and
opinions, it is known as group interview.
36
Structured interview (Formal interview): The interview based on pre-determined

questions and standardized techniques is called structured interview. Here the number and
nature of questions, order of asking , wording of questions, recording etc. are standardised.
The response pattern is also standardized in the form of know or dont know or yes
or no. The questions are mostly closed-ended. Because of the insistence on specific
form, this method is also called formal interview.
The advantages of structured interview are uniformity and precision. It provides safe basis
for generalisation. To a great extent, the interviewers bias can be reduced. It is also easy
to administer.
Unstructured interview (Informal interview): The unstructured interview allows
greater flexibility in the number, method, and sequence of questions. Depending upon the
situation, more freedom is given to the interviewer to choose the form of questions. The
interview can also be adjusted to the level and conditions of the respondent. The wording
and sequence of questions can be changed, keeping in view of the response. This type of
interview emphasises the purpose rather than the form. It aims at collecting maximum
information. Because of the informal form, this interview is also called informal interview.
Whatever may be the type of interview, it has to be conducted in a sequential order.
One cannot directly or suddenly initiate the interview. The success of interview depends
upon how scientifically interview is started, continued and concluded. The different phases
involved in interview process will be helpful for the successful conduct of interview.
Process of Interview
There are three important phases of interview. They are, rapport building, probing
and recording of the response.
Rapport building: The success of the interview mainly depends on the capacity of an
interviewer to build rapport with the respondent(s). The term rapport means keeping a
friendly relationship with the respondents.
Probing: Probing is an exploratory action to obtain information on a remote or unknown
topic or theme. The right type of questions should be asked in the right manner and using
the right language. In interview, sometimes, the respondent may talk many things which
may not be relevant for thye given research. the researcher will mbe able to bring back the
respondent to the topic of discussion without hurting the feelings of the respondent.
Recording the response: Recording of response can be done in two ways.
37
Anthropology
a)
b)
Recording at the time of interview.

Recording after the interview .
When recording is done at the time of interview, all relevant information can be
noted. If the interviewer records the data after the interview, there is a possibility of error,
mainly due to the failure of memory.
Like the process of interview, preparations for the conduct of interview are also
equally important.
Preparations of Interview
If the interview is to be conducted successfully, preparation for it has to be done on
a scientific basis. It should be done before the interview takes place. The following steps
are to be followed.
Understand the problem: For this, the interviewer should study the problem in advance.
Prepare interview guide: Interview guide is a brief written document which gives an
outline of different aspects of the study. It is more helpful in unstructured interview due to
the flexibility of the questions asked. It is only a guideline and the interviewer has to apply
ones own intelligence while handling the interviewee.
Select informants: Selection of informants should be carefully done. The key informants
should be those who are thorough with the problem under study.
If you have conducted a research using an inquiry form such as questionnaire, you
might have felt that gathering data is not an easy task, especially when the respondents are
not willing to fill up the questionnaire. This will become more difficult and impossible when
the respondents are non-literate or less-educated. In such situations, the researcher has to
fill the data using some other device. Schedule is one such device. Let us examine how it
can be constructed and administered.
Schedule
We have already learned that how information could be elicited using questionnaire.
When the response is filled by the respondent, the device is termed questionnaire. However,
if the researcher fills the inquiry form in the presence of the respondent, it can be termed as
Schedule.
Schedule is a set of questions asked and filled by the researcher.
How is a schedule more advantageous than a questionnaire?
38
A schedule provides an opportunity to establish rapport with the respondent. The

researcher has a chance to explain the meaning of certain unclear items and the purpose
clearly. To get more clarity with regard to questionnaire and schedule the following questions
are to be discussed.
l
Is there any difference in the construction of schedule and questionnaire?
l
Can complete and usable returns be ensured while administering schedule?
l
Is Schedule more economical in terms of time and money? Your conclusions on the
above discussion may be shared in common.
When we use the term Schedule in research, it is with reference to the Interview
Schedule. But Interview Schedule is only one of the types of schedules.
Types of Schedules
Normally there are five types of schedules as explained below.
a)
Observation Schedule: - An Observation Schedule contains some specific aspect

on which, the observer has to concentrate and collect information. For example, if
an anthropological researcher has to collect details of food gathering and forest
products by a given tribal group, an observation schedule can be prepared.
b)
Document Schedule: -This is used to collect data from official documents, auto
biographies and records.
Rating Schedules: - These are used to measure attitudes, behaviour and opinions in
psychological and sociological research.
Evaluation Schedules: - These are used to get information about some institutions
and agencies.
Interview Schedule: - This is normally used as a synonym for Schedule. It contains
questions to be asked by the researcher and space for recording answers. House
hold Schedule is a type of Interview Schedule widely used in anthropological field
research to collect data on demographic profile of households.
c)
d)
e)
We have discussed different methods and techniques of data collection in

Anthropology. However, entire activities connected with research, including the methods
and techniques of data collection have to be planned well in advance. This is formalised
through the preparation of a research design. We have to examine what a research design
is and how it is prepared.
39
Anthropology
Research Design
What do we do if we want to construct a house or building?
Land has to be acquired area for construction in the land has to be ascertained, the
type of house, its area, mode of construction, total cost, estimate, and many other factors
are to be decided before the actual construction of house. In research also, everything has
to be planned well in advance. It also involves process with a series of steps as it is done
in the case of house construction.
Can you identify the essential ingredients in a research design?
A definition of research design is given below.
Miller has defined research design as the planned sequence of the entire
process involved in conducting a research study
You can make similar definitions of research design after understanding the features
of a research design.
l
l
l
A research design is a detailed outline of how a research will take place.

It includes how data is to be collected, what research tools and techniques are to be
employed and how the collected data are analysed.
Such research designs would be of great help to researchers in achieving the aims
and objectives of research, provided it fulfills certain essentials of a good research
design.
Essentials of a Good Research Design

The following are the essentials of a good research design
l
It is a plan that specifies the objectives of study.
l
It is a blueprint that specifies the sources, and methods of data collection relevant to
the research.
l
It is a plan that ensures that the obtained information is objective, reliable, valid, and
can be generalised to a large group or population.
Steps in Preparing a Research Design
After deciding on the aims and objectives, area, sources and methods of study, a
formal research plan is drafted. An anthropological research design is prepared depending
on the purpose and type of study. However, the following steps are generally followed.
40
1.
Title of the research: - The title should be brief, precise and reflect the scope of
the problem under research.
2.
Statement of the problem: - After accumulating all knowledge of the subject under
study, the researcher should state the research problem in clear and precise terms.
3.
Purpose of the research: - A brief description of the significance of the area of

study in the present context of social life, by highlighting the main purpose which
inspired the researcher.
4.
Review of literature: - The researcher should be acquainted with all available

literature related to the problem. The researcher should ascertain whether the same
topic has been investigated before, and if so, how and to what extent. A critical
appraisal of all previous studies is to be done and the gaps, if any, are to be
ascertained.
5.
Scope of research: - The researcher should delimit the scope of study depending
upon the time, money available, the size of the sample, and the ability to collect
information. Then the researcher should state the scope of investigation in explicit
terms and provide the limitations of study.
6.
Objectives of the study: - The objectives of the study are stated clearly within the
scope of research and in the form of statement.
7.
Concepts and variables used in the research: - The researcher should provide
clearly the conceptual and operational definitions of the concepts and variables used
in the research.
8.
Formulation of hypothesis: - Hypothesis is unsure guess or solution to a problem.

It should be clear, specific and capable of empirical test. It should be related to a
body of theory and available technique. Hypothesis will help the researcher in delimiting
the scope of the study. However, many of the anthropological researches are more
of exploratory in nature.
Selection of the sample: - In this section, the researcher should mention the
definition, size, representatives of the sample population in the design, if relevant.
Methods of data collection: - The researcher should decide upon the methods of
data collection and spell out clearly, explaining their necessity and relevance.
Data analysis: - Depending on the nature of data collected, the researcher should
mention in the design how the data is going to be subjected to analysis - qualitative
or quantitative.
9.
10.
11.
41
Anthropology
12.
13.
14.
15.
Interpretation of data: - In the research design how the results of the investigation
are going to be interpreted may be mentioned.
Chapter scheme: - The chapter scheme of the report should be outlined and the
purpose of each chapter is to be stated.
Time budget: - The time period required for each stage of work and the total
duration of study are to be specified in the design.
References: -Here, the researcher should mention the possible secondary sources
that may be consulted or relied upon stream lining and strengthening the research. It
should contain the name of the author, year of publication, title of the book/journal,
volume number, and place of publication.
Select a topic of research with the help of your teacher from broad areas like
description of culture, problems of people, issues of development and change etc.,
and prepare a research design.
After completing the research, report writing is the last activity of the research process.
Writing a Research Report
While writing a research report, whether it is a thesis, monograph, or a journal,
article, utmost care is to be taken. The content of the research report differ according to
the type of research. However the content can be classified into preliminary section,
main body of the report, and the reference section.
The preliminary section comprises title page, certificate, declaration,
acknowledgements, preface or forward, table of contents, and list of tables and figures.
The main body of the research report broadly contains an introduction, review of
literature, design of study, presentation, analysis of data, summary and conclusion.
The reference section includes the list of books referred in alphabetic order followed
by appendix, glossary and index. The tables and figures are referred to by number and
properly compiled and arranged. Quotations and foot notes are to be used cautiously.
Field work
You have now learned the basic methodology of an Anthropological research. Making
use of the following steps, undertake a field work lasting not more than a week in the
coming festival vacation. The following steps can be followed.
42

l
l
l
l
l
l
l
Select a topic and field area for a short-term research, with the help of your teacher.
Prepare a research design on the topic.
Prepare the tools-Questionnaire, Schedule, or Interview Schedule- of research as
the case may be.
Make necessary preparation for carrying out the field work.
Take field notes, decode, and transcribe them (See trivia for how to take field notes)
Analyse data and write report.
Submit your field report along with the field notes on time.
SUMMARY
n
Research implies a search and re-search or a re-examination into the existing situations
of humans. A Scientific Research could be defined as an organised and systematic
enquiry into a phenomenon to discover new or to verify the existing knowledge.
Anthropology comes under the realm of science as anthropological research uses
scientific methods. The word 'science' is derived from the Latin word scientia which
means to know.
Science includes the process and the consequent product. Identification of problem,
formulation of hypothesis, the methods or techniques of data collection, conduct of
fieldwork/experiments, classification, analysis and interpretation of data and the logical
inference of generalisation would all come under the purview of the scientific
process.The facts, figures, formulae, concepts, equations, principles, theories, laws,
generalisations and conclusions are considered as the product of science.
Scientific method consists of systematic observation, classification, and interpretation
of data. The important steps of scientific method are: formulation of a problem,
planning research design, collection of data, analysis of data and drawing conclusion.
Objectivity and subjectivity assume immense significance in scientific research.
Subjectivity is that in which the likes, dislikes, feelings, emotions and attitudes of the
researcher influence the study. If ones likes, dislikes, feelings, emotions and attitudes
do not influence ones study, then, it is called objective study.
A research method is a way of conducting and implementing research, while
methodology is the science and philosophy behind all research. Research Methods,
Techniques, and Tools must also be differentiated. A method is a broader term than
a technique and could make use of more than one technique.
43
Anthropology
n
44
In Anthropology a researcher may use comparative, historical and cross-cultural

method. Comparative method refers to the method of comparing different societies,
groups or social institutions within the same society to show whether and why they
are similar or different in certain aspects. Cross-cultural comparison is a method of
studying cultural phenomena across cultures of the same period. In historical method,
the origin, development and gradual evolution of institutions, societies and cultures
are studied.
Ethnographic method is the core of the anthropological research which is essentially
based on field work.
A researcher has to collect reliable and accurate data systematically. There are
different types of data such as primary data, secondary data, qualitative data and
quantitative data. Primary data is collected by the researcher directly from the field.
Secondary data are the data collected by someone other than the researcher. The
qualitative data are expressed in the form of words, whereas quantitative data are
expressed in the form of numbers.
Different methods and techniques are used in Anthropology. Observation is a method
which means the accurate watching and noting of phenomena as occurs in nature.
Observation may be divided in to uncontrolled and controlled observation.
Uncontrolled observation includes participant and non- participant observation. Case
study is another method employed in Anthropology which means intensive study of
a case. Genealogical method is the study of ones ancestors - parents, grandparents;
great grandparents and so on. The genealogical method was originally developed
by W.H.R. Rivers. Survey method is systematic collection of data from a population
or sample of population through the use of personal interviews, questionnaires,
schedules or other data gathering tools/devices. There are general survey, specific
survey, regular survey and sample survey.
Questionnaire and interview are two important techniques adopted in anthropological
research. Questionnaire is considered as the heart of social survey. Closed- ended
questions, open-ended questions and contingency questions are used in
questionnaires. There are structured questionnaire, unstructured questionnaire, mixed
questionnaire and pictorial questionnaire. Interview is another tool/technique of data
collection. Interview means conversation with a purpose. There are individual
interview, group interview, structured or formal interview and unstructured or informal
interview. Rapport building, probing and recording of response are the process
involved in an interview. Schedule is another tool employed for data collection.
There are different types of schedules like Observation, Schedule, Document

Schedule, Rating Schedules, Evaluation Schedules and Interview Schedules.
n
One has to plan before starting the research. A design is the planned sequence of
the entire process involved in conducting a research study. The steps in a research
design includes, Title of the research, Statement of the problem, Purpose of the
research, Review of literature, Scope of research, Objectives of study, Concepts
and variables used in the research, Formulation of hypothesis, Selection of the sample,
Methods of Data collection, Data analysis, Interpretation of data, Chapter scheme,
Time budget and preparation of Reference list.
Report writing is the last activity of the research process. The content of research
can be classified in to preliminary section, main body of the report, and the reference
section.
TERM EVALUATION ITEMS

1.
2.
Fill in the blanks suitably

a)
Scientific method is in nature
i) objective
ii) subjective
iii) interrogative
iv) comparative
b)
The systematic collection, classification and interpretation of data are known
as
c)
The method used for comparing groups or social institutions within the same
society is
d)
The method used to study origin and development of social institution is
e)
Intensive study of single social unit is
Distinguish between
l
Objectivity and subjectivity
l
Science as a process and science as a product
l
Comparative and cross-cultural method
l
Primary and secondary data
l
Methods and techniques of data collection
l
Interview Schedule and Questionnaire
45
Anthropology
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Prepare an Interview Schedule for conducting interview with a shaman.

If you are asked to conduct an ethnographic study, which type of observation would
you prefer and why?
Prepare a flow chart showing different types of observation and explain any two
observations in detail?
If you are asked to conduct an interview what preparation would you take before
interview and what are the steps of the interview?
What are the steps of research design?
Draw a genealogical chart of your own family and your neighboring family and identify
the family type, residence pattern and descent type?
Prepare a questionnaire for conducting socio-economic survey of a village. It must
include both open ended and closed ended questions.
If you are asked to collect a quantitative study of a large population. Which method
would you choose and why?
GLOSSARY
Data: Any information collected for research.
Research: A re-examination into the existing situations of humans.
Research Method: Way of conducting and implementing research.
Research Methodology: Science and philosophy behind all research.
Scientific Research: Organised and systematic enquiry into a phenomenon to discover
new or to verify the existing knowledge.
REFERENCE
Adams John, Hafiz T. A.Ghan, Robert Raeside and David White. 2007. Research Methods
for Graduate Business and Social Science Students. New Delhi: Response Books.
Bernard, Russell H. 2008. Research methods in Anthropology. Jaipur: Rawat Publications.
Cauvery. R, Sudha Nayak U.K, Girija M., and Meenakshi R. 2003. Research
Methodology. New Delhi: S. Chand.
Denzin Norman K,Lincoln Yvonna S. 2008. The Landscape of qualitative research.
New Delhi: Sage.
46
Goode, William J and Hatt Paul K. 2006. Methods in Social Research. New Delhi:
Surjeet Publications.
Hennik Monique, Inge Hutterand Ajay Bailey. 2011. Qualitative Research Methods.
New Delhi: Sage.
Pelto, J Pertti and Gretel H. Pelto. 1987. Anthropological research the structure of
Enquiry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Silverman, David (Ed.). 2012. Qualitative Research (3rd Edition). New Delhi: Sage.
Thanulingom.T. 2000. Research Methodology. Mumbai: Himalaya.
Young, Pauline V. 2009. Scientific Social Surveys and Research. New Delhi: PHI
Learning.
47
UNIT
ANTHROPOLOGICAL
THEORIES OF CULTURE
SIGNIFICANT
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After completing this unit the learner will
be able to:
n
Identify the concepts and ideas related

to various theories of cultural
evolutionism, compare and classify
different schools of evolutionism.
Identify the concepts and ideas related
to various theories of diffusionism,
classify different schools of diffusionism
and illustrate the parabolic style of cultural
development.
Demonstrate the scheme of functionalism, analyse the theory of need and
distinguish the different levels of needs
proposed by Malinowski.
Distinguish the basic ideas related to
structural functional and structural school
of thought.
Analyse the inter-relationship between
culture and personality and analyse the
role of culture in the formation and
development of personality.
II
CONTENTS
Cultural Evolutionism
Classical Evolutionism:
British, American, German
Neo Evolutionism:
British, American
Typology of Cultural Evolution
Unilinear, Universal, Multilinear
Diffusionism
British school
German School
American School
Functionalism
Structural-functionalism
Structuralism
Culture and Personality School of
Thought
Unit- 2: Anthropological Theories of Culture
o you know that zero was invented

in India and Babylonia at the same
time? Simultaneous inventions are
common phenomena in scientific
domain. William Ogburn and Dorothy
Thomas, in 1922, listed a hundred and
forty-eight major such simultaneous
inventions. Look at the excerpts
from www.newyorker.com magazine
issued on 2008/05/12/ about some such
simultaneous inventions.
Here are a few more examples.
Newton and Leibniz both discovered calculus.

Charles Darwin and Alfred Russell Wallace both discovered evolution.
Colour photography was invented at the same time by Charles Cros and by
Louis Ducos du Hauron, in France.
There seem to have been at least six different inventors of the thermometer.
There were less than nine claimants for the invention of the telescope.
Typewriting machines were invented simultaneously in England and in America
by several individuals in these countries.
The steamboat is claimed as the exclusive discovery of Fulton, Jouffroy,
Rumsey, Stevens and Symmington.
How does it happen? How did the anthropologists view such phenomenon? Early
anthropologists were of the view that human beings all over the world shared the same
basic psychological and cognitive make up. This hypothesis was originally formulated by
Adolf Bastian, the father of German Anthropology and German classical evolutionist. He
then passed on this postulate to Franz Boas who in turn, transmitted the same to all his
students. This principle formed the foundation of 19th century evolutionism. It has taken
into account the cultural differences. The psychic unity of humankind has influenced later
anthropologists including Radcliffe Brown and Julian Steward. It has even laid the foundation
for what had later came to know as diffusionism in Anthropology. Diffusionism holds the
view that culture traits originate at one place and spread to other places and societies.
Cultural evolutionists and diffusionists differ in terms of independent inventions and spread
of culture respectively. It shows, studies among other culture all over the globe undertaken
49
Anthropology
by anthropologists have resulted in the formulation of different perspectives and

understandings over time. These different perspectives are examined here.
In this unit, we are attempting to explore the way earlier anthropologists explored, in
their quest for understanding and explaining human society, culture and behaviour. It
ultimately led to the origin and development of various anthropological theories. Let us
look into the different perception of different anthropologists to understand the human
culture and society.
Origin and Development of Anthropological Theory
You have already learned about the contribution of Greek philosophers and social
thinkers in the formative phase of Anthropology. The origin of Anthropological thought
could also be traced back to the early Greek Philosophers like Herodotus and Aristotle.
However, it emerged as a separate branch of knowledge during the nineteenth century
with the path-breaking theories on the biological and cultural evolution. In this regard, the
contributions of Charles Darwin, E B Tylor, and L H Morgan are worth mentioning. Later,
other pioneering Anthropologists like Franz Boas, W H R Rivers, Malinowski, Radcliffe
Brown, Levi Strauss, Ruth Benedict, Margaret Mead and several others had significantly
contributed to the understanding of human culture and society. The early anthropological
theories, developed since the later part of the nineteenth century can be grouped under the
following schools.
Evolutionism
Diffusionism
Functionalism
Structural-functionalism
Structuralism
Culture and personality school of thought
Among the above schools of thought, the establishment of evolutionary theory in

Anthropology literally marked the beginning of the subject Anthropology. You have already
studied about theories of biological evolution in lower classes. Let us now examine how
evolution is said to be operating in the cultural sphere.
CULTURAL EVOLUTIONISM
What is evolution?
You have learned that it is a process of gradual change from simple form to complex
form. This is applicable to both biological aspects and social cultural aspects. In biological
evolution, modifications or changes are seen in the physical structure of organisms. Likewise,
in cultural evolution, where would we find changes or modifications?
50
Obviously the changes are taking place in the manifold aspects of culture including,
technology, economy, social institutions, art and literature.
Differences of opinion exist among anthropologists regarding the evolution of culture.
These differences in perception led to multiple theories of cultural evolution. All the theories
related to cultural evolution are collectively known as cultural evolutionism in Anthropology.
Cultural Evolution may be defined as a process by which different successive
forms in socio-cultural institution or culture of humankind are developed over
different periods of time.
For systematic discussions of the views and contributions of evolutionists, they are
classified at two levels - classical evolutionists and neo-evolutionists. Secondly, on
the basis of nationality of the proponents, evolutionism is divided into British, American
and German classical evolutionists and British and American Neo-evolutionists. This may
be portrayed by the following chart:
Fig 2.1 Classification of Evolutionists

Classical Evolutionism
The main proponents of classical evolutionism are E B Tylor, James Frazer, R R
Marret, L H Morgan, J J Bachofen and Adolf Bastian. They are also known as unilinear
evolutionists as they believed that human culture evolved in unilinear sequence, stage after
stage, simple to complex. According to the unilinear evolutionists, culture of humankind
was developed from the earliest stage of savagery to barbarism and finally to civilization.
The evolutionists assumed that cultural parallel or cultural similarities come into existence
51
Anthropology
due to the psychic unity of humankind, suggesting that human minds share similar
characteristics all over the world and react and think in similar ways in similar environmental
conditions. This means that all people and their corresponding societies go through the
same process of development. As pointed before, the invention of zero, simultaneously
in Indian, Babilonian and Mayan culture is cited as an example of the psychic unity of
humankind.
Like the invention of zero, you can find out similar instances that could be cited as
evidences to the of psychic unity of human kind and prepare a note.
We have seen that the direction of cultural evolution is from simple to complex.
Likewise there are certain features that are proposed by unilinear evolutionists.
Features of Classical Evolutionism
Human culture as a whole or social-cultural institutions evolve in unilinear sequence,
stage after stage- savagery, barbarism and civilisation.
2.
The direction of cultural evolution is from simple to complex, from similarity to
dissimilarity, from indefinite to definite and from homogeneity to heterogenity.
3.
Different stages of evolution can be established by historical method and
comparative method.
4.
Similarities in culture or cultural traits are caused by psychic unity of humankind
and parallel inventions.
5.
At the higher stage of culture, certain remains of the earlier stages can be traced,
which are termed as cultural survivals. Such remains reveal the conditions about
the earlier stages of human culture.
As we have seen earlier, on the basis of nationality, E B Tylor is considered as the proponent
of British classical evolutionism.
1.
British Classical Evolutionism: E B Tylor (1832-1917)

E B Tylor talked about the unilinear form of cultural growth. Hence he was called as
unilinear evolutionist. Unilinear evolution means human culture evolved in unilinear sequence,
stage after stage, simple to complex. Accordingly, human culture has developed through
the stages of savagery to barbarism and finally to civilization.
Savagery
52
Barbarism
Civilisation
Tylor is called the father of modern

anthropology for his contribution to the
concept of culture. He gave the classical
definition of culture in his book Primitive
Culture (1871): culture is that complex
whole which includes knowledge, belief,
art, morals, law, custom and any other
capabilities and habits acquired by man as
a member of society.
E B Tylor was not an

anthropologist by training.
He was privately educated
and
was
only
an
undergraduate. He was the
first person to hold a chair
in a British University. He
first became a lecturer, then
a reader and finally a professor at Oxford
University. In 1856 he visited Mexico where
he witnessed the exploration of the Perigord
cave. This led to the publication of Tylors first
book Mexico and the Mexicans, published in
1861 from London. In his major work
Researches into the Early History of Mankind
and Development of Civilization (1965) he
presented his scheme of evolution.
The basic idea underlying Tylors

theory was the continuity of culture in the
process of its development from previous
stages to the succeeding stages. Humanity
as a whole passed through the process of
cultural evolution from a primitive,
pre-historic stage to middle stage and finally to more advanced civilised stage, which has
now been attained in our world.
Stone Age
Bronze Age
Iron Age
Tylor opined that Animism (belief in soul) was the earliest form of religion from
which Polytheism and the present stage of Monotheism have developed.
Magic
Religion
Science
According to Tylor, the evolution of material culture has developed from stone age,
bronze age and finally to the Iron Age.
James Frazer views, all societies progress through three successive stages of
evolution. These are magic, religion and science. The primitive human was unaware of
things happening around them. They believed magic can control everything including nature.
American Classical Evolutionism: L H Morgan (18181881)
L H Morgan, in his book Ancient Society (1877), classified development of culture
into three major periods. They are savagery, barbarism and civilization. The first two periods
are again sub divided into lower, middle and upper periods. These ethnic periods and their
subdivisions were defined by the following sequence of technological developments.
53
Anthropology
L H Morgan (1818-1881) was born in New York. He studied Law and became
interested in American Indian tribe- Iroquois. He found that the culture of Iroquois
Indians was rapidly changing and it should be recorded as early as possible. He
gathered information on the culture of Iroquois and published a book entitled
League of the Iroquois in 1851. He published his famous book Ancient Society
in 1877 in which he envisioned human history consisting of three major ethnical
periods-Savagery, Barbarism and Civilization. The first two periods were divided into sub
periods denoted lower, middle and upper. Karl Marx bought a copy of Morgans Ancient society
and found in it a confirmation for his materialistic interpretation of history. After the death of
Marx, as per the instructions left by him, Engels published The origin of family, private property
and the state, in the light of Researches of Lewis Henry Morgan in 1884.
Morgan studied in detail the Iroquois Indian, which was published in the book League
of the Iroquois (1851). While he was enquiring into the rules of descent, he was struck by
their system of naming the kins. An Iroquois child called one's mother's sister asmother,
fathers brother as father, grandmothers sister as grandmother and so on. Children of
two or more sisters called each other brother and sister. Morgan called this as
classificatory kinship system contrasting it with the descriptive system in which the
terms of address reveal the exact relationship. Further, he received the information that the
Tamils in India used a classificatory system, which led Morgan to conclude that the American
Indian tribes were of Asiatic origin.
The classificatory and descriptive system of kinship may be in vogue in our society.
Find out such kinship terms and prepare a glossary of such terms.
Ethnic Period
1
Lower savagery
2
3
4
5
6
7
Middle savagery
Upper savagery
Lower barbarism
Middle barbarism
Upper barbarism
Civilization
54
Technological Development
Invention of speech, subsistence on fruits
and nuts
Fishing and use of fire
Invention of bow and arrow
Invention of pottery
Domestication of animals and agriculture
Iron smelting and use of iron tools
Phonetic alphabets and writing
German Classical Evolutionism (Continental Evolutionism):

Johnn Jacob Bachofen (1815-1877)
J J Bachofen was a classical continental evolutionist. He believed that matrilineality
was the early form of reckoning kinship, whereas patrilineality was a developed form of
kinship descent. Bachofen observed that matriarchy was the second stage of development,
before which existed a stage of heterism or sexual promiscuity or sexual communism.
The present day monogamy has evolved through polyandry and polygyny. He published
his findings on matrilineal societies under the title Das Mutterrecht or Mother Right in
1861. In this book Bachofen developed the sequences of development of patriarchy.
Heterism
Matriarchy
Patriarchy
In the early stage, women were merely treated as sexual objects. When the kinship
lines were traced through mother, the women began to assume authority. The residence
was matrilocal and the inheritance of property had been from mother to daughter. When
patrilineality followed matrilineality, mans dominance emerged.
The nineteenth century classical evolutionists talked about the cultural evolution with
a view to find out cultural regularities or laws. In the light of new researches, the findings of
nineteenth century classical evolutionists were modified by the twentieth century evolutionism.
These new generations of evolutionists are known as Neo-evolutionists. Let us have a
glimpse of this new position.
Neo-Evolutionism
The neo-evolutionists are not ready to accept the unilinear sequence of cultural
evolution. In order to overcome all the limitations of classical evolutionary theory, a new
scheme was proposed by the neo-evolutionists. They argued that the development of
culture was not unilinear, but in the form of parabolic curve. According to parabolic
curve of cultural evolution, a social institution is born in specific form in the early stage. It
then develops into an entirely different form in different direction. It again moves towards
the original form, but in a modified form.
For instance, the institution of property born in the form of communal ownership
took the form of private ownership. Today again the concept of common ownership through
stages developed. Similarly, in the beginning, humans used no clothes and they used to
remain naked. Invention of clothes made it possible to cover the entire body. But these
days crazy notions of fashion make some adopt scantily dress style (Nudism). This sequence
55
Anthropology
can also be observed in the field of sexual relation. In the early stage, it was sexual promiscuity.
In the process of evolution in successive stages, monogamy came into existence, and again
in the present time, arguments are made in favour of the freedom of sex. The example can
be shown in a graph as below.
The evolution of human societies, according to Childe, took place under the impact
of these three major events. On the basis of these, he presented the evolution of
archaeological or ethnical period and cultural development as follows.
His above scheme of evolutionary sequence reveals that he was very much influenced
by the evolutionary schemes of Tylor and Morgan. As Gordon Childe discussed evolution
of culture of humanity as a whole, he is known as universal evolutionist. He placed
general stages of evolution applicable to humanity as a whole, not of specific or particular
culture which was the creation of local environmental factors.
According to Childe, at each stage of cultural development, humankind also
developed through technological change. According to him savagery is characterised by
hunting and gathering, barbarism by animal domestication and invention of agriculture, and
higher barbarism by use of tools and smelting process. The development of cities, invention
of writing, literature etc. are the characteristics of civilization.
Childe relied more on archaeological data and proposed a universal scheme of
cultural evolution. Later Julian Steward, an American neo-evolutionist, suggested a threefold classification of cultural evolution which is known as Typology of cultural evolution.
American Neo-evolutionism: Julian Steward
Julian Stewards contribution to the study of cultural evolution is unique. In his book
Theory of Culture Change (1955), he suggested the typology of cultural evolution as
given below:
1.
2.
3.
Unilinear evolution
Universal evolution
Multi linear evolution
Unilinear Evolution: In this evolutionary scheme, it is postulated that the cultures pass
through different and successive developmental stages, as a result of which, simple forms
change into complex ones, and homogeneity to heterogeneity. The classical evolutionists
like E B Tylor and L H Morgan are considered as unilinear evolutionists.
56
Fig 2.2 Evolution in Parabolic Curve

We have seen that the evolution of human societies and culture is not developed on
a unilinear sequence, but in the form of parabolic curve. Some of the examples are
given above. You can find out similar examples and draw a parabolic curve.
The neo-evolutionism can be classified on the basis of the nationalities of the
proponents. V Gordon Childe of Britain, Julian Steward and Leslie A White of America
occupy the most significant place in neo-evolutionary theory. Among these scholars, V
Gordon Childe is familiar to you as an archaeologist who proposed the concept of Neolithic
Revolution. We can examine his contribution as a neo-evolutionist.
British Neo-Evolutionism: V Gordon Childe
Gordon Childe was a trained archaeologist and the only pioneer of British school of
neo-evolutionists. In his famous book Social Evolution (1951), he described evolution of
culture in terms of three major events.
n
n
n
Invention of Food Production

Urbanisation
Industrialisation
57
Anthropology
Archaeological (Ethnical) Periods

1.
2.
3.
4.
Paleolithic period
Neolithic period
Copper age
Early Bronze age
Cultural Development
Savagery
Barbarism
Barbarism
Civilization
Multilinear Evolution: The multilinear evolutionists are interested in particular cultures.

Julian Steward belongs to the group of multilinear evolutionists. Steward was of the opinion
that all cultures of the world have not passed through same developmental stages, rather
their stages were different in different areas. For e.g. the sequence of cultural development
in ice area, desert area, forest area and plain area are different due to different environmental
conditions. In order to study the interaction between environment and culture, he proposed
the method of cultural ecology, which will be dealt in Unit 7 in this text book. According
to him, various stages in evolution of different cultures are not uniform throughout the
world.
Universal Evolution: It is concerned with the evolution of culture as a whole. Universal
evolution of culture treats the whole culture of humankind rather than particular cultures.
According to this view evolution is a universal phenomenon and every culture of the world
is subjected to the process of evolution-whether it is pre-literate or advanced. This type of
cultural evolution is represented by V Gordon Childe of Britain and Leslie A White of
America.
Leslie A White
According to White, culture developed as the amount of energy utilised percapita, per
year increases. The development of human being is directly proportionate to the amount of
energy utilised. In other words, culture develops in direct response to technological
progress. This law of cultural development can be expressed through the following formula.
ExT=C
Where E = Energy;
T = Technology;
C = Culture development
His book Evolution of Culture (1959) deals with theoretical issues relating to neoevolutionism. For White, socio-cultural system consists of three aspects.
58
Techno-economic aspects: It includes tools and implements together with the

technological and economic activities of man.
Sociological aspects: It includes social institutions like family, marriage, kinship, politics,
religion, customs and laws.
Ideological aspects: This includes ideas, beliefs, knowledge, values, morals, expressions
etc.
We have examined the major propositions of classical evolutionism and neoevolutionism. Compare the basic principles of both and prepare a chart.
The evolutionists held the view that similarities in culture around the world are the
result of psychic unity. Cultures without contact in distant areas had evolved independently.
Thus, parallel inventions were the proof of psychic unity. However, these psychic unity
positions of evolutionists were questioned by a group of anthropologists during the twentieth
century. They represent the diffusionist school of thought in Anthropology.
DIFFUSIONISM
The theory of diffusion emerged in the early years of 20th century. Diffusionists view
that various cultural traits and cultural complexes develop at various times in different parts
of the world and later on diffuse over corresponding parts of earth. Thus, diffusionists are
of the opinion that culture has growth, not because of evolution, but because of the spread
of cultural traits and complexes due to historical happenings and mutual contacts. Cultural
diffusion is a process, by which cultural traits discovered or invented at one place
or society are spread directly or indirectly to other societies or places.
Discuss how the following factors are influential in the process of diffusion:
n
n
n
n
Relation and communication.

Need for new traits.
Competition with old traits.
Respect and recognition towards new traits.
59
Anthropology
Conditions for Cultural Diffusion

1.
Any cultural group adopts the cultural traits of another cultural group, only when it is
meaningful or useful either economically or socially or both.
In course of diffusion, cultural traits will not remain in its original form. Changes in it
can take place due to different environmental situations.
Process of diffusion is always from high culture to low culture or developed culture
to under-developed culture.
Process of diffusion may create culture change in the group, adopting the culture
traits of other groups.
There are some obstacles or barriers for culture diffusion. These include lack of
transportation and communication or some of the physical barriers such as ocean,
river, mountain, desert etc.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Diffusionists have explained some characteristics of cultural diffusion. These are

also considered as the conditions of cultural diffusion. Can you discuss the above
conditions or characteristics of cultural diffusion by citing suitable examples like
adoption of food items, dress pattern etc. from our surroundings?
Though diffusionists admit that cultural traits discovered or invented at one place or
society, are spread to other places or societies, they have not shown unanimity as to which
was the place from where culture traits reached to other parts. These differences resulted
in three different Diffusionists Schools of thought in Anthropology.
Schools of Diffusionism
There are three major schools of diffusion
n
n
n
British School of Diffusion

German or Continental School of Diffusion
American School of Diffusion
60
British School of Diffusionism

G E Smith, W J Perry and W H R Rivers were the main scholars of this school.
They considered ancient Egypt as the cultural cradle of the world. This school of diffusion
is also known as Pan-Egyptian school. G E Smith was the founder of this school and W
J Perry was his true follower. They are also called as extreme diffusionists because,
according to them, Egypt was the only centre of culture from where cultural traits spread
or diffused to other parts of the world. As their works and findings mainly concentrated on
Egypt, they are also known as Egyptologists. They also argued that the worship of sun
which was originated in Egypt is to be found in all other parts of the world. They used
migration as the main cause of diffusion.
According to Smith, ancient Egypt was favoured by natural and ecological setting
and gave rise to cultivation. They invented pottery and later on, built cities. They established
institutions like religion, government, laws etc. According to him, all the cultural traits
developed only in Egypt, from where, it diffused to other parts of the world. Thus, he
argued that ancient Egypt was the cradle of civilisation.
German or Continental School of Diffusionism
Unlike the British diffusionists, German diffusionists argued that development of culture
took place not only at particular place like Egypt, but also at different places in several
parts of the world, from where it was imitated or migrated to other places. They believed
that discoveries of all things were not possible at the same time and at the same place.
They opined that different circles or districts were developed at different places.
According to them each cultural trait and cultural complex had a circle or district from
where they migrated to other places. As they talked about the spread of cultural traits from
one circle to another or one district to another, their school is known as Kulturekreise
61
Anthropology
School or culture circle school or culture district school. As this can be established
on the basis of historical factors, their school is also known as culture historic school.
American School of Diffusion
The major proponents of American school of diffusion are Franz Boas, Clark Wissler
and A L Kroeber. Franz Boas is known as the founder of American School of Diffusionism.
The culture area is the dominant theme in the American school of diffusion. Besides, a
number of other concepts such as culture centre, culture margin, culture climax,
age area etc. are also used to explain the nature and process of diffusion.
American diffusionists divided the
world into different cultural areas on the basis
of geographical similarity. Clark Wissler
emphasized the concept of culture area
referring to the area in which similar culture
traits or culture complexes are found. Hence
American school of diffusion is also known
as culture area school.
Wissler also pointed out that in each culture area, there is a culture centre. It is
the core in a culture area, from where all social, economic, political and religious activities
are controlled and governed. It is the geographical area where maximum culture traits are
found and from where various culture traits
diffuse to other parts. Cultural margin is
Franz Boas (1858-1942) was
the peripheral area of a culture where
born and educated in
minimum culture traits are found. It also
Germany. Boas became
Professor of Anthropology
keeps border with other cultures.
at Columbia University in
1896, where he remained till
his death in 1942. In
American Anthropology, Boas occupied an
image of father, hero and guru. He trained
great many anthropologists, among whom
special mention may be made of A L Kroeber,
Herskovits, M F Ashley Montagu, Ruth
Benedict and Margaret Mead. Some of the
important books of Franz Boas are: Central
Eskimo(1888), Kwakiutl Text (1905), Mind
of Primitive Man (1911) and Primitive
Art(1927).
62
A L Kroeber used the term culture

climax as equivalent to the term culture
centre. Culture climax is the portion of
culture area from where most of the culture
traits in the area are spread or concentrated.
It also refers to that part of the area where
people have the largest contact of culture.
Wissler also put forward the concept age
area. It is the relative age of cultural traits
based on geographical distribution. It means,
the most widely distributed trait around the centre would be the oldest one. According to
Wissler, there are mainly two types of diffusions: Natural diffusion and Organised
diffusion.
Natural Diffusion: In natural diffusion, cultural traits of one cultural group are diffused to
one part of a different cultural group. It is transmitted through natural agencies or by trial
and error method. It is time-consuming process and develops gradually.
Organised diffusion: In this diffusion, the cultural traits are transmitted through some
organized agencies like missionary activities, military invasion etc. Organized diffusion is a
very fast and quick process.
You can discuss the cultural diffusion in Indian context like diffusion of pre-Vedic
and Vedic faith, Buddhism and Jainism and prepare a discussion note.
All the anthropologists hitherto mentioned have been either interested in the origin
and development of culture or historical explanations of cultural origin and its spread from
one geographical region to another. However, at the beginning of 20th century, Malinowski
and Radcliffe Brown put forward, another approach to the analysis of culture. Malinowski
put forward the theory of functionalism and
Radcliffe Brown the
theory of structural functionalism.
B K Malinowski was born
FUNCTIONALISM
The concept of function is an old
concept. Take the analogy of human body
and examine the function of each and every
organ. Obviously, no organs exist without
any function. Though different organs function
differently, each and every organ is interrelated and integrated. What is the ultimate
aim of the functioning of organs? It is the
survival or existence of the body. Likewise,
in a culture, different parts institutions
have different functions to perform. Let us
examine the position of Malinowski, an
eminent Polish born, British anthropologist
in this regard.
in 1884 Poland. He
received his Ph D in
Physics and Mathematics.
He got the opportunity to
read Frazers book Golden
Bough and attracted to
Anthropology. Later he became a Post
Graduate Student at the London School of
Economics. He had been trained by the
greater field worker of the day, C G Seligman.
He not only spend longer period than any
anthropologists before and after him in a
single study of 'primitive' people, the
Trobriand Islanders of Malenesia, but he
was the first anthropologist to conduct
study in native language. Malinowski
emphasised upon participant observation
and writing ethnographic diary for all
researchers, while conducting field studies.
63
Anthropology
Functionalism of Malinowski
B K Malinowski says culture is an instrumental apparatus for the satisfaction of
human needs. Thus according to functionalism, institutions of a culture operate to satisfy
human needs and the needs of a society as a whole. Culture is a means to satisfy human
needs.
Malinowski views that every aspect of a culture has a function. They are all interdependant and inter-related. He cites the example of an engine, the different parts of which
are inter-related and inter-dependant. The main function of these parts is to bring the
engine in motion. If one part of the engine stops, the operation of the engine also stops.
This indicates that there is a functional unity among different parts of the engine. In the
same way, cultural traits and cultural institutions contribute differently to total functioning of
a culture. Thus, each culture trait or culture institution performs certain functions.
These culture traits and cultural institutions are inter-related and inter-dependant in
a culture and fulfill the needs of humans. A culture trait, which is functionless, would not
survive, and hence there are no cultural survivals.
Malinowski says a functionless cultural trait would not survive. Is
there any cultural trait which has no function in the present context
survive?
List out those functionless culture traits
n
n
Malinowski conceives each institution as a social system consisting of personnel, a

charter, a set of norms or rules, material apparatus (technology), activities and a function.
Malinowskis Theory of Need
Culture traits or cultural institutions are the means for the satisfaction of human
needs. Malinowski points out that the humans have different needs such as social, economic,
religious, biological, physical and mental. In order to satisfy these needs, the humans had
established the social, religious, economic and political institutions. All these needs are
inter-related in one way or another because they are related to the entire humanity as a
whole.
64
According to functional approach of culture, institutions of culture operate to satisfy

the needs of individuals or society as a whole. In his book, Scientific Theory of Culture
(1944) which was published posthumously, Malinowski distinguishes three levels of needs
of a society.
1.
2.
3.
Primary/Basic/Biological needs.
Instrumental needs/ Derived needs.
Integrative needs.
Under primary needs, he includes sex and feeding. These are satisfied through the
cultural institutions like marriage, family and kinship. Instrumental needs include those
institutions such as economic, educational, legal and political, which help to achieve primary
needs. By integrative needs, he means those that help society to integrate (cohere or unite)
and include knowledge, religion, magic, art, morals and values. The theory of need provides
a framework for a functional analysis of the relation among biological, psychological and
cultural aspects.
From the above discussion we are now in a position to list out the salient features of
functionalism proposed by Malinowski. List out those features.
Closely related to Malinowski's theory of functionalism is the theory of structural
functionalism of Radcliffe Brown. he differed from Malinowski in that the latter conceived
society as to fulfil the needs of the individual, while the former conceived society as to
maintain its structure.
STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM
Alfred Reginald Radcliffe Brown
showed how functions could be analysed in
the context of structure. Hence he has been
labeled as a structural functionalist.
Structural Functionalism of A R
Radcliffe Brown
A R Radcliffe Brown, in his book
Structure and Function in Primitive
Societies (1952) elaborates his concept of
social structure and its function. According
to him, the concept of structure refers to an
A R Radcliffe-Brown (18811955) was born at Birmingham

in England. He began his
career as a student of W H R
Rivers in psychology, but
became his first student in
social anthropology in
Cambridge in 1904. In 1906 he was sent out
to Andaman Islands. He dutifully recorded
Andamanese myths, ceremonies and
customs up to 1908. His books The Andaman
Islanders published in 1922. He read, wrote
and taught social anthropology at many
Universities viz. Sidney, Cape-Town,
Chicago and Oxford and guided the destiny
of many British anthropologists.
65
Anthropology
arrangement of parts or components related to one another. For example, the structure of
a house reveals the arrangement of wall, roofs, rooms, windows, doors etc. Likewise, the
structure of human body consists of different organs, cells, tissues, bones etc.
In social structure, the ultimate components are human beings or persons. Social
structure consists of arrangement of persons in relation to each other. Within a society, the
individuals are grouped into different social units and institutions. Each of these social units
or institutions perform its respective functions. These are inter-related, inter- dependent
and form the structure of a society.
For instance, in a village, we find an arrangement of persons into families. In family,
the structure consists of the relations of father, mother, brother, sister, uncle etc. Thus, the
structural feature of social life consists of the existence of social groups and its internal
structure.
Types of social structure: We have seen that social structure is a continuous arrangement
of persons controlled by social institutions. In a society, persons or groups change from
time to time due to marriage, birth and death. This affects the structure of the society. On
the basis of this, Brown classifies social structure into two:
1.
2.
Actual social structure

General social structure
Actual structure is the internal structure of the society. It is the relationsip of persons
or groups, changes from time to time. New members come into being by birth or immigration,
while some others will go out by death or out-migration. Besides this, there are marriages
and divorces, whereby members change several times. Actual social structure may change
many times.
General structure refers to the external structure of the society. This social structure
is constituted by the social institutions, and it may remain relatively constant. Even though
birth and death take place in society, the general structure of society remains the same. For
example, the actual social structure of a family may change due to birth or death. But the
institution of family remains relatively constant over a period.
Social Structure and Social Organisation: Radcliffe Brown differentiated social structure
from social organization. Social structure refers to an arrangement of persons, while social
organisation refers to the arrangement of activities of two or more persons. For example,
organisation of factory means, it is the arrangement of activities or duties done by the
manager, foreman and other labourers in a factory.
66
Why should we study the structure of a society?

In order to understand the society as a whole, one should study the arrangement of
social relationships in institutionalised form.
Next to Radcliffe Brown, we can see the French anthropologist Claude Levi-Strauss
and his approach to cultural analysis which has been known as Structuralism in Anthropology.
STRUCTURALISM
Levi-Strauss agrees with Brown
that structure is an ordered arrangement
of parts; but he rejected the position of
Radcliffe Brown on social structure as the
actual aspect of reality. That means, Brown
believed that social structure is the reality.
But Levi-Strauss opined that the term
social structure has nothing to do with
empirical reality but with the models which
are built after it. Social relations are the
raw materials for model building, but social
structure cannot be reduced to mere social
relations. The model must exhibit the
characteristics of a system. For LeviStrauss, it is a method applied in social
studies.
Claude Lvi-Strauss
was a French social
anthropologist, Born in
Brussels, Belgium in
1908 . He is often known
as the father of modern
anthropology. LeviStrauss became famous
in social anthropology by implementing the
methods of structuralist analysis. He
conducted field research among the Indians
of Brazil. He was introduced to Saussure, the
legendary Swiss linguist and realized the
importance of semiology for cultural analysis.
His important publications include 'The
Elementary Structures of Kinship' (1949),
'Tristes Tropiques' (1955), 'Structural
Anthropology' (1958), 'The Savage Mind'
(1962), 'Mythologiques' (4 volumes; 1964-72)
and 'The Raw and the Cooked'(1970).
Levi-Strauss was concerned with the psychological factors and processes in order
to explain the various cultural practices. He considered art, rituals and patterns of daily life
as manifestation of culture. He related the myths, art, rituals and legends as the surface
representations of the underlying structure of human mind. According to him, human mind
undergoes a process of dualism. Thus there are conscious and unconscious levels of human
mind. He wanted to understand how people perceive the things around them.
Could you differentiate the structural functionalism of Radcliffe Brown and the
structuralism of Levi-Strauss? You can prepare a chart.
Could the study of culture or society proposed by evolutionists, diffusionists, fuctionalists
and structuralists lead to any basic understanding of certain cultural practices?
67
Anthropology
Why do certain cultural practices emerge?

Why are there differences in personalities among cultures of same environments?
Did personality influence culture or culture influence personality?
In order to find an answer to these questions, anthropologists during 1920s analysed the
cultural practices and individual psyches of communities. The result is establishment of
new school of thought in Anthropology and emergence of a separate branch called
Psychological Anthropology. The primary aim of culture and personality school is to
examine the interrelationship between culture and personality.
CULTURE AND PERSONALITY SCHOOL OF THOUGHT
(PSYCHOLOGICALANTHROPOLOGY)
We have studied what culture is. Culture according to this school of thought is
acquired, imitated and learned;it gives rise to character formation or development
of personality traits before the period of adolescence.
Personality refers to the integrated and dynamic organisation of physical, mental
and social qualities of an individual as that manifests itself to the other people in the
give and take of social life. It is a more or less consistent behaviour pattern of an individual.
Ruth Benedict was an American Anthropologist born on june 5th 1887 in New
York state. She focused on the study of culture and personality. She was
introduced to Franz Boas, the doyen of American Anthropology and later
strongly connected with Margaret Mead. Boas became an important mentor to
Benedict. The trio - Boas, Ruth and Margaret Mead- had contributed much to
the development of Anthropology. In her book Patterns of Culture she presents
ethnographic accounts of The Pueblo( Zuni ) Indians The Dobu of New Guinea
and Kwakiutl of the Northwest coast. Her field work among the Zuni is considered as the basis
for her theory that culture is personality writ at large. By studying these cultures, Ruth Benedict
discovered the inter-connections between culture and personality. Later, she developed her
concept of culture pattern in her famous book The chrysanthemum and the Sword in 1946.
She died on 17th September 1948 at the age of sixty nine.
While we talk about personality we have certain notions that it is related with outward
appearance and performance of an individual. But personality has certain other
characteristics:
68
Personality is acquired
Every personality is unique
Personality is influenced by social interaction

Personality refers to the persistent qualities of an individual
Personality is not a mysterious phenomena
Personality is not related to body structure alone.
If the above listed features are the important factors related with personality, what
are the determinants of personality formation? Obviously, environment in which one grows,
hereditary factors, culture in which one is nurtured, and the peculiar experiences one
undergoes emerge as the major determinants of personality formation.
Can you discuss how these factors influence in the formation of personality?
Let us now go through the contributions of anthropologists on the inter relationship
between culture and personality.
American anthropologists such as Ruth Benedict, Margaret Mead, Ralph Linton,
and Abram Kardiner are the pioneers of Culture and Personality School of thought or
Psychological anthropological theories. There are three approaches that had emerged from
the contributions of these scholars to study and examine the inter-relationship between
culture and personality. These include:
1.
2.
3.
Personality builds culture.

Culture determines the formation of personality.
Culture and personality are inseparable and influence each other.
Personality Builds Culture

Ruth Benedict, the teacher of Margaret Mead and the first known woman
anthropologist of America dealt with the impact of personality on culture. According to
Ruth Benedict, culture is personality writ at large. Culture is not self-created but
personality builds culture. Human beings are the creators of culture in order to fulfill their
various kinds of needs. It is the individual (personality) who play significant role in handling
down the culture from one generation to another. In this sense, Benedict says, culture is a
gift of personality. She studied Kwakiutl, Dobu and Pueblo Zuni.
According to Benedict, there are two kinds of genius (personality) found in human
society.
1.
2.
Apollonian
Dionysian
69
Anthropology
Apollonian: The word apollonian is from Greek god Apollo, the peaceful sun deity.
Apollo is regarded as the god of peace, discipline, kindness and humanity by Greek people.
Thus, in the apollonian pattern of culture, one finds the existence of peace, kindness and
discipline. Benedict cites the example of Pueblo of New Mexico as the representative of
Apollonian culture.
Dionysian: The word Dionysian is derived from the name of Greek god Dionysius.
Dionysius is the symbol of luxurious life and drinking. In the Dionysian culture, a great deal
of storms and changes are experienced. Benedict cites the example of Dobu and Kwakiutl
cultures of North West coast of America as the representatives of Dionysian genius.
Dobu of Melanesia is exactly in contrast with the Pueblo in character and temperament.
Among them occured frequently conflict, competition and violence. They usually used
magic to harm others. People of Kwakiutl do not believe in religious practices. In their
culture, wealth determines status and prestige. Everyone becomes busy in earning money
by one way or another. Those with less money feel ashamed on account of it.
Benedicts study clearly reveals the influence of personality on culture. The cultures of
these groups differ because their members have different characters and personality.
Accordingly they behave in cultural groups.
Concept of Culture Pattern: This concept, which was already known among
anthropologists to refer to the universal patterns of culture, is elaborated in her famous
book Patterns of Culture (1934). Benedict tries to show the concept of patterns of
culture as applicable to individual culture. A culture pattern is formed when many cultural
traits and culture complexes become related to each other, and integrated in functional
whole. In our Indian culture, culture pattern consists of Gandhism, spiritualism, joint family
system, caste system, ruralism etc. Each of these culture complexes consists of numerous
culture traits. All these, integrated in a functional whole, give rise to culture patterns of
Indian culture.
Benedicts Study on National Character
During Second World War, anthropologists were not allowed to conduct field studies
among the natives. Hence, Ruth Benedict turned towards the study of National Character.
She was associated with the US government as a social science analyst. During the war,
she made a significant contribution in developing content analysis method to study
culture at a distance. Ruth Benedict selected the Japanese prisoners kept in American
concentration camp for studying national character of Japan. In the absence of intensive
70
field work, it was difficult for her to study

Japanese national character. She selected
the method by examining historical
documents of Japanese literature and art
forms. She interviewed Japanese
prisoners in America, went through their
diaries, took life histories and case study.
She also interviewed Japanese immigrants
in USA. As a result of this study, she
came out with her book entitled
Chrysanthemum and the Sword
(1946). The book deals with Japanese
national character.
Chrysanthemum is a national flower
of Japan. It symbolizes socialization
process of Japanese children. The
Japanese parents take every care of their
children who blossom like the
chrysanthemum flower. During
adolescence, they have to face the
situations of utter strain. As a result, they
become aggressive and violent. A sword
is always hung on their necks. Ruth
Benedict compares the personality of
childhood in Japanese culture to is like
Apollonian genius, but the personality of
adulthood is like the Dionysian genius.
Culture Determines the Formation of
Personality
Margaret Mead, through her study,
attempted to show the impact of culture
on personality formation. In her view, an
individual adopts not only material
aspects of culture i.e. house, tool, furniture
etc. but also non-material aspects of
Margaret Mead was born in Philadelphia,

Pennsylvania, on December 16, 1901. Mead was
a student of Franz Boas at Columbia University
department of Anthropology. She completed her
Ph.D at Columbia. She has conducted fieldwork
in Samoa to study the life of adolescent girls.
She learned the native language and lived there
as one of the girls in a Samoan household. She
found that young Samoan girls experienced
none of the tensions American and European
teenagers suffered from. She showed that the
kind of social organisation exist in Samoan
culture was responsible for making the easy
transition to adulthood from adolescent age.
After that she beame the curator at American
Museum of Natural History where she published
her famous book, Coming of Age in Samoa in
1928. Her interest in psychiatry turned her
attention to study the cultural context of
schizophrenia and dissociation and went to Bali
for field work, where she used a new technique
called photographic method. She contributed
much to the development of psychoanalytic
theory by emphasizing the importance of culture
in personality development. Mead has realized
the importance of culture in developing
personality. She had also contributed to the
field of national character research. Her later
works include Growing up in New Guinea (1930),
Male and female (1949), Growth and Culture
(1951). For her, anthropology was an urgent
calling, a way to bring new understandings of
human behavior to bear on the future. When
Margaret Mead died in 1978, she was the most
famous anthropologist in the world.
71
Anthropology
culture, such as religion, tradition, custom, rituals, beliefs, values and ideals. It is culture
which teaches an individual to behave in a particular way. An individual learns a culture
through the process of enculturation and assimilation. Mead studied the impact of culture
on personality through her study of three primitive societies namely, Mundugumor, Arapesh
and Tschambuli. Though these people live in the same geographical region, they have
different characters and personalities because of difference in their cultures. In short,
according to Mead, culture influence the personality formation of individual.
In her book Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies (1935), which is
a psycho-cultural study, Mead deals with the impact of culture on personality. Mead had
selected three societies of New Guinea namely Arapesh, Mundugumour, Tschambuli,
residing in the same geographical region. Mead was interested in the study as to why
societies living in same area differ in their character and personality. Meads study reveals
that the difference in personality of male and female in the same society or in different
societies are due to cultural differences.
In the personality of Arapesh, there is no conflict, competition and struggle. They
are co-operative, peace-loving and kind. The character of Mundugumour, another cultural
group living in the same area, is in contrast with Arapesh. The Mundugumour are
characterised by suspicion, competition, quarrel and jealousy. Both male and female are
aggressive. Because of these factors, the Mundugumour society is dominated by
aggressiveness in the formation of their personality. The status of a male is determined on
the basis of the number of wives he has. The greater number of wives one has, the higher
is his status. The multiple wives disturb the peace of the family atmosphere. Marriage by
exchange is also prevalent in the culture. Accordingly, a husband is capable of exchanging
his own daughter for his new wives. Marriage by exchange brings conflict between father
and son. Father wants to exchange his own daughter for his own marriage, so also the son.
The mother does not like to exchange her daughter for a new wife. Hence Mundugumour
culture is characterized by continuous struggle, competition and conflict among the members
of society.
The third cultural group of New Guinea, which Margaret Mead studied, is
Tschambuli. Here, the males possess submissive character whereas the females possess
aggressive character. In this society, while the female is free to select her husband, the male
is dependent upon the females. The males attend to the domestic chores like cooking,
cleaning houses, caring children etc. Because of these cultural facts, the Tschambuli men
developed kind, peaceful and submissive personality and the females possessed aggressive
character.
72
Thus, through the comparative study of three cultures in the nearby geographical
region, Mead has established the influence of culture on personality formation.
Meads Contribution to the Study of National Character
A nation can be defined as a human group having the inhabitants within a particular
geographical region, having common tradition, interest and common sentiments. National
character is the totality of tradition, interest and ideal which are widespread in a nation.
This includes geographical unity, language, community, races and political unity. The sum
total of the common characters possessed by the individuals of a nation constitutes national
character. In her national character study, Mead had concentrated on the analysis of films,
scanning news papers, letters, and diaries of individuals and similar other documents. It is
also supplemented by interviews with immigrants, their life histories and conducting
psychological tests. Mead edited a book, entitled Study of culture at a distance (1953),
based on her national character study. This book deals with methodology of studying
national character without making direct observation, hence the name culture study at a
distance.
Mead published another book entitled And Keep Your Powder Dry (1942). In this
book, Mead deals with the national character of America. She did not see differences in
the personalities of the child in America and that of any other countries like Japan and
Russia. Their early personality was similar. They gradually become different as the family
education and school education differ. In this way, culture and personality developed in
them reflect their national characters.
Culture and personality are inseparable and influence each other.
The scholars such as Ralph Linton and Abram Kardiner believed that culture and
personality are influenced by each other. They are inter-related, inter-dependent and
inseparable.
SUMMARY
n
The origin of Anthropological thought could also be traced back to the early Greek
Philosophers like Herodotus and Aristotle. However, it emerged as a separate branch
of knowledge during the nineteenth century with the path-breaking theories on the
biological and cultural evolution. In this regard, the contributions of Charles Darwin, E
B Tylor, and L H Morgan. Later, other pioneering Anthropologists like Franz Boas,
73
Anthropology
W H R Rivers, Malinowski, Radcliffe Brown, Levi Strauss, Ruth Benedict, Margaret

Mead and several others had contributed to the understanding of human culture and
society.
n
Cultural Evolution may be defined as a process by which different successive forms in

socio-cultural institution or culture of humankind are developed over different periods
of time.
Classical evolutionists are classified at two - classical evolutionists and neo-evolutionists.
The main proponents of classical evolutionism are E B Tylor, James Frazer, R R Marret,
L H Morgan, J J Bachofen and Adolf Bastian. They are also known as unilinear
evolutionists.
Neo-evolutionists argued that the development of culture was not unilinear, but in
the form of parabolic curve. According to parabolic curve of cultural evolution, a
social institution is born in specific form in the early stage. It then develops into an
entirely different form in different direction. It again moves towards the original form,
but in a modified form.V Gordon Childe of Britain, Julian Steward and Leslie A White
of America occupy the most significant place in neo-evolutionary theory.
Cultural diffusion is a process, by which cultural traits discovered or invented at one
place or society are spread directly or indirectly to other societies or places. Diffusionist
school of thought is divided into three - British, German and American. British diffusionists
argued that Egypt was the only centre of culture from where culture traits diffused to
other parts of the world. German diffusionits opined that culture circles or districts
were developed at different places from where culture traits and culture complexes
migrated to other places. The culture area is the dominant theme in American school of
diffusion.
At the beginning of 20th century, Malinowski and Radcliffe Brown put forward, another
approach to the analysis of culture. Malinowski put forward the theory functionalism
and Radcliffe Brown the theory of structural functionalism. Malinowski says culture is
an instrumental apparatus for the satisfaction of human needs.
According to Radcliffe Brown, the concept of structure refers to an arrangement of
parts or components related to one another. In social structure, the ultimate components
are human beings or persons and they are arranged in relation to each other. Within a
society, the individuals are grouped into different social units and institutions. Each of
these social units or institutions perform its respective functions. These are inter-related,
inter- dependent and form the structure of a society.
74

n
Levi-Strauss agrees with Brown that structure is an ordered arrangement of parts; but
he rejected the position of Radcliffe Brown on social structure as the actual aspect of
reality. Social relations are the raw materials for model building, but social structure
cannot be reduced to mere social relations.
Anthropologists during 1920s analysed the cultural practices and individual psyches of
communities. The result is establishment of new school of thought in Anthropology and
emergence of a separate branch called Psychological Anthropology. They studied the
inter-relationship between culture and personality. According to Margaret Mead culture
determines the formation of personality. Ruth Benedict opined that personality builds
culture. Linton and others viewed that culture and personality are inseperable and influence
each other.
TERM EVALUATION ITEMS

1.
Fill in the blanks.

(a) The invention of zero, made at the same time in Indian, Babilonian and
Mayan culture is an example for .
(b) Human culture has developed through the stages of savagery to barbarism
and finally to civilization is the idea of
2.
Find the odd item and justify

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
E B Tylor, L H Morgan, J J Bachofen, A L Kroeber

Franz Boas, W.H.R Rivers, Julian Steward, Elliot Smith
Theory of need. Charter, Kula exchange, Social structure
Margaret Mead, V Gorden Child, Ruth Benedict, Abraham Kardiner
3.
Differentiate:
(a)
General social structure and actual social structure
(b)
Classical evolution and neo-evolution
4.
All the cultural traits developed only in Egypt, from where, it diffused to other parts
of the world. Identify the school of thought mentioned here and also write a brief
note on this school.
75
Anthropology
5.
Match the column A with B and C.

A
Franz Boas
E B tylor
Malinowski
Margaret Mead
A R Radcliffe Brown
B
Evolutionism
Functionalism
Diffusionism
Structuralism
Culture and personality
C
Trobriand islanders
Culture area
Coming of age in Samoa
Andaman islanders
Primitive culture
6.
Prepare a flow chart on evolutionism based on different school of thought and explain
any one school in detail.
7.
Explain Malinowski theory of need.
8.
Write short note on:
Functionalism
Structuralism
Culture and personality
Diffusionism
9.
Zero was invented in India and Babylonia at the same time. Identify the corresponding
school of thought based on this idea and explain.
10.
Write a brief report on personality school of thought.
GLOSSARY
Culture: Distinctly human; transmitted through learning; traditions and customs that govern
behaviour and beliefs.
Culture and personality: A sub field of cultural anthropology; examine variation in
psychological traits and personality characteristics among cultures.
Cultural Relativism: The position that the values and standards of culture differ and
deserve respect. Relativism argues that culture should be judged solely by their own
standards.
76
Diffusion: Processes by which cultural traits discovered or invented at one place or

society are spread directly or indirectly to other societies or places.
Ethnocentrism: Tendency to view ones own culture as the best and to judge the behaviour
and beliefs of culturally different people by ones own standards.
Psychic unity of mankind: Ability of human mind to think and react in similar ways in
similar environmental conditions.
REFERENCES
Jha, Makhan. 1994. An Introduction to Anthropological Thought. New Delhi:Vikas
Publishers.
Roy, Indrani Basu. 2003. Anthropology-The Study of Man. New Delhi: S.Chand & Co.
Upadhyay, V.S and Gaya Panday. 1993. History of Anthropological Thought. New
Delhi: Concept Publishing Company.
77

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UNIT

Develop scientific outlook, approach and

Identify and distinguish the different

Distinguish research method and

Use various methods and techniques of

Design suitable research tools for

Desribe classical anthropological

Plan the entire process involved in

Sir Isaac Newton asked the

Charles Darwin asked the

EB Tylor asked the question:

Unit- 1: Anthropological Research Methods and Techniques

Science and Scientific Method

Unit- 1: Anthropological Research Methods and Techniques

Prepare a table showing the process and product of science.

It is empirical Scientific method gives importance to direct observation and

In order to ensure the attainment of characteristics scientific method has to follow

Did your classmates prepare it properly?

Unit- 1: Anthropological Research Methods and Techniques

Cross-Cultural Comparison: Comparative method could be used to study different

Unit- 1: Anthropological Research Methods and Techniques

Comparative study of American and African cultures can be considered as an example.

Ethnology, a branch of Social Cultural Anthropology is nothing but a comparative

Suggest similar topics:

The major sources of historical method are given below:

Unit- 1: Anthropological Research Methods and Techniques

Definitely the findings of the research are bound to be misleading.

Result will become speculative.

There will be chances of becoming

The whole research will become unscientific.

Government use census

How can a researcher overcome such difficulties?

Unit- 1: Anthropological Research Methods and Techniques

By establishing good rapport friendly relation based on personal

Which type of observation is ideal for anthropological field work? Why?

Unit- 1: Anthropological Research Methods and Techniques

Present your conclusions in the class.

Observation is the accurate watching

Uncontrolled observation is a form of

Participant Observation: When the researcher actively participates in the activities

The features of participant observation are detailed below:

Be highly sensitive to the situations and social contexts of the research

Unit- 1: Anthropological Research Methods and Techniques

Claim no superiority over the group.

Merits or Advantages of Participant

Non-participant observation: You

When the observer does not actively

Objectivity and neutrality could be maintained because of detachment with the

Unit- 1: Anthropological Research Methods and Techniques

However, non-participant observation is not free from limitations.

The dangers of subjectivity are more pronounced.

Due to conscious effort to keep a detachment, the non-participant observer may

In this type, an attempt is made to exercise control over the phenomena or

Detailed observation plan

Use of socio-metric scales

You can discuss how the above measuring devices of

Stuart Chapin had

Mind map/prepare a chart showing the different

It is an intensive, comprehensive and detailed study of a social unit