Grammar Handbook

GRAMMAR
Grammar
HANDBOOK
Handbook

continued

Part 1: Grammar
Words, Word Groups, and Sentences
Words: Parts of Speech
Part of Speech

Function

Examples

Noun

names a person, place, thing, or

idea

Taylor, mayor, ship, Missouri River, log,

happiness

Pronoun

takes the place of a noun or other

pronoun

I, you, she, us, they, himself, this, who,

whom, that, which, each, none

Verb

expresses an action or state of

being

go, be, startle, break, feel, do

Adjective

modifies a noun or pronoun

green, large, English, two

Adverb

modifies a verb, adjective, or

other adverb

suddenly, awhile, yesterday, really

Preposition

relates one word to another word

in, on, to, above, before, with, between

Conjunction

joins words or word groups

and, or, but, so, either . . . or, because

Interjection

expresses emotion

ow, whew, uh-oh, hooray

Word Groups: Phrases

2014 College Board. All rights reserved.

A phrase is a word group that functions as a specific part of speech and does NOT contain
both a subject and its verb.
Kind of Phrase

Description

Examples

noun phrase

functions as a noun (names a

person, place, thing, or idea)

The cold dark woods looked like a

forbidding place to be.

verb phrase

functions as a verb (expresses an

action or state of being)

We were looking for his house,

where the old parrot cage was
stored.

adjective phrase

functions as an adjective (modifies The book on the left is the one to

a noun or pronoun)
read if you are working on the report
assigned in class.

adverb phrase

functions as an adverb (modifies a

verb, adjective, or other adverb)

He turned to the left when he was

ready to leave.

participial phrase

begins with a past or present

participle and functions as an
adjective (modifies a noun or
pronoun)

The book sitting on the shelf is the

one given by Uncle Dan; you can use
it for the report assigned in class.

infinitive phrase

begins with an infinitive verb form He wants to leave the theater

(to + base form) and functions as a whenever you are ready to go home.
noun, adjective, or adverb

gerund phrase

begins with an ing verb form and

functions as a noun

Leaving the theater early and going

home are our next steps.

prepositional
phrase

introduced by a preposition and

usually acts as an adjective or
adverb

The book on the left is the one to

read if you are working on the report
assigned in class.

(Continued)
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continued

appositive phrase

renames or identifies another

noun or pronoun

My best friends, Meredith and Emily,

say that they are going to New
Orleans, my favorite city.

absolute phrase

consists of a noun and its

modifiers and functions as a
modifier of a verb or whole clause.

The sunset waning, we decided to

head back to camp. There, we found
our friend Jackson, his backpack
leaning against the picnic table.

Word Groups: Clauses

A clause is a word group that contains both a subject and its verb. An independent clause
can stand alone as a sentence and expresses a complete thought. A dependent clause,
or subordinate clause, does not express a complete thought and cannot stand alone as a
sentence.
Independent Clause: The pear tree grows.
Dependent Clause: The pear tree that Aunt Kim gave us grows well.
Dependent clauses can function as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs.
Noun clause: Do you know who planted the tree?
Adjective clause: Do you see the birds that are nesting?
Adverb clause: Well start the mosaic after Eric arrives.
A noun clause functions as a noun doesfor example, as the subject of a sentence or as a
direct or indirect object.
Whoever wants a copy should send me a message.

Restrictive: The boys who want a copy have added their names to the list.
Nonrestrictive: The four broken containers, which are stacked in the corner, need to be
returned.

Sentences

A sentence is a word group that has both a subject and a verb and that expresses a
complete thought. Sentences are made of words, phrases, and clauses. A phrase is a word
group that functions as a specific part of speech and does NOT contain both a subject and
its verb. A clause is a word group that contains both a subject and its verb and that may act
as a part of speech.
A simple sentence is made of one independent clause and no dependent clauses. It may
contain any number of phrases.

2014 College Board. All rights reserved.

An adjective clause, or relative clause, modifies a noun or pronoun. Adjective clauses can
be restrictive (essential to a sentences meaning) or nonrestrictive (nonessential to the
sentences meaning). Nonrestrictive clauses are set off by commas.

The pear tree grows.

The pear tree given to us by Aunt Kim grows very well in that corner of the yard.
A compound sentence is made of two or more independent clauses and no dependent
clauses. It may contain any number of phrases.
The sun shines, and the pear tree grows.
The pear tree given to us by Aunt Kim grows very well in that corner of the yard, and we may
plant another one near it in the fall.

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continued
A complex sentence is made of one independent clause and at least one dependent clause.
It may contain any number of phrases.
The pear tree that we planted last season grows well.
The pear tree that we planted last season and that Aunt Kim gave us grows well.
A compound-complex sentence is made of one independent clause and at least one
dependent clause. It may contain any number of phrases.
The pear tree that we planted last season grows well, and so does the apple tree.
The pear tree that we planted last season and that Aunt Kim gave us grows well, and so does
the apple tree.

Part 2: Usage
Subject-Verb Agreement
Compound Subjects

When the subject of a sentence is composed of two or more nouns or pronouns connected
by and, use a plural verb.
Sara and her sisters are at the movie theater.
When two or more singular nouns or pronouns are connected by or or nor, use a singular
verb.
Clive or Penny is in the yard.
When a compound subject contains both a singular and a plural noun or pronoun joined by
or or nor, the verb should agree with the noun or pronoun that is nearer the verb.
George or his teammates practice daily.

2014 College Board. All rights reserved.

Other Problems in Agreement

Doesnt is a contraction of does not and should be used with a singular subject. Dont
is a contraction of do not and should be used with a plural subject. Exception: With the
pronouns I and you, the contraction dont should be used.
He doesnt like it.
They dont like it.
Do not be misled by a phrase that comes between the subject and the verb. The verb agrees
with the subject, not with a noun or pronoun in the interrupting phrase.
One of the stores is closed.
The people who love that band are many.
The captain of the team, as well as his rivals, is ready.
The movie, including all the trailers that come before, is very long.
A teenager with a skateboard and basketball walks past this bus stop each day.
The terms each, each one, either, neither, everyone, everybody, anybody, anyone, nobody,
somebody, someone, and no one are singular and require a singular verb.
Each of these platters is full.
Everybody knows the answer.
Either is fine with me.

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Some nouns that are plural in form, such as civics, mathematics, measles, and news, require
singular verbs.
Measles is a serious illness.
Some nouns, such as scissors, tweezers, pants, and shears, identify singular objects but
name things that have two parts. These nouns take plural verbs.
These scissors are sharp.
Those pants are made of heavy fabric.
In sentences beginning with there is or there are, the subject follows the verb, but the verb
must still agree with the subject.
There are many owls in the woods.
There is a question.
Collective nouns are words that can take a singular or plural verb, depending on if they refer
to the group as a whole or to the group as a collection of different members or elements.
Examples include group, team, committee, class, and family.
The family has a long history.
My family have never been able to agree.

Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement

When a pronoun takes the place of a singular noun, use a singular pronoun.
Incorrect: If a student parks a car on campus, they have to buy a parking sticker.
Correct: If a student parks a car on campus, he or she has to buy a parking sticker.
If using he or she sounds wordy, you can revise a sentence to use a plural form instead:
Students who park on campus have to buy parking stickers for their cars.

Everybody ought to do his or her job.

Neither of the girls brought her backpack.

Other Problems in Agreement

Agreement in Person

Pronouns should agree in person with their antecedents. Do not switch between first,
second, and third person without reason.
Incorrect: When a person comes to class, you should have your homework ready.
Correct: A person arriving in class should have his or her homework ready.

2014 College Board. All rights reserved.

The pronouns each, each one, either, neither, everyone, everybody, anybody, anyone,
nobody, somebody, someone, and no one require a singular verb.

Clear Reference

Pronouns should refer specifically and clearly to their antecedents. In some cases, you may
need to reword or reorganize a sentence to make it clearer.
Ambiguous: Although the car hit the building, it was not damaged. [Is it the car or the
building?]
Revised: Although it hit the building, the car was not damaged.
Ambiguous: Stella told Kathryn that she ought to help build the set. [Does she refer to Stella
or Kathryn?]
Revised: According to Stella, Kathryn ought to help build the set.

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continued
Unclear: In the newspaper they say that the drought will last all summer. [Who are they?]
Revised: An article in the newspaper says that the drought will last all summer.
Unclear: Armand had a job as a ranger in a state forest last summer. This may be his lifes
work. [What word does this refer to?]
Revised: Armand had a job as a ranger in a state forest last summer. Protecting nature may be
his lifes work.

Pronoun Case

Pronouns have three cases.

Subjective (nominative) case: pronouns used as subjects or predicate nominatives
Objective case: pronouns used as objects of verbs or prepositions
Possessive case: pronouns that express ownership
Subjective Case

Objective Case

Possessive Case

me

my (mine)

you

you

your (yours)

he, she, it

him, her, it

his, her (hers), it (its)

we

us

our (ours)

they

them

their (theirs)

who

whom

whose

2014 College Board. All rights reserved.

Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns

Singular

Plural

First person

myself

ourselves

Second person

yourself

yourselves

Third person

himself, herself, itself

themselves

A reflexive pronoun refers back to the subject of a clause or sentence. It functions as a

complement or as the object of a preposition.
I told myself to be brave. [The reflexive pronoun is the indirect object of told.]
An intensive pronoun emphasizes the word it refers to.
I myself led the team to safety. [The reflexive pronoun emphasizes the subject.]

Compound Structures

In compound structures that include two pronouns or a noun and a pronoun, pay attention
to pronoun case. Hint: If youre not sure which form to use, try each pronoun on its own in
the sentence.
Incorrect: Dylan and me play soccer. [Would you say, me play?]
Correct: Dylan and I play soccer.
Incorrect: He gave the message to the faculty and I. [Would you say, he gave the message
toI?]
Correct: He gave the message to the faculty and me.
Incorrect: Us musicians like the conductor. [Would you say, us like the conductor?]
Correct: We musicians like the conductor.

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Comparisons

In comparisons, pay attention to pronoun case. Hint: You can finish the comparison, as
shown below, to determine which case to use.
Connor is more talented than I (am).
This helps Eliot as much as (it helps) me.

Who and Whom

In formal writing, use whom and its related forms as an object of a verb or of a preposition.
Informal: Who am I talking to?
Formal: To whom am I talking?
Informal: I will be sitting next to whoever Senator Gorm invites.
Formal: I will be sitting next to whomever Senator Gorm invites.

Appositives

An appositive is a noun or pronoun that identifies or explains another noun or pronoun.

Your friend Bill is in Dr. Levines AP class.
My sisters cat, Chimmy, doesnt like your dog.
An appositive phrase usually follows the word it explains or identifies, but it may also
precede it.
A state known for its cold climate, Alaska is closer to the North Pole than to Texas.
Some appositives are restrictive, or essential to a sentences meaning. Restrictive
appositives are not set off by punctuation.
The civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr., is often quoted. [Without the appositive, we
would not know who is often quoted.]

Martin Luther King, Jr., a famous civil rights leader, is often quoted. [Without the appositive,
we would still know who is often quoted.]

Verbals
Gerunds and Gerund Phrases

A gerund is a verbal that ends in -ing and functions as a noun. Since a gerund functions
as a noun, it can be used as a subject, direct object, subject complement, or object of
preposition.
Traveling might satisfy your desire for new experiences.
Are you excited about arriving?
Gerund phrases include a gerund and any modifiers or complements of the gerund.
A gerund phrase functions as a noun.

2014 College Board. All rights reserved.

If the appositive is nonrestrictive, or not essential to a sentences meaning, it is set off with
commas.

Traveling to Asia might satisfy your desire for new experiences.

Are you excited about arriving tomorrow?

Participles and Participial Phrases

A participle is a verbal that is used as an adjective and most often ends in ing or ed.
Participles modify nouns or pronouns. Present participles end in ing. Past participles end
in ed, d, en, t, or n, as in the words used, beaten, dealt, and seen.

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The dangling toy caught the kittens attention.
The broken shutter banged in the wind.
A participial phrase includes the participle and any modifiers or complements of the
participle. A participial phrase modifies a noun or pronoun.
The toy dangling off the sofa caught the kittens attention.
The shutter broken in the winter storm banged in the wind.
A participial phrase should clearly modify a word in the sentence and should be placed near
the word it modifies.
Incorrect: Carrying a stack of plates, his foot caught on a step. [His foot was not carrying
plates. This participial phrase is a dangling modifier; it does not clearly modify any word in
the sentence.]
Correct: Carrying a stack of plates, he caught his foot on a step.
Incorrect: Flying across the sky, Eugene saw a huge flock of gorgeous birds. [Eugene was not
flying. This participial phrase is a misplaced modifier; it appears to modify Eugene rather
than flock.]
Correct: Eugene saw a huge flock of gorgeous birds flying across the sky.

Punctuating Participial Phrases

When a participial phrase begins a sentence, a comma should be placed after the phrase.
Arriving at the park, Tara found that it had just closed.
Exercising regularly, Miguel found that his health and his attitude both improved.
When a participial phrase comes in the middle of a sentence, it should be set off with
commas only if the information in the phrase is not essential to the meaning of the sentence.
Gricelda, performing in the play, found that she enjoyed being on stage. [not essential]
The teenager performing in the play was very talented. [essential]

2014 College Board. All rights reserved.

When a participial phrase comes at the end of a sentence, a comma usually precedes the
phrase if it modifies an earlier word in the sentence but not if the phrase directly follows the
word it modifies.
The rangers watched the caribou heading toward the stream. [The phrase modifies caribou.]
The rangers watched the caribou, admiring the animals beauty and strength. [The phrase
modifies rangers, not caribou.]

Infinitives and Infinitive Phrases

An infinitive is a verbal consisting of the word to and the base form of a verb. It can function
as a noun, adjective, or adverb. The infinitive may function as a subject, direct object,
subject complement, adjective, or adverb in a sentence.
To stay seemed rude. [subject]
Jerome wanted to go. [direct object]
Her preference was to delay. [predicate nominative]
He lacked the willingness to insist. [adjective]
They finally were ready to depart. [adverb]
Dont confuse an infinitivea verbal consisting of to plus a verbwith a prepositional
phrase beginning with to.
Infinitives: to paint, to become, to exit, to sit, to throw
Prepositional Phrases: to Jason, to the field, to all of us, to the hour

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An infinitive phrase includes an infinitive and its modifiers or complements.

To stay past 10:00 p.m. seemed rude. [subject]
Jerome wanted to go right away. [direct object]
Her preference was to delay till her aunt arrived. [predicate nominative]
He lacked the willingness to insist that they say goodnight. [adjective]
They finally were ready to depart around midnight. [adverb]

Punctuating Infinitives and Infinitive Phrases

If an infinitive or infinitive phrase is used as an adverb and begins a sentence, it should be

set off with a comma; otherwise, no punctuation is needed.
To convince me to read the book, Jacob read me his favorite passages. [adverb]
To plant a garden is my next goal. [noun]

Split infinitives

Split infinitives occur when words come between to and the verb in an infinitive. Although
splitting infinitives is sometimes acceptable, it is often awkward, and some readers find split
infinitives overly informal. You may wish to avoid splitting infinitives in formal writing.
Awkward: He began to, all of a sudden, talk excitedly about his new job.
Revised: He began, all of a sudden, to talk excitedly about his new job.

Prepositions
Preposition Use: Expressions of Time
On is used with days:

I will see Tim on Wednesday.

At is used with noon, night, midnight, and with the time of day:
The movie is at noon.
We will gather in the afternoon.
In the spring, we can visit Kansas.
To express continuing action, English uses the following prepositions: since, for, by, from . . .
to, from . . . until, during, (with)in.
The visitors have been here since yesterday.
Im going to Atlanta for two weeks.
Mikes cousins were in Austin from August to October.

Preposition Use: Expressions of Place

English uses the following prepositions:

2014 College Board. All rights reserved.

In is used with other parts of the day, with months, with years, with seasons:

to talk about a specific point or place: in

There is an egg in the nest.
to express something contained: inside
What is inside that blue box?
to talk about the surface: on
What is on the counter?
to talk about a general vicinity: at
We left him at Antietam.

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Preposition Use: Objects of Verbs

English uses the following prepositions to introduce objects of the following verbs.
At: glance, laugh, look, rejoice, smile, stare
Im laughing at the puppets antics.
The toddler smiled at you.
Of: approve, consist, smell
Aunt Irene approves of your career choice.
That smells of mildew.
Of (or about): dream, think
Zac dreams of starting anew.
Zeb thinks about leaving for Seattle.
For: call, hope, look, wait, watch, wish
Caroline hopes for success.
The stranded sailor waits and watches for rescue.

Sentence Construction: Connecting Clauses

Coordinating conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs can be used to connect independent
clauses.
Coordinating Conjunctions: The coordinating conjunctions used to join independent clauses
are and, but, or, for, nor, so, and yet. When the second independent clause in a sentence
begins with a coordinating conjunction, a comma is needed before the coordinating
conjunction:

2014 College Board. All rights reserved.

Ben wanted to play soccer, but Miles wanted to run track.

Conjunctive Adverbs: Some common conjunctive adverbs are also, consequently,
furthermore, however, moreover, nevertheless, and therefore. A conjunctive adverb can
begin an independent clause or can be used to join independent clauses. When the second
independent clause in a sentence has a conjunctive adverb, a semicolon is needed before it.
Ben wanted to play soccer; however, Miles wanted to run track.
Subordinating conjunctions can connect dependent clauses to independent clauses.
Common subordinating conjunctions include after, although, as, as if, because, before, even
if, even though, if, in order to, since, though, unless, until, when, whenever, whether, and
while.
Even if she does prefer vanilla, I think she will enjoy the coconut cake.
I will help you with the dishes whenever you are ready.
The chicken likes to roost outside unless it is raining.

Common Sentence Construction Errors

Comma Splices: A comma splice is the use of a comma to join two independent clauses.
You can usually fix the error in one of these ways:

changing the comma to a period and turning the two clauses into separate sentences
changing the comma to a semicolon
making one clause dependent by inserting a subordinating conjunction
adding a coordinating conjunction after the comma

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Incorrect:
I love that movie, I have watched it ten times.
Correct:
I love that movie. I have watched it ten times.
I love that movie; I have watched it ten times.
Because I love that movie, I have watched it ten times.
I love that movie, and I have watched it ten times.
Fused Sentences: A fused sentence is two or more independent clauses run together with
no punctuation. This error is also known as a run-on sentence. The error can sometimes be
corrected by adding a period, semicolon, or colon between the clauses.
Incorrect: I love that movie I have watched it ten times.
Correct: I love that movie. I have watched it ten times.
Correct: I love that movie; I have watched it ten times.
Correct: I love that movie: I have watched it ten times.
Sentence Fragments: A sentence fragment is a word groups that does not express a
complete thought and cannot stand alone as a sentence. You can usually fix a fragment
by combining it with another sentence to make a complete thought or by removing a
subordinating conjunction.
Incorrect: Because today I have band practice.
Correct: Because today I have band practice, I wont be riding the bus.
Correct: Today I have band practice.

Using Verbs Correctly

Verbs express different times through tenses. Do not change tenses unnecessarily. Use
tenses consistently unless you are deliberately expressing differences in time or sequence.

Sequence of Tenses

Present Perfect: They have walked.

Present: They walk.
Past Perfect: They had walked.
Past: They walked.
Future Perfect: They will have walked.
Future: They will walk.

Problems in sequencing tenses usually occur with the perfect tenses, which are formed by
adding an auxiliary or auxiliaries to the past participle.
verb

past form

perfect tenses

ring

rang

has/have/had rung; will have rung

walk

walked

has/have/had walked; will have walked

2014 College Board. All rights reserved.

Inconsistent: I was talking to Roseanne, and I say, Will you be in Florida in June?
Consistent: I was talking to Roseanne, and I said, Will you be in Florida in June?

The most common auxiliaries are can, do, may, must, ought, shall, will, has, have, had, and
forms of be.
Present Perfect: The present perfect consists of a past participle preceded by has or have.
It expresses action that began in the past and that continues into the present.

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continued
past: Ms. Gage taught for ten years. [She no longer teaches.]
present perfect: Ms. Gage has taught for ten years. [She is still teaching.]
Past Perfect: The past perfect tense expresses action in the past that is completed before
another past action.
past: Mr. Geiser played in a band for years.
past perfect: Mr. Geiser had played in a band for years before he went solo.
Future Perfect: The future perfect tense expresses action that will have been completed at a
specified time in the future.
future: Mr. Catalano will teach for seventeen years.
future perfect: Mr. Catalano will have taught for seventeen years this November.

Mood and Modal Forms

Mood refers to the form the verb takes to indicate the speakers attitude. Avoid unnecessary
shifts in mood.
Indicative mood expresses a fact or opinion. It is used in declarative sentences.
The Rogers family raises chickens.
Imperative mood expresses a command or request.
Bring me the eggs, please.
Subjunctive mood expresses a suggestion, necessity, condition contrary to fact, or a wish.
I recommend that you be seated now.
It is necessary that you be seated.
If I were you, I would be seated.
I wish I were seated already.

2014 College Board. All rights reserved.

Interrogative sentences express a question.

Did you go to the farm?
Are they raising chickens?
Conditional verbs express actions or states of being that depend on other conditions.
If the sun had already set, we would have gone home.

Irregular Verbs

In English, verbs have a base form (the present), a past form, and a past participle. Regular
verbs add ed to the base form to make both the past form and past participle. Irregular
verbs do not follow this pattern.
Present

Past

Past Participle

be

was, were

been

become

became

become

begin

began

begun

blow

blew

blown

break

broke

broken

bring

brought

brought

build

built

built

(Continued)
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burst

burst

burst

buy

bought

bought

catch

caught

caught

choose

chose

chosen

come

came

come

cut

cut

cut

deal

dealt

dealt

do

did

done

drink

drank

drunk

drive

drove

driven

eat

ate

eaten

fall

fell

fallen

feed

fed

fed

feel

felt

felt

fight

fought

fought

find

found

found

fly

flew

flown

forbid

forbade

forbidden

forget

forgot

forgotten

forgive

forgave

forgiven

freeze

froze

frozen

get

got

gotten

give

gave

given

go

went

gone

grow

grew

grown

have

had

had

hear

heard

heard

hide

hid

hidden

hold

held

held

hurt

hurt

hurt

keep

kept

kept

know

knew

known

lay

laid

laid

lead

led

led

leave

left

left

let

let

let

lie

lay

lain

lose

lost

lost

make

made

made

meet

met

met

pay

paid

paid

2014 College Board. All rights reserved.

continued

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2014 College Board. All rights reserved.

continued

quit

quit

quit

read

read

read

ride

rode

ridden

run

ran

run

say

said

said

see

saw

seen

seek

sought

sought

sell

sold

sold

send

sent

sent

shake

shook

shaken

shine

shone

shone

sing

sang

sung

sit

sat

sat

sleep

slept

slept

speak

spoke

spoken

spend

spent

spent

spring

sprang

sprung

stand

stood

stood

steal

stole

stolen

swim

swam

swum

swing

swung

swung

take

took

taken

teach

taught

taught

tear

tore

torn

tell

told

told

think

thought

thought

throw

threw

thrown

understand

understood

understood

wake

woke (waked)

woken (waked)

wear

wore

worn

win

won

won

write

wrote

written

Commonly Confused Verbs

Lie vs. Lay
Present

Past

Past Participle

lie, lying (to tell a falsehood)

I lied to no one.

I have lied to no one.

lie, lying (to recline)

I lay in bed because I was

tired.

He has lain in bed all morning.

lay, laying (to put, place)

I laid the doll in the cradle.

We have laid the doll in the

cradle.

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continued

Sit vs. Set

Present

Past

Past Participle

sit (to be seated or come to a

resting position)

I sat on the curb to wait.

You have sat on the curb all

afternoon.

set (to put or place)

I set my dish in the sink.

She has set her dishes in the

sink.

Rise vs. Raise

Present

Past

Past Participle

rise (steady or customary

upward movement)

The helicopter rose into the

air.

The helicopter has risen into

the air.

raise (to cause to rise)

They raised their hands to

give the answer.

I have raised my hands in

class many times.

Part 3: Style
Parallel Structure

Parallel structure is the use of similar grammatical structures to show that two or more ideas
are similar in importance or meaning or to provide emphasis. Words, phrases, and clauses
can be parallel.

Words and Phrases

Not Parallel: Carla likes hiking, swimming, and to ride a bicycle.

Parallel: Carla likes hiking, swimming, and riding a bicycle.

Not Parallel: He waited until the last minute to study for the exam, completed his lab
problems in a careless manner, and his motivation was low.
Parallel: He waited until the last minute to study for the exam, completed his lab problems
in a careless manner, and lacked motivation.

Clauses

Not Parallel: The teacher told the students that they should get a lot of sleep, that they
should not worry too much, and to go over their notes.
Parallel: The teacher told the students that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should
not worry too much, and that they should go over their notes.

2014 College Board. All rights reserved.

Not Parallel: The manager wrote his report quickly, accurately, and in a detailed manner.
Parallel: The manager wrote his report quickly, accurately, and thoroughly.

Not Parallel: I asked when the order would be ready, where the package should be
delivered, and the name of the recipient.
Parallel: I asked when the order would be ready, where the package should be delivered,
and who would receive the package.

Lists

Be sure to keep the elements in a list parallel.

Not Parallel: The tutorial covers how to identify clauses, correct common errors, and
proofreading for errors.

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continued
Parallel: The tutorial covers how to identify clauses, correct common errors, and proofread
for errors.
Bulleted items should be parallel.
Not Parallel:
The master gardener talked about these topics:
compost
wildflowers
eradicating pests
irrigation
Parallel:
The master gardener talked about these topics:
compost
wildflowers
pests
irrigation

Using Active Voice

In a sentence using active voice, the subject of the sentence performs the action expressed
by the verb.
The girl threw the ball.
I ate three apples yesterday.
In a sentence using passive voice, the subject of the sentence receives the action expressed
by the verb.

2014 College Board. All rights reserved.

The ball was thrown.

Three apples were eaten yesterday.
Active

Passive

Simple Present

Acme ships the widgets to many

clients.

Widgets are shipped to many clients.

Present Progressive

The chef is cooking the beets.

The beets are being cooked.

Simple Past

I mailed a letter last Friday.

A letter was mailed last Friday.

Past Progressive

The principal was making

announcements at the assembly.

Announcements were being made at

the assembly.

Future

The president will make

decisions.

Decisions will be made by the

president.

Present Perfect

Kelli has made the appointment.

The appointment has been made.

Past Perfect

They had baked muffins for us.

Muffins had been baked for us.

Future Perfect

By Tuesday, we will have

completed this project.

By Tuesday, this project will have

been completed.

The active voice is more vigorous and direct. There are times when passive voice is useful
or appropriatefor instance, when you want to be diplomatic and avoid naming names, or
when you want to emphasize the recipient of the action. However, generally, you should use
active voice most of the time. Avoid unnecessary shifts in voice.

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continued

Part 4: Mechanics
Capitalization

Capitalize the first word of a sentence.

Do you have my schedule?
Capitalize the pronoun I.
When I sneeze, I try not to do so loudly.
Capitalize proper nouns (the names of specific people, places, organizations, and things).
Dreiser Company
Supreme Court
Indian Ocean

Brooklyn Bridge
Cleveland, Ohio
Federal Trade Commission

Capitalize proper names of family members.

I sent cookies to Grandma but not to Uncle Joe.
What did Father say?
Lowercase words for family members when they are preceded by a, an, the,
or a possessive pronoun.
Carina is an aunt now.
I sent cookies to our grandmothers but not our uncles.
What did your father say?
Capitalize the names of specific deities, religious figures, and holy books.
God
the Virgin Mary
the Bible
Mercury
the Torah

Abraham
Shiva
Buddha
Zeus
the Koran
2014 College Board. All rights reserved.

Exception: Do not capitalize the nonspecific use of the word god.

The Greek gods seem almost human at times.
Capitalize titles preceding names but not titles that follow names.
What do you think of Mayor Nagin?
I voted for Cecilia Guerra, the mayor of Nettontown.
Capitalize directions that are used as names of parts of the country.
The Rogers family has lived in the South for several generations.
Note: Do not capitalize directions when they are not used as names.
We are heading south next week.
Capitalize days of the week, months of the year, and holidays.
Easter
January
Friday

Monday
September
Thanksgiving

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continued
Capitalize the names of seasons only when they are part of a proper noun.
Brentwood Fall Festival
2016 Summer Olympics
Capitalize the names of countries, nationalities, and specific languages.
Paraguay
Spanish

Russia
Russian

Capitalize the first word in a sentence that is a direct quotation.

George Saunders said, Grief is the bill that comes due for love.
Capitalize the first, last, and all important words in titles of literary and artistic works.
Do not capitalize short prepositions or the articles a, an, and the unless used as the first
word of the title.
The Catcher in the Rye
Nothing Gold Can Stay
Starry Night
Capitalize the names of members of national, political, racial, social, civic,
and athletic groups.
New Orleans Saints
African Americans
Austin Mavericks

Republicans
Phi Beta Kappan
Japanese

Capitalize historical periods and major events.

Edwardian Era
Great Depression

Boston Tea Party

Louisiana World Exposition

Note: Do not capitalize names of centuries.

2014 College Board. All rights reserved.

sixteenth century
first century
Capitalize trademarked brand names.
Pepsi
Toyota

IBM
Nintendo

Punctuating Sentences

Here are basic sentence patterns and how they are punctuated.

Simple Sentence

This pattern is an example of a simple sentence:

Independent clause [ . ]
We went on an urban hike downtown.

Compound Sentence with a Comma and Coordinating Conjunction

This pattern is an example of a compound sentence with a coordinating conjunction:

Independent clause [ , ] coordinating conjunction independent clause [ . ]

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These are the coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet. Note that then is
not a coordinating conjunction and cannot be used with a comma to separate independent
clauses.
We went on an urban hike downtown, and we took notes on the world around us.

Compound Sentence with a Semicolon

This pattern is an example of a compound sentence with a semicolon:

Independent clause [ ; ] independent clause [ . ]
We went on an urban hike downtown; we took notes on the world around us.

Compound Sentence with a Conjunctive Adverb

This pattern is an example of a compound sentence with a conjunctive adverb.

Independent clause [ ; ] conjunctive adverb [ , ] independent clause [ . ]
These are examples of conjunctive adverbs: also, consequently, however, moreover,
therefore, thus.
We went on an urban hike downtown; also, we took notes on the world around us.

Complex Sentence Beginning with a Dependent Clause

This pattern is an example of a complex sentence. It begins with a subordinating conjunction

and a subordinate (dependent) clause.
Subordinating conjunction dependent clause [ , ] independent clause [ . ]
These are examples of subordinating conjunctions: after, although, as, as if, because,
before, if, since, until, when, while.
When we went on an urban hike downtown, we took notes on the world around us.

Complex Sentence Beginning with an Independent Clause

Independent clause subordinating conjunction dependent clause [ . ]

We took notes on the world around us while we were on an urban hike downtown.

Independent Clause with an Embedded Nonessential Phrase or Clause

This pattern includes an independent clause with an embedded nonessential clause

or phrase. A nonessential clause or phrase can be removed without changing the basic
meaning of the sentence or making it ungrammatical. The nonessential clause or phrase
provides extra information, but the sentence can stand alone without it.
First part of independent clause [ , ] nonessential clause or phrase [ , ] rest of the
independent clause [ . ]
We took notes, some serious and some humorous, on the world around us.
We took notes, which we used later in reports, on the world around us.

2014 College Board. All rights reserved.

This pattern is an example of a complex sentence beginning with an independent clause.

Independent Clause with an Embedded Essential Phrase or Clause

This pattern includes an independent clause with an embedded essential clause or phrase.
An essential clause or phrase cannot be removed without changing the basic meaning of
the sentence.

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continued
First part of an independent clause essential clause or phrase rest of the independent clause [ . ]
The next hike that we will take will go along Main Street.
The next hike through downtown will go along Main Street.

Commas

Commas are often used between grammatical elements and have many conventional uses.
Here are essential rules for comma use.
Use a comma with a coordinating conjunction to join two independent clauses (and, but, or,
for, nor, so, yet).
Rain fell last weekend, but this weekend should be sunny.
Use a comma after an introductory verbal phrase or an introductory adverb clause.
To see the meteors, you should go where there is less light pollution.
Watching the meteors, we felt both excited and sleepy.
Before we left, we packed extra snacks.
Use a comma after a long introductory prepositional phrase or after more than one
prepositional phrase.
By one oclock in the morning, we were getting cold.
Use a comma after one short introductory prepositional phrase if needed for clarity or
readability.
In December, 17 meteors streaked above me as I watched. [Without the comma, it looks at
first as if the sentence contains the date December 17.]

2014 College Board. All rights reserved.

Use a comma to separate items in a series. For logic and consistency, it is helpful to include
a final comma (called the serial comma, or Oxford comma) before the conjunction; however,
it is usually not incorrect to omit it.
The trail was long, dusty, and arduous.
I like to read novels by George Eliot, Charles Dickens, and E. M. Forster.
They invited my parents, Frank, and Peggy. [Note that without the serial comma, it would be
unclear whether two or four people were invited.]
Use a comma to set off nonessential phrases and clauses.
My hen, a Rhode Island Red, lays several eggs each week.
Russell Hobans novel Riddley Walker, which I am reading, is fascinating.
Use a comma between coordinate adjectives (adjectives that have equal weight and that
can be reordered in the sentence).
He turned in a concise, well-written essay.
If you cannot change the order of the adjectives without making the sentence sound
awkward or unidiomatic, you may not need commas.
His skateboard is the big green one. [You wouldnt say green big one.]
The routine involves an easy high kick. [You wouldnt say high easy kick.]
Use a comma after a transitional word or phrase, such as however, therefore, nonetheless,
also, otherwise, finally, instead, thus, of course, above all, for example, in other words, as a
result, on the other hand, in conclusion, in addition.
Nonetheless, we will proceed as planned.
Otherwise, we will be stranded here without our phones.
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continued

Use a comma to set off direct quotations and speech tags.

Hey, Roy said, I will be taking photos at the gallery reception.
Emily replied, I hope you get good pictures of Katherine and Alan.
Use commas to set off items in a date.
She was born on October 27, 1962.
That was due on Friday, April 12, 2013, but was turned in late.
Use commas to set off thousands, millions, billions, and so on.
27,000,000
Use commas to set off personal titles and suffixes. Note that in running text, a comma
follows the title or suffix.
Please welcome Michael Davidson, M.D., to the stage.
We studied Martin Luther King, Jr., and his accomplishments.
Use a comma to separate a city name from a state or country name. In running text, a
comma follows the state or country name.
I am from Salisbury, England, and she is from Edinburgh, Scotland.
I ordered copies from a bookstore in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, but they havent arrived.

Semicolons

Use a semicolon to join two independent clauses when the second clause restates the first
or when the two clauses are closely related.
If you can arrive early, I will appreciate it; well have to set up the sound system.

The technician has already left; however, I think I have her cell number.
Use a semicolon to join items in a series when the items themselves include commas.
My favorite cities are London, England; Dublin, Ireland; and Chicago, Illinois.

Colons

Use a colon to join two independent clauses when you want to emphasize
the second clause.
Ill ask you again: Would you please return the shirt you borrowed?
Use a colon after an independent clause when it introduces a list, a quotation, an appositive,
or other idea directly related to the independent clause.

2014 College Board. All rights reserved.

Use a semicolon to join two independent clauses when the second clause begins with a
conjunctive adverb, such as however, therefore, moreover, furthermore, thus, meanwhile,
nonetheless, or otherwise, or a transition, such as in fact, for example, that is, for instance,
in addition, in other words, on the other hand, or even so.

We need supplies for the party: ice, beverages, cups, and snacks.
This is Nelsons favorite quotation by George Eliot: What do we live for, if it is not to make
life less difficult for each other?
Tasha has an idea for the perfect classroom pet: a turtle.
Use a colon after the greeting of a business letter.
To Whom It May Concern:

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continued
Use a colon to separate hours and minutes.
12:00 p.m.
Use a colon to separate the chapter and verse in a Biblical reference.
I John 4:7

Parentheses

Parentheses are used to set off explanatory content, especially if it is tangential.

Use parentheses to set off nonessential, or nonrestrictive, information such as dates,
clarifying information, or sources, from a sentence.
David Foster Wallace (19622008) wrote both fiction and nonfiction.
You can find us at 1802 Quentin Street (just behind Compson Middle School).
Use parentheses to enclose literary citations or explanations of acronyms.
The Wired Northwest (Hirt, 2012) details the electrification of the Northwest.
The scientists at NIH (National Institutes of Health) will issue a report.

Brackets

Brackets are used to clarify the meaning of quoted material.

The biologist explained, We were dismayed to find that it [the mantis shrimp] was capable of
breaking the glass of the aquarium.
Dr. Carlisle replied, The reform bill of the [eighteen-]thirties was in some ways problematic.

Quotation Marks

2014 College Board. All rights reserved.

Use quotation marks to enclose direct quotations. Note that commas and periods are
placed inside closing quotation marks, while colons and semicolons are placed outside.
The placement of question and exclamation marks depends on meaning.
Monique asked, What time does the plane land? and Jay replied, Right at noon.
Monique said, Ill bring the car; Jay replied, Great!
Did Jay really say, Im sure the plane will be late?
Use quotation marks to indicate that a word is jargon, slang, or a new word,
or is used ironically.
Thats what is known as a culture capture.
She raised an eyebrow at this fair decision but did not object.
Use quotation marks around the titles of short poems, songs, short stories, magazine or
newspaper articles, essays, speeches, chapters, short films, and episodes of television or
radio programs.
Nothing Gold Can Stay, by Robert Frost
Dizzy, by Tommy Roe
City Council to Reconsider Redevelopment Plan, an article in the newspaper

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continued

Italics

Italicize the titles of magazines, books, newspapers, films, television programs, long poems,
plays, operas, music albums, works of art, and individual spacecraft, trains, planes, or ships.
TIME
Julius Caesar by William Shakespeare
Starry Night by Vincent van Gogh
Enterprise (space shuttle)
Italicize foreign words and phrases.
Cest la vie means Thats life.
Italicize a word or phrase to add emphasis. (This should be done sparingly.)
I said wed be there late, not at eight.
Italicize words referred to as words, letters referred to as letters, or numbers referred
to as numbers.
The word curfew comes from the French. It means cover fire and refers to the time of day
when medieval families would bank their fires and go to bed.
Are those 0s, 8s, or os?

Hyphens

Use a hyphen to divide a word at the end of a line, if necessary. Break words only
between syllables.
splen-did
heart-felt
class-i-fi-ca-tion
halfdollar
manysided
Use a hyphen to join two or more words serving as a single adjective before a noun.
hand-dipped chocolates
well-loved book
However, when compound modifiers come after a noun, they are often not hyphenated:
The chocolates were hand dipped.
The book was well loved.

2014 College Board. All rights reserved.

For line breaks, divide already hyphenated words only at the hyphen:

Use a hyphen between tens and ones in compound numbers.

twenty-seven
one hundred forty-four
Use a hyphen with the prefixes ex (meaning former), self, all, and half, and with the
suffix elect.
ex-wife
self-critical
all-inclusive

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continued
half-life
president-elect
Use a hyphen between a prefix and a capitalized word
mid-October
anti-American
pre-Reformation
Use a hyphen between figures and letters.
T-shirt
mid-1900s

Dashes

En dashes () are used between sequential numbers, such as page ranges and date ranges.
Chapters 13 are due tomorrow.
The show is on stage September 2027.
Em dashes () are used to set off nonrestrictive or parenthetical information or to
emphasize text. Dashes can be used to show pauses or breaks in thought. They are more
emphatic than commas or parentheses.
Two of the playsMacbeth and Guest by Courtesyare Jamies favorites.
If you peek over the edgewatch your footingyou can see far into the canyon.
There is room in the van for six peoplenot sixteen.
Use a dash to set off an appositive phrase that already includes commas.
Three catsPenny, Clytie, and Penguinare in the front room.

Apostrophes
2014 College Board. All rights reserved.

The apostrophe is used

to form possessives of nouns
to show the omission of letters in contractions
to indicate plurals of certain lowercase letters

Possessives of Nouns

There are several rules for making the possessive forms of nouns.
Add an apostrophe and s to

the singular form of a word (even if it already ends in s)

a dogs collar
Mr. Rogerss pocket watch
plural forms that do not end in s
those womens books
these sheeps vaccinations
the end of compound words
attorney-generals money
president-elects agenda
the last name of two in a pair to show joint possession
Ben and Maxs wagon
both names in a pair to show individual possession
Bens and Maxs backpacks
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continued

Add just an apostrophe to plural nouns that end in s

four trees leaves
the Smiths new house
Dont use apostrophes to make pronouns possessive or to make nouns plural.
Possessive pronouns: his, her, hers, its, my, your, yours, our, ours, their, theirs
Incorrect: That book is hers.
Correct: That book is hers.
Incorrect: Is that its box?
Correct: Is that its box?
Incorrect: That book is yours.
Correct: That book is yours.

Contractions

Apostrophes are used in contractions to show where one or more letters or numbers have
been omitted.
doesnt = does not
were = we are
shouldve = should have
70s = 1970s

Ellipses

Use an ellipsis, three spaced periods ( . . . ), to show where text is left out of
a quoted passage.
Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation . . .
dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.
Use an ellipsis to show a pause or break in thought.

2014 College Board. All rights reserved.

Its just that . . . I dont know . . . maybe youre right.

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