September 2008

Process Industry Practices

Civil

PIP CVE02350
Roadway Design Guide

PURPOSE AND USE OF PROCESS INDUSTRY PRACTICES

In an effort to minimize the cost of process industry facilities, this Practice has
been prepared from the technical requirements in the existing standards of major
industrial users, contractors, or standards organizations. By harmonizing these technical
requirements into a single set of Practices, administrative, application, and engineering
costs to both the purchaser and the manufacturer should be reduced. While this Practice
is expected to incorporate the majority of requirements of most users, individual
applications may involve requirements that will be appended to and take precedence
over this Practice. Determinations concerning fitness for purpose and particular matters
or application of the Practice to particular project or engineering situations should not
be made solely on information contained in these materials. The use of trade names
from time to time should not be viewed as an expression of preference but rather
recognized as normal usage in the trade. Other brands having the same specifications
are equally correct and may be substituted for those named. All Practices or guidelines
are intended to be consistent with applicable laws and regulations including OSHA
requirements. To the extent these Practices or guidelines should conflict with OSHA or
other applicable laws or regulations, such laws or regulations must be followed.
Consult an appropriate professional before applying or acting on any material
contained in or suggested by the Practice.

This Practice is subject to revision at any time.

Process Industry Practices (PIP), Construction Industry Institute, The

University of Texas at Austin, 3925 West Braker Lane (R4500), Austin,
Texas 78759. PIP member companies and subscribers may copy this Practice
for their internal use. Changes, overlays, addenda, or modifications of any
kind are not permitted within any PIP Practice without the express written
authorization of PIP.

PRINTING HISTORY
September 2008
Issued
Not printed with State funds

September 2008

Process Industry Practices

Civil

PIP CVE02350
Roadway Design Guide
Table of Contents
1. Introduction................................. 3
1.1 Purpose............................................ 3
1.2 Scope ............................................... 3

2. References .................................. 3
2.1 Process Industry Practices .............. 3
2.2 Industry Guides and Standards ....... 3

3. Definitions ................................... 4
4. Roadway Classifications ........... 5
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5

General ............................................ 5
Primary Roadways........................... 5
Secondary Roadways ...................... 6
Tertiary Roadways ........................... 6
Construction and Heavy Haul
Roadways ........................................ 6

5. General Design Considerations 7

5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5

6.4 Vertical Alignment .......................... 13

6.5 Horizontal and Vertical
Clearances..................................... 14
6.6 Guardrails and/or Guard Posts ...... 14
6.7 Pavement Marking/Signage........... 14

7. Paving/Roadway Design.......... 15
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4

Paving System Selection ............... 15

Flexible Pavement ......................... 16
Rigid Paving................................... 24
Alternative Surface Treatment for
Vehicle Traffic Area........................ 26
7.5 Paving Over Low-Strength Soils.... 28

8. Drainage Considerations......... 29
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7

Roadway Drainage ........................ 29

Culverts .......................................... 29
Ditches ........................................... 31
Curbs, Gutters and Inlets ............... 32
Headwalls ...................................... 33
Pipe Crushing Strength.................. 33
Pipe Loading .................................. 35

Right-of-Way .................................... 7
Access to Public Roadways............. 7
Materials........................................... 9
Climate ............................................. 9
Traffic Loading ............................... 10

9. Crossings.................................. 39

6. Layout and Traffic Control....... 10

9.1 Railroad Crossings......................... 39

9.2 Pipeline Crossings ......................... 39

6.1 General .......................................... 10

6.2 Traffic Flow..................................... 10
6.3 Plant Roadway
Turning/Layout/Grades .................. 10

Process Industry Practices

10. Typical Details .......................... 40

Page 1 of 40

September 2008

Drawings
CVE02350-01 Typical Roadway Sections at Cut and Fill
CVE02350-02 Guard Rail Assembly
CVE02350-03 Guard Rail Details
CVE02350-04 Guard Posts
CVE02350-05 Headwalls
CVE02350-06 Headwalls with Wing Walls
CVE02350-07 Typical Roadway Clearance Envelope
CVE02350-08 Roadway Contraction Joint
CVE02350-09 Roadway Doweled Expansion Joint
CVE02350-10 Roadway Doweled Construction Joint
CVE02350-11 Roadway Doweled/Keyed Joint

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Process Industry Practices

September 2008

1.

PIP CVE02350
Roadway Design Guide

Introduction
1.1

Purpose
This Practice provides guidance and recommended procedures for the layout and design
of roadways inside plant boundaries and for access to a plant facility.

1.2

Scope
This Practice describes roadway classifications and provides guidance for design of rightof-ways, access to public roads, use of local materials, climate effects, traffic loading,
layout and traffic control, design of paving and roadways, providing drainage, and
providing railroad and pipeline crossings for roadways within plant boundaries and for
access to a plant facility.

2.

References
Applicable requirements of the following Practices, and industry codes and standards, and
references should be considered an integral part of this Practice. The edition in effect on the date
of contract award should be used, except as otherwise noted. Short titles are used herein where
appropriate.
2.1

Process Industry Practices (PIP)

PIP CVS02350 Roadway and Area Paving Construction Specification
PIP CVS02700 Underground Gravity Sewers Specification
PIP PNE00003 Process Unit and Offsites Layout Guide
PIP STS03001 Plain and Reinforced Concrete Specification
PIP CVI02000 Civil General Notes and Typical Details

2.2

Industry Guides and Standards

AASHTO (American Association of State Highway and Traffic Officials)

Guide for Design of Pavement Structures
A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets

American Concrete Institute (ACI)

ACI 302.1R Guide for Concrete Floor and Slab Construction
ACI 504R Guide to Joint Sealants for Concrete Structures

ASTM International (ASTM)

ASTM C76 Standard Specification for Reinforced Concrete Culvert, Storm
Drain, and Sewer Pipe
ASTM D1195 Standard Test Method for Repetitive Static Plate Load Tests of
Soils and Flexible Pavement Components, for Use in Evaluation and Design of
Airport and Highway Pavements
ASTM D1196 Standard Test Method for Nonrepetitive Static Plate Load Tests
of Soils and Flexible Pavement Components, for Use in Evaluation and Design of
Airport and Highway Pavements

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PIP CVE02350
Roadway Design Guide

September 2008

ASTM D1883 Standard Test Method for CBR (California Bearing Ratio) of
Laboratory-Compacted Soils
ASTM D2844 Standard Test Method for Resistance R-Value and Expansion
Pressure of Compacted Soils

Federal Highway Administration (FHWA)

Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD)
Protocol P46 Long-Term Pavement Performance (LTPP)

3.

Definitions
asphalt concrete: High-quality, thoroughly-controlled hot mixture of asphalt cement and wellgraded, high-quality aggregate, thoroughly compacted into a uniform dense mass
base course: A layer of well-graded granular material that supports the paving and distributes
wheel loads over a greater area of the subgrade
binder course: For a multi-layered paving system, a layer directly below the wearing course, and
composed of intermediate-sized aggregate with a lesser amount of asphalt than the wearing
course
geogrid: High tensile strength polymer material designed with transverse and longitudinal grids.
Laid directly on the subgrade, the grid geometry provides a mechanism for interlocking aggregate
base or subbase material placed on the geogrid. The interlocking prevents lateral movement of the
aggregate and improves load distribution to the subgrade.
geotextile: Polyester fabric material laid over subgrade materials directly below an aggregate
subbase. It maintains separation of subbase from subgrade. Geotextile is permeable, allowing
pore water to pass vertically through the fabric.
owner: The party who owns the facility wherein the roadway will be constructed
paved surface: Reinforced or asphaltic concrete that distributes the load to base and subbase,
seals against penetration of surface water or liquids, resists abrasion, and provides traction
plant boundaries: The delineation between areas accessible to the general public and areas where
access is controlled by the plant
subbase: A compacted layer of well-graded fill that may be required under the base course.
Typically provided over fine grained subgrade soils to improve drainage, resist frost heave,
provide structural support by distributing loads, and to prevent pumping of finer grained soils into
the base material at paving joints and edges.
subgrade: Foundation soil placed and/or compacted during the rough grading work. Typically
consists of natural soils found on site, unless soil strength is inadequate and imported soils are
required.
wearing course: A layer of fine aggregate or course sand held by an asphalt binder and designed
to resist wear from traffic. The layer which directly supports traffic.

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Process Industry Practices

September 2008

4.

PIP CVE02350
Roadway Design Guide

Roadway Classifications
4.1

4.2

General
4.1.1

All major plant areas should be accessible by primary roads from two opposite
sides minimum and preferably all around to provide adequate access for
firefighting and other emergency equipment. As a minimum, a tertiary road
around the plant should be considered.

4.1.2

Plant areas containing process equipment should be accessible for plant

maintenance activities. Roadways to these areas should be designed to permit
access for the largest required maintenance equipment.

4.1.3

Roadway design requirements within plant boundaries should be specified by

owner and are typically unregulated by governmental agencies.

4.1.4

Type of roadway pavement is defined based on traffic, load, weather, air and
ground pollution controls, cost, etc. It includes paved roads such as asphalt and
concrete and unpaved roads such as gravel. This guide focus is on paved roads.

Primary Roadways
4.2.1

4.2.2

Process Industry Practices

Within Plant Boundaries

4.2.1.1

Primary roadways provide access to product shipping and receiving

points and sufficient space for major maintenance vehicles to pass.
Primary roadways include all roads typically used by large trucks and
cranes.

4.2.1.2

Vehicle velocities are normally set by owner and are posted 30 mph or
less.

4.2.1.3

Roadways with high volume truck traffic (e.g., between main shipping
and receiving docks) may require a greater than typical radius and
should also be designed for loadings in accordance with AASHTO
Guide for Design of Pavement Structures, and the local state highway
design manuals for the applicable locale.

4.2.1.4

Primary roadways typically have two 10 to 12 ft wide lanes with 3 ft

shoulders.

4.2.1.5

Primary roadways are typically paved.

Urban and Rural Areas (Outside Plant Boundaries)

4.2.2.1

AASHTO, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets,

categorizes functional systems for travel movement. Although rural
and urban areas differ in travel volumes and percentage of road length
comprising each functional system, the broad categories share common
traits. Public primary roadways generally are included in the arterial
functional category either principal or minor. There can be some
component of the lower hierarchy collector functional category
included also.

4.2.2.2

Typically, primary roadways in urban and rural areas include principal

state highways, interstates, and routes providing higher levels of
mobility between major population centers.

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PIP CVE02350
Roadway Design Guide

4.3

September 2008

4.2.2.3

The roadways are characterized by strict design and safety standards.

Typically, states limit vehicle widths to 8 ft without permit. Height
restrictions typically range from 12.5 to 14 ft. A nominal 12 ft wide
lane is typical for general use. A 6 to 10 ft shoulder can be required
depending upon surrounding terrain.

4.2.2.4

Design of public primary roadways is seldom required for plant

facilities. However, a project may include connecting a plant roadway
to one of these roadways. Appropriate AASHTO documents should be
consulted for further guidance.

Secondary Roadways
4.3.1

Within Plant Boundaries

4.3.1.1 Secondary roadways provide access to equipment within plant areas by
maintenance vehicles (except cranes) and personnel vehicles.
4.3.1.2 Typically, vehicle velocities are set by owner and are posted 15 mph or
less.
4.3.1.3 Secondary roadways typically have one or two 10 ft wide lanes.
4.3.1.4 Secondary roadways may or may not be paved depending on loading
conditions and other considerations such as dust control and drainage.

4.3.2

Urban and Rural Areas (Outside Plant Boundaries)

4.3.2.1 AASHTO functional categories included in the public secondary roadway
classification are collector roads, local roads and streets, and roads that
provide access between a primary roadway system and land use.
4.3.2.2 Typically, secondary roadways have lower traffic volumes and vehicle
velocities. Secondary roadways typically provide access to a facility.
4.3.2.3 Pavement structures and geometric considerations are not as stringent as
for primary roadways and can provide limited through-traffic
accessibility.
4.3.2.4 Design of public secondary roadways should be in accordance with local,
state, and federal requirements. Appropriate AASHTO documents should
be consulted for further guidance.

4.4

4.5

Page 6 of 40

Tertiary Roadways
4.4.1

Typically, tertiary roadways provide occasional access to areas of a facility for

maintenance, security, and firefighting vehicles.

4.4.2

Tertiary roadways may have one or two lanes and be up to 20 ft wide, with or
without shoulders.

4.4.3

Tertiary roadways may or may not be paved.

Construction and Heavy Haul Roadways

4.5.1

Construction and heavy haul roadways provide greater than typical load capacity
and have specialized service conditions.

4.5.2

These roadways may be temporary or permanent.

Process Industry Practices

September 2008

5.

PIP CVE02350
Roadway Design Guide

4.5.3

Composition of these roadways can range from a stabilized earth surface

prepared by reshaping and compacting native soil to a high-quality subgrade with
several layers of engineered base and subbase courses and pavement.

4.5.4

Service life, maximum grade, clearances, turning points, load and unloading
points, drainage, and environmental impact on the surrounding areas
(e.g., surface drainage, noise, dust, etc.) should be considered in the initial layout
of these roadways.

General Design Considerations

5.1

Right-of-Way
5.1.1

Within Plant Boundaries

5.1.1.1 Right-of-way considerations are defined by owner.
5.1.1.2 If the owner has sold or leased part of a plant facility to another entity,
an easement condition can exist that includes sharing plant roads.

5.1.2

Outside Plant Boundaries

5.1.2.1 Local, state, and federal right-of-way requirements apply to plant
boundaries that border roadways outside plant boundaries and access
points to the roadways.
5.1.2.2 The right-of-way is acquired by the governmental authority through
direct purchase or eminent domain with compensation.
5.1.2.3 The right-of-way width is typically sufficient to accommodate the
ultimate planned roadway including the traveled way, shoulders, medians
and borders.

5.2

Access to Public Roadways

5.2.1

General
5.2.1.1 Design of roadways within plant property boundaries is typically
unencumbered by regulation and should be performed and executed with
good engineering practices specific to a plants mobility needs and safety
requirements.
5.2.1.2 Movement of people, products and material across plant property
boundaries requires interaction with adjacent property owners or
authorities and entities vested with the power to regulate or control
waterway usage, rail and pipeline systems, utilities, and roadways.
5.2.1.3 Consideration of access to public roadways is important for the design of
a new plant and can also be important for a major project at an existing
plant.

5.2.2

Effects of Plant Activities

5.2.2.1 Plant facilities can be heavy traffic generators and adequate access to a
local roadway system during normal operating/production periods and
for major onsite construction projects is important to a plants success.

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PIP CVE02350
Roadway Design Guide

September 2008

5.2.2.2 Plant shift changes can place a heavy, short-term demand on a local
roadway system two or more times a day.
5.2.2.3 Outbound and inbound shipping of products, supplies and feed stocks by
truck requires special consideration regarding access to local roadway
systems.
5.2.2.4 Because of additional transportation for craft workers and other project
team members, increased truck traffic for delivery of equipment and
materials, and traffic from permit loads for equipment and construction
material, plant construction projects can affect local traffic conditions.
Controlled and adequate access to local streets and highways during
major construction projects requires early team planning and may require
investment in new road access points.
5.2.3

Regulation of Access
5.2.3.1 Control of access points is a method used by regulators to manage the
quality of a roadways mobility, capacity, potential for collisions, and
access for adjacent land use.
5.2.3.2 Methods used by governmental authorities for controlling access points
to public streets and roadways include the following:
a. Regulations - Ordinances at the local level
b. Eminent Domain - A way for the government to purchase property
for public roads. Property owners are compensated for the property
taken; however, property owners may donate land for right-of-way if
they can benefit from a road project or from having new or
additional access to a road.
5.2.3.3 Long term planning is an essential aspect of access management and the
principles and policies adopted by regulators are defined for an entire
system that includes the roads and local land use that generates travel.
5.2.3.4 Regulators are typically required to provide reasonable access, although
not necessarily direct access, to roads from adjacent property.

5.2.4

Design of Access Points

5.2.4.1 An owner typically employs a consultant with expertise in traffic impact
studies to perform the necessary studies, prepare the reports required by
the regulating authority, and assist the owner with the permitting process.
5.2.4.2 A consultant may also be engaged to design the traffic controls and
improvements at the access points.
5.2.4.3 The roadway design from the access point interface to the plant boundary
can then be performed. Connection from a public access point to a plant
boundary can vary from a parking lot driveway to a multi-lane road with
length measured in miles. The connection typically occurs on land
owned by the plant.
5.2.4.4 Depending on which public entity has jurisdiction at the access point,
local, state, or federal regulations should be consulted for the design of
the alignment, signage, road markings, etc.

Page 8 of 40

Process Industry Practices

September 2008

PIP CVE02350
Roadway Design Guide

5.2.4.5 Expected plant traffic volume and generated loads should be determined
to complete the pavement and drainage design to the plant boundary.
5.2.5

Plant Entry
5.2.5.1 Permanent parking facilities for plant employees and visitors are
typically located outside the plant fence.
5.2.5.2 Permanent security facilities to enter a plant from the parking area are
typically required and may consist of badge controlled turnstiles for
pedestrians and checkpoint shelters occupied by security staff for
vehicular access.
5.2.5.3 Truck weigh stations are often required at plant vehicular entrances.
5.2.5.4 Temporary parking and security facilities for construction projects may
be required to be located on available plot space within the plant fence.

5.2.6

Easements
5.2.6.1 Plant boundaries may be adjacent to or include dedicated easements or
right-of-ways for drainage, utilities, pipelines and railroads. New plant
roadways can be required to cross or run parallel to these easements.
5.2.6.2 Design interfaces with one or more entities that own or regulate
easements may be required in order to protect their facilities from new
traffic loads. If more than one entity is involved, it can be challenging to
resolve multiple requirements.
5.2.6.3 Resolutions of easement concerns can involve the following items that
are typically paid for by the plant owner:
a. Raising or rerouting overhead lines
b. Providing protective sleeves for pipelines
c. Installing culverts or bridges for ditches
d. Improving traffic crossings for railroads

5.3

Materials
5.3.1

The suitability of locally available materials for roadway construction should be

investigated. A good source of information is a geotechnical consultant with
knowledge of materials in the area.

5.3.2

A geotechnical consultant can provide recommendations regarding the following:

a. Stabilization of in situ soils
b. Replacement of in situ soils with suitable borrow materials
c. Economical specifications for base materials

5.4

Climate
5.4.1

Rainfall and temperature extremes should be considered for both the design and
construction phases of roadway projects.

5.4.2

Rainfall runoff totals affect drainage design and construction schedule.

Process Industry Practices

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PIP CVE02350
Roadway Design Guide

5.5

6.

September 2008

5.4.3

Cold weather affects the installation of concrete and asphalt surfaces. Asphalt
may not be available in colder climates during part of the year.

5.4.4

For hot weather, special provisions for placing concrete can be required.

Traffic Loading
5.5.1

Design loading criteria should be established for a roadway project.

5.5.2

A standard highway loading frequently used in design is AASHTO HS-20. The

HS-20 live load corresponds to a maximum truck wheel load of 16,000 lb per
200 sq in or 11,520 psf at the surface.

5.5.3

Special loads from delivery of heavy equipment should be considered.

5.5.4

For design of haul roads, type of transport equipment and frequency of travel
should be considered.

Layout and Traffic Control

6.1

6.2

6.3

General
6.1.1

Layout for a roadway within a plant should be in accordance with the plant grid
system and the established plant coordinate system for horizontal and elevation
control (e.g., Horizontal Control Plant Datum and Plant Elevation).

6.1.2

Layout for a public roadway should be in accordance with the governing

guidelines.

6.1.3

Grading plans should minimize the quantity of earthwork. If only on-site

materials are used for grading, cut and fill volumes should be calculated to try to
achieve a reasonable balance after the initial clearing, grubbing and stripping.

Traffic Flow
6.2.1

Traffic flow within plant boundaries is typically limited to low volume, low
speed vehicles, trucks, and construction and maintenance equipment.

6.2.2

Emergency vehicle access and flow to the most critical sites of a plant should be
considered.

6.2.3

If truck loading/unloading is an essential part of the day-to-day plant operations,

the daily delivery traffic flow should be considered in the roadway layout.
Security, truck staging space, and loading/unloading operations should be
considered.

Plant Roadway Turning/Layout/Grades

6.3.1

Minimum Turning Radius

6.3.1.1 Minimum turning radii at road intersections and curves should be based
on the turning requirements of vehicles that are expected to use the
roadway regularly.
6.3.1.2 Figure 1 shows the critical turning dimensions for common types of
vehicles.
6.3.1.3 For turning dimensions of other types of vehicles, see AASHTO A Policy
on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets.

Page 10 of 40

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September 2008

PIP CVE02350
Roadway Design Guide

6.3.2

Road Cross Section

6.3.2.1 To prevent major process spills from flowing into adjacent areas,
centerline elevations of roadways within plant boundaries should be
6 inches minimum above the high point of adjacent finished grades or
high points of adjacent process units.
6.3.2.2 Slope from the crown of a typical road section should be 2% for the lanes
and 4% for the shoulders.
6.3.2.3 For parking or wider areas, the minimum slope should be 1%.
6.3.2.4 Typical lane and shoulder widths are shown in Table 1. Shoulder widths
should be added to the lane(s) width to obtain total roadway width.
6.3.2.5 See drawing CVE02350-01 for typical details of road sections at cut and
fills.

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PIP CVE02350
Roadway Design Guide

September 2008

PATH OF
OVERHANG

PATH OF LEFT
FRONT WHEEL

"
"C
MI
RA N.TU
DI RN
US
I
("A NG
")

"
"B

PATH OF RIGHT
REAR WHEEL

VEHICLE DIMENSIONS

11'

5'

14.4'

1.5'

3'

7'

24.0'

AUTOMOBILE (19' LONG)

20'

4'

8'

6'

28.3'

1.5'

40.0'

19.3'

0.8'

45.0'

17.0'

0.7'

2-AXLE-TRUCK OR BUS (33' LONG )

3'
4'
24'
12.5'

8'

2'

42.0'

SEMI-TRAILER COMBINATION (45.5' LONG)

4'

31.4'

4.2'

10.4'

3'

8.5'

2'

SEMI-TRAILER COMBINATION (55' LONG)

Figure 1 Turning Radius for Passenger Car and Common Trucks

Table 1 Typical Lane and Shoulder Widths

Page 12 of 40

Plant Road Type

Lane Width

Shoulder Width

Primary Roads
Secondary Roads
Tertiary Roads

10 - 12 ft
10 ft
8 ft

3 ft
3 ft
2.5 ft

Process Industry Practices

September 2008

6.4

PIP CVE02350
Roadway Design Guide

Vertical Alignment
6.4.1

Gradients
6.4.1.1 Maximum and minimum vertical gradients along a roadway alignment or
across a paved area are shown in Table 2.
6.4.1.2 If possible, vertical gradients should be kept near the minimum value
shown in Table 2.
6.4.1.3 For areas subject to ice and snow conditions, the vertical gradient should
be 5% maximum.
Table 2 Vertical Gradients
Type

Maximum

Minimum

Primary Roads

5.0%

Secondary Roads

7.5%

Tertiary Roads

10.0%

Access ways (Ramps)

10.0%

Paved Parking / Paved Setback Areas

3.0%

1.0%

Paved Areas

6.0%

1.0%

Unpaved Areas

1.5%

1.0%

6.4.2

Curves
6.4.2.1 Vertical curves provide a gradual transition between two intersecting
tangent grade lines.
6.4.2.2 The types of vertical curves are sag and crest. Each curve type has three
subsets depending on the signs and relative magnitudes of the tangent
gradient lines. The typical sign convention is positive for grades
ascending forward and negative for grades descending forward.
6.4.2.3 Algebraic change in gradient and stopping sight distance are the
important parameters for vertical curve design at typical plant vehicle
speeds. For example, at 20 mph, the AASHTO recommended stopping
sight distance is 115 ft. The minimum recommended curve length for a
5% change in gradient is 35 ft for a crest curve and 85 ft for a sag curve.
These lengths include factors for height of eye and the object sighted that
would permit 115 ft stopping sight distance.
6.4.2.4 Vertical curves should be provided for hard surfaced roads having a
change in vertical alignment greater than 3% at typical low plant speeds.
6.4.2.5 Vertical curves are designed parabolic with length measured as the
horizontal projection of the curve, and are typically designed
symmetrical with tangents of equal length.
6.4.2.6 See AASHTO, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets,
or route design textbook for additional geometric design information.

Process Industry Practices

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PIP CVE02350
Roadway Design Guide

6.5

September 2008

Horizontal and Vertical Clearances

6.5.1

A horizontal clearance of 5 ft minimum should be maintained between the

extreme edge of roadway or face of curb and any structure projecting above
adjacent grade including parallel fence lines and pipe rack columns.

6.5.2

Owner should be consulted for special requirements that can dictate specific
clearances.

6.5.3

Minimum vertical clearances are shown in Table 3. See drawing CVE02350-07

for roadway design clearance envelope.

6.5.4

See PIP PNE00003, Table 4, for additional minimum clearance requirements.

Table 3 Vertical Clearances
Description

6.6

6.7

Page 14 of 40

Minimum
Clearance

Clearance over primary access roads

where major maintenance vehicles are
expected to pass

18-0

Clearance over secondary and tertiary

access roads

10-0

Clearance to electrical transmission and

distribution lines

22-0

Guardrails and/or Guard Posts

6.6.1

Guardrails and/or guard posts should be provided to protect equipment and/or

structures that are not provided with the minimum horizontal clearance.

6.6.2

Horizontal clearances for guardrails and guard posts should preferably be 2 ft

minimum from outer edge of shoulder.

6.6.3

Special hazards that have the minimum clearances can still require protection
with guardrails or guard posts.

6.6.4

See drawings CVE02350-02 to -04 for typical details for guardrail and guard
posts.

Pavement Marking/Signage
6.7.1

Pavement marking and signage within plant boundaries are typically limited to
road names, speed limits, stop signs, clearance signs, railroad crossings, and
evacuation routes.

6.7.2

For designating traffic control devices, pavement markings and signage within
and outside plant boundaries, see FHWA Manual on Uniform Traffic Control
Devices (MUTCD).

Process Industry Practices

September 2008

7.

PIP CVE02350
Roadway Design Guide

Paving/Roadway Design
7.1

Paving System Selection

7.1.1

Types
7.1.1.1 Typically, two types of paving systems are used for roadways: flexible
and rigid. See example configurations in Figure 2.
7.1.1.2 Flexible paving is composed of material such as asphaltic concrete, and
relies on a relatively thin paving (e.g., 2 to 4 inches thick) in combination
with layers of base and subbase material to distribute vehicle loads.
7.1.1.3 Rigid paving is composed of material such as portland cement concrete
which has low flexibility and is capable of distributing wheel loading
over a wide area of subgrade.
7.1.1.4 The relative costs of asphaltic concrete and portland cement concrete
paving vary considerably between geographic locations. Typically, the
initial cost of portland cement concrete is higher (30 to 50% in some
cases) than asphaltic concrete paving. However, studies of state and
federal highway records by the Portland Cement Association have shown
that portland cement concrete paving has a lower total cost of ownership
than asphaltic concrete paving.
ASPHALT BINDER COURSE

PRIMECOAT

ASPHALT WEARING COURSE

WHEEL
LOAD

CONCRETE
BASE COURSE

SUBBASE

SUBBASE
SUBGRADE
SUBGRADE

FLEXIBLE PAVING

RIGID PAVING

Figure 2 Examples of Flexible and Rigid Paving

7.1.2

Advantages/Disadvantages
7.1.2.1 Flexible Paving

1. Advantages of flexible paving may include the following:

a. Surface can be more easily shaped to specified slopes.
b. Greater flexibility permits adjustments to subgrade changes.
c. Repairs can be made more easily.
d. Subsurface lines can be accessed more easily.

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2. Disadvantages of flexible paving may include the following:

a. Hydrocarbons can damage the paving.
b. Heavy concentrated wheel loads can more easily damage the
surface.
c. During hot weather conditions, heavy wheel loads can cause
surface distortion.
d. Less durable, requiring more maintenance over time
7.1.2.2 Rigid Paving

1. Advantages of rigid paving may include the following:

a. Surface is hard wearing.
b. Hydrocarbon leaks or spills cannot damage the paving.
2. Disadvantages of rigid paving may include the following:
a. Unstable subgrades can cause poor performance of the paving.
b. Differential settlement can cause cracking of the pavement.
c. Repairs can be difficult and expensive.
d. Special joints are required to control the location of cracks,
provide relief from expansion, and provide for construction
joints.
7.2

Flexible Pavement
7.2.1

Asphalt Terminology
Following are definitions of terms used for various aspects of asphalt paving
components and construction:
a. Asphalt pavement structure: Combination of asphalt courses and asphaltaggregate or untreated aggregate courses, placed above the subgrade
b. Full-depth asphalt pavement: Pavement in which asphalt mixtures are used
for all courses above the subgrade
c. Asphalt prime coat: Spray application of low-viscosity asphalt emulsion to
an untreated base to bind the granular material to the asphalt layer
d. Asphalt tack coat: Spray application of asphaltic material to existing
pavement (e.g., portland cement or old asphalt) to insure bond between
superimposed material and existing surface
e. Asphalt seal coat: Thin asphalt surface treatment used to waterproof and
improve the durability of an existing surface
f.

Emulsified asphalt: Fine droplets of asphalt suspended in water used for road
construction, sealing and surface treatments, and patching mixes. Droplets
are held in suspension for a long time because of emulsifying agents. The
material can be handled with little or no heat. The following types are
available: rapid setting, medium setting, and slow setting.

g. Liquid asphalt or cutback asphalt: Uses solvents to thin the asphalt to enable
handling at lower temperatures. Naphtha-type, kerosene-type, and light oil

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solvents are used to produce rapid, medium, and slow curing asphalt
materials, respectively. Because of environmental concerns, federal and state
regulations either severely restrict or prohibit the use of liquid asphalt. Liquid
asphalts have typically been replaced by emulsified asphalts.
h. Asphalt cold mix: Mixture of unheated mineral aggregate and emulsified
asphalt. May be produced in stationary plants with close control of the
production process or mixed in place. Spreading and compaction is
performed with conventional equipment.
7.2.2

Basic Design Concepts for Asphalt Paving

7.2.2.1 General

1. Industry-wide standard design criteria cannot be applied to asphalt

paving because of the following reasons:
a. Major environmental characteristics can impact the strength and
performance of subgrade materials. AASHTO has subdivided the
continental U.S.A. into six climatic regions for various
combinations of environmental characteristics (e.g., freeze/thaw
cycling, wet, dry, hard freeze, and no freezing).
b. Materials of construction vary widely. In some locations the
highest quality aggregate is readily available, whereas it may be
prohibitively expensive in others.
c. Asphaltic concrete mixes should be based on local and state
highway department specifications. Locally specified mixes are
what local asphalt mixing plants are prepared to provide, and the
local mixes are expected to be designed in accordance with local
requirements.
2. Knowledge of local paving practices can be developed from the
following sources:
a. District office for the state department of highways
b. County or city offices responsible for public roadways
c. Local geotechnical engineers
d. Asphalt plant operators and paving contractors
e. Personal observation of local roads under equivalent service
These sources should provide a sound basis for making decisions
about materials, design criteria, and installation procedures for
achieving quality paving at reasonable cost.
7.2.2.2 Subgrade Strength Evaluation

1. General
a. Thickness requirements for asphalt pavements depend mainly on
the strength requirements of the finished subgrade.
b. For a project with significant paving requirements, with heavy
vehicle loading, and no directly relatable paving experience for
the site, subgrade evaluation should be included as part of other

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geotechnical studies. Because stability of the subgrade is closely

related to its density and moisture content, subgrade soil testing
should be performed as near as possible to anticipated in-service
conditions.
c. Frequently, because of the typical nature and intended use of a
specified paving and available knowledge and experience with
the local subgrade materials, paving design can be performed
with confidence without a site specific subgrade evaluation.
d. If testing is required to evaluate the strength of the subgrade, the
following tests can be used for determining in-place base and
subbase strengths:
(1) Plate Bearing Test
(2) California Bearing Ratio Method
(3) Resistance Value Method
(4) Resilient Modulus Method
Results from any of the four testing methods cannot be converted
to equivalent values of another method.
2. Plate Bearing Test
a. The Plate Bearing Test, in accordance with ASTM D1195, can be
used for subgrade evaluations, and for strength measurements for
subbase, base, or finished pavement.
b. The test procedure involves loading a 6- to 30-inch diameter test
plate on top of the surface of the materials. The deflection and
rebound are measured at the plate and at distances up to 1.5
times the diameter from the edge of the plate.
3. California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
a. The CBR test, in accordance with ASTM D1883, consists of
measuring the load required to cause a plunger of standard size
to penetrate a soil specimen at a specified rate.
b. The CBR rating is the resultant of the CBR test expressed as a
percentage of the load for the same test performed on a standard
sample of crushed rock.
4. Resistance Value (R-Value) Method
a. The R-Value Method, in accordance with ASTM D2844, is a
two-test procedure as follows:
(1) A resistance value test determines the thickness of a
pavement structure required to prevent plastic deformation
of the soil under imposed wheel loads.
(2) An expansion pressure test determines the thickness or
weight of cover required to maintain the compaction of the
soil.
b. The design R-Value is determined from the moisture content and
density where the thicknesses from the two tests are equal.

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5. Resilient Modulus (Mr) Method

a. The Mr Method, in accordance with FHWA Protocol P46,
determines the resilient modulus of untreated fine-grained
subgrade soils for conditions that are representative of stresses in
pavements subjected to moving wheel loads.
b. The Mr Method involves testing of soils in a triaxial chamber,
subjected to repeated loads of fixed magnitude, frequency, and
load duration.
7.2.3

Paving, Base, and Subbase Thicknesses

7.2.3.1 See Table 4 for guidelines for estimating paving and base and subbase
thicknesses for three types of subgrade materials, and five types of
service and traffic requirements for roadways.
7.2.3.2 The guidelines in Table 4 are based on untreated aggregate bases. An
alternative design, using asphalt mixtures for base or subbase courses,
can resist pavement stresses better than un-bonded aggregate layers
which have no tensile strength. Consequently, wheel loads are spread
over broader areas using the alternative design and less pavement
thickness is required.
7.2.3.3 The guideline thicknesses shown in Table 4 are based on a relatively dry
and non-freezing location. See Table 5 for a relative comparison of
roadbed soils that shows the impact of various climates on design
requirements.
7.2.3.4 Relatively poor subgrade soils can be treated in about the same manner
regardless of the climatic conditions at a particular site.
7.2.3.5 For fair subgrade soils, additional base and/or subbase thicknesses are
probably required for more severe climates.
7.2.3.6 For good subgrade soils, climate becomes a more important
consideration. Good subgrade soils in locations subject to hard freezes
can be expected to perform no better than fair subgrade soils in areas
without freezing. For example, good subgrade soils in Wyoming should
be downgraded to fair if using Table 4. Subbase and base thicknesses
should be adjusted accordingly.
7.2.3.7 If the depth of frost penetration is greater than the total thickness of a
subbase, base, and pavement system, the subbase thickness should be
increased until the total system thickness equals the frost depth or
18 inches whichever is less.
7.2.3.8 Considering the total pavement structure, it should be understood that
there is not a single unique design solution. Instead, there are many
combinations of paving, base, and subbase that can provide satisfactory
results. The combination selected should be based on cost, construction,
and maintenance considerations.

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Table 4 Thicknesses for Untreated Aggregate Bases

Subgrade Soils

Approximate Thickness (in)

Typical Evaluation
Values
Relative Quality
GOOD
Coarse-grained
soils
(well-graded)
Gravel, sand
w/limited clay
binder
FAIR
Coarse-grained
soils
(poorly-graded)
Sands, and
sand/clay
mixtures
POOR
Fine-grained soils

Traffic Volume

Resist.
Mod. (Mr)

Trucks

>500

CBR

Cars

Unlimited

<500
Unlimited

<50
<2000

<20
<300

<5
<50

40-60

12,000 psi

Pavement
(Note 1)

Base &
Subbase
(Note 2)

Pavement
(Note 1)

Base &
Subbase
(Note 2)

Pavement
(Note 1)

Base &
Subbase
(Note 2)

12

11

10

20-40

5,500 psi

4-20

3,000 psi

Plastic, high
shrinkage
and expansion,
low-permeability

Notes:
(1) Paving thicknesses are based on asphaltic concrete (hot-mix). Alternative paving materials (cold-mix) may require additional
thickness or additional base/subbase.
(2) A minimum of 6-inches of higher quality base materials should be placed over lower quality subbase materials.

Table 5 Impact of Climate on Various Roadbed Soils

Relative Subgrade Quality
Soil Resilient Modulus (psi)
Climate
Description

Examples

Good

Fair

Poor

12,000

5,500

3,000

Dry, no freeze

S California, S Texas

Wet, no freeze

W Oregon, N California, Gulf States

9,500

5,000

2,800

Wet, freeze/thaw
cycling

Midwest and East Central States

7,300

4,500

2,700

Wet, hard freeze,

spring thaw

Great Lakes to New England

5,700

4,000

2,700

Dry, freeze/thaw
cycling

E Washington, N Texas

8,200

5,000

3,000

Dry, hard freeze,

spring thaw

Wyoming, Montana

5,700

4,100

2,800

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7.2.4

Base, Subbase, and Subgrade Compaction

7.2.4.1 Base courses should be compacted in layers not greater than 4 inches.
7.2.4.2 Subbase should be compacted in layers not greater than 6 inches.
7.2.4.3 Base course should be compacted to a dry density not less than 95% of
the maximum dry density (Modified Proctor). Subbase, and top 6 inches
of subgrade should be compacted to a dry density not less than 90% of
the maximum dry density (Modified Proctor).

7.2.5

Subbase and Base Materials

7.2.5.1 Subbase

1. For a subbase with a CBR of 20 (R-Value 55) minimum, the

following materials may be used:
a. Coarse sand
b. Poorly graded gravel
c. Sandy loam
d. Decomposed granite with fines
e. Gravel containing fines
f.

Sand/shell mixtures

2. Subbase material should contain not greater than 20% by weight of

particles finer than 200 mesh.
3. Very fine sand or silty sand should not be permitted as a base or
subbase material.
4. Maximum size of stone should not be greater than one-third the
lesser thickness of the base course or the subbase course.
7.2.5.2 Base

1. For a base with a CBR of 70 (R-Value 80) minimum, the following

materials may be used:
a. Crushed rock
b. Pit run gravel (well-graded)
c. Well-graded sand (asphalt stabilized)
d. Coarse decomposed granite (well-graded)
2. Base material should contain not greater than 7% by weight of
particles finer than 200 mesh.
3. Maximum size of stone should not be greater than one-third the
thickness of the base course.

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7.2.5.3 Frost Considerations

1. For areas subject to frost damage, base and subbase materials should
contain not greater than 8% by weight of particles finer than 200
mesh. This helps to maintain good drainage through the materials
and reduce frost heave potential.
2. If low-quality subgrade soils are present, consideration should be
given to the use of geotextiles (see Section 7.4). The cost of using
geotextile fabric over the weak subgrade may be offset by reduction
in base and subbase costs.
7.2.6

Types of Asphalt Paving

7.2.6.1 Plant Mix Asphalt Concrete (Hot-Mix)

1. Asphalt paving mixtures prepared in a central mixing plant are

known as plant mixes. Asphalt concrete is considered to be the
highest-quality plant mix.
2. Asphalt concrete consists of well-graded, high-quality aggregate and
asphalt cement. The asphalt and aggregate are heated separately from
250 to 325F, carefully measured and proportioned, then mixed until
the aggregate particles are coated with asphalt.
3. The hot mixture, kept hot during transit, is hauled to the construction
site, where it is spread on the roadway by an asphalt paving machine
at temperatures greater than 240F. The uniform layer of asphalt mix
is spread by a paver, motor grader, or by hand followed by
compaction with rollers to specified density before the asphalt cools.
4. Asphalt concrete may be placed in lifts from 2 to 4 inches compacted
thickness.
5. Advantages of asphalt concrete include the following:
a. Produces a high-quality paving surface suitable for heavy traffic
b. Good quality control can be achieved at the mix plant
c. Can be installed in a wide range of ambient temperatures
provided quality control is maintained
d. Because the aggregate is heated the moisture can be controlled
6. Limitations of asphalt concrete include the following:
a. Paving placement requires careful monitoring to assure that the
compaction procedures and equipment are providing the
specified compaction before the mixture cools.
b. If hot-mix plants are too far from the work site, mix temperature
considerations and economics can preclude use of hot-mix.
c. Hot-mix plants in cold regions typically shut down during winter
months.

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7.2.6.2 Plant Mix Cold-Mix

1. Cold-mix paving is a mixture of unheated mineral aggregate and

emulsified asphalt that may also be produced at a central mixing
plant.
2. Cold mix may be placed in lifts of 2 to 3 inches compacted
thickness.
3. Advantages of cold-mix include the following:
a. Similar to a hot-mix, production can be closely controlled
b. Does not require stringent control of mix temperature during
placement and compaction
c. Can be used for patching during cold temperatures when hot mix
is not available
d. Can be pre-mixed and stockpiled for subsequent small quantity
repair jobs
4. Cold-mix cannot provide the high-quality, long-wearing paving that
is attainable with hot-mix.
7.2.6.3 Road Mix (Mixed-in-Place)

1. Road mix paving is emulsified asphalt sprayed onto and mixed into
aggregate at moderate-to-warm ambient temperatures. Mixed-inplace construction may be used for surface, base, or subbase courses.
2. If used as a surface or wearing course, road mix is typically
satisfactory for light and medium traffic. However, mixed-in-place
layers covered by a high-quality plant mix surface course can
provide a pavement suitable for heavy traffic.
3. Advantages of road mix include the following:
a. Can use aggregate already on the roadbed or available from
nearby sources, and without extensive processing
b. Eliminates the need for a central mixing plant
c. Placement can be performed with a variety of machinery often
readily available (e.g., motor graders, rotary mixer with
revolving tines, and traveling mixing plants).
4. Limitations of road mix include the following:
a. Should not be installed if ambient temperatures is less than 50F
because proper mixing of asphalt and aggregate is difficult
b. If surface moisture on the aggregate is not properly controlled,
excessive moisture causes problems in mixing, curing and
compacting. Typically surface moisture should not be greater
than 3%.
c. Quality of mixed-in-place paving is more difficult to control than
plant mixes.

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7.2.7

September 2008

Asphalt Coatings
7.2.7.1 Prime Coat

1. Typically for untreated granular bases, when the base course has
been properly compacted and loose material removed, an asphalt
prime coat should be applied.
2. A pressure distributor should be used to spray approximately 0.2 to
0.5 gal/sq yd of low-viscosity asphalt on the prepared surface of the
base.
3. The asphalt prime coat should be fully absorbed by the base and
permitted to set and cure before placing the surfacing.
7.2.7.2 Tack Coat

1. If asphalt surfacing is to be applied over a surface of existing asphalt

(e.g., a surface (wearing) course over a binder course), an asphalt
tack coat should be applied to achieve proper bonding.
2. A tack coat should be very thin and uniformly cover the area to be
paved.
3. Asphalt should be sprayed on at a rate of approximately 0.05 to
0.15 gal/sq yd.
7.3

Rigid Paving
7.3.1

Subgrade
7.3.1.1 General

1. The most important consideration for a subgrade for rigid pavement

is its ability to provide uniform support.
2. Concentrated wheel loads are distributed over a large supporting area
of the subgrade because of the rigidity of the concrete slab. The
effectiveness of slabs on grade to distribute loads has been
demonstrated by tests conducted by the Portland Cement Association
and others. Wheel loads up to 15,000 pounds applied to 6-inch and
8-inch thick slabs resulted in subgrade pressures of 5 psi or less.
3. If the subgrade is non-uniform, with abrupt changes from hard to
soft, cracking can occur where the slab bridges over soft spots or
rides on hard spots.
7.3.1.2 Modulus of Subgrade Reaction

1. Typically design references for thickness of portland cement

concrete paving evaluate subgrade support on the basis of modulus
of subgrade reaction (i.e., Westergaards k).
2

The modulus is intended to measure the temporary (elastic)

properties of the subgrade, rather than long-term soil bearing
properties.

3. The modulus is calculated in accordance with ASTM D1196 using

the loading pressure to make a rigid 30-inch diameter bearing plate
deflect 0.05 inch into the subgrade material.

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4. The value of the modulus of subgrade reaction, k in pounds/cubic

inch, is calculated in accordance with the following equation:
k = load (psi) / deflection (inch)
where:
deflection = actual measured deflection (approx. 0.05 inch)
5. Typical values for subgrade materials are shown in Table 6.
Table 6 Typical k Values for Subgrade Material
Relative Quality

k Value (pci)

Examples of Subgrade Soils

Very Good

>550

Crushed Rock

Good

400-550

Well-graded gravel

Fair

250-350

Sand/Clay Mixture, Well-graded

Poor

150-250

Gravel/Clay, Poorly Graded

Very Poor

<150

Silts and Clays

7.3.2

Subbase
7.3.2.1 General

A subbase is not mandatory for rigid paving, but should be considered

for the following conditions:
a. The subgrade lacks uniformity because of minor soil variations.
However, a subbase layer cannot correct major subgrade defects.
Major defects should be corrected by excavating poor material.
b. A significant number of vehicles with axle loads exceeding H-20 are
expected routinely.
c. To provide a stable working surface during paving construction
d. The subgrade materials are known to be problem soils
(e.g., differential shrinkage and expansion or excessive frost heave).
7.3.2.2 Thickness

1. If a subbase is provided, the thickness should be limited to 4 inches.

Tests performed by the Portland Cement Association show minor
increases in subgrade support with thicker subbase.
2. A thicker subbase should only be used for large wheel loads on poor
material.
7.3.2.3 Material Characteristics

1. Dense-graded material
2. Maximum aggregate size, 1/3 subbase thickness
3. Particles finer than 200 mesh, 15% maximum
4. Plasticity Index, 6% maximum

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7.3.3

September 2008

Paving Thickness
7.3.3.1 For light traffic areas, walkways, and areas designed for automobiles or
pick-up trucks, paving should be 4 inches thick.
7.3.3.2 For areas designed for heavier vehicles (e.g., equivalent H-20 loading
maximum), paving should be 6 inches minimum.
7.3.3.3 For areas designed for heavier loads (e.g., large mobile cranes), a more
detailed paving analysis should be considered.
7.3.3.4 See Table 7 for recommended thicknesses for various subgrade strengths
and expected loadings.
7.3.3.5 See drawings CVE02350-08 to -11 for typical details of rigid roadway
joints.
7.3.3.6 See ACI 504R for joint sealants information.
Table 7 Concrete Paving Thicknesses

Design
Vehicle
Loading
Pickup
H-15
H-20

7.4

Paving (inch)
Subbase (inch)
Paving (inch)
Subbase (inch)
Paving (inch)
Subbase (inch)

Subgrade Description and k Value

Silt & Clay
Sandy Silt & Clay
Sand/Clay Mixture
(Highly
Poorly-graded
Well-graded
Compressible) Sand or Gravel
Sand & Gravel
< 100 pci
100-250 pci
>250 pci
4-1/2
4
4
4
4
with or without
6
5-1/2
5
4
4
4
7
6-1/2
6
6
4
4

Alternative Surface Treatment for Vehicle Traffic Area

7.4.1

General
7.4.1.1 Paving with asphalt or portland cement concrete is typically limited to
areas where, because of traffic loads or other considerations, the cost of
paving is justified.
7.4.1.2 Other surface treatments that have application for limited vehicle traffic
include the following:
a. Crushed rock
b. Gravel
c. Stabilized soil
7.4.1.3 Walking on these alternate surfaces can be difficult unless suitable
material gradations are used and compacted to 90 to 95% of their
maximum density.

7.4.2

Compacted Crushed Rock

7.4.2.1 Depending on the quality of the subgrade, adequate support for
occasional vehicle loads can be provided using crushed rock
approximately 4 inches thick.

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7.4.2.2 Crushed rock surfacing is typically used for the following conditions:
a. An all-weather, well-drained surface is specified.
b. Neat appearance is important.
c. Heavy vehicle traffic is not expected.
7.4.2.3 For the best wearing, well-compacted surface, a well-graded crushed
rock material with the gradation (e.g., grain-size distribution) shown in
Table 8 should be provided.
Table 8 Crushed Rock Gradation
Sieve Size

Amount Passing Sieve, %

1 inch

100

3/4 inch

90-100

1/2 inch

25-60

3/8 inch

10-15

No. 4

0-3

7.4.2.4 To limit the growth of vegetation through the rock surface, a weed killer
approved by owner should be applied to the area before spreading the
crushed rock.
7.4.3

Gravel
7.4.3.1 Gravel is defined to be the wide variety of soil mixtures that have a
significant portion of gravel (e.g., grain size .08 inch to about 3 inches)
and/or coarse sand.
7.4.3.2 Gravel can be found naturally at the site, or imported from a borrow pit.
7.4.3.3 Gravel can be well-graded (e.g., relatively uniform distribution of grainsize particles) to poorly graded (e.g., excessive percentages of certain
grain sizes and absence of others). Some gravels have some plasticity,
whereas others are non-plastic.
7.4.3.4 Well-graded gravels provide better and longer-lasting surfaces, and tend
to perform better if they have a small percentage of clay which acts as a
binder.
7.4.3.5 Poorly-graded gravels can become soft during wet weather and loose and
dusty in dry weather.
7.4.3.6 The wearing properties of gravel surfaces can be improved by applying
emulsified asphalt to cement the gravel.
7.4.3.7 For well-graded gravel, the gradation shown in Table 9 should be
provided.
Table 9 Gravel Gradation
Designated Sieve

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Amount Passing Sieve, %

No. 10

20-100

No. 40

10-70

No. 200

3-25

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7.4.4

September 2008

Stabilized Soil
7.4.4.1 In addition to typical compaction techniques for strengthening soils,
chemical additives including the following can enhance soil properties:
a. Portland cement
b. Asphalt
c. Lime
d. Calcium chloride
7.4.4.2 Chemical additive treatments can accomplish the following:
a. Upgrade the strength of very poor subgrade materials under
roadways
b. Decrease the permeability of soils
c. Act as a palliative to control dust problems
d. Provide a surface for areas not subject to heavy vehicle loads
7.4.4.3 The quantity of additive required and the expected stabilization gain
depends on the properties of the natural soil and the depth of soil to be
stabilized. Laboratory testing may be performed to assess the value of
using chemical additives.
7.4.4.4 Following is a typical procedure for stabilizing soils:
a. Scarify the existing surface
b. Spread chemical additives
c. Mix with motor grader using windrow mixing or alternative
procedure
d. Spread the mixture
e. Compact the surface as required

7.5

Paving Over Low-Strength Soils

7.5.1

General
Historically, if low-strength soils were encountered, the undesirable soils were
either excavated and replaced with better material, or over-laid with thicker
subbase materials to reduce unit loading to the subgrade. However, with the
development of a line of geogrid and geotextile products, other alternatives are
available for working with problem soils.

7.5.2

Geogrids
7.5.2.1 Geogrids are manufactured from high tensile strength polymer, and
designed with transverse and longitudinal ribs.
7.5.2.2 Laid directly on subgrade, the geogrid geometry provides a mechanism
for interlocking aggregate base or subbase material placed on the
geogrid. The interlocking prevents lateral movement of the aggregate and
improves load distribution to the subgrade.

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7.5.2.3 Geogrid materials are inert to typical chemical and biological conditions
in soils and are not expected to degrade.
7.5.3

Geotextile
7.5.3.1 Geotextile is manufactured from polyester in rolls up to 16 ft wide and
300 to 1000 ft long.
7.5.3.2 Laid over subgrade materials directly below an aggregate subbase,
geotextile is designed to perform any or all of the following functions:
a. Maintains separation between subbase and subgrade. Coarse
aggregate cannot move downward, and fine soil particles in the
subgrade cannot rise into the subbase.
b. Is permeable and permits pore water to pass vertically through the
fabric
c. Tensile strength of the geotextile material provides tensile
reinforcement for subbase
d. Permits lateral water flow within the plane of the geotextile material
and dissipates excess pore water pressure
7.5.3.3 Geotextiles are resistant to freeze-thaw and soil chemicals.

8.

Drainage Considerations
8.1

8.2

Roadway Drainage
8.1.1

Roadway drainage systems consist of collection, conveyance, removal, and

disposal of surface water runoff from the traveled way, shoulders, and adjoining
roadside areas. Culverts, headwalls, ditches, swales, curbs and gutters are
typically integral parts of roadway drainage systems.

8.1.2

Subsurface water should also be drained away from the roadbed for a sufficient
depth below the road surface to prevent frost troubles, and maintain a layer of
stable material thick enough to distribute the pavement pressure successfully to
less stable layers beneath.

Culverts
8.2.1

General
8.2.1.1 Culverts are used to channel water under roadways and driveways or to
remove drainage from ditches.
8.2.1.2 A wide variety of standard shapes and sizes are available for most culvert
materials. Because equivalent openings can be provided by a number of
standard shapes, the selection of shape may not be critical in terms of
hydraulic performance.
8.2.1.3 Factors governing culvert shape selection may include some of the
following:
a. Depth of cover
b. Limited headwater elevation where a low profile shape may be
required

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c. Potential for clogging by debris

d. Requirement for a natural stream bottom
e. Structural and hydraulic requirements
8.2.2

Culvert Materials
8.2.2.1 General

1. The selection of a culvert material may depend upon structural

strength, hydraulic roughness, durability, and corrosion and abrasion
resistance.
2. The most common culvert materials are concrete (e.g., reinforced
and non-reinforced), corrugated aluminum, corrugated steel, solidwall, profile wall, and reinforced plastic.
3. Culverts may be lined to inhibit corrosion and abrasion, or reduce
hydraulic resistance (e.g., corrugated metal culverts may be lined
with asphaltic concrete).
8.2.2.2 Concrete

1. Concrete culverts may be made from either precast or cast-in-place

reinforced concrete depending on the size and complexity of the
culvert design.
2. Precast culvert sections are uniform in size and shape and are made
in sections that can easily be transported, lifted, and installed.
3. Cast-in-place culvert construction is typically used if ready-mix
concrete is available and a culvert is specified to be constructed
without joints.
4. Precast concrete culverts may be made with high strength concrete.
5. Cast-in-place concrete culverts may have special reinforcement at
critical locations to resist high loads and stresses.
8.2.2.3 Corrugated Steel

1. Corrugated steel culverts are made from factory-produced corrugated

sheet steel.
2. Corrugated pipe culverts are made with factory-produced corrugated
pipe sections.
3. Large corrugated culverts are typically field-assembled using
structural plate products.
8.2.2.4 Corrugated Aluminum

Corrugated aluminum culverts may be made from factory assembled

corrugated aluminum pipe or field assembled from structural plates.
8.2.2.5 Plastic

1. Many types of materials may be used to produce plastic pipe.

2. The strength and other properties of a plastic pipe typically depend
on the type of base resin and the blend or formulation of chemicals in
the final resin material.

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8.2.3

Culvert Coatings
8.2.3.1 General

1. A variety of coatings may be used either singularly or in a

combination of layers to protect culverts from chemical and/or
abrasion attack.
2. The type of coating to use depends upon the type of culvert material
and the types of deterioration or distress to be resisted.
3. The need for protective coatings depends upon of the following
factors:
a. Chemistry and acidity of the adjacent soil
b. Chemistry and acidity of the water passing through the culvert
c. Particle size and velocity of the solid material being transported
through the culvert
d. Environmental effects including freezing and thawing
8.2.3.2 Metal Culverts

1. Corrugated steel culverts may be protected with metallic coatings of

zinc (e.g., galvanized) or aluminum.
2. Protective coatings for metal culverts may also include bituminous
coatings, bituminous paving, fiber-bonded bituminous coatings,
polymer, concrete paving, and concrete coatings. These protective
coatings may be applied in addition to a metallic coating for serious
corrosion or abrasion conditions.
3. Inverts of corrugated metal culverts are typically paved to extend the
life of the culvert by protecting the invert against corrosion and
abrasion. The paving smoothes the inside of the culvert and improves
hydraulic capacity.
8.2.3.3 Concrete Culverts

1. Typically, concrete culverts are not coated when constructed.

2. If installed in aggressive chemical environments, concrete culverts
may be coated with epoxy resins or special high density, low
porosity concrete materials that have a high resistance to chemicals
and chemical attack.
8.3

Ditches
8.3.1

General
8.3.1.1 Roadside ditches should prevent water from pooling on the roadway
surface, and prevent overland runoff from reaching the roadway.
8.3.1.2 Design considerations for roadside drainage ditches include ditch shape,
slope, lining considerations, and capacity requirements.

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8.3.2

September 2008

Shape
8.3.2.1 Typically, ditch shape is either V-shaped or trapezoidal.
8.3.2.2 For mild side slopes, the ditch shape tends to approach a parabolic shape,
which is the most hydraulically efficient shape.
8.3.2.3 Because V-shaped ditches are more susceptible to erosion, trapezoidal
ditches may be preferred for certain soil conditions.
8.3.2.4 The size and depth of ditch should be set by volume of water that needs
to be channeled.
8.3.2.5 The roadbed may need to be elevated to permit depth of ditch to be
sufficient for good drainage.
8.3.2.6 Special design features (e.g., drop structures, check dams, etc.) should be
considered to minimize shear stresses exerted on the ditch boundary or
lining, and avoid occurrence of supercritical flow.

8.3.3

Slope
8.3.3.1 The side slopes of a ditch should not exceed the angle of repose of the
soil comprising the ditch line, and should typically be 3:1
(e.g., horizontal:vertical) or less.
8.3.3.2 For typical surface drainage over pavement to a ditch, the road side slope
of the ditch should be 4:1 to minimize erosion. The other side of ditch
can be 4:1 or 3:1 depending on elevation change.
8.3.3.3 If a rigid lining is specified, the use of steeper ditch slopes greater than
2:1 may be more economical.

8.3.4

Lining
8.3.4.1 Linings can be either rigid or flexible. Lined ditches generally allow for
steeper slopes and can provide protection against erosion caused by high
velocities at ditch outlets.
8.3.4.2 Rigid linings include concrete, paved, or other low permeability linings.
Rigid linings may be specified where ditches are designed to carry runoff
from process areas adjacent to roadway.
8.3.4.3 Flexible linings include asphalt, vegetation, riprap, or geotechnical
material.

8.4

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Curbs, Gutters and Inlets

8.4.1

Sidewalks and curbs may be specified along a roadway. The change in elevation
from curbs along a roadway edge channels surface water runoff, forming gutters.

8.4.2

Gutter grades should be 0.3% to 0.4% minimum.

8.4.3

Inlets and/or catch basins should be placed along curb and gutters to remove the
surface runoff.

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8.4.4

Catch basin spacing should be determined based on the following conditions:

a. Flatness of the grade
b. Volume of rainfall typical for the location
c. If applicable, firewater flow

8.5

8.4.5

Inlets should be ample to receive the full flow of water.

8.4.6

Maximum spacing of catch basins is typically 250 ft.

8.4.7

Water should not be permitted to cross the surface of an intersecting street.

Headwalls
Headwalls control and direct the transitional flows in and out from a pipeline to an open
ditch or creek. Headwalls may be cast in place or pre-cast units. See drawings
CVE02350-05 to -06 for typical details for headwalls.

8.6

Pipe Crushing Strength

8.6.1

General
8.6.1.1 For designing underground culverts, pipe crushing strength should be
known so the supporting capability of the pipe is not exceeded by the
earth and live loads.
8.6.1.2 Crushing strengths are typically obtained from pipe manufacturers
catalogs, and can also be calculated from formulas derived using specific
tests.
8.6.1.3 ASTM testing standards typically require pipe crushing strengths to
resist expected live and dead loads. However, unusual conditions
(e.g., extraordinary loads or very deep or shallow depths of bury) require
special consideration.
8.6.1.4 Pipe used for culverts is typically classified either rigid or flexible.
8.6.1.5 Rigid pipe (e.g., cast iron, concrete, or clay) either cracks or ruptures if
the combined load (e.g., internal pressure and external load) imposed
becomes greater than the inherent circumferential strength of the pipe.

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8.6.1.6 Crushing strengths for various categories and sizes of rigid pipe,
calculated in accordance with ASTM testing methods, are shown in
Table 10.
Table 10 Crushing Strength of Pipe
3-Edge Bearing Test, Pounds per Linear Foot
Pipe Size
(Inches)

Vitrified Clay
Extra Strength
ASTM C-700

Nonreinforced
Concrete
Class 2
ASTM C-14
2,000

C.I. Soil
Pipe
Extra
Heavy
ASTM A-74
6,500

Reinforced Concrete, ASTM C-76

Load to Produce a 0.01 Inch Crack
Class II

Class III

Class IV

Class V

2,000

2,000

2,000

4,400

2,200

2,000

4,275

10

2,400

2,000

4,275

12

2,600

2,250

4,425

1,000

1,350

2,000

3,000

15

2,900

2,600

5,310

1,250

1,688

2,500

3,750

18

3,300

3,000

1,500

2,025

3,000

4,500

21

3,850

3,300

1,750

2,363

3,500

5,250

24

4,400

3,600

2,000

2,700

4,000

6,000

27

4,700

2,250

3,038

4,500

6,750

30

5,000

2,500

3,375

5,000

7,500

33

5,500

2,750

3,713

5,500

8,250

36

6,000

3,000

4,050

6,000

9,000

8.6.2

Concrete Pipe
8.6.2.1 For reinforced concrete pipe only, laboratory load strength may be
expressed as either of the following:
a. Load per foot of pipe that causes the pipe to develop a 0.01 inch
crack
b. Ultimate load the pipe can withstand
8.6.2.2 The load strength of the pipe, either the 0.01 inch crack or ultimate,
divided by the nominal internal diameter of the pipe in feet, is called the
D load strength.
8.6.2.3 For example, if a 48-inch diameter reinforced concrete pipe has a 3-edge
bearing test load at 0.01-inch crack of 8,000 lb/ft, and an ultimate
strength of 12,000 lb/ft, the 0.01-inch crack strength is 2,000D and the
ultimate strength is 3,000D.

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8.6.3

Flexible Pipe
8.6.3.1 Flexible pipe (e.g., steel and plastic) resists deflection using the pipe load
strength combined with the lateral support of the compacted soil at the
side fills.
8.6.3.2 The maximum external load that can be applied to a flexible pipe is the
load that gives a deflection greater than the following:
a. For flexible coating, 5% of nominal pipe diameter
b. For rigid coating, 2% of nominal pipe diameter
8.6.3.3 Internal pressure assists flexible pipe in resisting external loads but
cannot be used in load calculations because the pipe may be empty.

8.7

Pipe Loading
8.7.1

General
8.7.1.1 Formulas and charts for determining loads on an underground pipe have

been determined from theories developed by Anson Marston, Iowa State

University.
8.7.1.2 For designing underground culverts, earth loads and live or transmitted
loads should be considered. Data on live and dead loads can be obtained
from many different handbooks available and from pipe manufacturers
guidelines.
8.7.1.3 Every condition of bury or loading does not have to be considered for
design. Typically, pipe loading should not need to be checked.
Underground pipe design regulations typically require that pipe be
designed for typical depths of bury with typically expected live loads.
8.7.1.4 The following conditions should be checked for pipe loading:
a. Depths of bury greater than 10 feet
b. Abnormal soil conditions
c. Unusually high live or transmitted loads
d. Live loads for depths of bury less than 3 feet
8.7.2

Types of Bury
8.7.2.1 Types of bury are classified as that in cut (e.g., trench condition) or that
in fill (e.g., embankment condition).
8.7.2.2 Combinations of both trench and embankment conditions can exist.
To simplify and provide conservatism, this guideline is limited to trench
conditions and embankment conditions. Combination conditions are
considered embankment conditions.

8.7.3

Earth (Dead) Loads

8.7.3.1 The amount of earth load that is transmitted to an underground pipe is
dependent on many factors including the following:
a. Depth of cover
b. Width of trench at top of pipe

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c. Rigid or flexible pipe

d. Trench or embankment construction condition
e. Soil density and cohesion characteristics
8.7.3.2 Formulas and charts developed by Anson Marston provide a means to
closely calculate the earth loading for the variable factors listed in
Section 8.7.3.1. This data can be found in many available handbooks.
Full descriptions of the various construction conditions are also given in
the handbooks.
8.7.3.3 To simplify the determination of earth loading, Table 11 may be used for
approximate values. For the following reasons, values from the table
should be satisfactory for design:
a. Depths of cover are typically less than 8 feet.
b. Earth load values for a depth of 8 feet should be well below the
3-edge bearing strength of vitrified clay pipe or reinforced concrete
pipe for any properly installed system.
c. Unless the width of the trench is specified and controlled during
construction, calculating earth loads from Anson Marstons formulas
is impractical.
d. The unit weight of soil used in Table 11 is 120 pcf.
e. Pipes 12 inches in diameter and less are assumed to have a trench
width 1 foot greater than the outside diameter of the pipe. Pipes
greater than 12 inches to 36 inches are assumed to have a trench
width 2 feet greater than the outside diameter of the pipe.
Table 11 Dead Load from Earth Cover on Underground Pipe
Loads in Pounds per Linear Foot of Pipe
Depth
of
Cover,
Feet

Nominal Pipe Diameter, Inches

10

12

15

18

21

24

27

30

33

36

180

240

290

340

390

450

500

560

610

700

750

820

875

270

370

460

550

630

750

860

950

1,040

1,120

1,200

1,300

1,400

370

520

650

780

920

1,080

1,230

1,400

1,520

1,630

1,750

1,850

2,000

470

660

830

1,000

1,160

1,420

1,610

1,810

2,010

2,200

2,340

2,500

2,630

570

800

1,000

1,200

1,430

1,710

2,000

2,230

2,500

2,700

2,950

3,180

3,350

670

950

1,130

1,420

1,700

2,050

2,400

2,700

3,050

3,300

3,570

3,900

4,100

780

1,080

1,370

1,620

1,960

2,400

2,780

3,200

3,550

3,900

4,200

4,500

4,800

8.7.3.4 Table 11 is intended to be used as a guide in determining earth loads for

underground conduits with typical bury conditions. For unusual bury
conditions (e.g., large diameter pipes or deep pipes), the pipe
manufacturers catalog should be consulted for design criteria.

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8.7.4

Live Loads
8.7.4.1 Typically live loads do not need to be considered unless the loads are
very large or occur on culverts with very little cover. A few calculations
under various conditions should establish the relative importance of live
loads.
8.7.4.2 Based on depth of cover and size of pipe, trucks or construction
equipment moving over the ground surface above underground piping
can transmit a percentage of the total load to the pipe. If the area above
the piping is paved with flexible pavement, more load can be transmitted
to the pipe; whereas, with rigid pavement (e.g., concrete) the load can
bridge the pipe transmitting more load to the surrounding soil.
8.7.4.3 Table 12 shows the percent of live load that can be transmitted to the
pipe for various depths of cover. For determining transmitted loads,
Table 12 should be used with the following guidelines:
a. For piping under a roadway, depth of cover should be based on
rough grade elevations for the roadway because underground piping
can be subject to truck traffic before any paving is applied.
b. The minimum wheel load for design purposes is 16,000 pounds
which is normal H-20 loading. If greater loads are expected, the
calculations should be based on actual loads. The heaviest wheel
load that would be expected from a large unladen truck crane is
32,000 pounds (1/2 axle load of 64,000 pounds). The wheel load
may be on dual tires but is still considered one wheel. Heavier loads
could be possible during equipment handling or lifting activities and
this point should be reviewed with construction management.
Generally, the pipe is protected with timber mats or omitted entirely
during these operations.

Table 12 Percentage of Wheel Loads Transmitted to Underground Pipe

Note: Each value is a percentage of wheel loads to apply to one linear foot of pipe.
Depth
of
Cover,
Feet

Nominal Pipe Diameter, Inches

10

12

15

18

21

24

27

30

33

36

9.3

12.8

15

17.3

20

22.6

24.8

26.4

27.2

28

28.6

29

29.4

4.3

5.7

8.3

9.6

11.5

13.2

15

15.6

16.8

17.8

18.7

19.5

2.9

3.6

4.3

5.2

6.4

7.5

8.6

9.3

10.2

11.1

11.8

12.5

1.2

1.7

2.1

2.5

3.1

3.9

4.6

5.3

5.8

6.5

7.2

7.9

8.5

0.7

1.2

1.4

1.7

2.1

2.6

3.1

3.6

3.9

4.4

4.9

5.3

5.8

0.5

0.8

1.1

1.4

1.8

2.1

2.5

2.8

3.1

3.5

3.8

4.2

0.2

0.5

0.7

0.8

1.3

1.6

1.3

2.1

2.3

2.6

2.9

3.2

0.1

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.8

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

2.2

2.3

8.7.4.4 For flexible pavement, the live load transferred to below grade varies in
function of the depth as shown in Figure 3. Cranes are designed so that
the live load applied to the soil is 2,000 psf maximum. Live load from
locomotives is transferred in accordance with the Coopers E-80 curve

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shown in Figure 3. The load is based on a locomotive axial load of

80,000 lbs with 4 axles spaced at 5 feet.
Live Load Transferred to Buried Structures at Different Depths
14,000

AASHTO H-20
Cooper's E-80

12,000

Load on the Structure, psf

10,000

8,000

6,000

4,000

2,000

0
0.0

2.0

4.0

6.0

8.0

10.0

Depth, ft

Figure 3 Live Load Transfer Below Flexible Pavements

8.7.4.5 For rigid pavement, the live load transferred to below grade is negligible
at any depth.
8.7.5

Pipe Bedding
8.7.5.1 Pipe bedding is the contact area between a pipe and the foundation on
which the pipe rests. The soil on the sides of and above a pipe is the
backfill.
8.7.5.2 The 3-edge bearing strength for a pipe is multiplied by the load factor or
number determined from the pipe bedding to calculate the field
supporting strength.
8.7.5.3 The field supporting strength of a rigid pipe and, therefore, the load
factor for a particular culvert, depend on the following installation
characteristics:
a. Width of pipe bedding and quality of the contact between the pipe
and bedding as the contact affects the distribution of the vertical
forces
b. Magnitude of lateral pressure acting against the sides of a pipe and
the area of the pipe over which the lateral pressure acts

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8.7.5.4 Cohesion between backfill material and the sides of a trench for pipe
bedding in trenches should be assumed to be negligible because of the
following:
a. Considerable time is required for effective cohesion.
b. Assuming that cohesion is negligible provides the maximum
probable load on the pipe.
8.7.6

Factor of Safety
8.7.6.1 A factor of safety should be applied to the pipe loading designs to
account for unforeseen stresses which can be imposed on an underground
pipe. A factor of safety cannot be computed by laws and equations, but
depends entirely upon engineering judgment and experience.
8.7.6.2 Typically, the factor of safety should range from 1.0 to 1.5 depending on
a variety of conditions or situations.
8.7.6.3 The following factors should be considered when choosing a factor of
safety for underground pipe designs:
a. Culvert (e.g., non-pressure pipe) typically fails gradually. Pipe under
pressure typically fails quickly once a crack develops.
b. Pipe bedding and backfill variable factors
c. Typically, rigid pipes should be designed with a higher factor of
safety than flexible pipes because flexible pipes can deflect more
before failure.

9.

Crossings
9.1

9.2

Railroad Crossings
9.1.1

Railroad facilities within a process plant are typically owned by the plant but
subject to one or more local railroad operating company specifications.

9.1.2

To cross railroad tracks with a new plant road, an acceptable crossing detail
should be developed in coordination with the railroad operating company.
Typical details can range from asphalt infill between rails to proprietary concrete
panels.

9.1.3

Typically, a process plant has a preferred railroad contractor that performs the
plants rail construction and maintenance. Specialty vendors may be consulted
for rail crossing materials and traffic control signage and devices.

Pipeline Crossings
9.2.1

Pipelines under roadways should be enclosed in an encasing pipe or embedded in

solid reinforced concrete to protect carrier pipe from external loads or shock,
either during or after construction of the roadway. The encasing pipe or enclosure
should be capable of supporting the expected overhead traffic. Unless otherwise
specified by owner, the top of the encasing pipe or enclosure should be 3 feet
minimum below the surface of the roadway.

9.2.2

Pipeline crossings should be identified by permanent markers.

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10.

September 2008

9.2.3

Pipelines crossing ditches should be placed 24 inches minimum below the ditch
flow line.

9.2.4

Pipe, conduit, sewer, or other similar facility should not be placed inside a
drainage pipe.

9.2.5

Pipelines exposed to damage by vehicular traffic should be protected by guard

rails or curbs of concrete or metal.

Typical Details
See drawings CVE02350-01 to -10 for typical details for road sections, guard rails and posts,
culverts, headwalls, roadway clearances, and concrete pavement joints.

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