Fourier Series Tutorial PDF

Series
FOURIER SERIES
Graham S McDonald
A self-contained Tutorial Module for learning
the technique of Fourier series analysis
Table of contents
Begin Tutorial
c 2004 [email protected]

Table of contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Theory
Exercises
Answers
Integrals
Useful trig results
Alternative notation
Tips on using solutions
Full worked solutions
Section 1: Theory
1. Theory
A graph of periodic function f (x) that has period L exhibits the
same pattern every L units along the x-axis, so that f (x + L) = f (x)
for every value of x. If we know what the function looks like over one
complete period, we can thus sketch a graph of the function over a
wider interval of x (that may contain many periods)
f(x )
P E R IO D = L
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Section 1: Theory
This property of repetition defines a fundamental spatial frequency k = 2

L that can be used to give a first approximation to
the periodic pattern f (x):
f (x) ' c1 sin(kx + 1 ) = a1 cos(kx) + b1 sin(kx),
where symbols with subscript 1 are constants that determine the amplitude and phase of this first approximation
A much better approximation of the periodic pattern f (x) can
be built up by adding an appropriate combination of harmonics to
this fundamental (sine-wave) pattern. For example, adding
c2 sin(2kx + 2 ) = a2 cos(2kx) + b2 sin(2kx)
c3 sin(3kx + 3 ) = a3 cos(3kx) + b3 sin(3kx)
(the 2nd harmonic)

(the 3rd harmonic)
Here, symbols with subscripts are constants that determine the amplitude and phase of each harmonic contribution
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Section 1: Theory
One can even approximate a square-wave pattern with a suitable sum

that involves a fundamental sine-wave plus a combination of harmonics of this fundamental frequency. This sum is called a Fourier series
F u n d a m e n ta l
F u n d a m e n ta l + 2 h a rm o n ic s
F u n d a m e n ta l + 5 h a rm o n ic s
F u n d a m e n ta l + 2 0 h a rm o n ic s
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P E R IO D = L
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Section 1: Theory
In this Tutorial, we consider working out Fourier series for functions f (x) with period L = 2. Their fundamental frequency is then
k = 2
L = 1, and their Fourier series representations involve terms like
a1 cos x ,
b1 sin x
a2 cos 2x ,
b2 sin 2x
a3 cos 3x ,
b3 sin 3x
We also include a constant term a0 /2 in the Fourier series. This

allows us to represent functions that are, for example, entirely above
the xaxis. With a sufficient number of harmonics included, our approximate series can exactly represent a given function f (x)
f (x) = a0 /2
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+ a1 cos x + a2 cos 2x + a3 cos 3x + ...

+ b1 sin x + b2 sin 2x + b3 sin 3x + ...
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Section 1: Theory
A more compact way of writing the Fourier series of a function f (x),

with period 2, uses the variable subscript n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
a0 X
f (x) =
+
[an cos nx + bn sin nx]
2
n=1
We need to work out the Fourier coefficients (a0 , an and bn ) for
given functions f (x). This process is broken down into three steps
STEP ONE
a0
Z
f (x) dx
2
STEP TWO
an
Z
f (x) cos nx dx
2
STEP THREE
bn
Z
f (x) sin nx dx
2
where integrations are over a single interval in x of L = 2

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Section 1: Theory
Finally, specifying a particular value of x = x1 in a Fourier series,

gives a series of constants that should equal f (x1 ). However, if f (x)
is discontinuous at this value of x, then the series converges to a value
that is half-way between the two possible function values
" V e rtic a l ju m p " /d is c o n tin u ity
in th e fu n c tio n re p re s e n te d
f(x )
F o u rie r s e rie s
c o n v e rg e s to
h a lf-w a y p o in t
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Section 2: Exercises
2. Exercises
Click on Exercise links for full worked solutions (7 exercises in total).
Exercise 1.
Let f (x) be a function of period 2 such that

1, < x < 0
f (x) =
0, 0 < x < .
a) Sketch a graph of f (x) in the interval 2 < x < 2
b) Show that the Fourier series for f (x) in the interval < x < is

1
2
1
1
sin x + sin 3x + sin 5x + ...

2
3
5
c) By giving an appropriate value to x, show that
1 1 1
= 1 + + ...
4
3 5 7
Theory Answers Integrals Trig Notation
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Exercise 2.

0, < x < 0
f (x) =
x, 0 < x < .

2
1
1
cos x + 2 cos 3x + 2 cos 5x + ...

4
3
5

1
1
+ sin x sin 2x + sin 3x ...
2
3
c) By giving appropriate values to x, show that
(i) 4 = 1 31 + 15 17 + . . .
and (ii) 8 = 1 + 312 + 512 + 712 + . . .

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Exercise 3.

x, 0 < x <
f (x) =
, < x < 2 .
b) Show that the Fourier series for f (x) in the interval 0 < x < 2 is

2
1
1
3
cos x + 2 cos 3x + 2 cos 5x + . . .

4
3
5

1
1
sin x + sin 2x + sin 3x + . . .
2
3
c) By giving appropriate values to x, show that
(i)
= 1
1
3
1
5
1
7
+...
and (ii)
2
8
= 1+
1
32
1
52
1
72
+...

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Exercise 4.
f (x) =
x
over the interval 0 < x < 2.
2


1
1
sin x + sin 2x + sin 3x + . . .
2
2
3
1 1 1 1
= 1 + + ...
4
3 5 7 9

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13
Exercise 5.

x, 0 < x <
f (x) =
0,
< x < 2

1
2
1
+
cos x + 2 cos 3x + 2 cos 5x + . . .
4
3
5
1
1
1
+ sin x + sin 2x + sin 3x + sin 4x + . . .
2
3
4
2
1
1
= 1 + 2 + 2 + ...
8
3
5
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Exercise 6.
f (x) = x in the range < x < .

1
1
2 sin x sin 2x + sin 3x . . .
2
3
1 1 1
= 1 + + ...
4
3 5 7

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Exercise 7.
f (x) = x2 over the interval < x < .

1
2
1
4 cos x 2 cos 2x + 2 cos 3x . . .
3
2
3
2
1
1
1
= 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ...
6
2
3
4

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Section 3: Answers
16
3. Answers
The sketches asked for in part (a) of each exercise are given within
the full worked solutions click on the Exercise links to see these
solutions
The answers below are suggested values of x to get the series of
constants quoted in part (c) of each exercise
1. x =
2,
2. (i) x =
3. (i) x =
4. x =
2,
2,
(ii) x = 0,
(ii) x = 0,
2,
5. x = 0,
6. x =
2,
7. x = .
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Section 4: Integrals
17
4. Integrals
R b dv
Rb
b
Formula for integration by parts: a u dx
dx = [uv]a a
R
R
f (x)
f (x)dx
f (x)
f (x)dx
xn
1
x
x
e
sin x
cos x
tan x
cosec x
sec x
sec2 x
cot x
sin2 x
cos2 x
xn+1
n+1
(n 6= 1)
ln |x|
ex
cos x
sin x
ln
|cos x|
ln tan x2
ln |sec x + tan x|
tan x
ln |sin x|
x
sin 2x
2
4
x
sin 2x
2 +
4
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[g (x)] g 0 (x)
0
g (x)
g(x)
x
a
sinh x
cosh x
tanh x
cosech x
sech x
sech2 x
coth x
sinh2 x
cosh2 x
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[g(x)]n+1
n+1
du
dx v dx
(n 6= 1)
ln |g (x)|
ax
(a > 0)
ln a
cosh x
sinh x
ln cosh x
ln tanh x2
2 tan1 ex
tanh x
ln |sinh x|
sinh 2x
x2
4
sinh 2x
+ x2
4
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Section 4: Integrals
f (x)
1
a2 +x2
1
a2 x2
a2 x2
18
f (x) dx
f (x)
1
a
tan1
1
a2 x2
(a > 0)
1
x2 a2
f (x) dx

a+x
1
2a ln ax (0 < |x| < a)

xa
1
ln

2a
x+a (|x| > a > 0)
sin1
x
a
1
a2 +x2

2
2

ln x+ aa +x (a > 0)
(a < x < a)
1
x2 a2

2
2

ln x+ xa a (x > a > 0)
a2
2
1
sin
+x
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x
a
x
a
a2 x2
a2
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a2 +x2
a2
2
x2 a2
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a2
2
h
h
sinh1
cosh1
x
a
x a2 +x2
2
a
i
2
2
+ x xa2a
x
a
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Section 5: Useful trig results
19
5. Useful trig results

When calculating the Fourier coefficients an and bn , for which n =
1, 2, 3, . . . , the following trig. results are useful. Each of these results,
which are also true for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , can be deduced from
the graph of sin x or that of cos x
1
sin n = 0
s in (x )
x
3
cos n = (1)n
c o s(x )
x
3
0
1
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Section 5: Useful trig results

1
20
s in (x )
c o s(x )
x
3
x
3

sin n =
0 , n even
0 , n odd

1 , n = 1, 5, 9, ... cos n =
1 , n = 0, 4, 8, ...
2
1 , n = 3, 7, 11, ...
1 , n = 2, 6, 10, ...
Areas cancel when

when integrating
overR whole periods
sin nx dx = 0
2
R
cos nx dx = 0
+
3
s in (x )
+
+
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x
3
Section 6: Alternative notation
21
6. Alternative notation
For a waveform f (x) with period L =
2
k
f (x)
a0 X
+
[an cos nkx + bn sin nkx]
2
n=1
The corresponding Fourier coefficients are

STEP ONE
a0
2
L
2
L
2
L
f (x) dx
L
STEP TWO
an
f (x) cos nkx dx

L
STEP THREE
bn
Z
f (x) sin nkx dx
L
and integrations are over a single interval in x of L

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For a waveform f (x) with period 2L = 2

k , we have that
2
k = 2L
=L
and nkx = nx
L
nx
a0 X h
nx i
an cos
f (x) =
+
+ bn sin
2
L
L
n=1
STEP ONE
a0
1
L
f (x) dx
2L
STEP TWO
an
1
L
1
L
Z
f (x) cos
nx
dx
L
f (x) sin
nx
dx
L
2L
STEP THREE
bn
Z
2L
and integrations are over a single interval in x of 2L
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For a waveform f (t) with period T =
f (t)
a0 X
+
[an cos nt + bn sin nt]
2
n=1

STEP ONE
a0
2
T
2
T
2
T
f (t) dt
T
STEP TWO
an
f (t) cos nt dt
T
STEP THREE
bn
Z
f (t) sin nt dt
T
and integrations are over a single interval in t of T
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Section 7: Tips on using solutions
24
7. Tips on using solutions

When looking at the THEORY, ANSWERS, INTEGRALS, TRIG
or NOTATION pages, use the Back button (at the bottom of the
page) to return to the exercises
Use the solutions intelligently. For example, they can help you get
started on an exercise, or they can allow you to check whether your
intermediate results are correct
Try to make less use of the full solutions as you work your way
through the Tutorial
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Solutions to exercises
25
Full worked solutions

Exercise 1.

1, < x < 0
f (x) =
0, 0 < x < , and has period 2
f(x )
1
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26
b) Fourier series representation of f (x)

STEP ONE
1
a0 =
Z
1
f (x)dx =
f (x)dx +
f (x)dx
0
Z
Z
1 0
1
=
1 dx +
0 dx

0
Z
1 0
=
dx

1 0
=
[x]

1
=
(0 ())
1
=
()
i.e. a0 = 1 .
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STEP TWO
an =
f (x) cos nx dx =
=
=
=
=
=
i.e. an
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f (x) cos nx dx +
Z 0
1 cos nx dx +
Z 0
f (x) cos nx dx
0
0 cos nx dx
0
1
cos nx dx

0
1 sin nx
1
0
=
[sin nx]
n
n
1
(sin 0 sin(n))
n
1
(0 + sin n)
n
1
(0 + 0) = 0.
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28
STEP THREE
bn
i.e. bn
=
=
=
i.e. bn
f (x) sin nx dx
Z 0
f (x) sin nx dx +
Z 0
1 sin nx dx +
f (x) sin nx dx
0
0 sin nx dx
0

0
1 cos nx
sin nx dx =
1
1
[cos nx]0 =
(cos 0 cos(n))
n
n
1
1
(1 cos n) =
(1 (1)n ) , see Trig
n
n

0
, n even
1 , n even
n
,
since
(1)
=
2
1 , n odd
n
, n odd
1
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We now have that
a0 X
f (x) =
+
2
n=1
with the three steps giving

a0 = 1, an = 0 , and bn =
0
2
n
, n even
, n odd
It may be helpful to construct a table of values of bn

n
bn
1
2
2
3
0 2 13
4
5
0 2 15
Substituting our results now gives the required series

1
1
2
1
f (x) =
sin x + sin 3x + sin 5x + . . .
2
3
5
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c) Pick an appropriate value of x, to show that
=1
1
3
1
5
1
7
+ ...
Comparing this series with

1
2
1
1
f (x) =
sin x + sin 3x + sin 5x + . . . ,
2
3
5
we need to introduce a minus sign in front of the constants 13 , 17 ,. . .
So we need sin x = 1, sin 3x = 1, sin 5x = 1, sin 7x = 1, etc
The first condition of sin x = 1 suggests trying x =
This choice gives
i.e.
sin 2
1
1
3
sin 3 2
1
3
+
+
1
5
2.
sin 5 2
1
5
Looking at the graph of f (x), we also have that f ( 2 ) = 0.

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1
7
sin 7 2
1
7
Picking x =
31
thus gives
h
0 = 21 2 sin 2 +
i.e. 0 =
1
2
1
3
sin 3
2 +
1
5
sin 5
2
1
7
sin 7
2 + ...
1
3
1
5
1
7
+ ...
A little manipulation then gives a series representation of 4

2
1 1 1
1
1 + + ... =
3 5 7
2
1 1 1
1 + + ... = .
3 5 7
4
Return to Exercise 1
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Exercise 2.

0,
f (x) =
x,
32
< x < 0
0 < x < , and has period 2
f(x )
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33

STEP ONE
a0 =
f (x)dx =
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f (x)dx +
0 dx +
f (x)dx
0
x dx
0

1 x2
2 0

1 2
0
2
.
2
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34
STEP TWO
an =
f (x) cos nx dx =
f (x) cos nx dx +
Z 0
f (x) cos nx dx
0
1
0 cos nx dx +
x cos nx dx
0

Z

Z
1
sin nx
sin nx
1
x cos nx dx =
x
dx
i.e. an =
0
n
n
0
0
=
(using integration by parts)

1
sin n
1 h cos nx i
n
n
n
0

1
1
(
0 0) + 2 [cos nx]0
n
1
1
{cos n cos 0} =
{(1)n 1}
2
2
n
n

0
, n even
, see Trig.
n2 2 , n odd

i.e. an
=
=
=
i.e. an
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STEP THREE
bn =
f (x) sin nx dx =
=
i.e. bn =
x sin nx dx =
0
=
=
=
=
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Z
1
f (x) sin nx dx
0
Z
Z
1
1 0
0 sin nx dx +
x sin nx dx

0

Z
1 h cos nx i
cos nx
x
dx
n
n
0
0
(using integration by parts)

Z
1
1
1
[x cos nx]0 +
cos nx dx
n
n 0

1
1 sin nx
1
( cos n 0) +
n
n
n
0
1
1
(1)n +
(0 0), see Trig
n
n2
1
(1)n
n
1
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f (x) sin nx dx +
Back
(
i.e.
bn =
36
n1
, n even
+ n1
, n odd
We now have
f (x)
a0 X
+
2
n=1
where a0 = ,
2
an =
, n even
n2 2
, n odd
bn =
n1
1
n
Constructing a table of values gives
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bn
12
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3
2
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4
1
32
1
3
5
2
14
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1
52
1
5
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, n even
, n odd
37
This table of coefficients gives

f (x) =
1
2 2
i.e. f (x) =

2
+

2
+
cos x + 0 cos 2x

1
2 cos 3x + 0 cos 4x
3

1
2 cos 5x + ...
5
1
1
2
3

2
1
1
cos x + 2 cos 3x + 2 cos 5x + ...
3
5

1
1
2
3
+
and we have found the required series!

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38

(i)
=1
1
3
1
5
1
7
+ ...
Comparing this series with

2
1
1
f (x) =
cos x + 2 cos 3x + 2 cos 5x + ...

4
3
5

1
1
+ sin x sin 2x + sin 3x ... ,
2
3
the required series of constants does not involve terms like 312 , 512 , 712 , ....
So we need to pick a value of x that sets the cos nx terms to zero.
The Trig section shows that cos n 2 = 0 when n is odd, and note also
that cos nx terms in the Fourier series all have odd n
i.e.
cos x = cos 3x = cos 5x = ... = 0
i.e.
cos 2 = cos 3 2 = cos 5 2 = ... = 0

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when x =
2,
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39
Setting x = 2 in the series for f (x) gives

1
1
3
5
f
=
cos + 2 cos
+ 2 cos
+ ...
2
4
2
3
2
5
2

2 1
3 1
4 1
5
1
+ sin
sin
+ sin
...
+ sin sin
2
2
2
3
2
4
2
5
2
2
=
[0 + 0 + 0 + ...]
4
1
1
1
1
+ (1) sin
2 + (1) ...
+ 1 sin
2 | {z } 3
4 | {z } 5
=0
=0
The graph of f (x) shows that f
i.e.
4
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=
=
2,
so that
1 1 1
+ 1 + + ...
4
3 5 7
1 1 1
1 + + ...
3 5 7
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40
Pick an appropriate value of x, to show that

(ii)
2
8
=1+
1
32
1
52
1
72
+ ...
Compare this series with

f (x) =

2
1
1
cos x + 2 cos 3x + 2 cos 5x + ...
3
5

1
1
+ sin x sin 2x + sin 3x ... .
2
3
This time, we want to use the coefficients of the cos nx terms, and
the same choice of x needs to set the sin nx terms to zero
Picking x = 0 gives
sin x = sin 2x = sin 3x = 0
and
cos x = cos 3x = cos 5x = 1
Note also that the graph of f (x) gives f (x) = 0 when x = 0

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So, picking x = 0 gives

0
i.e. 0

2
1
1
1
cos 0 + 2 cos 0 + 2 cos 0 + 2 cos 0 + ...

4
3
5
7
sin 0 sin 0
+ sin 0
+
...
3
2

2
1
1
1
=
1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ... + 0 0 + 0 ...
4
3
5
7
=
We then find that

2
1
1
1
1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ...
=
3
5
7
1
1
1
and
1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ... =
3
5
7
4
2
.
8
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Exercise 3.

x, 0 < x <
f (x) =
, < x < 2,
and has period 2
f(x )
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43

STEP ONE
a0 =
f (x)dx =
0
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Z
1 2
f (x)dx

0
Z
Z
1
1 2
xdx +
dx
0

2
1 x2
+
x
2 0
2

1
0 + 2
2
1
f (x)dx +
+
2
i.e. a0
3
.
2
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STEP TWO
an
"
f (x) cos nx dx
0
1
x cos nx dx +
sin nx
x
n
|
=
{z
cos nx dx
#

2
sin nx
sin nx
dx +
n
using integration by parts
"

#
cos nx
1 1
sin n 0 sin n0
n
n2
0
+
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1
(sin n2 sin n)
n
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i.e. an
45
"

#
1 1
cos n cos 0
1
00 +
00
2
+
n
n2
n
n
1
(cos n 1), see Trig
n2

1
(1)n 1 ,
2
n
n22
, n odd
, n even.
i.e. an =
Toc
JJ
II
Back
46
STEP THREE
bn
=
=
=
"
f (x) sin nx dx
0
x sin nx dx +
0
sin nx dx
#

2
h cos nx i Z cos nx
cos nx
x
dx +
n
n
n
0
0
|
{z
}
=
=

#
cos n
sin nx
1
+0 +
(cos 2n cos n)
n
n2 0
n
"

#

1 (1)n
sin n sin 0
1
+
1 (1)n
2
n
n
n

1
1
(1)n +
0
1 (1)n
n
n
1
"
Toc
JJ
II
Back
47
i.e. bn
i.e. bn
1
1
1
= (1)n + (1)n
n
n n
1
=
.
n
We now have
f (x) =
where a0 =
3
2 ,
a0 X
+
2
n=1
(
0
, n even
an =
,
bn = n1
n22 , n odd
Constructing a table of values gives

n
an
bn
Toc
1
2
1
JJ
2
0
21
3
2 312
13
II
4
0
14
5
2 512
15
Back
48
This table of coefficients gives
f (x) =
1
2
i.e. f (x) =
3
2
3
4
h
1
sin x +
h
cos x + 0 cos 2x +
1
32
cos 3x + . . .
1
2
sin 2x +
1
3
sin 3x + . . .
cos x +
1
32
cos 3x +
1
52
cos 5x + . . .
sin x +
1
2
sin 2x +
1
3
sin 3x + . . .
and we have found the required series.
Toc
JJ
II
Back
49

(i)
=1
1
3
1
5
1
7
+ ...
Compare this series with

3
2
1
1
f (x) =
cos x + 2 cos 3x + 2 cos 5x + . . .

4
3
5

1
1
sin x + sin 2x + sin 3x + . . .
2
3
Here, we want to set the cos nx terms to zero (since their coefficients
are 1, 312 , 512 , . . .). Since cos n 2 = 0 when n is odd, we will try setting
x = 2 in the series. Note also that f ( 2 ) = 2
This gives
3
4

cos 2 +
1
32

sin 2 +
1
2
Toc
JJ
cos 3 2 +
sin 2 2 +
II
1
3
1
52

cos 5 2 + . . .
sin 3 2 +
J
1
4
sin 4 2 +
I
1
5

sin 5 2 + . . .
Back
50
and
3
4
[0 + 0 + 0 + . . .]

(1) +
1
2
(0) +
1
3
(1) +
1
4
(0) +
1
5

(1) + . . .
then
3
4
1
3
1
5
1
7
1
3
1
5
1
7
+ ... =
3
4
1
3
1
5
1
7
+ ... =
4,
(ii)
2
8

+ ...
as required.
To show that
=1+
1
32
1
52
1
72
+ ... ,
We want zero sin nx terms and to use the coefficients of cos nx

Toc
JJ
II
Back
51
Setting x = 0 eliminates the sin nx terms from the series, and also
gives
1
1
1
1
1
1
cos x + 2 cos 3x + 2 cos 5x + 2 cos 7x + . . . = 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + . . .
3
5
7
3
5
7
(i.e. the desired series).
The graph of f (x) shows a discontinuity (a vertical jump) at x = 0
The Fourier series converges to a value that is half-way between the
two values of f (x) around this discontinuity. That is the series will
converge to 2 at x = 0
i.e.
2
and
Toc

3
2
1
1
1
cos 0 + 2 cos 0 + 2 cos 0 + 2 cos 0 + . . .

4
3
5
7

1
1
sin 0 + sin 0 + sin 0 + . . .
2
3

3
2
1
1
1
1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + . . . [0 + 0 + 0 + . . .]
4
3
5
7
JJ
II
Back
52
Finally, this gives
4
2
8
and

1
1
1
+
+
+
.
.
.
32
52
72
1
1
1
1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ...
3
5
7
1+
Toc
JJ
II
Back
53
Exercise 4.
f (x) = x2 , over the interval 0 < x < 2 and has period 2
f(x )
Toc
JJ
II
Back
54

STEP ONE
a0
i.e. a0
Toc
JJ
f (x) dx
0
2
x
dx
2
0
2 2
x
4 0

(2)2
0
4
= .
II
Back
55
STEP TWO
an
f (x) cos nx dx
0
2
x
cos nx dx
2
(
1
2
sin nx
x
n
|
=
=
i.e. an
Toc
2
0
n
{z
sin nx dx
0
)

sin n2
sin n 0
1
2
0
0
n
n
n
(
)
1
1
(0 0) 0
, see Trig
2
n
1
2
(
0.
JJ
II
Back
56
STEP THREE
bn
=
=
=
f (x) sin nx dx =
0
Z
0
x
2
sin nx dx
1
2
1
2
(
2 Z 2
)
cos nx
cos nx
x
dx
n
n
0
0
|
{z
}
1
2
x sin nx dx
0
2
cos(n2)
2n
1
= cos(2n)
n
1
=
, since 2n is even (see Trig)
n
Toc
JJ
II
J
I
Back
=
i.e. bn
)
1
1
(2 cos n2 + 0) + 0 , see Trig
n
n
57
We now have
a0 X
f (x) =
+
2
n=1
where a0 = , an = 0, bn = n1
These Fourier coefficients give
f (x)
i.e. f (x)
Toc

X
1
+
0 sin nx
2 n=1
n

1
1
sin x + sin 2x + sin 3x + . . . .
2
2
3
JJ
II
Back
58
Setting x =
=1
gives f (x) =
1
3
1
5
JJ
1
7
1
9
...
and
=
4
=
4

1 1 1 1
1 + + ...
=
3 5 7 9
1 1 1 1
i.e. 1 + + . . . =
3 5 7 9
Toc
II

1
1
1 + 0 + 0 + + 0 ...
2
3
5

1 1 1 1
1 + + ...
2
3 5 7 9
.
4
Back
59
Exercise 5.

x , 0<x<
f (x) =
0
, < x < 2, and has period 2
f(x )
Toc
JJ
II
Back
60

STEP ONE
a0
i.e. a0
Toc
f (x) dx
0
1
( x) dx +
0

1
x x2 + 0
2
0

2
2
0
2
.
2
JJ
II
0 dx
Back
61
STEP TWO
an
=
=
i.e. an
f (x) cos nx dx
0
Z
Z
1
1 2
( x) cos nx dx +
0 dx
0

Z

sin nx
sin nx
1
( x)
(1)
dx +0
n
n
0
0
|
{z
}
=
=
=
i.e. an
=
Toc

Z
1
sin nx
(0 0) +
dx
, see Trig
n
0

1 cos nx
n
n
0
1
2 (cos n cos 0)
n
1
2 ((1)n 1) , see Trig
n
JJ
II
Back
i.e. an
62
, n even
2
n2
, n odd
STEP THREE
bn
f (x) sin nx dx
0
( x) sin nx dx +
0
0 dx
cos nx i Z
cos nx
( x)
(1)
dx + 0
n
n
0
0

1
1
=
0
0 , see Trig
n
n
1
=
.
n
Toc
JJ
II
J
I
Back
i.e. bn
h
In summary, a0 =
63
and a table of other Fourier cofficients is
n
an =
2
n2
bn =
1
n
f (x) =
(when n is odd)
2 1
32
2 1
52
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
5
X
a0
+
2
n=1
2
2 1
2 1
+ cos x +
cos 3x +
cos 5x + . . .
4
32
52
1
1
1
2
3
4

2
1
1
i.e. f (x) =
+
cos x + 2 cos 3x + 2 cos 5x + . . .
4
3
5
1
1
1
2
3
4
Toc
JJ
II
J
I
Back
=
64
2
8
c) To show that
=1+
1
32
1
52
+ ... ,
note that, as x 0 , the series converges to the half-way value of

and then
=
2
4
+
+
giving
Toc
4
2
8
JJ
=
=
=
2,

1
1
cos
0
+
cos
0
+
.
.
.
32
52
1
1
sin 0 + sin 0 + sin 0 + . . .
2
3

2
1
1
+
1 + 2 + 2 + ... + 0
4
3
5

2
1
1
1 + 2 + 2 + ...
3
5
1
1
1 + 2 + 2 + ...
3
5
II
cos 0 +
Back
65
Exercise 6.
f (x) = x, over the interval < x < and has period 2
f(x )
Toc
JJ
II
Back
66

STEP ONE
a0
=
=
=
i.e. a0
Toc
JJ
II
f (x) dx
x dx

1 x2
2

1 2
2
2
2
0.
Back
67
STEP TWO
an
=
=
=
Z
1
f (x) cos nx dx

Z
1
x cos nx dx

(

)
Z
1
sin nx
sin nx
x
dx
n
n
|
{z
}

Z
1 1
1
( sin n () sin(n))
sin nx dx
n
n

1 1
1
(0 0) 0 ,
n
n
Z
since sin n = 0 and
sin nx dx = 0,

i.e. an
=
=
i.e. an
0.
Toc
JJ
II
Back
STEP THREE
bn
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
i.e. bn
Toc
Z
1
f (x) sin nx dx

Z
1
x sin nx dx

(

)
Z
1
x cos nx
cos nx
dx
n
n

Z
1
1
1
cos nx dx
[x cos nx] +
n
n

1
1
1
( cos n () cos(n)) + 0
n
n
(cos n + cos n)
n
1
(2 cos n)
n
2
(1)n .
n
JJ
II
J
I
Back
68
69
We thus have
f (x)
i
a0 X h
an cos nx + bn sin nx
+
2
n=1
with a0 = 0, an = 0, bn = n2 (1)n
and
n
bn
2 1
3
2
3
Therefore
f (x)
i.e. f (x)
= b1 sin x + b2 sin 2x + b3 sin 3x + . . .

1
1
= 2 sin x sin 2x + sin 3x . . .
2
3
and we have found the required Fourier series.

Toc
JJ
II
Back
70
=1
1
3
1
5
1
7
+ ...
Setting x = 2 gives f (x) = 2 and

1
2 1
3 1
4 1
5
= 2 sin sin
+ sin
sin
+ sin
...
2
2
2
2
3
2
4
2
5
2
This gives
=
2
=
2
i.e.
=
4

1
1
1
2 1 + 0 + (1) 0 + (1) 0 + (1) + . . .
3
5
7

1 1 1
2 1 + + ...
3 5 7
1 1 1
1 + + ...
3 5 7
Toc
JJ
II
Back
71
Exercise 7.
f (x) = x2 , over the interval < x < and has period 2
f(x )
Toc
JJ
II
Back
72

STEP ONE
1
a0 =
f (x)dx =
i.e. a0
Toc
JJ
II
x2 dx

1 x3
3

1 3
3

3
3

1 2 3
3
2 2
.
3
Back
73
STEP TWO
an
=
=
=
Z
1
f (x) cos nx dx

Z
1
x2 cos nx dx

(

)
Z
1
sin
nx
sin
nx
2x
x2
dx
n
n
|
{z
}
=
=
)
Z
2
1 2
2
x sin nx dx
sin n sin(n)
n
n
)
(
Z
1 1
2
x sin nx dx , see Trig
(0 0)
n
n
Z
2
x sin nx dx
n
1
Toc
JJ
II
Back
i.e. an
74
2
n
(

)
Z
cos nx
cos nx
x
dx
n
n
|
{z
}
2
n
2
n
2
n
2
n
using integration by parts again
Toc
)
Z
1
1
[x cos nx] +
cos nx dx
n
n
)
(

1
1
cos n () cos(n) + 0
n
n
(
)

1
(1)n + (1)n
n
(
)
2
(1)n
n
JJ
II
Back
i.e. an
75
2
n
+4
(1)n
n2
4
(1)n
n2
(
i.e. an =
(1)n
n
4
n2
, n even
4
n2
, n odd.
Toc
JJ
II
Back
76
STEP THREE
bn
=
=
Z
1 2
f (x) sin nx dx =
x sin nx dx

(

)
Z
1
cos
nx
cos
nx
x2
2x
dx
n
n
|
{z
}
1

2
1 2
x cos nx +
n
n
x cos nx dx
)
Z

1 2
2
cos n 2 cos(n) +
x cos nx dx
n
n
)
(
Z
2
1
1 2
2
cos n cos(n) +
x cos nx dx
n|
{z
} n
1
=0
2
n
Toc
x cos nx dx
JJ
II
Back
i.e. bn
2
n
77
(
sin nx
x
n
|
=
=
i.e. bn
2
n
{z
)
sin nx
dx
n
}
1
1
( sin n () sin(n))
n
n
(
)
Z
2 1
1
sin nx dx
(0 + 0)
n n
n
Z
2
sin nx dx
n2
sin nx dx
0.
Toc
JJ
II
Back
78
a0 X
+
2
n=1
(
4
, n even
2 2
n2
a0 = 3 ,
an =
,
4
, n odd
n2
f (x) =
where
n
an
1
i.e. f (x) =
2
2 2
3
4(1) 4

1
22
3
bn = 0
4
1
32
1
42

1
1
1
4 cos x 2 cos 2x + 2 cos 3x 2 cos 4x . . .
2
3
4
+ [0 + 0 + 0 + . . .]

2
1
1
1
i.e. f (x) =
4 cos x 2 cos 2x + 2 cos 3x 2 cos 4x + . . . .
3
2
3
4
Toc
JJ
II
Back
79
2
6
= 1 + 212 + 312 + 412 + . . . ,

(
1 , n even
use the fact that cos n =
1 , n odd
c) To show that
cos x
1
22
cos 2x +
1
32
cos 3x
1
42
cos 4x + . . . with x =
gives cos
1
22
cos 2 +
1
32
cos 3
1
42
cos 4 + . . .
1
32
(1)
i.e.
i.e.
(1)
i.e.
1
22
(1) +
1
22
1
32
1
42
(1) + . . .
1
42
+...

1
1
1
= 1 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + . . .
2
3
4
|
{z
}
(the desired series)
Toc
JJ
II
Back
80
The graph of f (x) gives that f () = 2 and the series converges to

this value.
Setting x = in the Fourier series thus gives

2
1
1
1
2
=
4 cos 2 cos 2 + 2 cos 3 2 cos 4 + . . .
3
2
3
4

2
1
1
1
2 =
4 1 2 2 2 . . .
3
2
3
4

2
1
1
1
2
+ 4 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ...
=
3
2
3
4

2
2
1
1
1
= 4 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ...
3
2
3
4
2
1
1
1
i.e.
= 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ...
6
2
3
4
Toc
JJ
II
Back

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Series

This property of repetition defines a fundamental spatial frequency k = 2

(the 2nd harmonic)

One can even approximate a square-wave pattern with a suitable sum

We also include a constant term a0 /2 in the Fourier series. This

+ a1 cos x + a2 cos 2x + a3 cos 3x + ...

A more compact way of writing the Fourier series of a function f (x),

where integrations are over a single interval in x of L = 2

Finally, specifying a particular value of x = x1 in a Fourier series,

sin x + sin 3x + sin 5x + ...

cos x + 2 cos 3x + 2 cos 5x + ...

and (ii) 8 = 1 + 312 + 512 + 712 + . . .

Theory Answers Integrals Trig Notation

cos x + 2 cos 3x + 2 cos 5x + . . .

Theory Answers Integrals Trig Notation

a) Sketch a graph of f (x) in the interval 0 < x < 4

Theory Answers Integrals Trig Notation

Theory Answers Integrals Trig Notation

Theory Answers Integrals Trig Notation

Section 5: Useful trig results

5. Useful trig results

Section 5: Useful trig results

Areas cancel when

Section 6: Alternative notation

The corresponding Fourier coefficients are

f (x) cos nkx dx

and integrations are over a single interval in x of L

Section 6: Alternative notation

For a waveform f (x) with period 2L = 2

and integrations are over a single interval in x of 2L

Section 6: Alternative notation

For a waveform f (t) with period T =

The corresponding Fourier coefficients are

and integrations are over a single interval in t of T

Section 7: Tips on using solutions

7. Tips on using solutions

Full worked solutions

b) Fourier series representation of f (x)

We now have that

It may be helpful to construct a table of values of bn

Substituting our results now gives the required series

c) Pick an appropriate value of x, to show that

Comparing this series with

Looking at the graph of f (x), we also have that f ( 2 ) = 0.

A little manipulation then gives a series representation of 4

a) Sketch a graph of f (x) in the interval 3 < x < 3

b) Fourier series representation of f (x)

(using integration by parts)

Constructing a table of values gives

This table of coefficients gives

cos x + 2 cos 3x + 2 cos 5x + ...

and we have found the required series!

c) Pick an appropriate value of x, to show that

Comparing this series with

cos x + 2 cos 3x + 2 cos 5x + ...

cos x = cos 3x = cos 5x = ... = 0

cos 2 = cos 3 2 = cos 5 2 = ... = 0

Setting x = 2 in the series for f (x) gives

The graph of f (x) shows that f