HIDAYATULLAH NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY,

PATNA

CRIMINAL PROCEDURE CODE

Project on:

DELAY IN CRIMINAL ADJUDICATION

Submitted To : Miss Mahima Tripathi

Submitted By : Devendra Dhruw
Roll No. 59
Semester VII,4th Year

HIDAYATULLAH NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Method of Research
The researcher has adopted a purely doctrinal method of research. The researcher has made
extensive use of the library at the Hidayatullah National Law University and also the internet
sources.
Aims and Objectives:
The aim of the project is to present a detailed study of the liability for acts done with the
consent of the victim.
Scope and Limitations:
The project deals with liability of acts done with the consent of the victim in the Indian penal
code.
Sources of Data:
The following secondary sources of data have been used in the project1

Books

Websites
Method of Writing:
The method of writing followed in the course of this research paper is primarily analytical.

Mode of Citation:
The researcher has followed a uniform mode of citation throughout the course of this research
paper

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Table of Contents

I. Introduction

II. Criminal Adjudication Landscape

III. Process of Criminal Trial in India

IV. Reasons for delay in Criminal Adjudication

V. Conclusion

CHAPTER I : INTRODUCTION
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HIDAYATULLAH NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY

In India there are thousands of defendants who have been languishing in jails,1
awaiting trialmany for longer than a formal sentence would have brought. The term
of art used to describe all non-convicted defendants within the Indian criminal justice
process is undertrial in that these individuals are deemed to be under the umbrella of
delay, in criminal adjudication.2 Undertrial-prisoners are

thought to comprise a

staggering seventy percent of Indias incarcerated population.3

Moreover, this issue

is one that many within the country have recognized as reaching a breaking point;
consider that diverse observers such as high-ranking government officials, civil society
activists, lawyers, and judges have in unison called for massive reforms in the countrys
penal process.4
This crisis is occurring against a paradoxical Indian landscape.5 On the one hand,
1

In India the term jail is used more frequently than, but interchangeably with, the term prison. Parts III and IV of this
article discuss the statistics involving those who are in Indian jails, but one of the alarming facts is how Indian jails often do
not segregate their inmates, thus resulting in a situation where people awaiting trial are sharing cells with hardened convicts.
See discussion infra Parts III, IV. In contrast, in the United States, there is a distinct difference between jails and prisons, with the
former often having less formalized protocol and greater variation in enforcement standards than the latter. The result is that
jails can at times place inmates in greater danger than prisons. (This is even given that jails typically hold people for
misdemeanors or as they await final outcomes of trials, while prisons generally incarcerate people convicted of felonies.)
For a recent series on the American jail and prison system, see Crime and Punishment in America: Rough Justice, ECONOMIST, July
22, 2010, available at http://www.economist.com/node/16640389; see also DEPT OF JUSTICE, REPORT ON RAPE IN JAILS IN
THE U.S (Dec. 29, 2008), http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/reviewpanel/pdfs/prea_finalreport_081229.pd f [hereinafter DOJ
Dec. 2008 Report]; DEPT OF JUSTICE, REPORT ON RAPE IN STATE AND FEDERAL PRISONS IN THE U.S., (Sept. 24, 2008),
http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/reviewpanel/pdfs/prea_finalreport_080924.pd f [here- inafter DOJ Sept. 2008 Report]. We thank
Professor Wayne Logan (Florida State University) for highlighting this important point to us.

This term will be used, referenced, and cited extensively in Parts IIIV.

. The Indian Minister for Law and Justice, M. Veerappa Moily, himself has noted this statistic. See 92,000 Undertrial Prisoners
Released Across India, IGOVERNMENT, May 27, 2010, http:// igovernment.in/site/92000-undertrial-prisoners-released-across-india-37660.
We will be discuss- ing the Law Ministers efforts in Parts III and IV.

We highlight in detail the work and studies of these various observers in Parts IIIV. But see KIRAN BEDI, ITS ALWAYS POSSIBLE: ONE
WOMANS TRANSFORMATION OF TIHAR PRISON (2006) (arguing that the situation in one of Indias most notorious penitentiaries has
improved).

55For a discussion

of this particular term and occurrence of this paradox, see The Paradox of Indias New Prosperity, REDIFF BUSINESS,
Jan. 14, 2010, http://business.rediff.com/column/2010/ jan/14/guest-the-paradox-of-indias-new-prosperity.htm.

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India is a dominant power on the world stage today. With a potent nuclear arsenal,
high economic growth, a vibrant and young labor force, and ever-increasing levels
of foreign investment,6 India is a country that most acute international observers
see as being a lead actor in the twenty-first century.7 Further, the beauty of the
Indian experiment is that despite the odds, it succeeds as a pluralist parliamentary
democracy.
At the same, however, India suffers from a host of major problems. Corruption,
intense poverty, illiteracy for large swaths of the population, a lack of adequate
educational institutions, and

poor

infrastructure are just some of the daunting

challenges that confront the Indian state.8 Furthermore, empirical research

conducted on the civil justice side of the Indian legal system highlights a routine
failure, on the part of the courts, to provide remedies to aggrieved parties in a
timely manner.9 With these hardships present, it is difficult to envision how the state
can also cope with such an underperforming criminal justice system. Yet that is the
6

. Country Fast Facts: India, CBS NEWS, http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/10/04/ country_facts/main3328865.shtml (last

visited Mar. 20, 2011); Indias Economy: Turning Sour, ECONOMIST, Aug. 2, 2008, http://www.economist.com/node/11848576?story_id
E1_TTRQRVSG;

See supra text accompanying note 16.

In terms of data on corruption in India, Transparency International (TI) has been at the forefront of tracking and critiquing
this problem. For information from TI-India (TII), see Transparency International India, http://www.transparencyindia.org/
(last visited Mar. 6, 2011); see also Jayanth K. Krishnan, Scholarly Discourse, Public Perceptions, and the Cementing of Norms: The Case of the
Indian Supreme Court and a Plea for Research, 29 J. APP. PRAC. & PROCESS 255 (2007) [hereinafter Krishnan, Scholarly Discourse]; C. Raj
Kumar, Corruption as a Human Rights: Promoting Transparency in Good Governance and the Fundamental Right to Corruption-Free Services in
India, 17 COLUM. J. ASIAN L.31 (2003). For a sample of other works that have focused on these various subjects, see generally PAUL
BRASS, THE POLITICS OF INDIA SINCE INDEPENDENCE (1994); ATUL DOHLI, DEMOCRACY AND DISCONTENT: INDIAS GROWING CRISIS
OF GOVERNABILITY (1990); ATUL KOHLI, THE STATE AND POVERTY IN INDIA: THE POLITICS OF REFORM (1987); PRATAP BHANU
MEHTA, THE BURDEN OF DEMOCRACY (2003); LLOYD RUDOLPH & SUSANNE RUDOLPH, IN PURSUIT OF LAKSHMI: THE POLITICAL
ECONOMY OF THE INDIAN STATE (1987); Pratap Bhanu Mehta, A Decade of Hope, OUTLOOK INDIA, Jan. 11, 2010,
http://www.outlookindia.com/article.aspx?263732.

See e.g., Marc Galanter & Jayanth K. Krishnan, Debased Informalism: Lok Adalats and Legal Rights in India, in BEYOND COMMON
KNOWLEDGE: EMPIRICAL APPROACHES TO THE RULE OF LAW 96 (2003) [hereinafter Galanter & Krishnan, Debased Informalism]; ROBERT
MOOG, WHOSE INTERESTS ARE SUPREME? THE ORGANIZATIONAL POLITICS OF THE CIVIL COURTS IN TWO DISTRICTS OF UTTAR PRADESH
(1997); Jayanth K. Krishnan, Social Policy Advocacy and the Role of the Courts in India, 21 AM. ASIAN REV. 91 (2003).

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place India currently finds itself; namely, in a situation where because of how
glacially slow the adjudication process is for criminal matters, this system and many
of its administrators are seen as all but ineffectual. For a country that aspires to be
a leading democratic power during the millennium, it thus seems untenable that this
goal can be achieved when speedy trials for defendants, and an efficient criminal
justice system overallall vital lynchpins

in a consoli- dated

democracyare so

unrealized in everyday practice.

Chapter II : Criminal Adjudication - Landscape

The Jurispruden ce
India achieved independence from Britain in 1947, and its constitution came into
force in 1950. As noted above, the drafters did not include explicit language
enshrining a defendants right to a speedy trial.10

Still the notion of undertrial-

prisoners being forced to serve extended periods of confinement was part of the
Indian Supreme Courts discourse as early as 1952albeit in a slightly unexpected
manner. In Lachmandas Kewalram Ahuja, the Court held that defen- dants convicted
under the pre-1950 criminal justice regime needed to have their rights conform to
the

new

Constitutions fundamental guarantees. 11 In order to ensure their

appearance at trial, however, the Court

then

ordered that

the

defendants be

retained in custody as undertrial-prisoners,12 while the state prepared its new case.
Indeed, in the first two decades after independence, concern for the length of time
undertrial-detainees spent in prison did not seem to be a focus for the Court. On
repeated occasions, the Court maintained a low threshold that the prosecution had to
meet in order to justify the continued detention of undertrial-prisoners.13 Moreover,
10

See :Transcript of Constituent Assembly

11

See Lachmandas Kewalram Ahuja v. Bombay, (1952) S.C.R. 710.

12

Id.

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between 1975 and 1977, when then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi suspended the
Constitution and imposed Emergency Rule, the Court further buckled, caving to the
governments demand specifically not to provide jailed political opponents and others
with speedy trials.14 It was only after the lifting of the Emergency Rule and Mrs.
Gandhis resounding defeat in the following elections that the Courtin a concerted
effort to regain its legitimacy15 began fully examining the importance of not letting
the incarcerated languish behind bars.
The on-point decision in this regard came in the 1979 case of Hussainara Khatoon v.
Home Ministry.16 Written by arguably the most aggressive protector of individual liberties
in the Courts post-Emergency period, Justice P.N. Bhagwati, the Hussainara Khatoon
opinion established for the first time that a defendant had a fundamental right to a

13

See e.g., Madhu Limaye v. Magistrate, (1971) 2 S.C.R. 711 (holding that undertrials may be detained in order to ensure that they
appear in court for their eventual trial and where there may be a threat to community peace if they are released); Ranbir, Singh
Sehgal v. Punjab, (1962) S.C.R. Supl. (1) 295 (noting that an undertrial prisoner is not necessarily exempt from being placed in
solitary confinement, although the reasons for being held in solitary must not be arbitrary and must have a basis in law); Leo
Roy Frey v. Superintendent, (1958) S.C.R. 822 (holding that a valid rebuttal to a defendants claim of habeus corpus is for the
prosecution simply to provide a production of the order or warrant for the apprehension and detention of an undertrial); Kanta
Prashad v. Delhi Admin., (1958) S.C.R. 1218.

14

See e.g., GRANVILLE AUSTIN, WORKING A DEMOCRATIC CONSTITUTION: THE INDIAN EXPERIENCE (1999); UPENDRA BAXI, THE INDIAN
SUPREME COURT AND POLITICS (Eastern Book Co.) (1980); RAJEEV DHAVAN, THE SUPREME COURT OF INDIA: A SOCIO-LEGAL CRITIQUE OF
ITS JURISTIC TECHNIQUES (1977); S.P. SATHE, JUDICIAL ACTIVISM IN INDIA: TRANSGRESSING BORDERS AND ENFORCING LIMITS (New Delhi:
Oxford University Press) (2002); Krishnan, Scholarly Discourse, supra note 18.

15

See SATHE, supra note 56, at 106; Krishnan, Scholarly Discourse, supra note 18; see also Carl Baar, Social Action Litigation in India:
The Operations and Limitations on the Worlds Most Active Judiciary, 19 POLY STUD. J. 140 50 (1990); Marc Galanter & Jayanth K.
Krishnan, Bread for the Poor: Access to Justice and Rights of the Needy in India, 55 HASTINGS L.J. 789, 795 (2005) [hereinafter Galanter
& Krishnan, Bread for the Poor]; Jayanth K. Krishnan, Lawyering for a Cause and Experiences from Abroad, 94 CAL. L. REV. 575 (2006)
[hereinafter Krishnan, Lawyering for a Cause].

16

(1979) 3 S.C.R. 169.

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speedy trial under Article 21 of the Indian Constitution.17 Fueled by media accounts of the delays and horrendous conditions of various prisons, Justice Bhagwatis
ruling ordered a massive revamping in how the prison population was to be
treated by the state. In the decision, the Court mandated greater access to bail, more
humane living standards, and a significant reduction in time from arrest to trial.18
Furthermore, of comparative interest, the judgment referenced U.S. criminal procedure law in key sections.19 It premised its rationale on a ruling from a year earlier,
Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India.20 With Justice Bhagwati also a main architect in that
case, the Court stated that from that point forward substantive due process would be
formally recognized as a fundamental aspect of the liberty provision of Article 21.21

In the years that followed, subsequent judgments reiterated the position set forth
in Hussainara Khatoon. In 1980, for example, the Court prohibited the continued
handcuffing of incarcerated under- trials unless there was a clear and present danger of
17

Id. Professor Upendra Baxi has written one of the most detailed and analytical account of this case. As Baxi notes, in reality
there were several iterations of the decision, involving six different interim orders. (At the time of his writing, the final orders
in the writ petition . . . [were] yet to emerge). For a comprehensive review of these various interim rulings, see Upendra Baxi, The
Supreme Court Under Trial: Undertrials and the Supreme Court, 1 S.C.C. (JOUR.) 35, 3551 (1980). It is important to note that while Justice
Bhagwati was a crusader for the undertrials in the Post-Emergency Era, he also was part of the majority in the infamous case (during the
Emergency Rule) that allowed the government to wield unfettered powers, including the power to abrogate the constitutions right to
life and habeas corpus provisions. See A.D.M. Jabalpur v. Shukla, A.I.R.1976 S.C. 1207. We are grateful to Mr. Viplav Sharma for his
insights on this important case.

18

See supra text accompanying note 20.

19

See Khatoon v. Home Ministry, (1979) 3 S.C.R. 169 (referencing the Sixth Amendment of the United States Constitution and the
United States Bail Reform Act of 1966 as well as [t]he experience of enlightened Bail Projects in the United States such as
Manhattan Bail Project and D. C. Bail Project shows that even without monetary bail it has been possible to secure the presence
of the accused at the trial in quite a large number of cases).

20

See Maneka Gandhi v. India, (1978) 2 S.C.R. 621.

21

Id. Again, for a complete treatment of this crucial ruling, see SATHE, supra note 17.

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escape.22 That same year, Justice Bhagwati decried the delay and treatment of four
young boysall under the age of twelve when arrestedwho had been jailed awaiting
trial for over eight years.23 Bhagwati ordered an im- mediate hearing. By 1981, the boys
were finally acquitted of all charges with the assistance of a committed grassroots activist,
Vasudha Dhagam- war.24
There were other emotionally wrenching cases involving the abuse of juvenile
undertrials that

the

Court

sought

to remedy

during the 1980s.25 During this

period, the Court dealt with the ghastly blinding of undertrial-prisoners in a northern
Indian jail,26 as well as whether undertrials could have the time already spent waiting
in prison count towards a sentence once rendered.27 With respect to the latter, in 1985 the
Court answered affirmatively, holding that even defendants sen- tenced to life imprisonment
22

Shukla v. Delhi Admin., (1980) 3 S.C.R. 855.

23

Pehadiya v. Bihar, A.I.R. 1981 S.C. 939 (noting that the undertrial problem was a crying shame upon our adjudicatory system . . .
. Also note that the decision was made in December of 1980 but reported in many casebooks in 1981thus the Supreme Court
Reports citation.). For a moving, detailed account of a leading advocate who worked on behalf of the boys in this case, see VASUDHA
DHAGAMWAR, ROLE AND IMAGE OF LAW IN INDIA: THE TRIBAL EXPERIENCE 241258 (2006). Also see, Bir v. Bihar, A.I.R. 1982 S.C. 1470
(where the Court (with Justice Bhagwati again part of the panel) explicitly ruled that state high courts (in this case Bihars) should
ensure that there are no undertrial prisoners who are detained in jail for more than 18 months without their trial having been
commenced, either before the magistrate or the court of sessions, and if there are such undertrial prisoners, the High Court will take
steps for the purpose of expediting the trial of such undertrial prisoners).

24

See DHAGAMWAR, supra note 65, at 248. Interestingly, Dhagamawar notes in this chapter of her book that she was inspired to
champion the boys case after seeing the tremendous efforts taken by Justice Bhagwati in Hussainara Khatoon, as well as in
another case, Batra v. Delhi Administration, (1979) 1 S.C.R. 392 (1978), where the Court there held that a prisoner who had been
savagely beaten required humane treatment and immediate due process in the criminal justice system.

25

See, e.g., Munna v. Upper Pradesh, (1982) 3 S.C.R. 47 (accepting a writ petition and ordering further investigation of the
extensive allegations of sexual abuse of juvenile undertrials); see also Supreme Court Legal Aid Comm. v. India, (1989) 2 S.C.R. 60
(ordering various states to collect data on the numbers of undertrial children in prison); Suri v. Delhi Admin., (1988)2 S.C.R.
234 (dealing with the inhumane conditions to which juveniles in Delhis Tihar Jail were exposed).

26

See Yadav v. Bihar, (1982) 3 S.C.R. 533.

27

The Court, for instance, initially said no. See Kartar Singh v. Haryana, (1983) 1 S.C.R. 445, where the Court argued that because
the defendants sentence was for life, counting the undertrial waiting period towards such a sentence would make no sense. But
see Sethi v. Bihar,

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could receive such an offset.28

Over the past two decades, the Court

has furthered its commitment to

enhancing the rights of the undertrials. In a landmark 1994 case, the Court ruled that
for those undertrial-defendants accused of narcotics violations who had spent half [the
time] of the maximum punishment provided for the offence,29 any further
deprivation of personal liberty would be violative of the fundamental right visualized by
Article 21.30
Two years later, in two cases, the Court reiterated time limits for incarceration of
undertrials.31 The Court, in Shri Rama Murthy v. State of Karnataka, noted that given that
the state had 193,240 people incarcer- ated of which 137,838 were undertrials
justice would best be served by simply releasing the undertrials.32
In the 2000s, the jurisprudence of the Indian Supreme Court has continued
to emphasize the need to protect undertrial-prisoners rights.33 While there has been

28

Bhagirath v. Delhi Admin., (1985) 3 S.C.R. 743. Practically, this issue would arise in those situations where a defendant was
sentenced to life but had a possibility of parole.

29

Supreme Court Legal Aid Comm. v. India, (1994) Supp. 4 S.C.R. 386.

30

Id. For two even more current cases re-stating this principle, see Maharashtra v. Ali, (2001)3 S.C.R. 600; Saxena v. India, (2008) 63
A.C.C. 115.

31

See Upadhyay v. Andhra Pradesh, (1996) 3 S.C.C. 422; Common Cause v. India, (1996) Supp. 2 S.C.R. 196. But c.f. Rao v.
Karnataka, (2002) 3 S.C.R. 68 (overruling the Common Cause decision, noting that judges have to determine what a speedy trial is in
terms of the facts and circumstances of the case before them).

32

Shri Rama Murthy v. Karnataka, A.I.R. 1997 S.C. 1739. Note, while this decision was handed down in 1997, the data that the
Court was working off of was from statistics taken in 1993.

33

See, e.g., Parekh v. Cent. Bureau of Investigations, (2009) 15 S.C.R. 1105 (reiterating the principle that time served as an
undertrial should count towards any formal sentence received); Upadhyay v. Andhra Pradesh, A.I.R. 2006 S.C. 1946 (decrying the
horrid situation of children who are dependent on their motherswho are undertrial-prisoners having to stay in prison with their
parent simply as a means of surviving); Sanjay Alias Bablu Alias Keja v. Gujarat, (2002)10 S.C.C. 403 (granting of release, on bail, to
undertrial prisoner who had been languishing since1998 awaiting trial); Maharashtra v. Mubarak Ali, (2001) 3 S.C.R. 600 (holding that
the undertrial prisoner, under section 428, can have his time served counted towards two separate criminal sentences imposed
upon him). For further cases during the 2000s that deal with the Courts jurisprudence on the undertrials

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the occasional case where the Court has opposed an undertrial-prisoners petition,34
these instances
favorable

have been few in the post-Emergency era. Yet, with all of these

judicial pronouncements, the question then becomes: have these rulings

trans- lated

into

tangible results? I have examined this question in the

next

chapter.

The Empirics
According to the latest data from the Indian government, there are roughly 430,000
people incarcerated in the country, with a startling 70% (300,000) who are undertrialprisoners.35 These figures are in theaggregate, so in order to contextualize this information
consider the most recent disaggregated data (from the Ministry of Home Affairs) from the
end of 2007. This information reveals that the total number of undertrial-prisoners in the
twenty-eight states and seven union territo- ries (UTs) then was 250,727. 36 Given the
governments most recent 2010 data, that number has grown by nearly an astonishing
50,000 people in just over two years. This fact alone

intimates that

the Supreme

Courts various judgments have simply not been executed. Further, over one-third of the
34

See, e.g., Sarkar v. Ranjan, A.I.R. 2005 S.C. 972. Here the Court had shown hostility towards an undertrial prisoner who
has disobeyed internal prison rules, noting that [t]he fundamental right of an undertrial prisoner under Article 21 of the
Constitution is not absolute.Id. at 21

35

See 92,000 Undertrial Prisoners Released Across India

36

The data come from the Indian governments Ministry of Home Affairs and are compiled by IndiaStat.com, a sophisticated web
service. State-wise Demographic Particulars of Untertrial Prisoners in Jails in India, INDIASTAT.COM,
http://www.indiastat.com/crimeandlaw/6/whatsnew.aspx [here- inafter State-wise Demographic Particulars]. Unfortunately, the Ministrys
most recent disaggregated on-line data is from the end of 2007. The Indian government also has a body known as the National
Crime Records Bureau. However, the most recent on-line disaggregated data available there is from 2006; thus we rely on the former
source here for this study.

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2007 undertrial-population (88,312) was illiterate. And when combined with those with less
than a tenth grade education, that percentage skyrocketed to approximately 80% (196,954) of
the entire 2007 undertrial-population.37
Next, consider additional data from the end of 2007. What this information
displays is that a disproportionate percentage of scheduled

castes, scheduled tribes, and

other backward classes (OBCs) made-up the undertrial-population, with nearly two-thirds
of the total number of undertrials coming from one of these three communities. 38 These
three groups, whose classifications are officially denoted and recognized in India,
have long been formally identified by the govern- ment as deserving constitutional and
statutory protection as well as affirmative public benefits, due to the historic, socioeconomic, political, and religious discrimination they have faced.39
Moreover, from a state-by-state perspective (excluding the union territories), in all
but five states (Goa, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir,

Karnataka, and

West

Bengal) at least 50% of the 2007 undertrial totals, respectively, are from scheduled
castes, scheduled tribes, or OBCs. Of course, that there may be variation among and
within these groups, politically and socio-economically, in their respec- tive states is obvious.
But, according to a highly respected observer who closely tracks this data and is intimately
familiar with the undertrial problem in India, there is a palpable sense among lawyers,
rights activists, and government officials that lower castes are unfairly tar- geted by the
criminal justice system.40
There are other Home Ministry data (again from end-2007) worth discussing, as
37

State-wise Demographic Particulars, supra note 39.

38

In particular, the data show that 63% of the total number of prisoners is from Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and OBCs.
The breakdown in number is: for Scheduled Castes, 54,324/241,413; Scheduled Tribes, 29,941/241,413; OBCs: 68,115/241,413.
(Note also that the total number of undertrials, 241,413, is lower than the total number of undertrials from footnote 39, which was
250,727. Presumably this difference is because there are unreported statistics in the former (namely from Delhi, where the difference
between 250,727 and 241,413 is 9,314, which is the exact number of undertrials listed for Delhi.) For information on the data,
see text accompanying supra note 78. See also State-wise Demographic Particulars of Undertrial Prisoners in Jails of India(Caste Data)
(2007), INDIASTAT.COM, (On file with author.)

39

For a classic treatment on the issue of law and caste in India, see MARC GALANTER, COMPETING EQUALITIES: LAW AND
BACKWARD CLASSES IN INDIA (1984). Of course, this subject has been discussed extensively in the literature. For a recent, up-to-date
bibliography on the subject of caste, see TIMOTHY LUBIN, DONALD R. DAVIS & JAYANTH K. KRISHNAN, HINDUISM AND LAW (2010).

40

Interview with Civil Society Official (anonymity requested) (May 17, 2010) (on file with author).

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well. For example, the criminal justice system is in large part guided by what is known as
the Indian Penal Code (IPC), which defines misdemeanors and felonies and prescribes
their respective penalties. This body of laws had a long history,41 but interestingly for our
purposes, by more than a two-to-one margin, there are more undertrial-prisoners facing
murder charges (54,245 defendants) than any other crime. (The next highest number is over
24,623, and they are those facing theft charges).42
Supplementing the IPC are various local and state criminal laws, as well as special
laws that have been passed by the central government. Here, the largest number of end2007 undertrial-prisoners held under these statues is those who face drug charges under
the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Act (11,108).43 Next, there
are nearly 10,000 individuals accused of violating the countrys Arms Act, followed by
over 6,000 charged under the existing Excise Act.44
Finally, consider that

of the

250,727 undertrial-prisoners from

end- 2007,

103,624 had been waiting for a trial for three months or fewer, and another 52,476
had been waiting up to six months. At the other end of the spectrum, there were
1,891 inmates who had spent more than five years in detention, which is .008% of
the total undertrial- population.45
At first glance, these figures might be ones that defenders would use to rebut the
41

For a discussion of this issue, see generally HARI OM MARATHA, LAW OF SPEEDY TRIAL: JUSTICEDELAYED IS JUSTICE DENIED (2008)

42

See State-wise Number of Undertrial Prisoners by Type of IPC Offences in India, Part I, II, and III (2007), INDIASTAT.COM (on file with
author).

43

See State-wise Number of Undertrial Prisoners by Type of Offences under Special and Local Laws (SLL) in India, Part I, Part II, Part III
(2007), INDIASTAT.COM (on file with author).

44

Id. For an insightful, although critical review of an essay on this subject, where the reviewer highlights how statistics on
undertrials must include special laws, which we do, see Bikram Jeet Batra, A Weak Look at Judicial Reforms, INDIA TOGETHER (2007),
http://www.indiatogether.org/2007/may/rvw-judreform.htm (last visited Mar. 28, 2011) (critiquing Debashis Chakraborty, Arnab
Kumar Hazra, & Pavel Chakraborty, Crime Deterrence and the Need for Reforms: An Analysis of Indian States, in JUDICIAL REFORMS IN INDIA:
ISSUES AND ASPECTS (Arnab Kumar Hazra & Bibek Debroy eds., 2007).

45

See State-wise Number of Undertrial Prisoners by Period of Detention in India, Part I and Part II (2007), INDIASTAT.COM (on file with
author).

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frequent criticisms made of Indias criminal justice system. The argument might be that
although it is never good to have people spending even one day more in prison than
necessary, that 62% of the undertrial-population is doing so for no more than six
months defies the stereotype that the Indian penal process is a proverbial black hole.
Moreover, that only a miniscule percentage is detained for more than five years
while, again, troublingis not nearly as high a number as what is often portrayed. In
August 2010, the Chief Justice of India vigorously made this point, adding that all
trial judges have done an excellent job in maintaining a high disposal of cases.46
In fact, these data deserve greater scrutiny. For one thing, there is no information on
what types of charges

the 62%, detained-for-under-six- month group, are facing.

Otherwise put, this time frame matters little to the person who is being held for a
crime that carries a maximum sentence of thirty days but remains incarcerated for
five months. Similarly, for the 1,891 prisoners awaiting trial for more than five years, the
question must be asked: who are these people? As stated above, there are over 52,000
people currently facing murder charges. Might all 1,891 of these people be murderdefendants? (Perhapsand if they are indeed guilty that may serve as some odd form
of Machiavellian rationalization justifying their current status. But a priori how do we
know beyond a reasonable doubt that they are guilty?) And what about the other
50,000 murder-charged defendants; where are they in the process? What about the
people who are charged with much

less serious offences; might they be included

within this 1,891 figure?47

Finally, there are a host of other questions presented and issues unresolved. For
instance, how many of these undertrial-prisoners have received

bail

hearing?

Typically, when an arrest of an individual is made, that person must be produced in

46

See Litigation Statistics Debate Continue: All India Seminar on Judicial Reforms Looks at Real Statistics and Real Numbers, BAR &
BENCH, Aug. 2, 2010, http://barandbench.com/brief/2/882/ litigation-statistics-debate-continue-all-india-seminar-on-judicialreforms-looks-at-real-statistics- and-real-numbers654425 (with the Chief Justice further noting: For years I have been listening to
speaker after speaker . . . slamming the judiciary for mounting arrears. They must know [in India, for statistics purposes] filing of a case
today becomes a pending case tomorrow. But, is that an arrear? Statistics reveal that 60% of the cases pending in trial courts were less
than one year old. So, if we take a realistic look at the arrears and exclude those pending for just one year, then the arrears are only
one crore [i.e. 10,000,000] cases, rather than the 30,000,000 that is frequently cited).

47

Given the number of such cases the Supreme Court alone has heard in the past, the answer seems to be, disturbingly, yes. For
a review of these cases, see supra Part II.A.

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front of a magistrate within twenty-four hours.48 At that time a determination will
be made on bail. Regardless of the bail decision, the police are supposed to continue to investigate further in order to determine whether a formal charge-sheet49
should be filed with prosecutors, who then will assess whether to proceed to trial.
What the data do not tell us is if the statistics include or exclude those who have
been denied bail but who have yet to be charge-sheeted. In other words, if the
figures from the government only represent defendants who have formally received
word from prosecutors that they (the

defendants) will be triedand there are

indeed non-charge-sheeted individuals languish- ing behind barsthen there is a

serious undercounting of the inmate population.50
Ultimately, these empirics starkly illustrate the undertrial situation in India, with the
preceding questions highlighting how the scenario may be even worse than the data
suggest. Obviously we are not alone in recognizing this dilemma. In the next section we
review and evaluate the various initiatives that have been made over the years to address
Indias inmate predicament, and thereafter we add our own set of proposals to the
debate.

CHAPTER III :PROCESS OF CRIMINAL TRIAL IN INDIA

48

See FAQs About Arrest/Bail, MAHARASHTRA STATE POLICE, http://mahapolice.gov.in/ mahapolice/jsp/temp/arrestfaq.jsp (last
visited Mar. 13, 2011) (detailing procedures in Maharash- tra under countrys criminal procedure code).

49

See id.

50

See LAW COMMISSION OF INDIA, SEVENTY-EIGHTH REPORT: CONGESTION OF UNDER-TRIAL PRISONERS IN JAILS 5 (1979),
http://lawcommissionofindia.nic.in/51-100/Report78.pdf (defining undertrial prisoners in a wide sense even to include persons
who are in judicial custody on remand during investigation) [hereinafter LAW COMMISSION OF INDIA].

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Criminal procedure refers to the adjudication process of the criminal law. While criminal
procedure differs dramatically by jurisdiction, the process generally begins with a formal
criminal charge and results in the conviction or acquittal of the defendant.
The Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 (the CrPC) is the procedural law providing the machinery
for punishment of offenders under the substantive criminal law, be it the Indian Penal Code, 1860
or any other penal statute.
The CrPC contains elaborate details about the procedure to be followed in every investigation,
inquiry and trial, for every offence under the Indian Penal Code or under any other law. It divides
the procedure to be followed for administration of criminal justice into three stages: namely
investigation, inquiry and trial.
Investigation is a preliminary stage conducted by the police and usually starts after the recording
of a First Information Report (FIR) in the police station. If the officer-in-charge of a police
station suspects the commission of an offence, from statement of FIR or when the magistrate
directs or otherwise, the officer or any subordinate officer is duty-bound to proceed to the spot to
investigate facts and circumstances of the case and if necessary, takes measures for the discovery
and arrest of the offender.
Investigation primarily consists of ascertaining facts and circumstances of the case. It includes all
the efforts of a police officer for collection of evidence: proceeding to the spot; ascertaining facts
and circumstances; discovery and arrest of the suspected offender; collection of evidence relating
to the commission of offence, which may consist of the examination of various persons including
the accused and taking of their statements in writing and the search of places or seizure of things
considered necessary for the investigation and to be produced at the trial; formation of opinion as
to whether on the basis of the material collected there is a case to place the accused before a
magistrate for trial and if so, taking the necessary steps for filing the charge-sheet. Investigation
ends in a police report to the magistrate.
Inquiry consists of a magistrate, either on receiving a police report or upon a complaint by any
other person, being satisfied of the facts.

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Trial is the judicial adjudication of a persons guilt or innocence. Under the CrPC, criminal trials
have been categorized into three divisions having different procedures, called warrant, summons
and summary trials.
A warrant case relates to offences punishable with death, imprisonment for life or imprisonment
for a term exceeding two years. The CrPC provides for two types of procedure for the trial of
warrant cases by a magistrate, triable by a magistrate, viz., those instituted upon a police report
and those instituted upon complaint. In respect of cases instituted on police report, it provides for
the magistrate to discharge the accused upon consideration of the police report and documents
sent with it. In respect of the cases instituted otherwise than on police report, the magistrate hears
the prosecution and takes the evidence. If there is no case, the accused is discharged. If the
accused is not discharged, the magistrate holds regular trial after framing the charge, etc. In
respect of offences punishable with death, life imprisonment or imprisonment for a term
exceeding seven years, the trial is conducted in a sessions court after being committed or
forwarded to the court by a magistrate.51
A summons case means a case relating to an offence not being a warrant case, implying all cases
relating to offences punishable with imprisonment not exceeding two years. In respect of
summons cases, there is no need to frame a charge. The court gives substance of the accusation,
which is called notice, to the accused when the person appears in pursuance to the summons.
The court has the power to convert a summons case into a warrant case, if the magistrate thinks
that it is in the interest of justice.
The high court may empower magistrates of first class to try certain offences in a summary way.
Second class magistrates can summarily try an offence only if punishable only with a fine or
imprisonment for a term not exceeding six months. In a summary trial, no sentence of
imprisonment for a term exceeding three months can be passed in any conviction. The particulars
of the summary trial are entered in the record of the court. In every case tried summarily in
which the accused does not plead guilty, the magistrate records the substance of the evidence and
a judgment containing a brief statement of the reasons for the finding.

51 http://www.article2.org/mainfile.php/0702/313/
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The common features of the trials in all three of the aforementioned procedures may be roughly
broken into the following distinct stages:
1. Framing of charge or giving of notice
This is the beginning of a trial. At this stage, the judge is required to sift and weigh the evidence
for the purpose of finding out whether or not a prima facie case against the accused has been
made out. In case the material placed before the court discloses grave suspicion against the
accused that has not been properly explained, the court frames the charge and proceeds with the
trial. If, on the contrary, upon consideration of the record of the case and documents submitted,
and after hearing the accused person and the prosecution in this behalf, the judge considers that
there is not sufficient ground for proceeding, the judge discharges the accused and records
reasons for doing so.
The words not sufficient ground for proceeding against the accused mean that the judge is
required to apply a judicial mind in order to determine whether a case for trial has been made out
by the prosecution. It may be better understood by the proposition that whereas a strong
suspicion may not take the place of proof at the trial stage, yet it may be sufficient for the
satisfaction of the court in order to frame a charge against the accused person.
The charge is read over and explained to the accused. If pleading guilty, the judge shall record
the plea and may, with discretion, convict him. If the accused pleads not guilty and claims trial,
then trial begins. Trial starts after the charge has been framed and the stage preceding it is called
inquiry. After the inquiry, the charge is prepared and after the formulation of the charge, trial of
the accused starts. A charge is nothing but formulation of the accusation made against a person
who is to face trial for a specified offence. It sets out the offence that was allegedly committed.
2. Recording of prosecution evidence
After the charge is framed, the prosecution is asked to examine its witnesses before the court.
The statement of witnesses is on oath. This is called examination-in-chief. The accused has a
right to cross-examine all the witnesses presented by the prosecution. Section 309 of the CrPC
provides that the proceeding shall be held as expeditiously as possible and in particular, when the

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examination of witnesses has once begun, the same shall be continued day-to-day until all the
witnesses in attendance have been examined.
3. Statement of accused
The court has powers to examine the accused at any stage of inquiry or trial for the purpose of
eliciting any explanation against incriminating circumstances appearing before it. However, it is
mandatory for the court to question the accused after examining the evidence of the prosecution
if it incriminates the accused. This examination is without oath and before the accused enters a
defence. The purpose of this examination is to give the accused a reasonable opportunity to
explain incriminating facts and circumstances in the case.
4. Defence evidence
If after taking the evidence for the prosecution, examining the accused and hearing the
prosecution and defence, the judge considers that there is no evidence that the accused has
committed the offence, the judge is required to record the order of acquittal.
However, when the accused is not acquitted for absence of evidence, a defence must be entered
and evidence adduced in its support. The accused may produce witnesses who may be willing to
depose in support of the defence. The accused person is also a competent witness under the law.
The accused may apply for the issue of process for compelling attendance of any witness or the
production of any document or thing. The witnesses produced by him are cross-examined by the
prosecution.
The accused person is entitled to present evidence in case he so desires after recording of his
statement. The witnesses produced by him are cross-examined by the prosecution. Most accused
persons do not lead defence evidence. One of the major reasons for this is that India follows the
common law system where the burden of proof is on the prosecution, and the degree of proof
required in a criminal trial is beyond reasonable doubt.

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5. Final arguments
This is the final stage of the trial. The provisions of the CrPC provide that when examination of
the witnesses for the defence, if any, is complete, the prosecutor shall sum up the prosecution
case and the accused is entitled to reply.
6. Judgment
After conclusion of arguments by the prosecutor and defence, the judge pronounces his judgment
in the trial.
Here it is relevant to mention that the CrPC also contains detailed provisions for compounding of
offences. It lists various compoundable offences under the Indian Penal Code, of which 21 may
be compounded by the specified aggrieved party without the permission of the court and 36 that
can be compounded only after securing the permission of the court. Compounding of offences
brings a trial to an end.
Under the CrPC an accused can also be withdrawn from prosecution at any stage of trial with the
permission of the court. If the accused is allowed to be withdrawn from prosecution prior to
framing of charge, this is a discharge, while in cases where such withdrawal is allowed after
framing of charge, it is acquittal

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CHAPTER IV : REASONS FOR DELAY IN CRIMINAL ADJUDICATION
An independent and impartial judiciary, and a speedy and efficient system are the very
essence of civilization. However, our judiciary, by its very nature, has become ponderous,
excruciatingly slow and inefficient. Imposition of an alien system, with archaic and dilatory
procedures, proved to be extremely damaging to our governance and society. As Nani Palkhiwala
observed once, the progress of a civil suit in our courts of law is the closest thing to eternity we
can experience! Our laws and their interpretation and adjudication led to enormous misery for
the litigants and forced people to look for extra-legal alternatives. Any one, who is even remotely
exposed to the problem of land grabbing in our cities, or a house owner who finds it virtually
impossible to evict a tenant after due notice even for selfoccupation, can easily understand how
the justice system failed.
In the process, a whole new industry of administering rough and ready justice by using
strong-arm tactics to achieve the desired goals has been set up by local hoodlums in almost all of
our cities and towns, and increasingly in recent years in rural areas. The clout and money these
hoodlums acquire makes sure that they are the ones who later enter political parties, and
eventually acquire state power. There are countless examples in almost every state in India of
slum-lords, faction leaders, and hired hoodlums acquiring political legitimacy. Most of them
started their careers attempting to fill the vacuum created by judicial failure through extra-legal,
and often brutal methods. In addition, the courts have tended to condone delays and encourage
litigation and a spate of appeals even on relatively trivial matters.
The higher courts have taken on themselves too much, making it impossible for them to
be able to render justice speedily and efficiently. The writ jurisdiction became pervasive and
everything under the sun is somehow made a subject matter of the writ. For instance, the transfer
of an employee in a public sector undertaking has become a matter of writ jurisdiction by very
involved and dubious logic. Such absurdities undermined the authority of judiciary and caused
enormous damage to public interest. To take another instance, the courts have time and again
ruled that cooperatives are public institutions, and are creatures of state, whereas in fact
cooperative theory and practice throughout the world clearly envisage that a cooperative is a
collective private body, created to further the economic interests of the members in accordance

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with the principles of cooperation. This mind-set that state could intervene everywhere, and that
such intervention by definition is good, ensured that the peoples institutions could not flourish in
an atmosphere of freedom, self-governance and autonomy. At the same time, states power even
to control its own employees and enforce discipline has been severely eroded. As a net result, the
judicial process only helped to accelerate the decline in governance.
Right to life and liberty, the most vital freedoms guaranteed in the Constitution, could not
be adequately safeguarded. Judiciary is over-burdened and rendered ineffective with unnecessary
litigation, delayed procedures, obsessive concern with the livelihood of advocates at the cost of
justice to litigant public and indiscriminate application of writ jurisdiction. Excessive case load
meant that most orders emanating from courts would be by nature of granting stays instead of
adjudication. The age-old village institutions for justice were allowed to wither away completely.
Local people, who know all the facts, have neither the means nor access to go through
complicated, incomprehensible court procedures. Touts flourished and justice suffered. As a
result, most citizens avoid courts except in the most extreme circumstances, when they have
absolutely no other recourse available.
Essentially, the failure of the civil and criminal justice system is manifesting in abnormal
delays in litigation and huge pendency in courts. While accurate statistics are not available, it is
estimated that approximately 38 million cases are pending in various law courts all over the
country. While 20 million cases are pending in district courts, High Courts and Supreme Court,
about 18 million cases are said to be pending in lower courts. At the end of 1995 it was estimated
that around 58 lakh criminal cases were pending trial, while 17.3 lakh cases have been disposed
of during the year accounting for 23 percent. In 1994 for example, disposal of cases in our courts
was around 17 percent. The conviction rate is abnormally low with only 6 percent cases resulting
in conviction. Even in cases involving extremely grave offences with direct impact on public
order and national security, there are abnormal delays. For instance, it took our criminal justice
system more than seven years to convict the murderers of Rajiv Gandhi in Sriperumpudur in
1991. There are harrowing tales of innocent citizens accused of petty offences languishing in
jails as under-trial prisoners for decades. Most often, the time spent in prison during trial exceeds
the maximum punishment permissible under law even if the person is proved guilty!

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The delays, the habitual use of English as language of discourse even in trial courts and
the extreme complexity and the tortuous nature of our legal process made justice highly
inaccessible to a vast majority of the people. It is estimated that India has only about 11 judges
per million population, which is among the lowest ratios in the world. The cases pending exceed
about 30 thousand per million population. Obviously it is unrealistic to expect the law courts to
deal with this abnormal case-load or to be accessible to people. The delays, the complexity and
the unending appeals make litigation inordinately expensive in India. While astronomical fees
are charged for legal consultation by highpriced lawyers practicing in the higher courts, even in
the lower courts cost of litigation is prohibitive and beyond the reach of most citizens.
The failure of the justice system has several disastrous implications in society. As
Gladstone observed, the proper function of a government is to make it easy for the people to do
good and difficult for them to do evil. The only sanction to ensure good conduct and to prevent
bad behavior in society is swift punishment. In the absence of the states capacity to enforce law
and to mete out justice, rule of law has all but collapsed . Even in civil matters, the sanctity of
contracts and agreements has lost its relevance because of the courts incapacity to adjudicate in
time. Equality before law, though constitutionally guaranteed, has remained a notional concept
on paper. In reality the vast masses of the poor and illiterate people are relegated to the margins
of society in the absence of a fair and effective justice system which is accessible to all. As a
result, extra-legal mechanisms for redress of grievances and for providing rough and ready
justice has sprung up all over the country. The foremost cause for increasing criminalisation of
society and politics is the failure of the justice system. The Election Commission estimates that
more than 700 of the 4072 legislators in all the states have criminal records against them. Even if
heroic and successful efforts are made to disqualify all these persons with criminal record from
contesting, the problem will continue to grow unless justice administration improves
dramatically. While a section of criminal gangs indulges in violent crime and graduates into
politics using the money power so acquired, most organised crime in recent years is involved in
informal adjudication of disputes backed by a threat of brute force and violence. As the courts
have failed to deliver justice, there is a growing demand for such gangs which can enforce rough
and ready justice.

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In a large measure, the failure of justice system meant that no entrepreneur or
businessman or even ordinary citizen could rely on law courts to enforce contracts and
agreements. The undermining of the sanctity of contracts and agreements has had a very
debilitating impact on investment production and economic growth. The failure of the criminal
justice system has led to the near break down of public order in many pockets of the country.
This, coupled with the many inadequacies of functioning of the police have led to a crisis of
governability in India. The arbitrary and unaccountable functioning of the police has led to
complete alienation of many citizens from the state. Added to this, the complete politicization of
the police force led to highly partisan crime investigation. Elected governments have been
habitually abusing their powers to drop serious criminal charges against their supporters and to
foist false cases against their opponents. The broad nexus between the politician, criminals and
policemen has come to stay, vitiating the governance process and undermining social stability
and harmony.

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CHAPTER V : CONCLUSION
Ascertaining this vital information is only one

of the

several over- whelming

challenges facing the Indian criminal justice system, and thus sustained, long-term
change is unlikely in the near future. Con- sider, for example, the governments
recently passed set of amend- ments to the Code of Criminal Procedure. Among the
new provisions in the law include tightening the circumstances under which the police
can make arrests, increasing the number of bailable and compound- able offenses,
and

using

video

technology during

the

detention processall proposals we

presented above. The reaction, however, from defenders of the status quo has been
swift. Some have said that the police now will be hamstrung in their investigative
powers.
Others have noted that the amendments dilute the deterrence effect
on potential criminals. Some lawyers and public officials have even gone
on strike to express their dismay in the changes.
Criminal law scholar, Tarunabh Khaitan, has provided an insightful analysis of these
amendments and

the

responses. As he

notes,

the motives, particularly by the

opposing lawyers, have been questionable from the start. As already mentioned, many
Indian litigators are paid per court appearance. With the possible reduction in the
number of arrests as a result of the amendments, there is an unstated assumption
among

these

lawyers that

their

fees will correspondingly decline. However, as

Khaitan explains, there will still be work for these lawyers in court.

Under the

proposed changes it will be on behalf of those sitting in jails who, under the new
amendments, should not be.
Regardless, Khaitan, like us, is less-than-sanguine about the impact the amendments
will have on the penal process, observing that they likely appear set to join the ranks
of:
Acts duly passed
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by Parliament but not

brought into

force by the

HIDAYATULLAH NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY

government . . . . Rather sad for undertrial prisoners, who would have been
the main beneficiaries of these amend- ments.
Thus, this is the situation in which undertrial-prisoners find them- selves. Indeed,
in this article, we have supported various past proposals and made recommendations of
our own. These

include, for example, greater use of technology to expedite the

proceedings for undertrial prisoners and

the

establishment of independent

committees to moni- tor how quickly undertrial cases are adjudicated. In addition, we
sup- port courtroom mobility, whereby judges would travel to the jails currently
holding undertrial detainees in order to accelerate the pre-trial
systemically,
eradicate the

recognizing, confronting, and finding

many

process.

thoughtful measures

ways corruption permeates the criminal

More
to

system is of critical

importance if real changes are to be seen. And then there is the responsibility of the
legal pro- fession itself to play a more substantive role in ensuring that self-serving delays
are eliminated and that a greater culture of pro bono legal services gains wider acceptance
within the bar.
The stark reality is that in addition to top-down legislation

that attempts to

mandate reforms, there must be a major cultural and attitudinal transformation of

views in Indian society towards these incarcerated individuals. Further, there needs
to be systematic consid- eration of the

tremendous costs imposed on society by

continuing to permit such an inefficient penal

process. Finally, as scholars and

policy-makers continue to research ways to improve the undertrial dilemma, there

must be greater scrutiny of the personnel working within the criminal justice system.
Who are these prosecutors? Who are the defense lawyers? How adequate are the
legal services they are providing? And, what type of training and professionalism do
these legal actors receive?
As a final note on the state of Indian legal community, there is a real sense among
attuned observers that a large percentage of the countrys 900-plus law schools has failed
to produce adequate lawyers. If this is the case, and lower level criminal courts are
being staffed with under- qualified people, then attacking the undertrial problem may
require working in conjunction with those seeking to improve the quality of legal
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education in India. Again, this is an issue requiring empirical study. It is a reminder
that institutions are only as good as the people within them; and that when it comes
to a countrys criminal

justice system in particularwhere liberty, freedom, and

fairness are all at stakethis point must never be forgotten.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

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