Chapter 1

Linear Equation

Chapter 2
Quadratic Equation

2.1. Quadratic Equation

2.1.1. What is quadratic equation
An equation which when reduced to the rational integral from contains the square of the
unknown quantity no higher power is called a quadratic equation or an equation of the second
degree.
2.1.2. Type of quadratic equation
There are two type of quadratic equation.

One is pure form e.g.

X2

=16 X= 4

Another is complete form e.g. a

x2

+bx +c =0

2.1.3. Graphic presentation of a quadratic equation

The graphic presentation of a quadratic equation takes the form of a parabola cup-shaped
curve. This may open upward or downward depending upon the value of (a) co-efficient of
x2.

2.2. Solution method of quadratic equation

There are two method of solution
2.2.1. Method of Factorization

x2

Example:

- 6x + 9 = 0

x2

- 3x 3x + 9 = 0

x(x 3) -3(x 3) = 0; x = 3

2.2.2. Method of Completing Perfect Square

Formula: x =

One is

b b 2 4ac
2a

b b 2 4ac
2a

Another is

by completing this formula we get two roots,

called Alpha ()

b b 2 4ac
2a

called Beta ()

To construct an equation its root we simply use the formula

x2

- (sum of two roots) x + product of two roots = 0

x2

- ( +) x + = 0

2.3. Real life application of quadratic equation

In real life quadratic equation are used for calculating speed, distance, profit & quantity, area
etc. However there are two applications discuss below:

2.3.1. Application # 1
Polar is a producer of ice cream .A demand function for cream mango a special ice cream
2

is p +2q =1600 and the supply function is 200 - p +2q = 0. Find out the equilibrium price
& quantity.
2.3.2. Solution
First of all, rewrite the demand & supply function
Demand function,
2

p +2q =1600
2

2q = 1600 - p

q=

1600 p 2
2

.......................... (1)

Supply function,
2

200 - p +2q = 0
2

2q = p - 200

q=

p 2 200
2

........................... (2)

We know, at market equilibrium, Demand = Supply

1600 p 2
2

1600 - p = p
2

2p

= 1800

=900

p 2 200
2
2

- 200

 p = 30 [- 30 is not acceptable]
Now put the value of p in (2)

q=

p 2 200
2

q=

900 200
2

q =350; so, the equilibrium price is tk 30 & equilibrium quantity is 350 ice cream (Ans.)

2.3.3. Application # 2
q2
If the supply function (in thousand tk) for Refrigerator made by Walton is p =

+ 8q +20

q2
and the demand function (in thousand tk) is p = 100 4q -

. Find the equilibrium quantity

& price.
2.3.4. Solution
We know, at market equilibrium, Demand = Supply
q2

q2
+ 8q +20 = 100 4q -

q2

q2
+ 8q +20 - 100 + 4q +

=0

q2
2

+ 12q 80 = 0
q2

+ 20q 8q 80 = 0

2q (q + 10) 8(q + 10) = 0

(2q 8) (q + 10) = 0
q=4

[q = - 10 is not acceptable]

Now putting the value of q in supply function,

q2
p=
p=

+ 8q +20
42

+84 + 20

p =68
So, the equilibrium price of Refrigerator is tk 68000 & equilibrium quantity is 4000 (Ans.)

Chapter 3
Matrix

3.1. Overview on Matrix

In mathematics, a matrix (plural matrices) is a rectangular array of numbers, symbols, or
expressions, arranged in rows and columns that is treated in certain prescribed ways. The
individual items in a matrix are called its elements or entries. An example of a matrix with 2
rows and 3 columns is

A major application of matrices is to represent linear transformations, that is, generalizations

of linear functions such as f(x) = 4x.
For example, the rotation of vectors in three dimensional space is a linear transformation
which can be represented by a rotation matrix R: if v is a column vector (a matrix with only
one column) describing the position of a point in space, the product Rv is a column vector
describing the position of that point after a rotation. The product of two transformation
matrices is a matrix that represents the composition of two linear transformations. Another
application of matrices is in the solution of systems of linear equations. If the matrix is
square, it is possible to deduce some of its properties by computing its determinant. For
example, a square matrix has an inverse if and only if its determinant is not zero.
But first, lets discuss how various situations in business and economics can be represented
using matrices. This can be done using the following examples.
Annual productions of two branches selling three types of items are

branch item A item B ItemC

i
2000 2876
2314
ii
7542 3214
2969

Number of staff in the office can be represented as follows

[]

2
peon
3
clerk
4
typist
1
head clark
1 offiece superindent

The unit cost of transportation of an item from each of the three factories to each
of the four warehouses can be represented as follows

factory
1
2
3

w1 w2 w3
13 12 17
22 26 11
16 15 18

w4
14
19
11

3.2. In this report, the following applications to matrices will be discussed

Applications of Matrix Addition and Subtraction
Applications of Multiplication of Matrices
Applications of System of Linear Equations

3.2.1. Applications of Matrix Addition and Subtraction:

The applications of addition and subtraction of matrices can be illustrated through the
following example:
3.2.1.1. Problem
The quarterly sales of Jute, Cotton and Yarn for the year 2002 and 2003 are given below.

Find the total quarterly sales of Jute, Cotton and Yarn for the two years.

3.2.1.2. Solution
The total sales of Jute, Cotton and Yarn will be obtained as under

3.2.2. Applications of Matrix Multiplication

It is important to note that two matrices can be multiplied if and only if the
number of columns of the first matrix equals the number of rows of the second. The
resultant matrix will have the number of rows equal to the first matrix and number
of columns equal to that of the second matrix. In other words,
A matrix of the order [a x b] can only be multiplied with a matrix of order [b x c]
The resultant matrix will be of the order [a x c]
The application of multiplication of matrices can be illustrated through the following
example.
3.2.2.1. Problem
Ram, Shyam and Mohan purchased biscuits of different brands P, Q and R. Ram purchased
10 packets of P, 7 packets of Q and 3 packets of R. Shyam purchased 4 packets of P, 8
packets of Q and 10 packets of R. Mohan purchased 4 packets of P, 7 packets of Q and 8
packets of R. If brand P costs Rs 4, Q costs Rs 5 and R costs Rs 6 each, then using matrix
operation, find the amount of money spent by these persons individually.

3.2.2.2. Solution
Let Q be the matrix denoting the quantity of each brand of biscuit bought by P, Q and R and
let C be the matrix showing the cost of each brand of biscuit.

Since number of columns of first matrix should be equal to the number of rows of the second
matrix for multiplication to be possible, the above matrices shall be multiplied in the
following order.

Amount spent by Ram, Shyam and Mohan is Rs 99, Rs 116 and Rs 99 respectively.

3.2.3. Applications of System of Linear Equations:

The following examples can be used to illustrate the common methods of solving systems of
linear equations that result from applied business and economic problems.
3.2.3.1. Problem
Mr. X invested a part of his investment in 10% bond and a part in 15% bond B. His
interest income during the first year is Rs 4,000. If he invests 20% more in 10%
bond A and 10 % more in 15% bond B, his income during the second year increases by Rs
500. Find his initial investment and the new investment in bonds A and B using
matrix method.
3.2.3.1. Solution
Let initial investment be
x in 10% bond A and
y in 15% bond B
Then, according to given information, we have

Expressing the above equations in matrix form, we obtain

This can be written in the form

AX = B or X = A-1B
Since |A| = -2 0, A-1 exists and the solution can be given by
Hence x = Rs 10,000, y = Rs
20,000, and new investments
would be Rs 12,000 and
Rs22,000 respectively (Ans.)

3.3. Application of Matrix in Business

Matrices are both a very ancient and a very current mathematical concept. References to
matrices and systems of equations can be found in Chinese manuscripts dating back to around
200 B.C. Over the years, mathematicians and scientists have found many applications of
matrices.
More recently, the advent of personal and large-scale computers has increased the use of
matrices in abide variety of applications. In 1979 Dan Bricklin and Robert Frankston
introduced VisiCalc, the first electronic spreadsheet program for personal computers. Simply
put, a spreadsheet is a computer program that allows the user to enter and manipulate
numbers, often using matrix notation and operations. Spreadsheets were initially used by
businesses in areas such as budgeting, sales projections, and cost estimation. However, many
other applications have begun to appear. For example, a scientist can use a spreadsheet to
analyze the results of an experiment, or a teacher can use one to record and average grades.
There are even spreadsheets that can be used to help compute an individuals income tax.
3.3.1. Example of using Matrix in Business
Ms. Fong and Mr. Petris are salespeople for a new car agency that sells only two models.
August was the last month for this years models, and next years models were introduced in
September. Gross dollar sales for each month are given in the following matrices:

For example, Ms. Fong had $36,000 in compact sales in August and Mr. Petris had $216,000
in luxury car sales in September.
What were the combined dollar sales in August and September for each sales-person and
each model?
What was the increase in dollar sales from August to September?
If both salespeople receive a 3% commission on gross dollar sales, compute the
commission for each salesperson for each model sold in September.

3.3.2. Solutions
We use matrix addition for part A, matrix subtraction for part B, and multiplication of a
matrix by a number for part C.

So part A shows the combined dollar sales in August and September for each sales-person
and each model, part B reflects the increase in dollar sales from August to September and part
C express the commission for each salesperson for each model sold in September, if both
salespeople receive a 3% commission on gross dollar sales.

Chapter 4
Differentiation

4.1. Differentiation
Differentiation refers to a way or procedure to distinguish one thing or concept from the
other. It may be done by giving the basic definition of the two concepts or objects involved or
it may require a more detailed enumeration of specifications of each of the items involved in
order to make them differ from the other.
In mathematics, differential calculus is a subfield of calculus concerned with the study of the
rates at which quantities change. It is one of the two traditional divisions of calculus, the
other being integral calculus.
The primary objects of study in differential calculus are the derivative of a function, related
notions such as the differential, and their applications. The derivative of a function at a
chosen input value describes the rate of change of the function near that input value. The
process of finding a derivative is called differentiation. Geometrically, the derivative at a
point is the slope of the tangent line to the graph of the function at that point, provided that
the derivative exists and is defined at that point. For a real-valued function of a single real
variable, the derivative of a function at a point generally determines the best linear
approximation to the function at that point.
Differentiation has applications to nearly all quantitative disciplines. For example, in physics,
the derivative of the displacement of a moving body with respect to time is the velocity of the
body, and the derivative of velocity with respect to time is acceleration. The derivative of the
momentum of a body equals the force applied to the body; rearranging this derivative
statement leads to the famous F = ma equation associated with Newton's second law of
motion. The reaction rate of a chemical reaction is a derivative. In operations research,
derivatives determine the most efficient ways to transport materials and design factories.
Derivatives are frequently used to find the maxima and minima of a function. Equations
involving derivatives are called differential equations and are fundamental in describing
natural phenomena. Derivatives and their generalizations appear in many fields of
mathematics, such as complex analysis, functional analysis, differential geometry, measure
theory and abstract algebra.

4.2. Application of Differentiation in Real Life

Here we will look at a real life situation where well use differentiation to find the rate of
change.

4.2.1. Problem #1
A water tank has a height of 120m, and its area of cross-section is 2000m 2. Water is released
from the tank and the water level drops by 1 meter every minute.

4.2.2. Solution
Let the height of the water level be h. After t minutes, the height of the water in the tank is
given by,
h = 120 1 x t = 120 t

Rate at which the water level drops in the tank is given by,
dh/dt = -1 m/minute

Volume of the water in the tank after t minutes will be,

v = A x h = 2000 (120 t) = 240000 2000t

Rate at which the volume drops in the tank is given by

dv/dt = -2000 m3 (which is 2000 m2 x -1 m/min)

Notice that, in the equation h = 120 t, the gradient of the line function is -1, i.e. the rate of
change of flow.
Similarly in the equation V = 240000 2000t, the gradient of the function V is -2000, which
is the rate of change of volume of water in the tank i.e. the rate at which water flows out of
the tank, and it is 2000 m3.

4.2.3. Another Problem #2

A company notices that higher sales of a particular item which it produces are achieved by
lowering the price charged. As a result the total revenue from the sales at first rises as the
number of units sold increases, reaches the higher point and then falls off. The pattern of total
2
revenue is described by the relation y=4000000-(x-2000 , where y is the total revenue

and X the number of units sold.

a) Find, what number of units sold maximizes total revenue?
b) What is the amount of this maximum revenue?
4.2.4.1. Solution
a)
Given y = 4000000-(x-2000
or, y = 4000000-(x2 -400x+4000000),
or, y = -x^2+4000x
so, dy/dx = -2x +4000
& d2y/dx2 = -2
For maximum or minimum
dy/dx = 0
or -2x + 4000 = 0
or, 2x = 4000
or, x = 2000
When, X= 2000 then
d2y/dx2 = -2 which is negative. So, the revenue function is maximum at x=2000
So the required revenue maximizing units =2000 units (Ans.)

4.2.4.2. Solution
b)
When x=2000 then
Required maximum revenue y = 4000000-(x-2000)2
= 4000000-(2000-2000)2
= 4000000 (Ans.)

Chapter 5
Integration

5.1. Overview on integral

In mathematics, an integral assigns numbers to functions in a way that can describe
displacement, area, volume, and other concepts that arise by combining infinitesimal data.
Integration is one of the two main operations in calculus, with its inverse, differentiation,
being the other. Given a function f of a real variable x and an interval [a, b] of the real line,
the definite integral

is defined informally as the signed area of the region in the xy-plane that is bounded by
the graph of f, the x-axis and the vertical lines x = a and x = b. The area above the x-axis adds
to the total and that below the x-axis subtracts from the total.
Roughly speaking, the operation of integration is the reverse of differentiation. For this
reason, the term integral may also refer to the related notion of the antiderivative, a
function F whose derivative is the given function f. In this case, it is called an indefinite
integral and is written:

The integrals discussed in this article are those termed definite integrals. It is the fundamental
theorem of calculus that connects differentiation with the definite integral: if f is a continuous
real-valued function defined on a closed interval [a, b], then, once an antiderivative F of f is
known, the definite integral of f over that interval is given by

The principles of integration were formulated independently by Isaac Newton and Gottfried
Leibniz in the late 17th century, who thought of the integral as an infinite sum of rectangles
of infinitesimal width. A rigorous mathematical definition of the integral was given
by Bernhard Riemann.
It is based on a limiting procedure which approximates the area of a curvilinear region by
breaking the region into thin vertical slabs. Beginning in the nineteenth century, more
sophisticated notions of integrals began to appear, where the type of the function as well as
the domain over which the integration is performed has been generalized.
A line integral is defined for functions of two or three variables, and the interval of
integration [a, b] is replaced by a certain curve connecting two points on the plane or in the

space. In a surface integral, the curve is replaced by a piece of a surface in the threedimensional space.

Figure: A definite integral of a function can be represented as the signed area of the region
bounded by its graph.

5.2. Integral calculus

Integral calculus is the study of the definitions, properties, and applications of two related
concepts, the indefinite integral and the definite integral. The process of finding the value of
an integral is called integration. In technical language, integral calculus studies two
related linear operators.
The indefinite integral is the antiderivative, the inverse operation to the derivative. F is an
indefinite integral of f when f is a derivative of F. (This use of lower- and upper-case letters
for a function and its indefinite integral is common in calculus.)
The definite integral inputs a function and outputs a number, which gives the algebraic sum
of areas between the graph of the input and the x-axis. The technical definition of the definite
integral involves the limit of a sum of areas of rectangles, called a Riemann sum.
A motivating example is the distances traveled in a given time.
Distance = Speed * Time
If the speed is constant, only multiplication is needed, but if the speed changes, a more
powerful method of finding the distance is necessary. One such method is to approximate the
distance traveled by breaking up the time into many short intervals of time, then multiplying
the time elapsed in each interval by one of the speeds in that interval, and then taking the sum
(a Riemann sum) of the approximate distance traveled in each interval. The basic idea is that
if only a short time elapses, then the speed will stay more or less the same. However, a

Riemann sum only gives an approximation of the distance traveled. We must take the limit of
all such Riemann sums to find the exact distance traveled.

Figure: Constant Velocity

When velocity is constant, the total distance traveled over the given time interval can be
computed by multiplying velocity and time. For example, travelling a steady 50 mph for 3
hours results in a total distance of 150 miles. In the diagram, when constant velocity and time
are graphed, these two values form a rectangle with height equal to the velocity and width
equal to the time elapsed. Therefore, the product of velocity and time also calculates the
rectangular area under the (constant) velocity curve. This connection between the area under
a curve and distance traveled can be extended to any irregularly shaped region exhibiting a
fluctuating velocity over a given time period. If f(x) in the diagram on the represents speed
as it varies over time, the distance traveled (between the times represented by a and b) is the
area of the shaded region s.
To approximate that area, an intuitive method would be to divide up the distance
between a and b into a number of equal segments, the length of each segment represented by
the symbol x.

Figure: Integration can be thought of as measuring the area under a curve, defined by f(x),
between two points (here a and b).

For each small segment, we can choose one value of the function f(x). Call that value h. Then
the area of the rectangle with base x and height h gives the distance (time x multiplied by
speed h) traveled in that segment. Associated with each segment is the average value of the
function above it, f(x) = h. The sum of all such rectangles gives an approximation of the area
between the axis and the curve, which is an approximation of the total distance traveled. A
smaller value for x will give more rectangles and in most cases a better approximation, but
for an exact answer we need to take a limit as x approaches zero.
The symbol of integration is

, an elongated S (the S stands for "sum"). The definite integral

is written as:

and is read "the integral from a to b of f-of-x with respect to x." The Leibniz notation dx is
intended to suggest dividing the area under the curve into an infinite number of rectangles, so
that their width x becomes the infinitesimally small dx. In a formulation of the calculus
based on limits, the notation

is to be understood as an operator that takes a function as an input and gives a number, the
area, as an output. The terminating differential, dx, is not a number, and is not being
multiplied by f(x), although, serving as a reminder of the x limit definition, it can be treated
as such in symbolic manipulations of the integral. Formally, the differential indicates the
variable over which the function is integrated and serves as a closing bracket for the
integration operator.
The indefinite integral, or antiderivative, is written:

5.3. Applications of Integration

Applications of the Indefinite Integral shows how to find displacement (from
1.

velocity) and velocity (from acceleration) using the indefinite integral. There are also

2.

some electronics applications.

Area under a Curve and area in between the two curves.
Volume of Solid of Revolution explains how to use integration to find the volume of

3.
4.
5.
6.

an object with curved sides, e.g. wine barrels.

Centroid of an Area means the center of mass. We see how to use integration to find
the centroid of an area with curved sides.
Moments of Inertia explain how to find the resistance of a rotating body. We use
integration when the shape has curved sides.
Work by a Variable Force shows how to find the work done on an object when the
force is not constant.
Electric Charges have a force between them that varies depending on the amount of

7.

charge and the distance between the charges. We use integration to calculate the work

8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.

done when charges are separated.

Average Value of a curve can be calculated using integration.
Alternative approaches to quantum mechanics.
High energy/particle physics.
Quantum electrodynamics, chromodynamics, Standard Model etc.
Condensed matter field theories (phonon-electron interactions in crystals, e.g.)
Statistical physics/field theory and the theory of phase transitions and critical points.
Stochastic PDEs can be turned into a supersymmetric QFT as well by the MSRJD

14.
15.

path integral approach.

Economics Application: Consumer Surplus and Producer Surplus.

We are going to discuss the Consumer Surplus and Producer Surplus calculation using
integration in the next part.

5.4. Overview on Consumer Surplus and Producer Surplus

Economist Paul A. Baran introduced the concept of "economic surplus" to deal with novel
complexities raised by the dominance of monopoly capital. With Paul Sweezy, Baran
elaborated the importance of this innovation, its consistency with Marx's labor concept of
value, and supplementary relation to Marx's category of surplus value.
On a standard supply and demand diagram, consumer surplus is the area (triangular if the
supply and demand curves are linear) above the equilibrium price of the good and below the
demand curve. This reflects the fact that consumers would have been willing to buy a single
unit of the good at a price higher than the equilibrium price, a second unit at a price below
that but still above the equilibrium price, etc., yet they in fact pay just the equilibrium price
for each unit they buy.
Likewise, in the supply-demand diagram, producer surplus is the area below the equilibrium
price but above the supply curve. This reflects the fact that producers would have been
willing to supply the first unit at a price lower than the equilibrium price, the second unit at a
price above that but still below the equilibrium price, etc., yet they in fact receive the
equilibrium price for all the units they sell.

Figure: Overview on Consumer Surplus and Producer Surplus

The Demand Curve p= D(x) from the Consumers Perspective.
Generally, the lower the price of a product, the more the consumers will demand the product.
That is, high prices reduce demand and low prices raise demand. So, generally, p= D(x) is a
decreasing function.

The Supply Curve p= S(x) from the Producers Perspective.

Generally, the higher the price of a product, the more the producers are willing to supply.
That is, high prices increase supply and low prices decrease supply. So, generally, the supply
curve is an increasing function.
The Equilibrium Point (xE, pE) is the intersection of the supply and demand curves.

Figure: The Equilibrium point

5.4.1. Consumer Surplus

The consumer surplus is the total utility minus the total expenditure.
In general, suppose that, p= D(x) is the demand function for a commodity and D (Q) = P.
Then the consumer surplus is defined for the point (Q, P) as

Figure: Consumer Surplus

5.4.2. Producer Surplus

Now suppose the supply function is p= S(x) and the theater shows Sam Q movies when the
price is P, that is S (Q) = P. The producer surplus is the total receipts minus the area under the
curve and is given by

Figure: Producer Surplus

5.5. Consumer and Producer Surplus Scenario

5.5.1. Problem
Suppose were given the demand function p = 50q + 2000. This demand function is
graphed here. From the graph, we can determine how many consumers would be willing to
pay a given price for this item. For example, only twenty consumers would be willing to pay
$1000 for it. Because fewer consumers would be willing to pay a higher price, a demand
function always has a negative slope.

Now, suppose we had the supply function p = 10q + 500. This supply function is graphed
below. From this graph, we can determine how many units a producer would supply at a

given price. For example, the producer would supply 10 units at $600 each. Of course, the
producer would rather sell them at an even higher price, and would be willing to supply more
products at that price. So a supply function always has a positive slope.

5.5.2. Solution
If we plot the supply function and the demand function on the same axis, we see that they
intersect at a point. This point is called the equilibrium point. It represents the place where
demand exactly equals supply.

Because the equilibrium point is a point, it has two

coordinatesthe equilibrium quantity Eq, and the equilibrium price Ep.

5.5.2.1. Solving for the equilibrium quantity and price

To find the equilibrium quantity, set the supply and demand equations equal to each other

So we know that, Eq = 25.

Once we have the equilibrium quantity, we can find the equilibrium price by plugging in to
either the supply equation or the demand equation. Both functions will give us the same
answer, and we can use the second function to check.
Using the supply equation

Using the demand equation

Since both agree, we are confident that Ep = $750. The equilibrium price is also sometimes
called fair market value. The equilibrium point is at (25, 750).
5.5.2.2. Preparing to find surplus
We are now drawing a line connecting the equilibrium point to the price axis. This line will
extend from a quantity of zero all the way to the equilibrium quantity.

5.5.2.3. Consumer Surplus

Consumer surplus is the total amount by which the consumers came out ahead. Its equal to
the area between equilibrium and demand. Its the shaded in area on this graph.

5.5.2.4. Producer Surplus

Producer surplus is the total amount by which the producers came out ahead. Its equal to the
area between equilibrium and supply. Its the shaded in area on this graph.

5.5.2.5. Solving for Consumer and Producer Surplus

Both areas can be found using a definite integral. The form the integral takes is given below:

The edge of the triangle has an x-coordinate of 0, and the edge is our equilibrium point,
which has an x-coordinate of 25.
The top of the triangle is the demand equation p = 50q + 2000, and the bottom of the
triangle is our constant equilibrium price, 750.
As we know that, consumer surplus is

, so,

(Ans.)
Producer Surplus is found the same way. The edge and the edge are still at 0 and 25, but
now the top of the triangle is our equilibrium price, and the bottom of the triangle is our
supply equation p = 10q + 500.
As we know that, producer surplus is

, so,

(Ans.)

5.6. Significance of Consumer and Producer Surplus

When Consumer Surplus is high, this means that consumers have more money over to
spend than they were expecting. They were prepared to pay higher prices for items they
needed, and because they didnt have to, they have money over. Some of the effects of a high
consumer surplus are:
Lower crime rate
Increased sales of non-necessities: vacation travel goes up, movie attendance goes up,
etc.
When Producer Surplus is high, this means that producers have more profits than they were
expecting. They were able to sell their products for a higher price than they were willing to
sell them for. Some of the effects of a high producer surplus are:
More money invested in product research (resulting in better, safer, more efficient
products.)
More money for company growth and expansion (resulting in more jobs and lower
unemployment.)

5.6.7. References for Chapter 5 (Integration)

i.

https://www.khanacademy.org/economics-finance-

ii.

domain/microeconomics/consumer-producer-surplus
http://www.economicsonline.co.uk/Competitive_markets/Consumer_and_producer_s

iii.
iv.
v.

urplus.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_surplus
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deadweight_loss
https://www.boundless.com/economics/textbooks/boundless-economicstextbook/economic-surplus-4/producer-surplus-51/defining-producer-surplus-195-

vi.

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