1. State the sampling theorem. Give the type of sampling techniques.

2. Explain the natural sampling with help suitable diagram.

3. Explain the flat top or rectangular sampling with help suitable diagram.

4. Compare the performance of three sampling technique.

1. Ideal, Instantaneous or Impulse sampling.

2. Natural sampling.
3. FIat top sampling.
A comparison of the three is given below

5. Explain the effect of under sampling (Aliasing effect)

6. Derive the interpolation formula.
7. Give the various application of sampling in the transmission of
analog signals.
8. What do you mean by pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) Explain the
generation of pulse amplitude modulation (PAM).
Ans: PAM modulators (Fig. 17). The PAM modulator is a simple Emitter
Follower circuit. The modulating signal is applied at the input. At the base a,
CLOCK signal is applied. The frequency of the clock signal is made equal to
the frequency of carrier pulse train.

When the CLOCK signal is high, the circuit behaves as Emitter follower
and the output follows the input (modulating) signal, when the CLOCK is
low, the trarissistor is cut off and the output is zero. In this way, at the
output we get PAM signal (Fig 18).

9. What do you mean by pulse time modulation (PTM). Give the type of
pulse time modulation (PTM).
Ans:In PTM amplitude of the pulse is kept constant, where as width or position
of the pulse is made proportional to the amplitude of the signal at the
sampling instant. As amplitude is kept constant and does not carry any
information, amplitude limiters can be used. The limiter similar to be that
used in FM will clip off the portion of the signal corrupted by noise and
provides a good degree of noise immunity.
1. Pulse width modulation (PWM)
2. Pulse position modulation (PPM)
In both PWM and PPM, the amplitude is kept constant.
In PWM, long pulses expend considerable power while bearing no additional
information. If this unused power is substrated from PWM, so that only time
transitions are preserved we obtain PPM. In this way PPM is more efficient
than PWM.
10.
How to generate & demodulate the pulse position modulation
(PPM) & pulse width modulation (PWM).
Ans:

11.
Compare the performance of various pulse analog modulation
methods.
Ans:

12.
What are the elements of pulse code modulation (PCM)
system?
Ans: Elements of a PCM system
- Basic operations performed in the transmitter: sampling, quantizing, encoding
- LPF prior to sampling is included to prevent aliasing of the message signal; the quantizing and encoding operations
are usually performed by a circuit known as analog-to-digital converter..

- Basic operations in the receiver are regeneration of impaired signals, decoding and reconstruction of the train of
quantized pulses. Regeneration also occurs at intermediate points along the transmission path as necessary

Basic elements of a PCM system

1. Transmitter:
1.1 Low pass aliasing filter used at the front-end of the sampler to exclude frequencies greater than B
before sampling.
1.2 Sampler permits the reduction of the continuously varying message signal (of some finite duration) to a
limited number of discrete values per second.
1.3 Quantizer provides a new representation of the signal that is discrete in both time and amplitude.
1.4 Encoding- To exploit the advantages of sampling and quantizing for the purpose of
making the transmitted signal more robust to noise and interference, we
require the use of encoding to translate the discrete set of sample values to
a more appropriate form of signal.
2. Receiver
2.1 Regeneration -The most important feature of PCM systems lies in the ability to
control the effects of distortion and noise produced by transmitting a
PCM signal through a channel. This capability is achieved by
reconstructing the PCM signal by means of a chain of regenerative
repeaters
2.2. Decoding -The first operation in the receiver is to regenerate (reshape and
cleanup) the received pulses one last time. These clean pulses are
regrouped into code words and decoded (mapped back) into a
quantized PAM signal.
2.2 Filtering -The final operation in the receiver is to recover the message by passing the
decoder output through a low-pass reconstruction filter whose cut-off
frequency is equal to the message bandwidth.

13.
Ans :

Explain the PCM transmitter with the help of block diagram.

Pulse Code modulation

Pulse Code Modulation involves the following three basic steps as shown in Fig.
2.4.16:
1

Sampling PAM

2
3

Quantization
Line coding

Figure 2.4.16 Basic steps of pulse code modulation

Sampling: This process is based on Shannons sampling theorem. Numbers of samples of the signal
are taken at regular intervals, at a rate higher than twice the highest significant signal frequency. This
basic step is known as Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) as shown in Fig. 2.4.17. For example,
during the sampling of voice data, in the frequency range 300 to 4000 Hz, 8000 samples per second
are sufficient for the coding.

Figure 2.4.17 Signal outputs after different steps of PCM

Quantization: The PAM samples are quantized and approximated to n-bit
integer by using analog-to-digital converter. For example, if n = 4, then there
are 16 (=24) levels available for approximating the PAM signals. This process
introduces an error are known as quantization error. Quantization error
depends on step size. Use of uniform step size leads to poorer S/N ratio for small
amplitude signals. With the constraint of a fixed number of levels, the situation
can be improved using variable step size. The effect of quantization error can be
minimized by using a technique known as companding. In this case, instead of
using uniform stage sizes, the steps are close together at low signal amplitude
and further apart at high signal amplitude as shown in Fig. 2.4.18. It uses a
compressor before encoding and expander after decoding. This helps to improve
the S/N ratio of the signal.
Line coding: The digital data thus obtained can be encoded into one of digital
signals .

Figure 2.4.18 The compander

At the receiving end, an Digital-to-Analog converter followed by a low-pass filter can be used to get
back the analog signal as shown in Fig. 2.4.19.

Figure 2.4.19 Conversion of digital to analog signal

Limitations: The PCM signal has high bandwidth. For example, let us consider voice signal as input
with bandwidth of 4 kHz. Based on Nyquist theorem, the Sampling frequency should be 8 kHz. If an
8-bit ADC is used for conversion to digital data, it generates data rate of 64 Kbps. Therefore, to send
voice signal a data rate of 64 Kbps is required. To overcome this problem a technique known as
Differential PCM (DPCM) can be used. It is based on the observation that voice signal changes
slowly. So, the difference between two consecutive sample values may be sent. Since the signal
changes slowly, the difference between two consecutive sample values will be small and fewer
number of bits can be used with consequent reduction in data rates.
14.
Explain the PCM receiver with the help of block diagram.
Ans : Refer to Ans 12
15.
Define quantizer. Classify the quantizer. Explain quantization
method.
Ans: Quantization
This involves representing the sampled data by a finite number of levels
based on some criteria such as minimization of the quantizer distortion.
Quantizer design includes input (decision) levels and output (reconstruction)
levels as well as number of levels. The decision can be enhanced by
psychovisual or psychoacoustic perception.

Quantizers can be classified as memoryless (assumes each sample is

quantized independently) or with memory (takes into account previous
sample). We limit our discussion to memoryless quantizers.
Alternative classification of quantisers is based on uniform or non- uniform
quantization.
1. Uniform quantizers: They are completely defined by (1) the number of
levels it has (2) its step size and whether it is midriser or midtreader. We
will consider only symmetric quantizers i.e. the input and output levels in
the 3 rd quadrant are negative of those in 1st quandrant.
2. Non-uniform quantizers: The Step sizes are not constant. Hence nonuniform quantization is specified by input and output levels in the 1st and
3rd quandrants

Figure(3.3.1) Uniform Quantisers

Step size constant in bothcases

Figure(3.3.2) Non-Uniform quantizer

16.
Derive the expression for the transmission bandwidth of PCM
system.
17.
Define the quantization error in PCM system also derive the
expression for quantization error in PCM system
18.
Derive the expression for signal to quantization noise ratio for
PCM system.
19.
Give the importance of time division multiplexing & frequency
division multiplexing in digital transmission. Also explain TDM &
FDM with the help of diagram.
Ans:

Time-division multiplexing

An important feature of sampling process is a conservationoftime.

In principle, the communication link is used only at the
sampling time instances.
Hence, it may be feasible to put other messages samples
between adjacent samples of this message on a time-shared
basis.
This forms the time-division multiplex (TDM) system.
A joint utilization of a common communication link by
a plurality of independent message sources.

The commutator (1) takes a narrow sample of each of the N

input messages at a rate fs slightly higher than 2W, where W
is the cutoff frequency of the anti-aliasing filter, and (2)
interleaves these N samples inside the sampling interval Ts.

The price we pay for TDM is that N samples be squeezed in

a time slot of duration Ts.
Synchronization is essential for a satisfactory operation of
the TDM system.
One possible procedure to synchronize the transmitter
and receiver clocks is to set aside a code element or
pulse at the end of a frame, and to transmit this pulse
every other frame only.
20.
Ans:

Explain various type of line coding & their properties.

Manchester & AMI are left to write

Desirable properties of line codes

1. Self synchronization- There is enough timing information built into the code so that bit synchronizers can
be designed to extract the timing or clock signal. A long series of 1s and 0s should not cause a problem in
time recovery.
2. Low probability of bit error receivers can be designed that will recover the binary data with a low
probability of bit error when the input data is corrupted by noise.
3. A spectrum that is suitable for the channel If the channel is ac coupled, the PSD of the line code signal
should be negligible at frequencies near zero.
4. Transmission bandwidth It should be as small as possible.
5. Error detection capability It should be possible to implement this feature easily by the addition of
channel encoders and decoders or it should be incorporated in the code.
6. Transparency The data protocol and line code are designed so that every possible sequence of data is
faithfully and transparently received.

21.

Define bipolar NRZ [Alternate Mark Inversion(AMI)]

22.
Derive the expression for power spectral density of NRZ polar
format & draw the power spectra.

23.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of Digital (pulse)
transmission as compared to analog transmission?
Ans. (a) The following are the advantages of digital transmission
over the analog transmission.
1. In digital system, message security can be improved.
2. The digital communication system having more noise immunity and
external interference rejection capabilities.
3. In digital communication system, the information (or intelligence) which is
in digital form can be easily stored where as in analog signal cannot.
4. Digital signals having two values 0 and 1 and are easy to measure and
evaluate. Error detection and correction is very easy in digital communication
system as compared to the analog communication system.
5. The digital communication system have a common format for the
transmission/ encoding of different kinds of signal like video signal, computer
data and voice signal etc., for transmitting/receiving data from one device to
the another device.
6. Digital communication system are more flexible in operation than analog
communication system.
(b) The disadvantages of the digital (pulse) communication system
or digital transmission are as follows:
1. The transmission (channel) band width required by the digital
communication system is much more than the analog communication
system.
2. The digital communication systems are more complex than the analog
commutation systems.
3. A precise time synchronization is required between transmitter and
receiver in Digital system transmission.

UNIT 5
Ans11:

Ans5

UNIT 4
Ans 9

Ans 8: With reference to an electrical system, noise may be defined as any

unwanted form of energy which tends to interfere with proper reception and
reproduction of wanted signal.
OR

Noise is random, undesirable electrical energy that enters the communications

system via the communicating medium and interferes with the transmitted
message. However, some noise is also produced in the receiver.
Classification of Noise

Noise may be put into following two categories.

External noises, i.e. noise whose sources are external.

External noise may be classified into the following three types:

Atmospheric noises
Extraterrestrial noises
Man-made noises or industrial noises.
Internal noise, i.e. noises which get, generated within the receiver or
communication system.

Internal noise may be put into the following four categories.

Thermal noise or white noise or Johnson noise
Shot noise.
Transit time noise
Miscellaneous internal noise.
External noise cannot be reduced except by changing the location of the receiver or
the entire system. Internal noise on the other hand can be easily evaluated
Mathematically and can be reduced to a great extent by proper design. As already
said, because of the fact that internal noise can be reduced to a great extent, study
of noise characteristics is a very important part of the communication engineering.

Explanation of External Noise

Atmospheric Noise

Atmospheric noise or static is caused by lighting discharges in thunderstorms and

other natural electrical disturbances occurring in the atmosphere. These electrical
impulses are random in nature. Hence the energy is spread over the complete
frequency spectrum used for radio communication.

Atmospheric noise accordingly consists of spurious radio signals with components

spread over a wide frequency range. These spurious radio waves constituting the
noise get propagated over the earth in the same fashion as the desired radio waves
of the same frequency. Accordingly at a given receiving point, the receiving antenna
picks up not only the signal but also the static from all the thunderstorms, local or
remote.

The field strength of atmospheric noise varies approximately inversely with the
frequency. Thus large atmospheric noise is generated in low and medium frequency
(broadcast) bands while very little noise is generated in the VHF and UHF bands.
Further VHF and UHF components of noise are limited to the line-of-sight (less than
about 80 Km) propagation. For these two-reasons, the atmospheric noise becomes
less severe at Frequencies exceeding about 30 MHz.
Extraterrestrial Noise

There are numerous types of extraterrestrial noise or space noises depending on

their sources. However, these may be put into following two subgroups.
Solar noise
Cosmic noise
Solar Noise

This is the electrical noise emanating from the sun. Under quite conditions, there is
a steady radiation of noise from the sun. This results because sun is a large body at
a very high temperature (exceeding 6000C on the surface), and radiates electrical
energy in the form of noise over a very wide frequency spectrum including the
spectrum used for radio communication. The intensity produced by the
Sun varies with time. In fact, the sun has a repeating 11-Year noise cycle. During
the peak of the cycle, the sun produces some amount of noise that causes

tremendous radio signal interference, making many frequencies unusable for

communications. During other years. the noise is at a minimum level.
Cosmic noise

Distant stars are also suns and have high temperatures. These stars, therefore,
radiate noise in the same way as our sun. The noise received from these distant
stars is thermal noise (or black body noise) and is distributing almost uniformly over
the entire sky. We also receive noise from the center of our own galaxy (The Milky
Way) from other distant galaxies and from other virtual point sources such as
quasars and pulsars.
Man-Made Noise (Industrial Noise)

By man-made noise or industrial- noise is meant the electrical noise produced by

such sources as automobiles and aircraft ignition, electrical motors and switch
gears, leakage from high voltage lines, fluorescent lights, and numerous other
heavy electrical machines. Such noises are produced by the arc discharge taking
place during operation of these machines. Such man-made noise is most intensive
in industrial and densely populated areas. Man-made noise in such areas far
exceeds all other sources of noise in the frequency range extending from about 1
MHz to 600 MHz

Explanation of Internal Noise

Thermal Noise

Conductors contain a large number of 'free" electrons and "ions" strongly bound by
molecular forces. The ions vibrate randomly about their normal (average) positions,
however, this vibration being a function of the temperature. Continuous collisions
between the electrons and the vibrating ions take place. Thus there is a continuous
transfer of energy between the ions and electrons. This is the source of resistance in
a conductor. The movement of free electrons constitutes a current which is purely
random in nature and over a long time averages zero. There is a random motion of
the electrons which give rise to noise
voltage_ called thermal noise.

Thus noise generated in any resistance due to random motion of electrons i5 called
thermal noise or white or Johnson noise.

The analysis of thermal noise is based on the Kinetic theory. It shows that the
temperature of particles is a way of expressing its internal kinetic energy. Thus
"Temperature" of a body can be said to be equivalent to the statistical rms value of
the velocity of motion of the particles in the body. At -273C (or zero degree Kelvin)
the kinetic energy of the particles of a body becomes zero .Thus we can relate the
noise power generated by a resistor to be proportional to its absolute temperature.
Noise power is also proportional to the bandwidth over which it is measured. From
the above discussion we can write down.

Pn TB
Pn = KTB ------ (1)

Where

Pn = Maximum noise power output of a resistor.

K = Boltzmanns constant = 1.38 x10-23 joules I Kelvin.
T = Absolute temperature.
B = Bandwidth over which noise is measured.

From equation (1), an equivalent circuit can be drawn as shown in below figure

From equation (2), we see that the square of the rms noise voltage is proportional
to the absolute temperature of le resistor, the value of the resistor, and the
bandwidth over which it is measured. En is quite independent of the Frequency.

Example

R.F. amplifier is saving an input resistor of 8Kr and works in the frequency range of
12 to 15.5 MHz Calculate the rms noise voltage at the input to this amplifier at an
ambient temperature of 17oC?

Solution:

Shot Noise

The most common type of noise is referred to as shot noise which is produced by
the random arrival of 'electrons or holes at the output element, at the plate in a
tube, or at the collector or drain in a transistor. Shot noise is also produced by the
random movement of electrons or holes across a PN junction. Even through current
flow is established by external bias voltages, there will still be some random
movement of electrons or holes due to discontinuities in the device. An example of
such a discontinuity is the contact between the copper lead and the semiconductor
materials. The interface between the two creates a discontinuity that causes
random movement of the current carriers.

Transit Time Noise

Another kind of noise that occurs in transistors is called transit time noise.

Transit time is (he duration of time that it takes for a current carrier such as a hole
or current to move from the input to the output.

The devices themselves are very tiny, so the distances involved are minimal. Yet the
time it takes for the current carriers to move even a short distance is finite. At low

frequencies this time is negligible. But when the frequency of operation is high and
the signal being processed is the magnitude as the transit time, then problem can
occur. The transit time shows up as a kind of random noise within the device, and
this is directly proportional to the frequency of operation.
MISCELLANEOUS INTERNAL NOISES Flicker Noise

Flicker noise or modulation noise is the one appearing in transistors operating at

low audio frequencies. Flicker noise is proportional to the emitter current and
junction temperature. However, this noise is inversely proportional to the frequency.
Hence it may be neglected at frequencies above about 500 Hz and it, Therefore,
possess no serious problem.
Transistor Thermal Noise

Within the transistor, thermal noise is caused by the emitter, base and collector
internal resistances. Out of these three regions, the base region contributes
maximum thermal noise.
Partition Noise

Partition noise occurs whenever current has to divide between two or more paths,
and results from the random fluctuations in the division. It would be expected,
therefore, that a diode would be less noisy than a transistor (all other factors being
equal) If the third electrode draws current (i.e.., the base current). It is for this
reason that the inputs of microwave receivers are often taken directly to diode
mixers.
Signal to Noise Ratio.

Noise is usually expressed as a power because the received signal is also

expressed in terms of power. By
Knowing the signal to noise powers the signal to noise ratio can be computed.
Rather than express the signal to noise ratio as simply a number, you will usually
see it expressed in terms of decibels.

A receiver has an input signal power of l.2W. The noise power is 0.80W. The
signal to noise ratio is

Signal to Noise Ratio = 10 Log (1.2/0.8)

= 10 log 1.5
= 10 (0.176)
= 1.76 dB
Noise Figure

Noise Figure F is designed as the ratio of the signal-to-noise power at the input to
the signal to noise power at the output.

The device under consideration can be the entire receiver or a single amplifier
stage. The noise figure F also called the noise factor can be computed with the
expression

F = Signal to Noise power Input/Signal to noise power output

You can express the noise figure as a number, more often you will see it expressed
in decibels.