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SECTION - I
Chapter 1 - Introduction to Data Communication (Marks 8)
Introduction to communication
Types of communication:
1. Analog Communication,
2. Digital Communication
Data Communication: Data communication is the exchange of data between
two devices by means of any transmission medium.
Modulation: Modulation means changing the digital signal to an analog signal
for transmission.
There are three types of modulation:
1. Amplitude Modulation (AM)
2. Frequency Modulation (FM)
3. Phase Modulation (PM)
What is signal? What are the types of signals?
Signal: It is an energy applied to a circuit to cause it to perform an intended
actions, such as transmission or reception of information.
There are two types of signals:
1. Analog signal
2. Digital signal
1. Analog signal:
Analog signal, takes on continuous range of values.
When someone speaks, an analog wave is captured by a microphone and
converted to analog signal or sampled and converted to a digital signal.
An analog signal has infinitely many levels of intensity over a period of
time.
As the wave moves from value A to value B, it passes through and
includes an infinite number of values along its path.
Figure shows analog signal.

Figure 1 Analog Signal

2. Digital signal:
Digital signal take on discrete values. Example, Data is stored in computer
memory in the form of 0s and 1s. They can be converted to digital signal
or modulated into an analog for transmission across a medium.

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In digital signal, it can have only a limited number of defined values.

Although each value can be any number, it is often as simple as 1 and 0.
Figure shows digital signal.

Digital signals consumes high bandwidth.

Figure 2 Digital Signal

Data Transmission:
Data transmission refers to movement of the bits over some physical medium
connecting two or more digital devices. As shown in figure, there are two options
of transmitting the bits, namely,
1. Parallel Transmission,
2. Serial Transmission

1. Parallel Transmission:
Binary data, consisting of 1s and 0s, may be organized into groups of n
bits each. Computers produce and consume data in groups of bits much as
we conceive of and use spoken language in the form of words rather than
letters. By grouping, we can send data n bits at a time instead of 1. This is
called parallel transmission.
The mechanism for parallel transmission is a conceptually simple one: Use
n wires to send n bits at one time. That way each bit has its own wire, and
all n bits of one group can be transmitted with each clock tick from one
device to another.
Figure shows how parallel transmission works for n=8. Typically, the eight
wires are bundled in a cable with a connector at each end.

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Figure 3 Parallel Transmission

The advantage of parallel transmission is speed. All else being equal,

parallel transmission can increase the transfer speed by a factor of n over
serial transmission.
But there is a significant disadvantage: cost. Parallel transmission requires
n communication lines (wires in the example) just to transmit the data
stream. Because this is expensive, parallel transmission is usually limited
to short distances.

Advantages of Parallel Transmission:

1. Data transmission speed is more.
2. Suitable for short distance communication.
3. Group of bits are transmitted simultaneously.
Disadvantages of Parallel Transmission:
1. Cost is more.
2. Transmitting over longer distance requires thicker wires to reduce signal
degradation.
3. It requires multiple communication channel.
2. Serial Transmission:
In serial transmission one bit follows another, so we need only one
communication channel rather than n to transmit data between two
communicating devices as shown in figure.

Figure 4 Serial Transmission

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The advantage of serial over parallel transmission is that with only one
communication channel, serial transmission reduces the cost of
transmission over parallel by roughly a factor of n.
Since communication within devices is parallel, conversion devices are
required at the interface between the sender and the line (parallel-toserial) and between the line and the receiver (serial-to-parallel).
Serial transmission occurs in one of three ways: asynchronous,
synchronous, and isochronous.

Difference between Serial and Parallel Transmission.

No.
Serial Transmission
Parallel Transmission
1.

It sends data bit by bit.

2.

Used for long distance transmission.

3.

Transmission cost is less.

It sends data simultaneously.

Used for short distance
transmission.
Transmission cost is more.

4.

Speed of data transmission is slow.

Data transmission speed is fast.

5.

Throughout is depends on bit rate.

Throughput is constant.

6.

It requires single communication

channel.

It requires eight communication

channel.

7.

Synchronous and asynchronous

transmission are the modes of serial
transmission.

No mode in parallel transmission.

Asynchronous and Synchronous Transmission:

1. Asynchronous Transmission:
In asynchronous transmission, bits are divided into small groups and sent
independently.
The sender can send the groups at any time and the receiver never knows
when they will arrive. To alert the receiver to the arrival of new group,
therefore an extra bit is added to the beginning of each byte, which is
called as start bit. The start bit is always 0.
To let the receiver know that byte is finished, one or more additional bits
are appended to end of the byte. These bits are called stop bits.
Asynchronous transmission is typical of byte-oriented input output, and
operating system term meaning that data is transferred a byte at a time.
Following figure shows data format for asynchronous transmission.

Figure 5 Asynchronous Transmission

There is a potential problem with asynchronous transmission. Remember

that the receiver does not know when data will arrive until it gets there.

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Asynchronous transmission is designed for use with slow devices such as

keyboard and some printers. It also has an overhead.

Advantages:
2. Very inexpensive to implement.
3. It can provide requires performance at low cost.
4. Both sides buffering is not required.
Disadvantages:
1. Performance is poor.
2. Efficiently is low.
3. Considerable amount of communication time is lost between characters.
3. Synchronous Transmission:
With synchronous transmission much larger bit groups are sent. Instead of
sending many characters separately, each with its own start and stop bit,
they are grouped together and then transmitted as a whole. We call this
group a data frame or frame.
In this, transmission is carried out under the control of a timing source.
The frame contains SYN characters, unique bit patterns that alert the
receiver that a frame is arriving. SYN character is similar to start bit.
Figure shows format for synchronous transmission.

Figure 6 Synchronous Transmission

The data bit define the information being sent. There are no start bit and
stop bit between the characters. The error checking bits are used to detect
and correct transmission errors.
Synchronous transmission is much faster than asynchronous transmission.
Synchronous transmission is more useful for high speed application.

Advantages:
4. Capable for high performance.
5. Efficiency is high.
6. Error checking and acknowledgement schemes work well.
7. Data transfer rate is high.
Disadvantages:
1. Expensive to implement.
2. Both sides need buffering.
Communication Modes:
Communication between two devices can simplex, half-duplex, or full duplex.
1. Simplex:

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In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way

street. Only one of the devices on a link can transmit; the other can only
receive as shown in figure.

Figure 7 Simplex Mode

Keyboard and traditional monitors are examples of simplex devices. The

keyboard can only introduce input; the monitor can only accept output.
The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data
in one direction.

2. Half Duplex:
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not
at the same time: When one device is sending, the other can only receive,
and vice versa as shown in figure.

Figure 8 Half Duplex

The half-duplex mode is like a one-lane road with traffic allowed in both
directions. When cars are traveling in one direction, cars going the other
way must wait.
In a half-duplex transmission, the entire capacity of a channel is taken
over by whichever of the two devices is transmitting at the time.
Walkie-Talkies and CB (citizen band) radios are both half-duplex systems.

3. Full Duplex:
In full-duplex mode (also called duplex), both stations can transmit and
receive simultaneously as shown in figure.

Figure 9 Full Duplex

The full-duplex mode is like a two-way street with traffic flowing in both
direction at the same time.
In full-duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of
the link: with signals going in the other direction. This sharing can occur in
two ways: Either the link must contain two physically separate
transmission paths, one for sending and the other for receiving; or the
capacity of the channel is divided between signals traveling in both
directions.

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One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone

network. When two people are communicating by a telephone line, both
can talk and listen at the same time.
The full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is
required all the time. The capacity of channel, however, must be divided
between two directions.
Chapter 2 - Network Concepts (Marks 10)
Computer Network: When two or more computers are linked in order to share
resources, exchange data files or to allow electronic communication then it is
called as Computer Network.
OR
Computer network is a telecommunication network that allows computers to
exchange data.
Need of Computer Network:
1. File sharing: Networking of computers helps the user to share data files.
2. Hardware sharing: User can share devices such as printers, scanners,
CD-ROM drives, Hard Drives, etc.
3. Application sharing: Applications can be shared over the network, and
this allows to implement client/server applications.
4. Communication: Networks allow user to communicate using e-mail,
newsgroup, and video conferencing, etc.
Applications of Computer Network:
Major applications of computer network are:
1. Marketing and sales: Computer networks are used extensively in both
marketing and sales organizations. Marketing professionals use them to
collect, exchange, and analyse data related to customer needs and
product development cycles. Sales application includes teleshopping,
which uses order-entry computers or telephones connected to order
processing network, and online-reservation services for hotels, airlines and
so on.
2. Financial services: Today's financial services are totally depended on
computer networks. Application includes credit history searches, foreign
exchange and investment services, and electronic fund transfer, which
allow user to transfer money without going into a bank (an automated
teller machine is an example of electronic fund transfer, automatic paycheck is another).
3. Manufacturing: Computer networks are used in many aspects of
manufacturing including manufacturing process itself. Two of them that
use network to provide essential services are computer-aided design
(CAD) and computer-assisted manufacturing (CAM), both of which allow
multiple users to work on a project simultaneously.
4. Directory services: Directory services allow list of files to be stored in
central location to speed worldwide search operations.
5. Information services: A Network information service includes bulletin
boards and data banks. A World Wide Web site offering technical
specification for a new product is an information service.

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6. Electronic data interchange (EDI): EDI allows business information,
including documents such as purchase orders and invoices, to be
transferred without using paper.
7. Electronic mail: Probably it's the most widely used computer network
application. It allows you to send and receive mail over internet.
8. Teleconferencing: Teleconferencing allows conference to occur without
the participants being in the same place. Applications include simple text
conferencing (where participants communicate through their normal
keyboards and monitor) and video conferencing where participants can
even see as well as talk to other fellow participants. Different types of
equipments are used for video conferencing depending on what quality of
the motion you want to capture (whether you want just to see the face of
other fellow participants or do you want to see the exact facial
expression).
9. Voice over IP: Computer networks are also used to provide voice
communication. This kind of voice communication is pretty cheap as
compared to the normal telephonic conversation.
10.
Video on demand: Future services provided by the cable
television networks may include video on request where a person can
request for a particular movie or any clip at any time he wish to see.
11.
Home applications: Surfing on internet may be for fun, to acquire
information and for playing games. Information on every field is available
on internet such as arts, science, technology, business, government,
health, music, travels, cooking, sports, etc. Many newspapers are available
online and selected articles can be downloaded. Email, instance
messaging, chatting, internet telephony provided personal communication
by using internet and WWW.
Benefits of Computer Network:
1. The computers, staff and information can be well managed.
2. A network provides the means to exchange data among the computers
and to make programs and data available to people.
3. It permits the sharing of the resources of the machine.
4. Networking also provides the function of back-up.
5. Networking provides a flexible networking environment. Employees can
work at home by using through networks ties through networks into the
computer at office.
Component of Computer Network:
1. Client: Any computer that is the part of a common network other than the
Server is called as client. The division is based on the storage capacity and
responsibility of the computer. For example a Server has a large storage
area and its responsibilities are pretty different than client computers.
2. Server: A server is just like any other computer of the network however it
can be distinguished with its large storage capacity and the role that is
assigned to it. This is the administrator that controls functioning of other
computers and responsible for the division of labour among computers in
a shared network.

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3. Media: The physical device through which various components of a
computer network are connected with each other is called as the Media it
may include wire, cable or any other thing. However, these days with
advances in technology wireless communication between various
components of a computer is also possible. Thanks to those scientists and
research scholars who work day-in and day-out to bestow us with such
technologies.
4. Network Interface Card (NIC): Network Interface card is also known as
Network Adaptor. The Network Interface Card (NIC) is a circuit board that
regulates exchange of data between the network and computers or in
other words we can say that it is necessary for receiving and sending data
between the network and the computers. Each PC comes up with an
inbuilt slot where NIC is plugged in which itself remain connected with a
cable or wire.
5. Protocols: Generally any set of rules is a Protocol. A Network Protocol is
usually an agreed-upon or standardized set of rules used for transmitting
data and/or establishing communication between them. Just as two people
need to have a common language between them to exchange their views,
so computers need to have a common language so as to share information
and the Protocol is something that offers that platform.
6. Cables: There are many cables such as co-axial, twisted pair, or fiber
optics used to link between the computers.
7. Switches: It is used to direct the signals across the network. It creates
temporary link between two computer and computer station.
8. Hubs: The main part of the network joins multiple computers together to
form a single network.
9. Bridges: It is a midway between two networks. Two LANs can be
connected using bridges.
10.
Router: It transfers data between one network to another i.e. it
also helps to select route or way for the data to each destination address.
11.
Repeaters: It is an electronic device that receive a signal and
retransmit it at higher level, so that the signal can cover longer distance.
12.
Gateways: Gateways connects two independent network. A
gateway is protocol converter.
Computer Network Classifications:
Classification of Network by their Geography:
1. Local Area Network (LAN):
LAN is usually privately owned computer network that links the devices in
a single office, building or campus of up to few kilometres in size.
LANs are easy to design and troubleshoot. The personal computers and
workstations in the offices are interconnected via LAN.
These are used to share resources (may be hardware or software
resources) and to exchange information. LANs are distinguished from

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other kinds of networks by three categories: their size, transmission

technology and topology.
LANs are restricted in size, which means that their worst-case transmission
time is bounded and known in advance. Hence this is more reliable as
compared to MAN and WAN. Knowing this bound makes it possible to use
certain kinds of design that would not otherwise be possible. It also
simplifies network management.
Typical LAN is shown in figure.

Figure 10 Local Area Network

LAN typically used transmission technology consisting of single cable to

which all machines are connected. Traditional LANs run at speeds of 10 to
100 Mbps (but now much higher speeds can be achieved). The most
common LAN topologies are bus, ring and star.

2. Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN):

A MAN is basically a bigger version of a LAN and normally uses similar
technology. It is designed to extend over an entire city.
MAN is designed to extend over the entire city. It may be a single network
as a cable TV network or it may be means of connecting a number of LANs
into a larger network so that resources may be shared as shown in figure.

Figure 11 Metropolitan Area Networks

For example, a company can use a MAN to connect the LANs in all its
offices in a city. MAN is wholly owned and operated by a private company
or may be a service provided by a public company.

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The main reason for distinguishing MANs as a special category is that a

standard has been adopted for them. It is DQDB (Distributed Queue Dual
Bus) or IEEE 802.6.

3. Wide Area Network (WAN):

WAN provides long-distance transmission of data, voice, image and
information over large geographical areas that may comprise a country,
continent or even the whole world.
In contrast to LANs, WANs may utilize public, leased or private
communication devices, usually in combinations, and can therefore span
an unlimited number of miles as shown in figure.

Figure 12 Wide Area Network

WAN contains a collection of machines used for running user (i.e.

application) programs. All the machines called hosts are connected by a
communication subset.
A WAN that is wholly owned and used by a single company is often
referred to as enterprise network.

Difference between LAN and WAN.

No.
LAN
The LAN is owned by a person,
1.
college, factory etc. It is a privately
owned network.
2.

LAN is designed to operate over a

small physical area such as office,
factory or group of buildings.

3.

LANs are easy to design and easy to

maintain.

4.

The communication medium used

for interconnection is a simple coaxial cable.

WAN
WAN can be private or it can be
public leased type network.
WAN is used for the network that
spans over a large distance such
as
system
spanning
states,
countries etc.
WAN is not so easy to design and
maintain.
The communication medium used
in WAN can be PSTN or satellite
links due to longer distances
involved.

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5.

6.
7.
8.

Due to shorter distances, problems

such as propagation delay do not
exist. So LAN can be used for time
critical applications.
LAN can operate on very high data
rates.
In a LAN each station can transmit
and receive over the communication
medium.
LAN operates on the principle of
broadcasting.

Due to long distances involved,

the problems such as propagation
delay, variable signal travel time
do exist. So WAN cannot be used
for the time critical applications.
WAN operates on low data rates.
In WAN
transmit.

each

station

cannot

WAN operates on the principle of

switching.

4. Personal Area Network (PAN):

A PAN is a network that is used for communicating among computers and
computer devices (including telephones) in close proximity of around a
few meters within a room.
It can be used for communicating between the devices themselves, or for
connecting to a larger network such as the internet.
PANs can be wired or wireless. PANs can be wired with a computer bus
such as a universal serial bus: USB (a serial bus standard for connecting
devices to a computer-many devices can be connected concurrently).
PANs can also be wireless through the use of Bluetooth or IrDA (infrared
data association) technologies.
Classification of Network by their Component Role:
1. Peer-to-Peer Network:
The basic idea of a peer-to-peer (P2P) file-sharing network is that many
computers come together and pool their resources to form a content
distribution system.
The computer are often simply home computers. They do not need to be
machines in Internet data centres.
The computers are called peers because each one can alternately act as a
client to another peer, fetching its content, and as a server, providing
content to other peers.
Figure shows peer-to-peer network.

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What makes peer-to-peer systems interesting is that there is no dedicated

infrastructure, unlike in a CDN. Everyone participates in the task of
distributing content, and there is often no central point of control.
Bit Torrent is an example of P2P network.

Advantages:
1. Less expensive.
2. Easy to administer.
3. Network OS is not required.
4. No more built in redundancy. If one PC failed we have other shared
resources.
Disadvantages:
1. Not very secure.
2. Hard to backup.
3. No central point to storage list.
4. Additional load on computer because of absent of server.
2. Server-Client Network:
The most common networking relationship is the client-server model. In
the client server model computer did all of the processing and simply
transmitted the results to a user at a remote terminal.
The model contains three components: a client, a server, and a service as
shown in figure.

A service is a task that a machine can perform such as offering files over a
network or the ability to execute a command.
A server is a computer running a process that provides a service to other
computer when they request it.
A client is the computer running a program that request the service from
the server.

Advantages:
1. Very secure.
2. Better performance compared to P2P.
3. Centralized backup.
4. Very reliable.
Disadvantages:

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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Require professional administrator.

More network intensive.
More software intensive.
Expensive to implement.
Network OS required.

Chapter 3 - Network Topologies and Networking Devices (Marks

10)
Network Topology:
Topology refers to the way in which the network of computers is
connected. Network topology defines how various computers or nodes are
connected to one another. Two or more devices are connect to link, two or
more links form a topology. There are six basic network topologies as
shown in figure.

1) Mesh Topology:
In mesh topology (also called complete topology) every node has a
dedicated point-to-point link to all the nodes within network.
Figure shows network topology.

Figure 13 Mesh Topology

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The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the
two devices it connects.
The link shares traffic between the two nodes only.
Mesh topology does not have traffic congestion problems, due to
dedicated links.
As the links are not shared, a special Media Access Control (MAC) protocol
is not needed.

Advantages:
1. Dedicated link between nodes ensure optimum data rate and eliminated
traffic problem.
2. Better privacy and security.
3. Mesh topology is robust.
4. Failure of any link will not cause failure of entire network.
5. Point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy.
6. MAC protocol is not needed.
Disadvantages:
1. Large amount of cabling and I/O ports are required.
2. Hardware required for each link (I/O ports) and redundant link increases
cost.
3. Difficulty in installation.
4. Difficulty to reconfigure.
2) Star Topology:
A star topology consists of number of devices connected by point-to-point
links to a central hub. The devices are not directly linked to one another.
Figure shows star topology.

Figure 14 Star Topology

Unlike a mesh topology, a star topology does not allow direct traffic
between devices. The hub acts as an exchange: If one device wants to
send data to another, it sends the data to the hub, which then relays the
data to the other connected device.
In a star, each device needs only one link and one I/O port to connect it to
any number of others. This factor also makes it easy to install and
reconfigure.

Advantages:

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1. A star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology.
2. Each device needs only one link and one I/O port to connect it to any
number of others. This factor also makes it easy to install and reconfigure.
3. Robust topology.
4. If any links fails, it does not affect network.
5. Easy fault identification and fault isolation.
6. It is easy to modify and add new nodes to a star network without
disturbing to the rest of the network.
Disadvantages:
1. If the central hub fails, the whole network fails to operate.
2. Each device requires its own cable segment.
3. In hierarchical network, installation and configuration is difficult.
3) Tree Topology:
Tree topology can be derived from star topology. Tree has a hierarchy of
various hubs, like branches in tree.
Figure shows tree topology.

Figure 15 Tree Topology

In this case, every node is connected to some hub. However, only a few
nodes are connected directly to the central hub (head-end).
The central hub contains a repeater, which looks at the incoming bits and
regenerates them afresh as the full-blown signals for 0 or 1 as required.
This allows the digital signals to traverse over longer distances. Therefore,
the central hub is also called active hub.
The tree topology also contains many secondary hubs, which may be
active hubs or passive hubs. The merits and demerits of tree topology are
almost similar to those of the star topology.

Advantages:
1. It allows devices to be attached to a single hub and can therefore
increases the distance of a signal can travel between devices.
2. It allows the network to isolate and priorities communications from
different computers.
Disadvantages:
1. If the central hub (head-end) fails system breaks down.
2. The cabling cost is more.

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4) Ring Topology:
In ring topology, each node is directly connected to only its two adjacent
neighbour. If a node wants to send something to a distant node on a ring,
it has to go through many intermediate nodes, which act like repeaters,
reproducing the incoming bit stream with full signals on the outgoing line.
Figure shows ring topology.

Figure 16 Ring Topology

The signal travels along the ring in one direction from device-to-device till
it reaches to the destination. In between the signal is regenerated by the
repeater in the ring, therefore it is an active network and termination is
not required.
A ring is easy to reconfigure and install. In a ring, normally a signal
circulates all the time. A node not receiving any signal for a long time
indicates fault. Therefore, fault isolation is relatively easy in ring.
However, if a node in a simple ring fails, the whole ring cannot function.
Therefore, some ring topologies use dual rings.
Another demerit is that traffic is only in one direction.
This topology is not used if the number of nodes to be connected is very
high.

Advantages:
1. A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure.
2. Link failure can be easily found as each device is connected to its
immediate neighbour only.
3. Because of every node is given equal access to the token no one node can
monopolize the network.
Disadvantages:
1. Maximum ring length and number of devices is limited.
2. Failure of one node on the ring can affect the entire network.
3. Adding or removing nodes disturbs the networks.
5) Bus Topology:
Bus topology uses multipoint cabling i.e. multipoint devices are connected
by means of connectors or drop cables. One long cable acts as a backbone

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to link all the devices in a network. The signal becomes weak as it travel
along the backbone link.
Figure shows bus topology.

Figure 17 Bus Topology

A node wanting to send some data to some other node pushes the data on
the bus, which carries it to the other node, where it is received in the same
way as passengers get in a bus and get out of it at their destination.
Hence this topology has the name bus.
A tap is a connector that connects the node with the metallic core of the
bus via a drop line. As the signal traverses across the bus, some of the
energy is converted into the heat energy, thus weakening the signals. This
puts a limit on the number of taps and the distance between them.
Therefore, this topology cannot be used for a very large number of
computers.
Bus is passive topology because it requires termination. Cable cannot be
left unterminated in a bus network.

Advantages:
1. Bus topology is easy to install.
2. Because of backbone, less cable is required.
3. Number of I/O ports required is less also the hardware is reduced.
4. The backbone can be extended by using repeater.
5. Cost of the network is low.
Disadvantages:
1. Heavy network traffic can slow a bus considerably.
2. Difficult reconnection and fault isolation (troubleshooting).
3. Difficult to add new node/device.
4. Signal reflection at the tapes can cause degradation in quality.
5. Failure of backbone affects failure of all devices on the network.
6) Hybrid Topology:
Hybrid topology is one that uses two or more of the topologies together.
Figure shows hybrid topology.

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In this case, the bus, star and ring topologies are used to create this
hybrid topologies are used to create this hybrid topology. There are
multiple ways in which this can be created. In practice, many networks are
quite complex but they can be reduced to some form of hybrid topology.

Difference between Ring and Star topology.

No.
Ring Topology
Star Topology
Media failure on unidirectional or
Media faults are automatically
1.
single
loops
causes
complete
isolated to the failed segment.
network failure.
2.
Relatively difficult to reconfigure.
Relatively easy to configure.
3.

It is difficult to troubleshoot.

4.

The failure of one computer can

affect the whole network.

5.

One computer cannot monopolize

the network.

Failure of the central hub causes

the whole network failure.

6.

Adding and removing computers

disturbs the network.

Adding
and
removing
the
computers is relatively easier.

7.

A single node failure leads to the

collapse of the full network.

Failure of a single node involves

disconnecting only that node and
the remaining nodes remain fully
functional.

8.

Fault diagnosis is difficult.

Fault diagnosis is relatively easy.

Difference between Bus and Star topology.

No.
Bus Topology

Easy to troubleshoot.
The failure of single computer or
cable doesnt bring the network
down.

Star Topology

1.

Uses a cable as bus or backbone to

connect all nodes.

Uses a central hub to connect the

nodes to each other.

2.

Baseband or
cable is used.

coaxial

Twisted pair, coaxial cables or

optical fiber cables are used.

3.

If a part of bus fails, the whole

network fails.

Failure of the central hub will

make the entire network collapse.

broadband

20
[Author]
4.

Adding new node is difficult.

Adding and removing a node is

relatively easy.

5.

Fault diagnosis is relatively difficult.

Fault diagnosis is easy.

Need of Network Connecting Devices:

As stations connected to different LANs and WANs want to communicate with
each other, it is necessary to provide this facility. Networking devices creates a
single virtual network over which all stations in different network can
communicate seamlessly and transparently.

Network Connecting/Controlling Devices:

1) Repeaters:
Repeater is an electronic device that regenerates or receives a signal and
retransmit it at higher level, so that the signal can cover longer distance.
A repeater is a device that operates only in the physical layer. The basic
purpose of repeater is to extend the distance of LAN as shown in figure.

Figure 18 Repeater connecting two LAN segments

Signals that carry information within a network can travel a fixed distance
before attenuation endangers the integrity of the data. A repeater receives
a signal and, before it becomes too weak or corrupted, regenerates the
original bit pattern. The repeater then sends the refreshed signal.
A repeater does not actually connect two LANs; it connects two segments
of the same LAN. The segments connected are still part of one single LAN.
A repeater is not a device that can connect two LANs of different protocols.
A repeater can overcome the 10Base5 Ethernet length restriction.
A repeater does not amplify the signal; it regenerates the signal. When it
receives a weakened or corrupted signal, it creates a copy, bit for bit, at
the original strength.
The location of a repeater on a link is vital. A repeater must be placed so
that a signal reaches it before any noise changes the meaning of any of its
bits.

2) Hubs:
A repeater with multiple ports is known as hub. It is a device for
connecting multiple Ethernet devices together and making them act as a
single network segment.
Hub can be used to create multiple levels of hierarchy of stations. The
stations connect to the hub with RJ-45 connector having maximum
segment length is 100 meters. This type of interconnected set of stations
is easy to maintain and diagnose.
Figure shows the hub.

21
[Author]

Figure 19 Hub

Hubs are special repeaters that overcome the electromechanical

limitations of a media signal path.
The hub organizes the cables and transmits incoming signals to the other
media segments.
There are three main types of hubs:
1. Passive Hub
2. Active Hub
3. Intelligent Hub
1. Passive Hub: A passive hub simply combines the signal of network
segments. There is no signal regeneration. A passive hub reduces by half
the maximum cabling distances permitted. With passive hub, all computer
receives the signal sent from all other computer.
2. Active Hub: Active hub is that regenerates or amplifies the signals.
Because of this, the distance between devices can be increased. Some
active hub amplify noise as well as the signal. Active hubs are expensive
than passive hubs. Because some active hubs function as repeaters, they
are sometimes called multiport repeaters.
3. Intelligent Hub: Intelligent hub regenerates the signal and perform some
network management and intelligent path selection. Intelligent hub
includes switching hubs. Many switching hubs can choose that alternative
of this hub is all transmission media segment permanently connecting to
bub because each segment will be used only when a signal is sent to a
device using that segment.

1.
2.
3.

Functions of Hub:
Facilitate adding, deleting or moving work stations.
Extend the length of the network.
Provide flexibility by supporting multiple interfaces. For example, Ethernet,
token ring, FDDI.
4. It offers fault tolerance feature.
5. Provide centralize management services.
3) Bridges:
The device that can be used to interconnect two separate LANs is known
as a bridge. It is attached to two or more LANs to create extended LAN as
shown in figure.

22
[Author]

1.
2.
3.

1.
2.

Figure 20 A bridge connecting two separate LANs

The bridge operates in layer 2, that is data-link layer and that is why it is
called level-2 relay with reference to the OSI model.
It links similar or dissimilar LANs, designed to store and forward frames, it
is protocol independent and transparent to the end stations. The flow of
information through a bridge is shown in Figure.

Figure 21 Information flow through a bridge

Use of bridges offer a number of advantages, such as higher reliability,

performance, security, convenience and larger geographic coverage. But,
it is desirable that the quality of service (QOS) offered by a bridge should
match that of a single LAN. The parameters that define the QOS include
availability, frame mishaps, transit delay, frame lifetime, undetected bit
errors, frame size and priority.
Key features of a bridge are mentioned below:
A bridge operates both in physical and data-link layer
A bridge uses a table for filtering/routing
A bridge does not change the physical (MAC) addresses in a frame
Types of bridges:
Transparent Bridges
Source routing bridges

1. Transparent Bridges:
The transparent bridge uses two processes known as bridge forwarding
and bridge learning.
If the destination address is present in the forwarding database already
created, the packet is forwarded to the port number to which the
destination host is attached. If it is not present, forwarding is done on all
parts (flooding). This process is known as bridge forwarding.

23
[Author]

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Moreover, as each frame arrives, its source address indicates where a

particular host is situated, so that the bridge learns which way to forward
frames to that address. This process is known as bridge learning.
Key features of a transparent bridge are:
The stations are unaware of the presence of a transparent bridge.
Reconfiguration of the bridge is not necessary; it can be added/removed
without being noticed.
Transparent bridge performs two functions:
Forwarding of frames.
Learning to create the forwarding table.

Advantages of Transparent Bridges:

1. Easy to use.
2. Just install the bridge, no software changes are needed in hosts.
Disadvantages of Transparent Bridges:
1. Does not support multipath routing.
2. The path between any two hosts may not be the optimal path.
3. Broadcast and multicast frames must be flooded in all cases.
2. Source Routing Bridges:
The second approach, known as source routing, where the routing
operation is performed by the source host and the frame specifies which
route the frame is to follow.
A host can discover a route by sending a discovery frame, which spreads
through the entire network using all possible paths to the destination.
Each frame gradually gathers addresses as it goes.
The destination responds to each frame and the source host chooses an
appropriate route from these responses. For example, a route with
minimum hop-count can be chosen. Whereas transparent bridges do not
modify a frame, a source routing bridge adds a routing information field to
the frame.
Source routing approach provides a shortest path at the cost of the
proliferation of discovery frames, which can put a serious extra burden on
the network.
Advantages of Source Routing Bridges:
1. Uses the optimal route.
2. Better use of resources.
3. Also can make use of multiple path to same destination.
Disadvantages of Source Routing Bridges:
1. Not transparent to hosts.
2. Each host must detect bridge failure on its own.
3. Installing new bridge non-trivial.
Comparison between Transparent and Source Routing Bridges:

24
[Author]

4) Switches:
A switch is essentially a fast bridge having additional sophistication that
allows faster processing of frames.
It provides reaching functionality with greater efficiency.
It supports transmitting, receiving and controlling traffic with other
computers on the network.
Figure shows switch.

Figure 22 Switch

1.
2.
3.
4.

A switch act as multiport bridge to connect device as segment in LAN.

Switch has a buffer for each link to it is connected.
When it receives a packet it stores the packet in the buffer of receiving link
and checks the address to find out the outgoing link.
Whenever outgoing link is free the switch sends the frame to that
particular link.
Some of important functionalities of switches are:
Ports are provided with buffer
Switch maintains a directory: address - port
Each frame is forwarded after examining the address and forwarded to the
proper port
Three possible forwarding approaches: Cut-through, Collision-free and
Fully-buffered as briefly explained below.

25
[Author]
a. Cut-through: A switch forwards a frame immediately after receiving the
destination address. As a consequence, the switch forwards the frame
without collision and error detection.
b. Collision-free: In this case, the switch forwards the frame after receiving
64 bytes, which allows detection of collision. However, error detection is
not possible because switch is yet to receive the entire frame.
c. Fully buffered: In this case, the switch forwards the frame only after
receiving the entire frame. So, the switch can detect both collision and
error free frames are forwarded.
Layer 1 Switch:
It is a hub or repeater.
Layer 2 Switch:
Layer 2 switch performs at the physical and data link layer.
It is a bridge with many ports and a design that allows better performance.
Layer 2 switch operate using physical network addresses, identify
individual devices.
Switching operating at layer are very fast because they are just storing
physical addresses, but they usually arent very smart.
They dont take at the data packet very closely to learn anything more
about where its headed.
Layer 3 Switch:
Layer 3 switches use network or IP addresses that identify locations on the
network. They read network addresses more closely than layer 2 switches.
Layer 3 switch is kind of router. They identify network locations as well as
the physical device. A location can be LAN workstation, a location in
computer memory or even a different packet of data travelling through a
network.
Switches operating at layer 3 are smarter than layer 2 devices and
incorporate routing functions to actively calculate the best way to send a
packet to its destination.
Layer 4 switches:
Layer 4 switches are capable of identifying which application protocols
(HTTP, FTP, SNTP, etc.) are included with each packet, and they use this
information to hand off the packet to the appropriate higher-layer
software.
Layer 4 switches make packet forwarding decisions based not only on the
MAC address and IP address, but also on the application to which a packet
belongs.
Layer 4 switches also provides an effective wire-speed security shield for
network because any computer or industry-specific protocols can be
confined to only authorized switched ports or users. This security feature
is often reinforced with traffic filtering and forwarding features.
Layer 7 switches:
Layer-7 switches may distribute loads based on Uniform Resource Locator
URL or by some installation-specific technique to recognize applicationlevel transactions. A layer-7 switch may include a web cache and
participate in a content delivery network.

26
[Author]
Difference between Hub and Switch.
No.
Hub

Switch

1.

Hub is broadcasting device.

Switch
is
point-to-point
communication device.

2.

Hub operates at physical layer.

Switch operates at data link layer.

3.

Hub is not an intelligent device so it

is comparatively cheap.

Switch is an intelligent device so it

is expensive.

4.

Hub simply broadcasts the incoming

packet.

Switch uses switching table to find

out the correct destination.

5.

Hub cannot be used as repeater.

Switch can be used as repeater.

6.

Hub is an ordinary old type of

device and not that widely used.

Switch
is
very
sophisticated
device and widely used.

5) Routers:
A router is a device which translates information from one network to
another.
A router is a three-layer device that routes packets based on their logical
addresses (Host-to-host addressing).
A router normally connects LANs and WANs in the Internet and has a
routing table that is used for making decisions about the route.
Routers connect dissimilar networks together and have access to
information from physical, data link, and network layer.
The routing tables are normally dynamic and are updated using routing
protocols.
A router isolates LANs in to subnets to manage and control network traffic.
However, unlike bridges it is not transparent to end stations.
A schematic diagram of the router is shown in figure.

Figure 23 Schematic diagram of a router

As shown in figure a router has four basic components: Input ports, output
ports, the routing processor and the switching fabric. The functions of the
four components are briefly mentioned below.

a. Input port: Input port performs physical and data-link layer functions of
the router. The ports are also provided with buffer to hold the packet
before forwarding to the switching fabric.

27
[Author]
b. Output ports: Perform the same functions as the input ports, but in the
reverse order.
c. The routing processor: Performs the function of the network layer. The
process involves table lookup.
d. The switching fabric: It moves the packet from the input queue to the
output queue by using specialized mechanisms. The switching fabric is
realized with the help of multistage interconnection networks.

Routers use one or more routing algorithms to calculate the best path
through an internetwork.

6) Gateways:
Gateway is a device that can interface and translate the different protocols
that are used for system.
Gateway operates in all seven layers of the OSI model.
Gateway connect to independent network. A gateway is protocol
converter.
A gateway can accept a packet formatted for one protocol (e.g. TCP/IP)
and convert it to a packet formatted for another protocol (e.g. Apple Talk)
before forwarding it.
The gateway must adjust the rate, size and data format. Gateway is
generally software installed within a router.
Figure shows the gateway.

Figure 24 Gateway

Gateways can connect the system with different communication protocols,

languages and architecture. E.g. IBM network using SNA can be connected
to LAN using gateway.
Gateways are slow because they need to perform intensive conversions.

7) Modem:
Modem is the bidirectional device consisting of a modulator and a
demodulator which converts a digital signal into an analog signal
(modulation) and vice versa (demodulation).
Phone lines are designed for analog, voice signals. Data communication
using phone lines requires a special communication device, which
converts the data signals to those more compatible with the phone line
capabilities. Special communication device modem is used with
telephone line for data transfer. Modem means Modulator-demodulator.
Modem uses the data signal to modulate a waveform that is usable with
the telephone system. Any system, whether simplex, half duplex or full
duplex requires a modem at the transmitting end and the receiving end.
Figure shows block diagram of modem.

28
[Author]

Figure 25 Block Diagram of Modem

Following figure shows the connectivity of modem.

Modem works on the following concept. The concept is to use tones (i.e.
sine-waves) of various frequencies, phases or amplitudes to represent the
binary data. Tones are what the phone system is designed to handle, since
voice is made up of many tones combined.
Different modems use frequency modulation (FM), phase modulation (PM),
and amplitude modulation (AM) or some combination of these to achieve
the desired data rates and low-error performance over different types of
telephone lines.
Digital modulation uses three types of modulation for the conversion of a
binary signal into a suitable form transmission over the public switched
telephone network (PSTN). When binary data is to be transmitted, only two
signal levels are required. The signal switches (shifts) between these two
levels as the binary data signal alternates between a binary 1 and 0. The
three basic modulation types are known as amplitude shift keying
(ASK), frequency shift keying (FSK), and phase shift keying (PSK)
respectively.

Figure 26 DTE-DCE Interface

Functions of Modem:
a. At the transmitting end, the modem must do the following
function: It takes data from the RS-232 interface and convert this data
into the appropriate tones. It perform line control and signaling to the
other end of the phone line. Sends the dialing signal if this modem is
designed to dial without the user present.
b. At the receiving end, the modem must perform corresponding
functions: Receive tones from the phone line. Demodulate these tones
into 1s and 0s (ones and zeros) put the demodulated signal into RS-232

29
[Author]
format and convert to the RS-232 interface. Perform line control and
signaling.
Operation of Modem:
1. Consider a modem which uses FSK. It uses 1000Hz to send binary 0 and
2000Hz for binary 1. Binary input consists of 1 and 0 so modem generate
tones of 1000Hz and 2000Hz according to input. These frequencies are
reasonably within the bandwidth range of telephone lines, they are
transmitted without much attenuation.
2. The rate at which modulation level is changed is called baud rate. The
tones of 1000Hz and 2000Hz are transmitted on the telephone line from
sender. At the receiving modem, the receiving circuitry, first amplify the
signal and reduce the noise. There are two filters in the receiving circuitry
tuned to 2000Hz and 1000Hz. If signal contains 2000Hz frequencies, then
output of 2000Hz filters will be maximum whereas output of 1000Hz filter
will be minimum. Using these two output, detector decide that symbol 1 is
transmitted and same way 0 is detected. The timing circuitry in the
receiving modem regenerates the sequence of binary data with correct
time durations.
Features of Modem:
1. Modem supports the following features:
2. Speed: Speed is measured in bits per second. The special at which the
modem can send data is in bps. Typically modem speeds are: 300 bps, 600
bps, 1200 bps, 2400 bps, 4800 bps, 9600 bps, 14.4 kbps, 19.2 kbps, 28.8
kbps, and 56 kbps.
3. Self-Testing: Modem can test the digital connection to the computer and
the analog connection to a remote modem. This features is added to the
new modem.
4. Auto Answer: Most modem can automatically answers the phone when an
incoming call comes in.
5. Auto Dial/Redial: Smart modem can dial the phone number and auto redial
if a busy signal is received.
6. Asynchronous and Synchronous Transmission: Modem support both type of
transmission.
8) Firewall:
A firewall is a device installed between the internal network of an
organization and the rest of the Internet.
A firewall system is an electronic security guard and electronic barrier at
the same time. It protects and controls the interface between a private
network and an insecure public network.
The purpose of the Firewall is to protect a private network from the threats
of hackers coming from the Internet (a public network).
It is designed to forward some packets and filter (not forward) others.
Figure shows firewall.

Figure 27 Firewall

30
[Author]

For example, a firewall may filter all incoming packets destined for a
specific host or a specific server such as HTTP. A firewall can be used to
deny access to a specific host or a specific service in the organization.
The firewall acts as a packet filter. It inspects each and every incoming
and outgoing packet.
It is responsible for partitioning a designated area such that any damage
on one side cannot spread to the other side. It prevents bad things from
happening, i.e. loss of information, without preventing good things from
happening that is controlled exchange of information with the outside
world.
A firewall is usually classified as a packet-filter firewall and
application-level gateways firewall.

1. Packet Filter:
A firewall can be used as a packet filter. It can forward or block packets
based on the information in the network layer and transport layer headers:
source and destination IP addresses, source and destination port
addresses, and type of protocol (TCP or UDP).
A packet-filter firewall is a router that uses a filtering table to decide which
packets must be discarded (not forwarded).
A packet filter Firewall blocks or forwards packets based on the transport
and network layer addresses and protocols. It is typically set up as a list of
rules based on matches of fields in the IP or TCP header.
2. Application-level Gateway:
Application level gateway, also called a Proxy Server acts as a relay of
application level traffic. Users contact gateways using an application and
the request is successful after authentication. The application gateway is
service specific such as FTP, TELNET, SMTP or HTTP.
An Application Gateway blocks or forwards packets based on the
information in the application layers.
When the user client process sends a message, the application-level
gateway firewall runs a server process to receive the request. The server
opens the packet at the application level and finds out if the request is
legitimate. If it is, the server acts as a client process and sends the
message to the real server in the corporation. If it is not, the message is
dropped and an error message is sent to the external user. In this way, the
requests of the external users are filtered based on the contents at the
application layer.
Network Connector
1) RJ45 Connector:
The most common UTP connector is RJ45. RJ stands for registered jack and
45 simply refers to the number of the interface standard.
RJ45 connector is shown in Figure.

31
[Author]

The RJ45 is a keyed connector, meaning the connector can be inserted in

only one way.
Each RJ45 connector has eight pins which means RJ45 cable contains eight
separate wires. Four of them are solid colors while the other four are
stripped.
RJ45 is commonly used in telephone connections.

2) BNC Connector:
To connect coaxial cable to devices, we need coaxial connectors. The most
common type of connector used today is the Bayone-Neill-Concelman
(BNC), connector.
Figure shows three popular types of these connectors: the BNC connector,
the BNC T connector, and the BNC terminator.

The BNC connector is used to connect the end of the cable to a device,
such as a TV set. The BNC T connector is used in Ethernet networks (see
Chapter 13) to branch out to a connection to a computer or other device.
The BNC terminator is used at the end of the cable to prevent the
reflection of the signal.

3) Network Interface Card (NIC):

Network Interface Card also called as Network Interface Controller or
Network Adapter is a computer hardware which is used in computer to
connect the computer network.
The primary function of NIC is to allow the computer to communicate on
the network. It supports transmitting, receiving and controlling traffic with
other computers on the network. NIC operates at physical layer of OSI
model.
When NIC transmits data on network, it converts data from parallel to
serial then encodes and compress it.
When NIC receives data, it translates the electrical signal into equivalent
binary data bits which can be accepted by computer.

32
[Author]

4)

1.

NIC can be installed in computer expansion bus via ISA or PCI slot. ISA slot
is 8 or 16 bit and PCI slot is 32 bits. Now a days NIC card are inbuilt in the
motherboard itself.
A NIC is specific to a particular type of LAN architecture. For example,
fiber-optic, Token ring and Ethernet. NIC has one or more external parts
with which network cable can be attached. Most NICs support both
10BaseT and 100BaseTX.
MAC address is hard coded on to the card by manufacturer. This MAC
address is globally unique and is of 48 bits. The MAC address provides a
way to distinguish one NIC from other NIC. These MAC address are also
called physical address.
Optical Fiber Cable Connector:
There are two types of connectors for fiber-optic cables, SC and ST.
Subscriber Channel (SC) Connector:
The subscriber channel (SC) connector is used for cable TV. It uses a
push/pull locking system.
Figure shows SC connector.

SC Optical connector offers excellent packing density, and its push-pull

design resists fiber end face contact damage.

2. Straight-Tip (ST) Connector:

The straight-tip (ST) connector is used for connecting cable to networking
devices.
Figure shows ST connector.

It uses a bayonet locking system and is more reliable than SC.

ST fiber connectors are a good choice for easy field installations; ST
connector is metal structure. It is a push-pull type, not screw type. Ferrule
of ST fiber optic connector is exposed outside.

33
[Author]

Chapter 4 - Transmission Media (Marks 10)

Transmission Media:
Transmission media are the physical infrastructure components that carry
data from one computer to another. They are at the basis of data
communications. Example of simple forms of transmission media are
telephone wires that connect telephone wires that connect telephones to
the central offices (i.e. telephone exchanges), and coaxial cables that
carry the cable television transmission to home.
Transmission media can be divided into two main categories: Guided
media and unguided media.
Selection Criteria:
1. Bandwidth: The greater bandwidth of the signal, the higher the data rate
can be achieved.
2. Attenuation: Attenuation limit the distance (repeater spacing) for guided
media. Twisted pair generally suffer more impairment than co-axial cable.
3. Interference: In overlapping frequency bands from competing signals
can distort or wipe out a signal. This is an interference which is a problem
for both guided and unguided media. For guided media interference is
caused by emissions from nearby cables. Since they are bounded
together. Proper shielding of guided media can minimize this problem.
4. Cost: Selection of transmission media can be depend upon cost factor.
Select the media which provide less initial, expansion, & maintenance
cost.
5. Type: Depending on the type of application and geographical situation
suitable transmission media is chosen. For long distance point-to-point
transmission guided media are suitable. For long distance broadcasting
transmission unguided media like microwave links are chosen.
6. Length: Media should be selected which can cover longer distance in
terms of length.
7. Security: Chose the media which provide more security. Select the media
which provide better encryption for signal or data.
8. Ease of Installation: Select media which can be easily installed.
9. Speed: There are two different forms of speed which should be provided
by transmission media. Propagation speed: time to send first bit across the
medium. Data transfer speed: the time to transmit the remaining bits in
the message. Media should be selected by these speed factors. Chose the
media which provides good propagation and data transfer speed.
10.
Flexibility: Chose the media which provide flexibility with the
respect of expandability, noiseless and can be access easily.
Guided media:
Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to
another, include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.
A signal traveling along any of these media is directed and contained by
the physical limits of the medium.

34
[Author]

Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper) conductors that

accept and transport signals in the form of electric current. Optical fiber is
a cable that accepts and transports signals in the form of light.

1) Twisted Pair:
A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its
own plastic insulation, twisted together, as shown in Figure.

Figure 28 Twisted Pair Cable

One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is
used only as a ground reference. The receiver uses the difference between
the two.
In addition to the signal sent by the sender on one of the wires,
interference (noise) and crosstalk may affect both wires and create
unwanted signals.
Twisted pair can carry both analog and digital signals. Actually, they carry
only analog signals. However, the analog signals can very closely
correspond to the square waves representing bits, so we often think of
them as carrying digital data.
In twisted pair data rates of several Mbps. It spans distances of several
kilometers.
Data rate determined by wire thickness and length. In addition, shielding
to eliminate interference from other wires impacts signal-to-noise ratio,
and ultimately, the data rate.
There are two types of twisted pairs:
1. Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP)
2. Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP).
1. Unshielded Twisted-Pair (STP):
UTP is a set of twisted pairs of cable within a plastic sheet. UTP is ordinary
telephone wire. This is the least expensive of all the transmission media
commonly used for LAN, and is easy to work and simple install.
UTP is subject to external electromagnetic interface. Category 3 and
Category 5 UTP are commonly used in computer networks. UTP can
transfer data at 1 to 100 mbps over a distance of 100 meters. The
difference between cat 3 and cat 5 is the number of twists in the cable per
unit distance. Cat 5 is much more tightly twisted.
Figure shows UTP cable.

35
[Author]

Figure 29 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Characteristics of UTP:
Transmission rate of 10-100 Mbps.
UTP is less expensive than fiber optic cable and coaxial cable.
Maximum cable segment of UTP is 100 meters.
UTP cable is very flexible and easy to work.
UTP uses RJ45 connector.
Most susceptible to electrical interface or cross talk.

Advantages:
1. UTP is easy to terminate.
2. Cost of installation is less.
3. High installed base.
Disadvantages:
1. It is very noisy.
2. It covers less distance.
3. UTP suffers from interference.
2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable:
STP offers a protective sheathing around the copper wire. STP provides
better performance at lower data rates. They are not commonly used in
networks.
Figure shows STP cable.

Figure 30 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

Installation of STP is easy. Special connectors are required for installation.

Cost is moderately expensive. Distance is limited to 100 meters to 500
meters. STP suffers from outside interference but not as much UTP.

Applications of Twisted Pair Cable:

36
[Author]
1. Twisted pair cable used for both analog and digital signals.
2. Twisted pair cable are used in telephone network.
3. In LAN, twisted pair mainly use for low cost, low performance application.
Comparison of UTP and STP.

2) Co-axial Cable:
Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than
those in twisted pair cable, in part because the two media are constructed
quite differently.
Instead of having two wires, coax has a central core conductor of solid or
stranded wire (usually copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is,
in turn, encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a
combination of the two.
The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as
the second conductor, which completes the circuit. This outer conductor is
also enclosed in an insulating sheath, and the whole cable is protected by
a plastic cover as shown in figure.

Figure 31 Co-axial cable

Co-axial cable is used to transmit both analog and digital signals. Data
transfer rate of co-axial cable is used to transmit both analog and digital
signals. Data transfer rate of co-axial cable is in between twisted pair and
fiber optic cable.
Co-axial is relatively inexpensive. The cost for thin co-axial cable is less
than STP. Thick co-axial is more expensive than STP. Installation is
relatively simple. Co-axial cable must be grounded and terminated.
A typical data rate for todays co-axial network is 10 Mbps, although
potential is higher. It suffers from attenuation.

Characteristics of Co-axial Cable:

1. 10 Mbps is the transmission rate.
2. Maximum cable length for thinnet is 185 meters and for thicknet is 500
meters.
3. Flexible and easy to work with thinnet.
4. Ethernet designation to 10 base 2 (thinnet) or 10 base 5 (thicknet).

37
[Author]
5. Less expensive than fiber optics but more expensive than twisted pair.
6. Good resistance to electrical interference.
Advantages:
1. Co-axial used for both data transmission i.e. analog and digital data
transmission.
2. It has higher bandwidth.
3. Easy to handle and relatively inexpensive as compared to fiber optic
cables.
4. It uses for longer distances at higher data rates.
5. Excellent noise immunity.
Disadvantages:
1. Distance is limited.
2. Number of node connection is limited.
3. Proper connectors and termination is must.
Applications of Co-axial Cable:
1. In analog and digital data transmission.
2. In telephone networks.
3. In Ethernet LANs.
4. In cable television network.
3) Fiber Optic Cable (FOC):
A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the
form of light.
A fiber optic cable is a light pipe which is used to carry a light beam from
one place to another.
Light is an electromagnetic signal and can be modulated by information.
Since the frequency of light is extremely high it can accommodate wide
bandwidth of information, also higher data rate can be achieved with
excellent reliability.
The modulated light travel along the fiber and at the far end, are
converted to an electrical signal by means of a photo electric cell. Thus
the original input signal is recovered at the far end.
Figure shows FOC.

Fiber optic cables are similar to coax, except without the braid. Figure (a)
shows a single fiber viewed from the side. At the center is the glass core
through which the light propagates. In multimode fibers, the core is
typically 50 microns in diameter, about the thickness of a human hair. In
single-mode fibers, the core is 8 to 10 microns. The core is surrounded by

38
[Author]

a glass cladding with a lower index of refraction than the core, to keep all
the light in the core. Next comes a thin plastic jacket to protect the
cladding. Fibers are typically grouped in bundles, protected by an outer
sheath. Figure (b) shows a sheath with three fibers.
FOC transmit light signals rather than electrical signals. Each fiber has an
inner core of glass or plastic that conducts light. The inner core is
surrounded by cladding, a layer of glass that reflects the light back into
core.
A cable may contains a single fiber, but often fibers are bundled together
in the centre of the cable.

Characteristics of fiber-optic cable:

1. Transmission rate of 100 Mbps.
2. Not affected by the electric interference.
3. Most expensive cable.
4. FOC support cable length of 2 km or more.
5. It supports voice, video and data.
6. It provides most secured media.
7. Commonly used as backbones between buildings and token ring networks.
8. Not very flexible, difficult to work.
Advantages:
1. Very high data rate, low error rate. 1000 Mbps (1 Gbps) over distances of
kilometers common. Error rates are so low they are almost negligible.
2. Fiber cables are more secure than other cables. It is almost impossible to
tap into a fiber cable as they do not radiate signals.
3. Much thinner (per logical phone line) than existing copper circuits.
Because of its thinness, phone companies can replace thick copper wiring
with fibers having much more capacity for same volume. This is important
because it means that aggregate phone capacity can be upgraded without
the need for finding more physical space to hire the new cables.
4. Not susceptible to electrical interference (lightning) or corrosion (rust).
5. Greater repeater distance than coax.
6. Fiber cables are light weight because they are made of silica glass or
plastic which is much lighter than copper or aluminum cables. Light weight
fiber cables are cheaper to transport.
Disadvantages:
1. The initial installation or setting up cost is very high compared to all other
systems.
2. The maintenance and repairing of fiber optic system is not only difficult
but expensive also.
3. Difficult to tap. It really is point-to-point technology. In contrast, tapping
into coax is trivial. No special training or expensive tools or parts are
required.
4. One-way channel. Two fibers needed to get full duplex (both ways)
communication.
Comparison between guided medias.

39
[Author]

Unguided Media:
Unguided media, also called as wireless communication, transport
electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor.
Unguided transmission is used when running a physical cable (either fiber
or copper) between two end points is not possible. For example, running
wires between buildings is probably not legal if the building is separated
by a public street.
The signals propagates through air (or sometimes water). Signals are
normally broadcast through free space and thus are available to anyone
who has a device capable of receiving them.
Figure 7.17 shows the part of the electromagnetic spectrum, ranging from
3 kHz to 900 THz, used for wireless communication.

Figure 32 Electromagnetic spectrum for wireless communication

Unguided signals can travel from the source to destination in several

ways: ground propagation, sky propagation, and line-of-sight, space
propagation as shown in figure.

40
[Author]

Figure 33 Propagation methods

In ground propagation, radio waves travel through the lowest portion of

the atmosphere, hugging the earth. These low-frequency signals emanate
in all directions from the transmitting antenna and follow the curvature of
the planet. Distance depends on the amount of power in the signal: The
greater the power, the greater the distance.
In sky propagation, higher-frequency radio waves radiate upward into the
ionosphere (the layer of atmosphere where particles exist as ions) where
they are reflected back to earth. This type of transmission allows for
greater distances with lower output power.
In line-or-sight propagation, very high-frequency signals are transmitted in
straight lines directly from antenna to antenna. Antennas must be
directional, facing each other, and either tall enough or close enough
together not to be affected by the curvature of the earth. Line-of-sight
propagation is tricky because radio transmissions cannot be completely
focused.
The section of the electromagnetic spectrum defined as radio waves and
microwaves is divided into eight ranges, called bands, each regulated by
government authorities. These bands are rated from very low frequency
(VLF) to extremely high frequency (EHF).
Unguided transmission media is divided into three broad groups:
Microwave Communication, Radio wave Communication, and
Satellite Communication.

1) Microwave Communication:
Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are
called microwaves.
Microwaves are unidirectional. When an antenna transmits microwave
waves, they can be narrowly focused. This means that the sending and
receiving antennas need to be aligned. A pair of antennas can be aligned
without interfering with another pair of aligned antennas.
Microwave signals travels only in one direction at a time. This means that
for two-way communication such as in telephony, two frequencies need to
be allocated.
At both ends, a transceiver is used which is a combination of a transmitter
and receiver operating at the two respective frequencies. Therefore, only
one antenna can serve both the functions and cover both the frequencies.
Figure shows microwave communication.

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[Author]

Figure 34 Microwave Communication

Repeaters are used along with the antennas to enhance the signal.
The data rates offered are 1 Mbps to 1 Gbps.

Characteristics of Microwave Communication:

1. Microwave is relatively inexpensive as compared to fiber optics system.
2. Microwave systems permit data transmission rates of about 16 Gbps. At
such high frequencies, microwave can carry 250,000 voice channels at the
same time. They are mostly used to link big metropolitan cities where
have heavy telephone traffic between them.
3. Very high-frequency microwaves cannot come through walls. This
characteristic can be a disadvantage if receivers are inside buildings.
4. The microwave band is relatively wide, almost 299 GHz. Therefore wider
sub bands can be assigned, and a high data rate is possible.
Advantages:
1. Relatively inexpensive as compared to fiber optics cable.
2. Provides high data transmission rates of about 16 Gbps.
Disadvantages:
1. Very high-frequency microwaves cannot come through walls.
Applications:
1. Mobile telephone networks uses microwave communication.
2. Wireless LAN.
3. Point-to-point communication between stations.
4. Line of sight communication.
2) Radio wave Communication:
Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and 1 GHz
are normally called radio waves.
Radio waves, for the most part, are omnidirectional. When an antenna
transmits radio waves, they are propagated in all directions. This means
that the sending and receiving antennas do not have to be aligned.

42
[Author]

A sending antenna sends waves that can be received by any receiving

antenna. The radio waves transmitted by one antenna are susceptible to
interference by another antenna that may send signals using the same
frequency or band.
Radio waves, particularly those waves that propagate in the sky mode, can
travel long distances. This makes radio waves a good candidate for longdistance broadcasting such as AM radio.
Radio waves, particularly those of low and medium frequencies, can
penetrate walls. This characteristic can be both an advantage and a
disadvantage. It is an advantage because, for example, an AM radio can
receive signals inside a building. It is a disadvantage because we cannot
isolate a communication to just inside or outside a building.
The radio wave band is relatively narrow, just under 1 GHz, compared to
the microwave band. When this band is divided into sub bands, the sub
bands are also narrow, leading to a low data rate for digital
communications.
In the Very Low Frequency (VLF), Low Frequency (LF) and Middle Frequency
(MF) bands, radio wave follows the ground, as illustrated in figure (a).

In the High Frequency (HF) and Very High Frequency (VHF) bands, radio
wave bounce off the ionosphere i.e. they follow sky propagation.
Radio waves are used for multicast communications, such as radio and
television, and paging systems.

Advantages of Radio Wave:

1. Radio waves are easy to generate.
2. They travel long distances.
3. They can come through buildings easily so they are widely used for
communication both indoors and outdoors.
4. Radio waves are omnidirectional, meaning that they travel in all directions
from the source, so that the transmitter and receiver do not have to be
carefully aligned physically.
Disadvantages:
1. The properties of radio waves are frequency dependent. At low
frequencies, radio waves pass through obstacles well, but the power falls
off sharply with distance from the source.
2. Low frequency and medium frequency range cannot be used for data
transfer because of their very small bandwidth.
3. Applications:
4. The omnidirectional characteristics of radio waves make them useful for
multicasting, in which there is one sender but many receivers. AM and FM

43
[Author]
radio, television, maritime radio, cordless phones, and paging are
examples of multicasting.
3) Satellite Communication:
Satellite communication is similar to the terrestrial microwave, except that
the satellite acts as one of the stations.
Figure shows illustrate satellite communication.

Figure 35 Satellite Communication

The satellite does the functions of an antenna and the repeater together.
For instance figure illustrates, ground station A can send the information to
ground station B via the satellite.
This, however, poses a problem. If the earth along with its ground stations
is revolving and the satellite is stationery, the sending and receiving earth
stations and the satellite can be out of sync over time. Therefore, normally
Geosynchronous Satellites are used, which move at the same
Revolution Per Minute (RPM) as that of the earth in the same direction,
exactly like earth. Thus, both the earth and the satellite complete one
revolution exactly in the same time: the relative position of the ground
station with respect to the satellite never changes.
Normally, Super High Frequency (SHF), which covers the frequency range
of 3 Ghz to 30 Ghz, is used for satellite communications.
Two frequency bands are used for signals from the earth to the satellite
called uplink, and from the satellite to earth called downlink.
There are three methods for communication using satellites. These three
methods use principle that are similar in concept to normal wired
communication. Like the wired world, satellite communication is also
based on modulation techniques. Three primary modulation techniques
used are: Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA), Time Division
Multiple Access (TDMA) and Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA).

Characteristics of Satellite communication:

1. Optimum frequency range for satellite communication is 1 to 10 GHz.
2. Communication satellites have several unique properties. The most
important is the long communication delay for the round trip (about 270
ms) because of the long distance (about 72,000 km) the signal has to
travel between two earth stations. This poses a number of problems,
which are to be tackled for successful and reliable communication.
3. Another interesting property of satellite communication is its broadcast
capability. All stations under the downward beam can receive the
transmission. It may be necessary to send encrypted data to protect
against piracy.

44
[Author]
Applications:
1. Television broadcasting.
2. Regional, national and international global communications.
3. Telephone and data circuits.
4. Mobile telephone services.
5. Private networks for corporations, government agencies.
6. Military applications.
Latest Technologies in Wireless Network:
1) Bluetooth:
Bluetooth is a wireless LAN technology designed to connect devices of
different functions such as telephones, notebooks, computers (desktop
and laptop), cameras, printers, coffee makers, and so on.
A Bluetooth LAN is an ad hoc network, which means that the network is
formed spontaneously; the devices, sometimes called gadgets, find each
other and make a network called a piconet.
A Bluetooth LAN can even be connected to the Internet if one of the
gadgets has this capability.
A Bluetooth LAN, by nature, cannot be large. They can cover up to range
of 10 meters.
Bluetooth technology is the implementation of a protocol defined by the
IEEE 802.15 standard. The standard defines a wireless personal-area
network (PAN) operable in an area the size of a room or a hall.
Advantages:
1. It is cheap.
2. Easy to install.
3. It makes connecting to different devices convenient.
4. It is free to use if the device is installed with it.
Disadvantages:
1. If installed on a cellphone it is possible to receiving cell phone viruses
2. It only allows short range communication between devices
3. It can only connect two devices at once
4. It can lose connection in certain conditions
Applications:
1. Peripheral devices such as a wireless mouse or keyboard can
communicate with the computer through this technology.
2. Monitoring devices can communicate with sensor devices in a small health
care center.
3. Home security devices can use this technology to connect different
sensors to the main security controller.
4. Conference attendees can synchronize their laptop computers at a
conference with the help of Bluetooth.
Bluetooth Architecture:
The Bluetooth architecture, showing all the major layers in the Bluetooth
system, are depicted in the Figure.

45
[Author]

Figure 36 Bluetooth Architecture

1. Radio Layer:
This is the lowest layer in the Bluetooth protocol stack. Bluetooth uses a
technique called frequency hopping, as explained in the context of
wireless LANs, in establishing radio links with other Bluetooth devices.
Suppose we have a data packet then the whole packet is never
transmitted at the same frequency. It is always split into different parts
and transmitted at different frequencies. This is the frequency hopping
technique. This partly gives the necessary protection to the transmitted
data and avoids tampering. Standard hop values are 79 hops, which are
spaced at an interval of 1 MHz.
2. Baseband Layer:
The baseband is the digital engine of a Bluetooth system. It is responsible
for constructing and decoding packets, encoding and managing error
correction, encrypting and decrypting for secure communications,
calculating
radio
transmission
frequency
patterns,
maintaining
synchronization, controlling the radio, and all of the other low level details
necessary to realize Bluetooth communications.
Bluetooth operates in the 2.4 GHz ISM band.
3. Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol (L2CAP) Layer:
The Logical Link Control and Adaptation Layer Protocol (L2CAP) is layered
over the Baseband Protocol and resides in the data link layer.
The L2CAP is the big picture brains of a Bluetooth system. It manages the
high level aspects of each connection (who is connected to who, whether
to use encryption or not, what level of performance is required, etc.). In
addition it is responsible for converting the format of data as necessary
between the APIs and the lower level Bluetooth protocols.
The L2CAP is implemented in software and can execute either on the host
system processor or on a local processor in the Bluetooth system.
L2CAP provides connection oriented and connectionless data services to
upper layer protocols with protocol multiplexing capability, segmentation
and reassembly operation, and group abstractions.
L2CAP permits higher-level protocols and applications to transmit and
receive L2CAP data packets up to 64 kilobytes in length.
Two link types are supported for the Baseband layer: Synchronous
Connection-Oriented (SCO) links and Asynchronous Connection-Less (ACL)
links. SCO links support real-time voice traffic using reserved bandwidth.
ACL links support best effort traffic. The L2CAP Specification is defined for
only ACL links and no support for SCO links is planned.

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4. Application Program Interface (API) libraries:
These are software modules which connect the host application program
to the Bluetooth communications system. As such they reside and execute
on the same processing resource as the host system application.
2) Wi-Fi:
Wi-Fi is a popular technology that allows an electronic device to exchange
data or connect to the internet wirelessly using radio waves.
Wi-Fi is based on IEEE 802.11 standards.
Many devices can use Wi-Fi, e.g. personal computers, video-game
consoles, smartphones, some digital cameras, tablet computers and
digital audio players.
These can connect to a network resource such as the Internet via a
wireless network access point. Such an access point (or hotspot) has a
range of about 20 meters (65 feet) indoors and a greater range outdoors.
Hotspot coverage can comprise an area as small as a single room with
walls that block radio waves, or as large as many square miles achieved
by using multiple overlapping access points.
Wi-Fi can be less secure than wired connections (such as Ethernet)
because an intruder does not need a physical connection. Web pages that
use SSL are secure but unencrypted internet access can easily be
detected by intruders. Because of this, Wi-Fi has adopted various
encryption technologies such as WEP, WPA, WPA2, etc.
Wi-Fi networks have limited range. A typical wireless access point using
802.11b or 802.11g with a stock antenna might have a range of 35 m (120
ft) indoors and 100 m (300 ft) outdoors. IEEE 802.11n, however, can more
than double the range.
Range also varies with frequency band. Wi-Fi in the 2.4 GHz frequency
block has slightly better range than Wi-Fi in the 5 GHz frequency block
which is used by 802.11a and optionally by 802.11n.
Advantages:
1. Convenience: The wireless nature of such networks allows users to
access network resources from nearly any convenient location within their
primary networking environment (a home or office). With the increasing
saturation of laptop-style computers, this is particularly relevant.
2. Mobility: With the emergence of public wireless networks, users can
access the internet even outside their normal work environment. Most
chain coffee shops, for example, offer their customers a wireless
connection to the internet at little or no cost.
3. Productivity: Users connected to a wireless network can maintain a
nearly constant affiliation with their desired network as they move from
place to place. For a business, this implies that an employee can
potentially be more productive as his or her work can be accomplished
from any convenient location.
4. Deployment: Initial setup of an infrastructure-based wireless network
requires little more than a single access point. Wired networks, on the
other hand, have the additional cost and complexity of actual physical
cables being run to numerous locations (which can even be impossible for
hard-to-reach locations within a building).
5. Expandability: Wireless networks can serve a suddenly-increased
number of clients with the existing equipment. In a wired network,
additional clients would require additional wiring.

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[Author]
6. Cost: Wireless networking hardware is at worst a modest increase from
wired counterparts. This potentially increased cost is almost always more
than outweighed by the savings in cost and labor associated to running
physical cables.
Disadvantages:
1. Security: To combat this consideration, wireless networks may choose to
utilize some of the various encryption technologies available. Some of the
more commonly utilized encryption methods, however, are known to have
weaknesses that a dedicated adversary can compromise.
2. Range: The typical range of a common 802.11g network with standard
equipment is on the order of tens of meters. While sufficient for a typical
home, it will be insufficient in a larger structure. To obtain additional
range, repeaters or additional access points will have to be purchased.
Costs for these items can add up quickly.
3. Reliability: Like any radio frequency transmission, wireless networking
signals are subject to a wide variety of interference, as well as complex
propagation effects that are beyond the control of the network
administrator.
4. Speed: The speed on most wireless networks (typically 1-54 Mbps) is far
slower than even the slowest common wired networks (100Mbps up to
several Gbps). However, in specialized environments, the throughput of a
wired network might be necessary.
Guided Vs. Unguided Media:
No.
Guided

Unguided

1.

It requires solid medium to get

signal.

It requires electromagnetic wave,

air, vacuum to get signal.

2.

There are three types: Twisted Pair,

Co-axial, optical fiber.

These are: Satellite, microwave,

radio
wave,
Bluetooth,
wifi,
infrared.

3.

It
uses
point
communication.

It uses radio broadcasting on both

direction.

4.

It leads descript topology.

It
leads
topology.

5.

Additional transmission capacity

can be done by adding more
capacity to wire.

It is not possible to add additional

capability.

6.

Installation
is
costly,
consuming and complicated.

Less time consuming and less

expensive.

7.

Less energy loss.

to

point

time

continuous

network

More energy loss.

Referenced books:
COMPUTER NETWORKS 5th edition by ANDREW S. TANENBAUM.
DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING 4th edition by Behrouz A. Forouzan.
Data Communications and Networks by Achyut Godbole.
Computer Networks Notes by Prof. Ajit Pal (Indian Institute of Technology (IIT),
Kharagpur)