CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT

I.

The Child and Adolescent Learner

Childhood- is defined as the time of a boy or girl from birth until he or she is an
adult. It is more circumscribed period of time from infancy to the onset of puberty.
According to the Convention on the Rights of the Child, a child is
every human being below the age of 18 unless under the law applicable to
the child, majority is attained earlier.

Adolescence- According to Stuart Judge (a noted educator and psychologist),

adolescence is the period of transition from childhood to adulthood.
Although sometimes described as beginning in the parallel with fertility or puberty
and ending with maturity and independence, adolescence has a very variable
and imprecise duration.
The onset of adolescence cannot be pinpointed in physiological terms,
although it is influenced by the same sex hormones and refers to the general
period as physical sexual development. It represents a complex and
sometimes disturbing psychological transition, accompanying the
requirement for the accepted social behavior of the particular adult culture.
II. Physical and Motor Development
A. Physical and Motor Development
Infants need to learn how to move and to use their bodies to perform various
task, a process better known as motor development. Initially, babies
movements are uncontrolled, reflexive movements they are born with. Over
time, they learn to move their body voluntarily to perform both gross
(large) and fine (small) motor skills. In general, babies begin developing
from and from head to tail (cephalocaudal), the center of the body outward
(proximodistal). They learn to move their head and neck before they learn to
maneuver their arms; they learn to maneuver their arms before they
manipulate their fingers. Babies learn to move their torso before they learn to
move their arms and legs.
Sucking reflex- allows the babies to drink milk and to nourish themselves in
the first few days of life.
Head turning another permanent and life-supporting reflex. This reflex
allows a baby to turn his head if something (a pillow, blanket or stuffed toy) is
blocking his airflow.
Rooting Reflex is another survival reflex done when babies root, they may
nuzzle their face and mouth into the caregivers chest or shoulder.
The rest of the reflexes have less survival value but are still notable. For the
first 3 to 4 months, babies have an amazing grasping ability and reflex. They
will grasp anything placed in their palm and hold it with amazing strength for
their size; some infants in the first weeks of life can support their entire body
weight with that grasp.
While this function may not have survival functions in modern times, it does
help babies bond with caregivers and family in the first weeks of life.
Similarly, for the first two months babies will step with their feet touching a
surface. Even though this disappears months before babies begin walking
purposefully, experts believed that stepping helps infants learns how their
legs work and can be used.
Moro reflex another reflex that is present during the first 6 months of life,
but does not seem to have a purpose in modern life. A baby will arch her
back, flail out, and then curl up as if she feels as though she is being
dropped.
Tonic Neck is the final reflex. During the first 4 months, when babies lie
awake on their backs with their heads facing to one side, they will extend the
arm on the side of their body that theyre facing and flex the other arm at an

angle, in a position that resembles a fencing pose. This reflex may help
prepare them for voluntary reaching later on their development.
Between ages 2 and 3 years, young children stop toddling, or
using the awkward, wide-legged robot-like stance that is the
hallmark of new walkers. As they develop, a smoother gait, they also
develop the ability to run, jump, and hop. Children of this age can participate
in throwing and catching games with larger balls. They can also push
themselves around with their feet while sitting on a riding toy.
Children who are 3 to 4 years old can climb up stairs using a method of
bringing both feet together on each step before proceeding to the next step
(in contrast, adults place one foot on each step in sequence). However, young
children may still need some back-up assistance to prevent falls in case in
case they become unsteady in this new skill. Children of this age will also be
stumped when its time to go back down the stairs; they tend to turn around
and scoot down the stairs backwards. 3 to 4 years olds can jump and hop
higher as their leg muscles grow stronger. Many can even hop on one foot for
short periods of time.
By ages of 4 to 5, children can go up and down the stairs alone in the adult
fashion (i.e., taking one step at a time). Their running continues to smooth
out and increase in speed. Children of this age can also skip and add spin to
their throws. They also have more control when riding their tricycles (or
bicycles), and can drive them faster.
During ages 5 to 6, young children continue to refine earlier skills. Theyre
running even faster and can start to ride the bicycle with training wheels for
added stability. In additon, they can step sideways. Children of this age begin
mastering new forms of physical play such as the jungle gym, and begin to
use the see-saw, slide and swing on their own. They often start jumping
rope, skating, hitting balls with bats,and so on. Many children of this age
enjoy learning to play organized sports such as soccer, basketball, t-ball or
swimming. In addition, 5 to 6 year olds often like to participate in physical
extracurricular activities such as karate, gymnastics, or dance. Children
continue to refine and improve their gross motor skills through age 7 and
beyond.

B. Brain Development

Plasticity - the brains ability to change from experience. The human brain is
especially plastic in early life, which is why the nurture part of the equation
is so important. Throughout life the brain continued to be plastic-this is the
mechanism of learning- but plasticity declines in adulthood.
As childs brain develops, it goes through several critical periods, a
developmental phase in which the brain requires certain environmental input
or it will not develop normally.
Early Milestones in Brain Growth
Age
4 months
8-9
months
10 months

12 months

Brain Growth
The infants brain responds to every sound produced in all
languages of the world.
Babies can form specific memories from their experiences,
such as how to push a ball to make it roll.
Babies can now distinguish and even produce the sounds of
their own language (such as da-da) and no longer pay
attention to the sounds of language that are foreign.
Babies whose parents say, for example, Lookeee at the
doggie, will go to the appropriate picture of a dog in a picture
book more often than those babies who talked in normal,
flatter voices.
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12-18
months

24 months

30 months
36 months

Babies can keep in memory something that has been hidden

and find it again, even if it has been completely covered up.
They can also hold memory sequences of simple activities,
such as winding up a Jack-in-the-box until the figure pops up.
Preschool children now have clear pictures in mind of people
who are dear to them, and they get upset when separated
from these people (even their peers).
Preschool children can hold in mind a whole sequence of
spatial maps and know where things are in their environment.
A preschool child can now hold two different emotions in his
mind at the same time, such as being sad that he spilled ice
cream on his clothes but glad that hes at a birthday party.

C. Factors Affecting Development

Maternal Nutrition nutritional status of the woman during

adolescence. Pregnancy and lactation has a direct impact on childs
health and development.
Child Nutrition nutritional balance is crucial in his early
developmental stages
Early Sensory Stimulation toys, soothing sounds, and other sensorial
stimulation contribute to the childs development/

D. Exceptional Development

Physical Disabilities persons with physical disabilities may experience

functional, visual, orthopedic, motor, or hearing impairments, which
may impact upon their ability to walk, play, and learn. It is also defined
and categorized by some degree of limitation in the use of upper or
lower extremities and maintaining posture and positioning.
Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) & Attention Deficit Hyperactivity
Disorder (ADHD) - generally considered to be a developmental
disorder, largely neurological in nature, affecting about 5% of the
worlds population. It typically presents itself during childhood, and is
characterized by a persistent pattern of inattention and/or
hyperactivity, as well as forgetfulness, poor impulse control or
impulsivity, and distractibility. ADHD is currently considered to be a
persistent and chronic condition for which no medical cure is available.

E. Linguistic and Literacy Development

1.

Natural History of Language Development

Language Development a process that starts early in human life.

Childrens language development moves from simplicity to complexity.
Infants start without language. Yet by four months, babies can read lips
sand discriminate speech sounds.
o Usually, language starts off as recall of simple words without
associated meaning, but as children age, words acquire
meaning, and connections between words are formed. As a
person gets older, new meanings and new associations are
created and vocabulary increases as more words are learned.
o Infants use their bodies, vocal cries, and other preverbal
vocalizations to communicate their wants, needs, and
dispositions. Even though most children begin to vocalize and
eventually verbalize at various ages and at different rates, they
learn their first language without conscious instruction from
parents or caretakers. It is seemingly effortless task that grows
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2.

increasingly difficult with age. Of course, before any learning can

begin, the child must be biologically and socially mature enough.
Biological Preconditions linguists do not all agree on what biological
factors contribute to language development, however most do agree
that our ability to acquire such a complicated system is specific to the
human species. Furthermore, our ability to learn language may have
been developed through the evolutionary process and that the
foundation for language may be passed down genetically.
Social Precaution it is crucial that children are allowed to socially
interact with other people who can vocalize and respond to questions.
For language acquisition to develop successfully, children must be in
an environment that allows them to communicate socially in that
language.
Bilingual Language Development

Two major patterns in bilingual language acquisition:

1. Simultaneous Bilingualism the child acquires two languages at
the same time before the age of 3 years. These children may
mix words or parts of words from both languages in the first
stage. Stage 2 occurs at 4 years and older when distinction
between the two languages takes place, and the child uses each
language separately.
2. Sequential Bilingualism also occurs before the child is 3 years
old, but the child can draw on the knowledge and experience of
the first language while acquiring the second language.
Detecting delays in the speech and language of multilingual children
presents a challenge. The authors state that the key is obtain
information about the childs entire language system, not just the
primary or secondary language.
The following red flags may indicate that the child who is
simultaneously acquiring two languages is experiencing problems with
language development:
1. No sounds by 2-6 months of age
2. Less than one new word per week for 6- to 15 months old
children
3. Less than 20 words (in the two languages combined) by 20
moths; and
4. No use of word combinations and a very limited vocabulary by
age 2-3 years
5. Red flags for abnormal language development in the sequential
acquisition of two languages include
6. Lack of normal milestones in the first language
7. Prolonged phases of not talking
8. Difficulty retrieving words
Factors Affecting Language Development
1. Inadequate stimulation (talking and playing with the child)
2. Delayed general development (global developmental delay),
physical development (motor skills), cognitive development, etc
3. Specific difficulty with language learning. Not very interested in
language, prefers other modalities e.g. physical activities
4. Poor control and/or coordination of the speech muscles: lips,
tongue etc.
5. Medical problems.
6. Inadequate awareness of communication, lacks communication
intent
7. Reduced hearing e.g. ear infection, fluid in ear, impacted
earwax, etc.
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8. Changes in childs environment e.g. moving

9. Exposure to too many languages for the child
10.Inadequate opportunity for speech e.g. the child everyone talks
for, the babied child has a more dominant sibling etc.
11.Emotional factors e.g. behavioral problems, anxiety, pressure to
perform etc.
12.Short attention span
13.Family history of speech and language delays or difficulties.
F. Exceptional development

Aphasia or aphemia loss of the ability to produce and/or comprehend

language, due to injury to brain areas specialized for these functions.

Not as a result of deficits in sensory, intellect or psychiatric functioning

Depending on the area and extent of the damage, someone suffering from
aphasia may be able to speak but not write, or vice versa, or display any of a
wide variety of other deficiencies in language comprehension and production,
such as being able to sing but bot speak

Dyxlexia a specific learning disability that manifests primarily as a difficulty with

written language particularly with reading and spelling.

It is a result of a neurological difference but is not an intellectual disability.

Most people with dyslexia have average or above-average intelligence.
Evidence suggests that dyslexia results from differences in how the brain
processes written and/or verbal language. It is separate and distinct from
reading difficulties resulting from other causes, such as deficiencies in
intelligence, a non-neurological deficiency with vision or hearing, or from poor
or inadequate reading instruction.

D. Cognitive Development
1. Theories of Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget Swiss psychologist (1896 1980). His theory provided many central
concepts in the field of developmental psychology and concerned the growth of
intelligence, which for Piaget, meant the ability to more accurately represent the
world and perform logical operations on representations of concepts grounded in
the world. The theory concerns the emergence and acquisition of schemataschemes of how one perceives the world in developmental stages, times when
children are acquiring new ways of mentally representing information.
STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
A. Sensorimotor period (0-2 years) Infants are born with a set of
congenital reflexes, according to Piaget, in addition to a drive to explore
their world. Their initial schemas are formed through differentiation of the
congenital reflexes: SUBSTAGES SENSORIMOTOR PERIOD:
o First sub-stage, known as the reflex schema stage, occurs from birth to
six weeks and is associated primarily with the developmental of
reflexes. Three primary reflexes are described by Piaget: sucking of
objects in the mouth, following moving or interesting objects with the
eyes, and closing of the hand when an object makes contact with the
palm (palmar grasp). Over these first six weeks of life, these reflexes
begin to become voluntary actions; for example, the palmar reflex
becomes intentional grasping.
o Second sub-stage, primary circular reaction phase, occurs from six
weeks to four months and is associated with the development of
habits. Primary circular reaction or repeating of an action involving only
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ones own body begins. An example of this type of reaction would

involve something like an infant repeating the motion of passing their
hand before their face. The schema developed during this stage inform
the infant about the relationships among his body parts (e.g. in passing
the hand in front of his eyes he develops a motor schema for moving
his arm so that the hand becomes invisible).
Third sub-stage, the secondary circular reactions phase, occurs from
four to nine months and is associated primarily with the development
of coordination between vision and apprehension. Three new abilities
occur at this stage: intentional grasping for a desired object, secondary
circular reactions, and differentiations between ends and means. At
this stage, infants will intentionally grasp the air in the direction of a
desired object, often to the amusement of friends, family, younger and
older siblings, grandparents, etc. Secondary circular reactions, or the
repetition of an action involving an external object begin; for example,
moving a switch to turn on a light repeatedly. The differentiation
between means also occurs. This is perhaps one of the most important
stages of a childs growth as it signifies the dawn of logic. However,
babies still only have a very early rudimentary grasps of this and most
of the discoveries have an accidental quality to them in that the
initial performance of what will soon become a secondary circular
reaction occurs by chance; but then operant conditioning causes the
initial accidental behavior to be repeated. And the ability to repeat
the act is the result of primary circular reactions established in the
previous stage. For example, when the infants hand accidentally
makes contact with an object he is looking at the infant receives both
visual and tactile feedback about the object; and his subsequent ability
to bring his hand into contact with other objects in the field of vision is
based on the primary circular reaction of bringing his hand into his field
of vision. Thus the child learns (at the level of schemata) that if he
can see it then he can also touch it and this results in a schema which
is the knowledge that his external environment is populated with solid
objects,
Fourth sub-stage, the coordination of secondary reactions stage, which
occurs from nine to twelve months, is when Piaget thought of an object
permanence developed. In addition, the stage is called the
coordination of secondary circular reactions stage, and is associated
primarily with the development of logic and the coordination between
the means and ends. This is an extremely important stage of
development, holding what Piaget calls the first proper intelligence.
This stage marks the beginning of goal orientation or intentionality, the
deliberate planning of steps to meet an objective.
Fifth sub-stage, the tertiary circular reactions phase, occurs from
twelve to eighteen months and is associated primarily with the
discovery of new means to meet goals. Piaget describes the child at
this juncture as the young scientist, conducting pseudo-experiments
to discover new methods of meeting challenges.
Sixth sub-stage, considered beginning of symbolic representation,
associated primarily with the beginning of insight, or true creativity. In
this stage the trial-and-error application of schemata, which was
observable during the previous stage, occurs internally (at the level of
schemata rather than of motor responses), resulting in the sudden
appearance of new effective behaviors (without any observable trialand-error.) This is also the time when symbols (word and images) begin
to stand for other objects. This marks the passage into the
preoperational stage.

B. Preoperational period (2-7 years) the second of the four stages of

cognitive development. By observing sequences of play, Piaget was able
to demonstrate that towards the end of the second year a qualitatively
new kind of psychological functioning occurs. (Pre)Operatory Thought in
Piagetian theory is any procedure for mentally acting on objects. The
hallmark of the preoperational stage is sparse and logically inadequate
mental operations.
According to Piaget, The Pre Operational stage of development follows the
Sensorimotor stage and occurs between 2-7 years of age. It includes the
following processes:
o

o
o

Symbolic functioning characterized by the use of mental symbols,

words, or pictures, which the child uses to represent something which
is not physically present.
Centration characterized by a child focusing or attending to only one
aspect of a stimulus or situation. For example, in pouring a quantity of
liquid from a narrow beaker into a shallow dish, a preschool child might
judge the quantity of liquid to have decreased, because it is lower
that is, the child attends to the height of the water, but not to the
compensating increase in the diameter of the container.
Intuitive thought occurs when a child is able to believe in something
without knowing why s/he believes it.
Egocentrism a version of centration, this denotes a tendency of a
child to only think from her or his own point of view. Also, the inability
of a child to take the point of view of others. Example, if a child is in
trouble, he or she might cover his/her eyes thinking if I cannot see
myself my mom cannot either.
Inability to Conserve through Piagets conversation experiments
(conservation of mass, volume, and number). Piaget concluded that
children in the preoperational stage lack perception of conservation of
mass, volume, and number after the original form has changed. For
example, a child in this phase will believe that a string of beads set up
in a O-O-O-O pattern will have a larger number of beads than a
string which has a OOOO pattern, because the latter pattern has les
space in between Os; or that a tall, thin 8-ounce cup has more liquid in
it than a wide, short 8-ounce cup.
Animism the child believes that inanimate objects have lifelike
qualities and are capable of action. Example, a child plays with a doll
and treats it like a real person. In a way this is like using their
imagination.

C. Concrete operational period (7-11 years) the third of four stages of

cognitive development in Piagets theory. This stage, which follows the
Preoperational stage, occurs between the ages 7-11 years and is
characterized by the appropriate use of lgic. Important processes during
this stage are:
o Seriation the ability to arrange objects in an order according to size,
shape, or any other characteristic. For example, if given differentshaded objects they may make a color gradient.
o Classification the ability to name and identify sets of objects
according to appearance size or other characteristic, including the idea
that one set of objects can include another. A child is no longer subject
to the illogical limitations of animism.
o Decentering where the child takes into account multiple aspects of a
problem to solve it. For example, the child will no longer perceive an
exceptionally wide but short cup to contain less than a normally-wide,
taller cup.
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Reversibility where the child understands that numbers or objects

can be changed, the returned to their original state. For this reason, a
child will be able to rapidly determine that if 4 + 4 equals 8, 8 4
equals 4, the original quantity.
Conservation understanding that quantity, length or number of items
is unrelated to the arrangement of appearance of the object or items.
For instance, when a child is presented with two equally-sized, full
cups, they will be able to discern that if water is transferred to a
pitcher, it will conserve the quantity and be equal to the other filled
cup.
Elimination of Egocentrism the ability to view things from anothers
perspective (even if they think incorrectly). For instance, show a child a
comic in whom Jane puts a doll under a box then leaves the room.
Then Sarah moves the doll to a drawer, and Jane come back. A child in
the concrete operations stage will say that Jane will still think its under
the box even though the child knows it is in the drawer.

D. Formal Operational Period (years 11 adulthood) fourth and final

of the periods of cognitive development
o

Characterized by:
Acquisitions of the ability to think abstractly
Reason logically
Draw conclusions from the information available

The young adult is able to understand such things as love, shades of

gray, logical proofs and values

LEV VYGOTSKY

PSYCHOLOGIST
BORN IN 1896 IN Orsha, Balarus
Was tutored privately by Solomon Ashpiz
Graduated from Moscow State University in 1917
Attended the Institute of Psychology in Moscow where he work extensively on
ideas about cognitive development, particularly the relationship between
language and thinking
His writing emphasized the roles of historical, cultural and social factors in
cognition and argued that language was the most important symbolic tool
provided by society
Contribution: the inter-relationship of language development and thought
establishes the explicit and profound connection between speech (both silent
inner speech and oral lanague), and the development of mental concepts and
cognitive awareness.
He described inner speech as being qualitatively different than normal
(external) speech
For Vygotsky, social interaction is important for learning

INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY

Three primary stages in IP theory:

Encoding information is sensed, perceived, and attended to.

Storage the information is stored for either a brief or extended period of time,
depending upon the processes following encoding.
Retrieval the information is found at the appropriate time, and reactivated for
use on a current task, the true test of effective memory.

The initial appeal of information processing theories was the idea that
cognitive processes could be described in a stage-like model. The stages to
processing follow a path along which information is taken into the memory system,
and reactivated when necessary. Most theories of information processing center
around three main stages in the memory process:
SENSORY REGISTER
The first step in the IP model, holds ALL sensory information for a VERT BRIEF time
period.

Capacity: we hold an enormous amount, more than we can ever perceive.

Duration: extremely brief in the order of 1-3 seconds.

THE ROLE OF ATTENTION

To move information into consciousness, we need to attend to it. That is, we only
have the ability to perceive and remember later those things that pass through the
attention gate.
SHORT TERM MEMORY (THE WORKING MEMORY)

Capacity: What can you say in about 2 seconds. Often said to be 7+/- 2 items.
Duration: Around 18 seconds or less.
To reduce the loss of information in 18 seconds, you need to rehearse.
There are two types of rehearsal Maintenance and Elaborative.

LONG TERM MEMORY

The final storing house for memorial information, the long term memory store holds
information until needed again.

Capacity: Unlimited?
Duration: Infinite?

EXECUTIVE CONTROL PROCESSES

Also known as executive processor or Metacognitive skills.

Guide the flow of information through the system, helps the learner make
informed decisions about how to categorize or interpret information.
Example processes attention, rehearsals, organization.

FORGETTING
The inability to access information when needed.

There are two main ways in which forgetting likely occurs:

o Decay the information is not attended to, and eventually fades
away. Very prevalent in working memory.
o Interferece new or old information blocks access to the information
in question.

Methods for Increasing the Probability of Remembering

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Organization info that is organized efficiently should be recalled.

Deep processing this is focusing upon meaning.
Elaboration connecting new info with old, to gain meaning.
Generation things we produce are easier to remember that things we
hear.
Context remembering the situation helps recover information.
Personalization making the information relevant to the individual.
Memory methods
Serial Position Effect (recency and primacy) you will remember the beginning
and end of list mostly readily.
Part Learning break up the list by parts to increase memorization.
Distribute Practice break up learning sessions, rather than cramming all the
info in at once (massed practice)
Mnemonic Aids
Loci Method familiar place, associate list with items in place (i.e. living
room)
Peg-type standard list is a cue to the target list.
Acronym - SCUBA
Chain Mnemonics - EGBDF
Keyword Method association of new word/concept with well-known
word.concept that sounds similar.

Theories of Intelligence
1. Psychometric Theories
Sought to understand the structure of intelligence: the form it takes, its
categories, and its composition.
Underlying psychometric intelligence theory is a psychological model
according to which intelligence is a combination of abilities that can be
measured by mental testing.
Tests include analogies, classification/identification, and series completion.
Test score is equally weighted according to the evidence of underlying ability
in each category.
Charles E. Spearman published the first psychometric theory in 1904.
His theory noted that people excelled on one mental ability test often did well
on the others, and people who did poorly on one of them tended to do poorly
on the others. Using this concept, Spearman devised a technique of statistical
analysis helped his discovered what he believed to be the two sources of
these individual differences: the general factor which is our general
intellectual ability, and a test-specific factor.
L.L. Thurstone an American psychologist, disagreed with Spearmans theory
and his isolation of the general factor of intelligence. Thurstone believed
that the general factor resulted from Spearmans method of analysis, and
that if analysis were more thorough, seven factors would emerge. (2 nd theory)
Seven factors were collectively called the primary mental abilities and
included verbal comprehension, verbal fluency, numbers, spatial
visualization, inductive reasoning, memory, and perceptual speed.
A third theory was introduced by Raymond Cattell (American) and Philip
Vernon (Canadian). They combined ideas from Spearman and Thurstones
theories, stating that abilities are hierarchal. At the top of the hierarchy is our
general factor of intellectual ability, below are successive levels of
narrowing abilities, ending with Spearmans primary mental illness.
Most psychologists agree that a broader subdivision of abilities than
Spearmans classification is necessary, but only some agree with the
hierarchal subdivision.

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2. Cognitive Theories
In 1957, American psychologist Lee Cronbach criticized how some
psychologists study individual differences and others study commonalities in
human behavior, but the two methods never meet.
He voiced the need for the two methods to be united, which led to the
development of cognitive theories of intelligence.
With understanding the processes underlying intelligence, we cannot come to
accurate conclusions when analyzing test scores or assessing someones
performance. Cognitive analysis helps the interpretation of test scores by
determining to what degree the score reflects reasoning ability and the
degree to which it is a result of not understanding the questions or
vocabulary.
Psychometric theories did not differentiate between these two factors, which
have significant effect on the determination of intelligence. Many people are
excellent reasoners but have modest vocabularies, and vice versa.
Underlying the cognitive approach to intelligence is the assumption that
intelligence is compromised os a set of mental representations. It is assumed
that a more intelligent person represents information better, and operates
more quickly on these representations than does a less intelligent person.
Several different cognitive theories of intelligence have emerged over the
years. One was introduced by Earl Hunt, Nancy Frost, and Clifford Lunneborg,
who in 1973 showed one way in which psychometric and cognitive modeling
could be combined. Instead of using conventional psychometric tests, they
used tasks that allowed them to study the basis of cognition perception,
learning and memory. Individual differences in the task become apparent,
which related to differing patterns of forming and operating mental
representations.
Robert Sternberg suggested an alternative approach to studying cognitive
processes. He argued, based on evidence he had gathered that there was
only a weak relationship between basic cognitive tasks involve cognitive
processes, they are peripheral rather than central.
Opposing cognitive theories exist, they are all based on the serial processing
of information, which means that cognitive processes are executed one after
another in a series.
The assumption is what we process chunks of information one at a time,
trying to combine the processes into an overall problem-solving strategy.
Other psychologists have challenged this idea, arguing that cognitive
processing is parallel, meaning that we process large amounts of information
simultaneously. However, it has proved difficult to distinguish between serial
and parallel models of information processing.
Problem remains regarding the nature of intelligence. Cognitive theories do
not take into account that the description of intelligence may differ from one
cultural group to another. Even within mainstream cultures, it is well known
that conventional tests do not reliability predict performance. Therefore in
addition to cognition, the context in which the cognition operates also needs
to be accounted for.
3. Exceptional Development (Cognitive Development)
Giftedness psychometricians and psychologists, following in the
footsteps of Lewis Terman in 1916, equated giftedness with high IQ. This
legacy survives to the present day, is that giftedness and high IQ
continue to be equated in some conceptions of giftedness. Other
researchers (e.g. Catthel, Guilford, and Thurstone) have argued that
intellect cannot be expressed in such a unitary manner, and have
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suggested more multifaceted approaches to intelligence. Research has

provided data which support notions of multiple components to
intelligence. This is particularly evident in the reexamination of
giftedness by Sternberg and Davidson in their edited Conceptions of
Giftedness. The many different conceptions of giftedness presented,
although distinct, are interrelated in several ways. Most of the
investigators define giftedness in terms of multiple qualities, not all of
which are intellectual. IQ scores are often viewed as inadequate measures
of giftedness. Motivation, high self-concept, and creativity are key
qualities in many of these broadened conceptions of giftedness.
Mental Retardation a term for a pattern of persistently slow learning of basic
motor and language skills (mlestones) during childhood, and a significantly
below-normal global intellectual capacity as an adult. Common criterion for
diagnosis of mental retardation is a tested intelligence quotient (IQ) of 70 or
below and deficits in adaptive functioning.
o People with mental retardation may be described as having
developmental disabilities, global developmental delay or learning
disabilities.
Autism a brain development disorder characterized by impairments in social
interaction and communication, and restricted and repetitive behavior, all
exhibited before a child is three years old. These characteristics distinguish
autism form milder autism spectrum disorder (ASD).
o Affects many parts of the brain; how this occur is poorly understood.
Parents usually notice signs in the first year or two of their childs life.
Early intervention may help children gain self-care and social skills,
although few of these interventions are supported by scientific studies.
There is no cure. With severe autism, independent living is unlikely;
with milder autism, there are some success stories for adults, and an
autistic culture has developed, with some seeking a cure and others
believing that autism is a condition rather than a disorder.
Aspergers Syndrome also known as Aspergers disorder, Aspergers, AS or
AD. It is one of several autism spectrum disorder (ASD) characterized by
difficulties in social interaction and by restricted and stereotyped interests
and activities. It is distinguished from the other ASDs in having no general
delay in language or cognitive development.
o There is no single treatment for AS, and the effectiveness of particular
interventions is supported by only limited data. Intervention is aimed
at improving symptoms and function.
o Treatment: behavioral therapy, focusing on specific deficits to address
poor communication skills, obsessive or repetitive routines, and
clumsiness.
o Most support and encouragement to maintain an independent life.
o Adults with AS have reached the highest levels of achievement in fields
of achievement such as mathematics, physics, and computer science.
Down Syndrome also known as trisomy 21.
o it is a genetic disorder caused by the presence of all or part of an extra
21st chromosome.
o Named after John Langdon Down, the British doctor who described it in
1866.
o The disorder was identified as a chromosomal 21 trisomy by Jerome
Lejuene in structure.
o It is characterized by a combination of major and minor differences in
structure.
o It is associated with some impairment of cognitive ability and physical
growth as well as facial appearance.
o It can be identified during pregnancy or at birth.

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Individuals with Down Syndrome can have lower than average

cognitive ability, often ranging from mild to moderate learning
disabilities.

Social and Emotional Development

1. Theories of Socio-Emotional Development
Erik Homburger Erikson (1902-1994) was a German developmental
psychologist and psychoanalysis known for his theory on Social Development
of human beings, and for coining the phrase identity crisis.
o Each of Eriksons stages of psychosocial development are marked by a
conflict, for which successful resolution will result in favorable
outcome.
o Favorable outcomes of each stage are sometimes known as virtues,
a term used in the context of Eriksonian work, as it is applied to
medicines, meaning potencies.
o Only when both extremes in a life-stage challenge are understood and
accepted as both required and useful, can the optimal virtue for that
stage surface.

The Erikson life-stage virtues, in the order of the stages in which they may be
acquired are:
Hope
Will
Purpose
Competence
Fidelity
Love
Caring
wisdom

Basic Trust vs. Mistrust

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Initiative vs. Guilt
Industry vs. Inferiority
Identity vs. Role Confusion
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Generativity vs. Stagnation
Integrity vs. Despair

2. Social Cognitive Theory

Albert Bandura based his theory on the acquisition of complex behaviors on a
triangular diagram illustrating the interactive effect of various factors. Three
factors are:
o Behavior
o Environment
o Actions
He identified three types of reinforcers of behavior. These were:
o Direct reinforcent directly experience by the learner.
o Vicarious reinforcements observed to be consequences of the
behavior of the model.
o Self-reinforcement feelings of satisfaction or displeasure for behavior
gauged by personal performance standards.
He describes three types of modeling stimuli, which are:
o Live models
o Symbolic models
o Verbal descriptions or instructions
In his later work he introduces two other aspects to his Social Learning
Theory. These are his work on the self-regulatory system and self-efficacy. In
the area of self-regulatory system/self-evaluative behaviors he said that this
system is based upon cognitive sub processes that:
o Perceive
o Evaluate
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o Regulate behavior
3. Social Cognitive Theory
1. Utilized both in Psychology and Communications posits that portions of an
individuals knowledge acquisition can be directly related to observing others
within the context of social interactions, experiences, and outside media
influences.
2. An important point in the social cognitive theory is that the learners
behavior is guided by cognitive processes rather than formed or shaped by
reinforced practice.
3. Four component parts are responsible for the learning and performance
acquisition. These are:
o Attentional processes:
Observer characteristics
Perceptual/cognitive capacities
Arousal level
Past performance
Event characteristics
Relevance
Affective valence
Complexity
Functional value
Models characteristics
Intrinsic rewards
Retentional Processes
Observer characteristics
Physical capabilities
Event Characteristics
Cognitive organization
Cognitive organization
o Motor Reproduction Processes
Observer characteristics
Physical capabilities
Subskill mastery
Event characteristics
Selection & organizational of responses
Feedback
o Motivational Processes
Observer characteristics
Incentive preference
Social bias
Internal standards
Event characteristics
External reinforcement
Self-reinforcement
Vivacious reinforcement
4. Emotional Intelligence (EI)
Measured as an Emotional Intelligence Quotient (EQ), describes an ability,
capacity, or skill to perceive, assess, and manage the emotions of ones self,
of others, and of groups. As a relatively new area of psychological research,
the definition of EI is constantly changing.
5. The Emotional Competencies (Goleman) model
The EI model introduced by Daniel Goleman focuses on EI as a wide array of
competencies and skills that drive managerial performance, measured by
multi-rater assessment and self-assessment. In working with EI, Goleman
explored the function on EI on the job, and claimed EI to be the largest single
o

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predicator of success in the workplace, with more recent confirmation of

these findings on the worldwide.
Golemans model outlines four main EI contructs:
o Self-awareness the ability to read ones emotions and recognize their
impact while using gut feelings to guide decisions.
o Self-management involves controlling ones emotions and impulses
and adapting to changing circumstances.
o Social awareness the ability to sense, understand, and react to
others emotions while comprehending social networks.
o Relationship management the ability to inspire, influence, and
develop others while managing competencies.
6. Moral Development Theory

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