The Modern

Olympic Games

The Modern
Olympic Games

Introduction

Characteristics
of the modern
Olympic Games

Olympic sports

Initiative of Frenchman
Pierre de Coubertin

Borrowings and innovations.

Sports, disciplines and events

Ceremonies and rituals.

Olympic Games celebrated

in a different country every
four years

Meeting place of sport,

art and culture.

The programme of the Summer

and Winter Olympic Games

The worlds greatest sports

event for over a century

Criteria for inclusion in

the programme of the Games

Leading sports
and demonstration sports.

Games of the Olympiad

(Summer Games)
Olympic Winter Games.

Athletes at the
Games

Victory

The Games
and their era

Athletes lead-up to the Games

Medals at the Summer

and Winter Games

Life in the Olympic Village

Medal award ceremony

A unique experience.

Winners fame after the Games.

Evolution in transport: a benefit

for the Games
Development of the media:
impact on Games broadcasting
Political context: effect
on the Games

This is a PDF interactive file. The headings of each page contain hyperlinks,
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Geography of the Games.

Click on this icon to download the image.
Cover: OG London 2012, Opening Ceremony
2012 / International Olympic Committee (IOC) / HUET, John

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16

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The Modern Olympic Games

Introduction

Introduction
A sports event unlike any other
The Olympic Games are unique. Athletes from the entire world take part.
Their achievements are watched from both near and far by hundreds
of millions of spectators.
The five rings on the Olympic flag represent the international nature
of the Games.

The London 2012 Olympic

Games were broadcast
all over the world, via the
traditional media as well as
online and mobile platforms.
They reached a record audience
estimated at 4.8 billion people.

What makes the Olympic Games different from other sports events?
The Games are held every four years. They are the largest sporting celebration
in the number of sports on the programme, the number of athletes present
and the number of people from different nations gathered together at the same
time in the same place.
The Games are held at intervals, but are part of a broader framework which
is that of the Olympic Movement. The purpose of the Olympic Movement
is to promote the practice of sport all over the world and disseminate
the Olympic values. It is in this spirit that the Olympic Games are held
and celebrated.
The Summer Games and the Winter Games
The Olympic Games include the Games of the Olympiad (i.e. the Summer
Games) and the Olympic Winter Games. The first edition of the modern
Summer Games was held in 1896 in Athens (Greece), and the first Olympic
Winter Games in 1924 in Chamonix (France).
The word Olympiad designates the four-year period that separates each
edition of the Summer Games.
Until 1992, the Summer and Winter Games were held in the same year,
but since then, the Winter Games were moved two years from the Summer
Games. The Summer and Winter Games continue to be organised once
every four years.
In the Summer Games, athletes compete in a wide variety of competitions
on the track, on the road, on grass, in the water, on the water, in the open
air and indoors, in a total of 28 sports.
The Winter Games feature 7 sports practised on snow and ice, both indoors
and outdoors.
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The Modern Olympic Games

Introduction

History
It was Pierre de Coubertin of France who dreamt up this ambitious project,
although others before him had tried in vain to revive these Games. Drawing
inspiration from the ancient Olympic Games, he decided to create the modern
Olympic Games. With this purpose, he founded the International Olympic
Committee (IOC) in 1894 in Paris. The new committee set itself the objective
of organising the first Olympic Games of modern times.

1. OG Athenes 1896. Athletics.

Discus Men Robert GARRETT
(USA) 1st.
1896 / International Olympic
Committee (IOC)

The date of the first Games, 1896, marked the beginning of an extraordinary
adventure that has now lasted for over a century!

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The Modern Olympic Games

The characteristics
of the modern Olympic Games

The characteristics
of the modern Olympic
Games
Elements of the past
The roots of the Olympic Games are to be found in Ancient Greece [see sheet
The Olympic Games in Antiquity], and the first modern Games, in 1896, featured
many references to this legacy of Greek Antiquity:
The Games were held in Athens, in Greece, the country where the ancient Games
were held.
Most of the competitions were held in the ancient stadium (the Panathinaiko
Stadium), which had been restored for the occasion.
Most of the sports on the programme of the ancient Games were included
in the first modern Games.
The organisers invented a race inspired by an event in antiquity: the marathon.
Generally speaking, the modern Games strive towards a more peaceful world.
The Olympic Truce calling for a halt to all conflicts recalls the concept of the truce
observed during the Ancient Games.
Sacred and respected throughout Ancient Greece, the Olympic Truce announced
by messengers before the Games allowed spectators, athletes and officials
to travel to and from Olympia in safety through the numerous battle zones.
Today, the Olympic Truce is the subject of a United Nations resolution calling
for a halt to hostilities during the period of the Games and the search for means
of peaceful resolution in areas of tension. The athletes who support this initiative
are invited to sign a Truce Wall in the Olympic Village.

In antiquity, the Panathinaiko

Stadium in Athens hosted the
sports competitions known as
the Panathenaea.
The marathon
This race commemorates the
exploit of a soldier who, in 490
BC, ran from Marathon to tell
the people of Athens of their
victory in the battle against the
Persians, a distance of roughly
34.5 kilometres.

Innovations
While the modern Games draw their inspiration from the past, they are also
quite different.
From the outset, Coubertin proposed:
Secular Games
The modern Games are secular, unlike the ancient Games which were dedicated
to the gods.

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The Modern Olympic Games

The characteristics
of the modern Olympic Games

Games around the globe

In contrast with the Olympic Games of Antiquity, each edition of the modern
Games takes place in principle in a different city and country.

1. OG Paris 1900. Tennis, singles

Women Hlne PREVOS
1900 / International Olympic
Committee (IOC)

Longer Games
In ancient times, the Games were held first on one day, and finally over five days.
Today the official duration is no more than 16 days.
The Games are also evolving constantly:
Since 1896, athletes from all over the world
The ancient Olympic Games were the preserve of free male Greek citizens,
whereas the modern Games have always been open to athletes from
all over the world. The 245 participants in Athens in 1896 came from
14 different countries.

The 1912 Games in Stockholm (Sweden) were the first to boast the presence
of national delegations from the five continents. The universality of the modern
Olympic Games was assured.

Today, the Summer Games welcome athletes from every country of the world,
without exception.
Since 1900, women join in
As in Ancient Greece, there were no female athletes at the first edition of the modern
Olympic Games. In Athens in 1896, only men competed. At that time, female athletes
faced many prejudices. People worried that they would lose their femininity,
over-develop their muscles or become sterile. They therefore had to overcome
this kind of attitude and gradually take their place at the Games. Women made
their Olympic debut at the 1900 Games in Paris (France), in tennis and golf.
Subsequently, over the course of the century, they gained access to more and more
sports (e.g. swimming in 1912, athletics in 1928, volleyball in 1964, rowing in 1976,
cycling in 1984 and football in 1996), but it was not until the 2012 Games in London,
with the introduction of womens boxing, that women could compete in all the sports
on the programme. Since the 2004 Games in Athens, more than 40 per cent
of the athletes at the Games have been women.
Since 1924, Games for winter sports
When Coubertin revived the Olympic Games, only summer sports were included.
In the 1920s, however, snow and ice sports began to enjoy soaring popularity.
A number of IOC members decided to react to this, and, in 1924, it was decided
1

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The Modern Olympic Games

The characteristics
of the modern Olympic Games

to hold an International Winter Sports Week in Chamonix (France): 258 athletes

from 16 countries (mainly in Europe and North America) attended.
This proved a great success and, two years later, this Week was officially recognised
as the first Olympic Winter Games. The future of an Olympic event dedicated
exclusively to snow and ice sports was assured.
At the 2010 Games in Vancouver (Canada), a total of 2,566 athletes came
together from 82 countries as diverse as Ghana, Brazil, New Zealand
and Pakistan.

1. OG London 2012. Opening

Ceremony.
2012 / International Olympic
Committee (IOC) / FURLONG,
Christopher

Since 1984, professional athletes at the Games

The modern Olympic Games were long open only to amateur athletes, in line with
Pierre de Coubertins wishes. The IOC abolished this rule in 1984 (for the Games
in Los Angeles), and since then professional athletes have also been able to take part.
The rituals of the Opening and Closing Ceremonies

The Olympic Games begin and end with big celebrations, important ceremonies
in which various rituals express the identity of the Games. Today, these rituals are part
of the protocol of the Games. They include the following elements:
Opening of the Games
the entry of the athletes into the stadium
with their delegations (in alphabetical
order, except for Greece which goes
first, and the host country which brings
up the rear)
the declaration of the opening of the
Games by the Head of State of the host
country
the address by the Games Organising
Committee President
the speech by the IOC President
the entry of the Olympic flag into
the stadium
the Olympic anthem
the symbolic release of doves (a symbol
of peace)
the oath sworn by an athlete and
an official from the host country (respect
for the rules)
the entrance of the flame and lighting
of the cauldron

Most of this protocol had been

established by the time
of the 1920 Games in Antwerp
(Belgium). It has been added
to over the years as the Games
have evolved.

Closing of the Games

handing over of the Olympic flag
to the next Olympic host city (continuity
of the Games)
gathering of the athletes in the stadium
(brotherhood)
the extinguishing of the flame
the declaration of the closing
of the Games by the IOC President

The Olympic Museum

Whether through sport, art or culture,

everyone can take part in the great
celebration of the Olympic Games,
which offer an opportunity to open
up to and better understand
other people.

The Modern Olympic Games

The characteristics
of the modern Olympic Games

The protocol forms part of a much broader scenography and programme. The opening
and closing ceremonies are an invitation to discover the culture of the country hosting
the Games, through music, song, dance, etc.
Sport, art and culture
In Ancient Greece, art and sport were seen as perfect partners. The ideal was to achieve
harmony by exercising both the body and the mind.
Pierre de Coubertin adopted this ideal for the modern Olympic Games and proposed
including art and culture in the programme of the Games.
On his initiative, architecture, sculpture, painting, literature and music competitions
were part of the Olympic Games from 1912 to 1948.
Nowadays, the competitions have been replaced with cultural programmes
that are completely separate from the sports competitions. Plays, concerts, ballets
and exhibitions are held in the city, region and even the country hosting the Games.
Numerous artists, designers, architects, choreographers and musicians play an active
part in the success of the Games, be it through the construction of stadiums and
other competition venues, the Look of the Games (logos, pictograms and mascots)
or the opening and closing ceremonies.

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The Modern Olympic Games

Olympic sports

Olympic sports
The Olympic programme includes all the sports in the Olympic Games. The IOC
sets the programme and decides which sports will be included. The IOC also
has the right to add or remove any sport, discipline or event.

1. OG Beijing 2008. Athletics,

pole vault final. Elena
ISINBAEVA (RUS) 1st.
2008 / International Olympic
Committee (IOC) / KISHIMOTO,
Tsutomu

Sport For a sport to be made an Olympic sport it has to be governed

by an International Federation recognised by the IOC
Exemples:
Swimming at the Games is governed by the International Swimming Federation (FINA);
Skating by the International Skating Union (ISU).
Discipline An Olympic sport comprises one or several disciplines.
Exemples:
Water polo and diving are disciplines of swimming.
Speed skating and figure skating are disciplines of skating.
Event A discipline includes one or more events or competitions.
An event gives rise to a result for which medals and diplomas are awarded.
Exemples:
The 10m platform for women is a diving event.
The mens 500m is a speed skating event.
Criteria for being an Olympic sport
In order to be included in the Olympic programme, a sport must be governed
by an International Federation which complies with the Olympic Charter
and applies the World Anti-Doping Code.
If it is widely practised around the world and satisfies a number of criteria
established by the IOC Session, a recognised sport may be added to the Olympic
programme.
Since 2000, there has been little change to the number of sports on the programme
of the Summer and Winter Games, but rather changes to events in order to limit the size
of the Games.
Summer Games sports
1

In Athens in 1896, nine sports were on the programme: athletics, cycling, fencing,

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10

Olympic sports

gymnastics, weightlifting, wrestling, swimming, tennis and shooting.

The Olympic programme has come a long way since then: some sports have been
discontinued (e.g. polo and baseball); others were dropped and then reintroduced
(e.g. archery and tennis), while several new sports have been added (e.g. triathlon
and taekwondo).
At the 2004 Games in Athens, the programme included the nine original sports
plus a further 19: rowing, badminton, baseball, basketball, boxing, canoe/kayak,
equestrian sports, football, handball, hockey, judo, modern pentathlon, softball,
taekwondo, table tennis, archery, triathlon, sailing and volleyball. This represented
a total of 301 events!
The two major sports on the programme of the Summer Games are athletics
and swimming. These are the most widely followed Olympic sports in the world.
They also have the largest number of events and greatest number of participants
from different countries.
Athletics consists of a wide range of events: jumping, throwing, and sprint,
middle-distance and long-distance races. Some of these were performed
at the ancient Olympic Games: foot races (varying distances), the javelin throw,
the discus throw and the long jump.
The first swimming competitions at the Olympic Games took place in the sea or
in a river. Today competitions take place in a 50m swimming pool, usually indoors.
The current programme includes the following disciplines: swimming (freestyle,
breaststroke, backstroke and butterfly), water polo, diving and synchronised
swimming.

1. OG London 2012, Swimming

Michael PHELPS (USA),
2012 / International Olympic
Committee (IOC) / FURLONG,
Christopher
2. OG Vancouver 2010, Men
ice-hockey Game for the
bronze medal, Finland (FIN)
3rd Slovakia (SLO)
2010 / International Olympic
Committee (IOC) / EVANS,
Jason

Winter Games sports

Winter sports made their Olympic debut at the Summer Games in London
in 1908! Figure skating competitions were organised for men, women and pairs.
The experience was repeated at the Antwerp Games in 1920, along with an ice
hockey tournament.
It was in Chamonix in 1924 that winter sports finally got their own Olympic
Games. Six sports were on the programme: bobsleigh, curling, ice hockey, figure
and speed skating, skiing (cross-country and ski jumping) and the military patrol
race.
Some sports were missing from the official programme for several editions
of the Games before being reintroduced. One example is skeleton, which featured
at the 1928 and 1948 Games in St Moritz, before returning to the programme
for the 2002 Games in Salt Lake City.

The number of sports at the Winter Games has remained relatively stable over
the years. At the Vancouver Games in 2010, there were seven sports biathlon,
bobsleigh, curling, ice hockey, luge, skating and skiing. However, the number

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Olympic sports

of events has increased considerably: in 2010, there were 86 on the programme!

Of the 15 disciplines in the 2014 Olympic Winter Games in Sochi, only Nordic
combined is not yet open to women.

1. OG Chamonix 1924,
Figure skating.
1924/ International Olympic
Committee (IOC)

The three main sports on the Winter Games programme are skating, skiing
and ice hockey.
Skating has the longest Olympic history, having figured for the first time
on the programme of the London Games in 1908. Women made their debut
in figure skating at the Olympic Winter Games, but speed skating was not open
to them until 1960. Held in the open air until 1956, the skating events now take
place indoors.
Skiing is the sport with the largest number of disciplines. Cross-country skiing
is the oldest discipline and snowboarding is the newest one (1998 Games
in Nagano, Japan). Alpine skiing appeared relatively late: it was on the
programme of the 1936 Games, but it was not until the 1948 Games in
St Moritz (Switzerland) that a more complete programme for men and women
was organised. In 1952, giant slalom was added to the programme. Introduced
in 1988, the super-G is the newest Olympic Alpine skiing event.
Ice hockey, like skating and skiing, is one of the sports that helped launching
the Olympic Winter Games. Hockey is very popular and attracts large audiences.
It is a spectacular sport in which the puck travels at speeds up to 180km/h.
Demonstration sports
Thanks to their popularity, the Games have provided a showcase for a number
of sports. These were known as demonstration sports, which featured as
an addition to the Olympic programme until 1992, when this concept was
abandoned.
At the 1956 Games in Melbourne, there was Australian football, one of the national
sports;
At the 1988 Games in Seoul, it was bowling, a sport unknown in the host country,
Korea.
At the 1992 Games in Barcelona, it was Basque pelota, roller hockey and
taekwondo.
There have been many different sports at the Winter Games. Some have been
featured as demonstration sports (e.g. skijoring, bandy, winter pentathlon and
freestyle skiing).

For more information about the Olympic sports, go to the IOC website
(www.olympic.org/sports).
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1. OG Beijing 2008. Athletics,
100m Men semi final, start.
2008 / International Olympic
Committee (IOC) / KISHIMOTO,
Tsutomu

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Athletes at the Olympic Games

Athletes at the Olympic

Games
The challenge of the Games
The prospect of being selected for the Olympic Games is the dream of the majority
of athletes. Enormous reserves of willpower and many years of dedicated training
are required to achieve such a goal. The athletes that qualify for the Games
can consider themselves as being among the worlds best. They will become
Olympians, whether or not they win a medal.

1. OG London 2012, Opening

Ceremony, Athletes Parade
of the Costa Rica delegation.
2012 / International Olympic
Committee (IOC) / EVANS,
Jason
2. Olympic Review, July 1908,
p. 110. (Extract from a speech
given at the Olympic Games
in London in 1908).
3. Comments made on her
athletics teams website,
27 November 2000.

Taking part in the Games is what matters to the majority of the competitors:
having the honour of representing their country and marching behind their flag
at the Opening Ceremony, mixing with elite athletes, and having the opportunity
to give their best. That is what the spirit of the Olympic Games is all about!
Pierre de Coubertin knew this already at the start of the 20th century:
[] In these Olympiads, the important thing is not winning but taking part.
[] What counts in life is not the victory but the struggle; the essential thing
is not to conquer but to fight well. 2
Almost a century later, at the Olympic Games in Sydney, the spirit was the same.
Canadian athlete Perdita Felicien explains why taking part in the Games was
so important to her:
Even though I was eliminated in the preliminary round of the 100m hurdles,
I would do it all over again in a heartbeat. Even though the months of religious
training and the exhausting 30 hours of flight to Sydney only meant exactly
13.21 seconds of running on the hottest track in the world that day, it was
beyond worth it. 3

In order to participate in the Olympic Games, athletes have to abide by

the Olympic Charter and the rules of the International Federation (IF)
responsible for their sport. The IFs organise qualification events, while the National
Olympic Committee (NOC) of the athletes country is responsible for entering
athletes to the Games.
Athletes with more than one nationality may compete for the country of their
choice. However, if they have already represented one country either at the Games
or another major sports event, they may not compete for a different country
before three years have elapsed.
There is no age limit for competing in the Olympic Games, except for the one

What is the Olympic Charter?

It is an official document
containing all the rules to be
followed and explaining the role
and mission of each Olympic
Movement stakeholder.

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Athletes at the Olympic Games

imposed by individual IFs for health reasons. In some sports, such as equestrian,
fencing and sailing, athletes can enjoy very long Olympic careers, sometimes
as long as 40 years!
By entering the Olympic Games, athletes are making a commitment to respect
the Olympic values and agree to undergo doping tests. Throughout the Games,
tests are carried out under the authority of the IOC and its Medical Commission.
Tests may be conducted before or during the Games.
For individual sports, tests are performed on each athlete who places among
the top five in each event, plus two other athletes (in the heats or the final)
chosen at random.
For team sports, or other sports in which teams are rewarded, testing
is performed throughout the period of the Olympic Games.

1. OG London 2012, Athletes

while jogging in the Olympic
Village.
2012 / International Olympic
Committee (IOC) / EVANS,
Jason
2. Olympic Message, no. 33,
July 1992.

Life in the Olympic Village

Upon their arrival in the host city, athletes stay in the Olympic Village. While at
the Games, their time is not devoted exclusively to competing: it is also
an opportunity for them to meet other athletes from different countries
and cultures. Communal life is good for encouraging contact between athletes
from different sports or representatives from remote countries. All inhabitants
of the Village agree: it is not about the comfort of the surroundings or the quality
of services, what counts is the relationships created between athletes
of the entire world.
Anita L. De Frantz, Olympian and IOC member, said of her experience in the Village:
For two to four weeks, the Village becomes the home for the elite athletes
of the world. It was there that I realised that excellence comes in every shape,
size, race and sex. It was there that I realised that an Olympian is one who
can respect every individual based on the effort that it takes to become
an Olympian. It was there that I learned that each sport takes special skills
and determination for a person to ascend to the top. 2

Todays Olympic Village is almost a city! It is usually located close to the

competition venues and its construction is taken very seriously during preparations
for the Games. In London in 2012, for example, the Village accommodated
over 17,000 athletes and officials!
Inhabitants of the village benefit from many advantages. They can eat in the Village
restaurant 24 hours a day, have their hair cut, go clubbing or attend evening
concerts.
When the Games have finished, the Olympic Village becomes a new residential
area for the city, and the housing is sold or rented to the local population.
Athletes have not always benefitted from this type of accommodation.

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Athletes at the Olympic Games

Before the Los Angeles Games in 1932 they stayed in a variety of places:
Shipshape accommodation
There was no Olympic Village for the athletes at the first few Olympic Games.
Some of them stayed in hotels or hostels. Others chose cheaper accommodation
in schools or barracks.
And some slept in the boats they had taken to the Olympic city. This was the case
at the Amsterdam Games in 1928, when the Americans, Italians and Finns stayed
in the harbour!
All in the same village
The first true Olympic Village was built for the 1932 Games in Los Angeles.
Athletes (men only) from 37 countries ate, slept and trained together.
For the first time certain community services were provided: a hospital, a fire station
and a post office.
In the early days women stayed in hotels, not the Olympic Village. It was not until
the 1956 Games in Melbourne that the Olympic Village was open to both sexes.

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VICTORY

Victory

1. Athenes 2004, winners

medal (gold)
IOC

The moment of victory is symbolised by the athlete stepping onto the podium
to receive his or her medal. Yet this ceremony has not always existed!
The various elements of the ceremony entered Olympic history at different times.
THE MEDALS ICONOGRAPHY
The Summer Games medals
In the beginning, Olympic medals varied from one Olympiad to the next. At the first
modern Games in Athens in 1896, winners were rewarded with an olive wreath
and a silver medal, while the runners-up received a bronze medal and a laurel
wreath. Gold, silver and bronze medals were not awarded until 1904.
From the Amsterdam Games in 1928, when the medals were standardised,
until the 2000 Games in Sydney, the medals remained almost unchanged.
The obverse showed a seated, wingless figure of Victory holding a wreath in one
hand and a palm frond in the other. In the background appeared an arena similar
to the Coliseum in Rome. The reverse had to show a victorious athlete being
borne upon the shoulders of the crowd. Since 1972, only the obverse of the medal
remained the same. The reverse was modified for each Olympiad.
Then, in 2004, the iconography changed dramatically. A representation of Nike
from the Olympia Museum now features on the obverse of the summer Games
medals. She appears to be descending from the sky to land in the Panathinaiko
Stadium, recalling the place where the first modern Games were held in Athens
in 1896. In the background the Acropolis can be seen.
The Winter Games medals
The Winter Games medals are not subject to the same constraints. There are
no rules stipulating a particular shape or design. Even the materials may vary:
the medals of the Albertville Games (France) included a crystal disc;
the Lillehammer (Norway) medals had a granite element, and the medals
of the Nagano Games (Japan) were partially worked in lacquer. In fact,
every Olympic Winter Games has seen an original medal designed.
Medal ceremonies

Since the Olympic Winter Games in Lake Placid (USA) in 1932, the medals have
been awarded on a podium. The winner takes the centre spot, on the highest
step. He or she receives a gold medal and the title of Olympic champion.
The second placed athlete is to the winners right and receives a silver medal. The

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VICTORY

third placed athlete is to the winners left and receives a bronze medal.
The national flags of the three winners are hoisted and the national anthem
of the Olympic champion is played.
The first eight in each event receive a diploma and their names are read out.
Only the first three receive a medal in addition.

1. OG Vancouver 2010,
Medal ceremony for crosscountry ski, 50km Men mass
start free.
2010 / International Olympic
Committee (IOC)

Celebrity of the champions

After the Olympic Games, the champions often become superstars and role
models for many people. The Olympic Charter stipulates that the names
of the athletes who win a gold medal must be engraved on the walls
of the main stadium in the city hosting the Games.
However, a medal is not always a guarantee of celebrity. If it is won in a little known
sport with low media coverage, a medal alone will not suffice to attract the interest
of the sponsors or the general public.
But whether or not they are winners, everyone who takes part in the Games
takes home with them the memory of an exceptional human experience.
1

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The Games and their era

The Games and their era

The Olympic Games are much more than just a series of sports competitions.
Technological progress in the last century helped turn them into an international
event eagerly awaited and followed by people all over the world. Everything that
happens during the Games is reported and analysed by thousands of journalists
and experts. So it is quite understandable that, at certain points in recent
history, governments have exploited the Games for political or diplomatic ends
(sometimes, sadly, to the detriment of sport).
Developments in technology
In little over a century, the Olympic Games have become a global event. Two major
technological revolutions have contributed to this: in transport and the media.
Improved transport easier access to the Games
Depending on the city and country hosting the Games, athletes are obliged
to travel greater or lesser distances. For the 1904 Games in St Louis and the
1932 Games in Los Angeles, in the USA, the number of participants was much
lower because many athletes were unable to make and afford such a long journey.
The majority of host cities prior to World War II were European, and the
athletes who took part in the Games were mostly Westerners.
In 1956, the Games took place in Oceania (Australia). For the first time, most
of the 3,178 competitors travelled by plane to Melbourne. This novel
development, which was possible thanks to the growth of air transport, quickly
became essential to the organisation of the Olympic Games.
In 1964 it was the turn of the Asian continent to host the Games, which
were held in the city of Tokyo in Japan; then, in 1968, it was Latin America,
with the Games in Mexico City.
The Olympic Games have now been held on every continent except Africa.

A long journey For the 1932

Games in Los Angeles, European
athletes first had to travel to New
York by boat. They then crossed
the American continent by train
to Los Angeles (a total travel time
of three weeks!). They returned
the same way.
Some competitors had to save
up their holiday entitlement for
three years in order to have the
10 weeks leave they needed for
the Olympic adventure!

Development of the media - Games accessible to everyone

Television made an enormous contribution to the growing popularity of the
Olympic Games. The first tests were carried out in 1936 and 1948. And the first
live television broadcast of the competitions was in 1956, at the Winter Games
in Cortina dAmpezzo (Italy). Beginning with the 1960 Games in Rome (Italy),
the majority of the European continent benefited from live broadcasts of the
competitions. For the United States, Canada and Japan, a tape was flown out
every day, which meant that the competitions could be screened with just a few
hours delay. With a couple of weeks delay, the images were transferred onto

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film and sent to Asia, Africa, Oceania and South America. The Olympic audience
ended up being far larger than just the spectators present in the stadium.
Since the 1964 Games in Tokyo (Japan), satellites have transmitted images
with just a few seconds delay. Today, viewers all over the world can follow
the champions achievements live. In 1968, the Olympic Winter Games in
Grenoble (France) were the first to be broadcast live on colour television.
Thanks to further technological developments, picture quality has improved
enormously and has reached a high level of perfection. Slow motion shots mean
that an athletes movements can be seen in great detail and underwater cameras
even take the audience into the swimming pool with the competitors.
Television networks buy broadcasting rights for the Games, thus providing
approximately half of the Olympic Movements income. The IOC nonenetheless
enables less well-off broadcasters to show coverage of the Olympic Games.
This means that sports lovers all over the world can follow the performances
of the champions.

19

The Games and their era

1. OG London 2012,
Photographers at the Women
Triathlon
2012 / International Olympic
Committee (IOC) / FURLONG,
Christopher

This has helped the Olympic Games to become one of the most watched
sporting events in the world!
Political and diplomatic exploitation of the Games
Being at the forefront of the international stage, the Olympic Games have
the potential to be used as a propaganda tool and an instrument
of political interests.
Here are some of the better-known examples
1936 in Berlin (Germany): the Nazi regime appropriated the Games. In the years
leading up to 1936, several governments and sports organisations expressed
their concerns about the regime and its policies. The threat of a boycott hung
over the Games. In the end, it was more individual convictions that prevented
certain athletes from attending.
1956 in Melbourne (Australia): the Suez crisis and Soviet oppression
in Hungary provoked a strong reaction from some countries, which refused
to send their athletes to the Games.
1968 in Mexico City (Mexico): American athletes Tommy Smith and John Carlos
demonstrated against the racism in the USA. As they stood on the podium
to receive their medals for the 200m, they raised black-gloved fists and bowed
their heads when the American flag was raised. This gesture was their way
of showing their support for the Black Power movement which was fighting
the discrimination against black people in the USA. As a result, they were
disqualified.
1972 in Munich (Germany): Palestinian terrorists took Israeli athletes hostage.

What is a boycott?
It is the voluntary severing
of relations with a person,
country or other group
in order to exert pressure.
Boycotts at the Olympic Games
occur when a government
refuses to allow its athletes
to attend the Games.

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20

The Games and their era

The event ended in tragedy, with nine hostages executed and the death
of a policeman and two other members of the Israeli delegation. The terrorists
were killed by the police.
1976 in Montreal (Canada): 22 countries (mostly African) boycotted the Games
to protest against a recent tour of South Africa, which imposed apartheid,
by the New Zealand rugby team.
1980 in Moscow (Soviet Union): the United States called for a global boycott
in response to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. American athletes were
forbidden to take part in the Games under threat of having their passports
confiscated. Other countries followed the US example and stayed away
from Moscow.
1984 in Los Angeles (USA): in response to the American boycott of 1980,
the Soviet Union refused to attend the Games. The official reasons given
were the commercialisation of the Games and insufficient guarantees
of athletes safety.

1. OG Barcelona 1992
Athletics. 10000m Women
final, Derartu TULU (ETH) 1st
and Elana MEYER (RSA) 2nd.
1992 / IOPP / SASAHARA,
Koji

The diplomatic role of the Games

If the Games are used for political ends, the Olympic ideal is placed under threat.
Nevertheless, the Olympic Games can be used to improve relations between
countries and communities.
Since the 1950s, the Olympic Games have provided an opportunity for
newly created countries to show the world they exist. Their appearance
at the Games has often led to more widespread international recognition
(e.g. certain African countries, republics of the former Soviet Union).
It has even been the case that the participation of certain athletes in the Games
has preceded the political creation of their country (e.g. Timor Leste, a small
country located next to Indonesia, which has been independent since 2002).
The end of the apartheid regime allowed South Africa to participate again
in the Olympic Games at the 1992 Games in Barcelona (Spain). The victory lap,
hand-in-hand, of Ethiopias Derartu Tulu, who won the womens 10,000 metres,
and her South African rival Elana Meyer symbolised this change and became
one of the highlights of these Games.
At the Opening Ceremony of the 2000 Games in Sydney (Australia), South
Korea and North Korea paraded together under a single flag. This act was
unprecedented since the breakdown in diplomatic relations between
the two countries after the Korean War (1950-1953).
Also in Sydney, the status of the Aborigines was front page news, and several
events were organised to make their claims known. The final stage of the torch
relay was entrusted to Aboriginal athlete Cathy Freeman, and the culture
of the Aboriginal people was a highlight of the Opening Ceremony.
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The Modern Olympic Games

The Geography of the Games

Games of the Olympiad (Summer Games)

21

The Games and their era

Olympiad

Year

City

Country

Continent

1896

Athens

Greece

Europe

II

1900

Paris

France

Europe

III

1904

St Louis

USA

North America

IV

1908

London

United Kingdom

Europe

1912

Stockholm

Sweden

Europe

VI

1916

World War I: The Olympiad was not celebrated

VII

1920

Antwerp

Belgium

Europe

VIII

1924

Paris

France

Europe

IX

1928

Amsterdam

The Netherlands

Europe

1932

Los Angeles

USA

North America

XI

1936

Berlin

Germany

Europe

XII

1940

World War II: The Olympiad was not celebrated

XIII

1944

World War II: The Olympiad was not celebrated

XIV

1948

London

United Kingdom

Europe

XV

1952

Helsinki

Finland

Europe

XVI

1956

Melbourne
Stockholm (Equestrian Games

Australia
Sweden

Oceania
Europe

XVII

1960

Rome

Italy

Europe

XVIII

1964

Tokyo

Japan

Asia

XIX

1968

Mexico City

Mexico

Latin America

XX

1972

Munich

Germany

Europe

XXI

1976

Montreal

Canada

North America

XXII

1980

Moscow

USSR

Europe

XXIII

1984

Los Angeles

USA

North America

XXIV

1988

Seoul

South Korea

Asia

XXV

1992

Barcelona

Spain

Europe

XXVI

1996

Atlanta

USA

North America

XXVII

2000

Sydney

Australia

Oceania

XXVIII

2004

Athens

Greece

Europe

XXIX

2008

Beijing

China

Asia

XXX

2012

London

United Kingdom

Europe

XXXI

2016

Rio de Janeiro

Brazil

Latin America

1. OG Helsinki 1952
Mens 10km walk: medal
ceremony
1952 / International Olympic
Committee (IOC)

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The Modern Olympic Games

22

The Games and their era

Winter Games
Number

Year

City

Country

Continent

1st

1924

Chamonix

France

Europe

2nd

1928

St Moritz

Switzerland

Europe

3rd

1932

Lake Placid

USA

North America

4th

1936

Garmisch-Partenkirchen

Germany

Europe

1940

World War II: The Olympiad was not celebrated

1944

World War II: The Olympiad was not celebrated

5th

1948

St Moritz

Switzerland

Europe

6th

1952

Oslo

Norway

Europe

7th

1956

Cortina dAmpezzo

Italy

Europe

8th

1960

Squaw Valley

USA

North America

9th

1964

Innsbruck

Austria

Europe

10th

1968

Grenoble

France

Europe

11th

1972

Sapporo

Japan

Asia

12th

1976

Innsbruck

Austria

Europe

13th

1980

Lake Placid

USA

North America

14th

1984

Sarajevo

Yugoslavia

Europe

15th

1988

Calgary

Canada

North America

16th

1992

Albertville

France

Europe

17th

1994

Lillehammer

Norway

Europe

18th

1998

Nagano

Japan

Asia

19th

2002

Salt Lake City

USA

North America

20th

2006

Turin

Italy

Europe

21th

2010

Vancouver

Canada

North America

22th

2014

Sotchi

Russia

Europe

23th

2018

PyeongChang

South Korea

Asia

1. OG Sydney 2000, Closing

Ceremony Gathering
of athletes in the stadium.
2000 / Kishimoto / IOC /
NAGAYA, Yo

The Olympiads are counted even if the Games do not take place!

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23

Activities - Selective Bibliography

Activities
Schools subject area: human and social sciences

Look at

a globe or a map of the world and locate the Olympic Games host cities.
Discuss the geographical distribution of the Summer and Winter Games.

Write an article on an athlete who has taken part in the Games but who did
not win a medal: describe his/her feelings, emotions and experience.

Find out about an Olympic sport. Pick a sport you dont know from

the list of sports on the programme of the Summer or Winter Games. Do some research
and prepare a fact sheet on it, including the names of some athletes who practise
the sport.

Imagine

some costumes that could be used at the opening ceremony

of the next Olympic Games. Choose a theme and sketch some designs.

Identify some other major events that bring people together like the Olympic
Games. Make a list of them and identify their similarities and differences.

Find some other examples of the interplay between the Olympic Games
and the historical, political or cultural situation of the time.

Selective Bibliography
Young readers
The Olympic Museum. How well do you know the Olympic Games?
Lausanne: The Olympic Museum, 3rd edition, 2011
Clive Gifford.Summer Olympics: the definitive guide to the world's greatest
sports celebration
Boston: Kingfisher, 2004
David Fischer. The encyclopedia of the summer Olympics
New York [etc.]: Franklin Watts, 2003
Middleton, Haydn. Modern Olympic Games
Chicago: Heinemann Library, 2000
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The Modern Olympic Games

24

Activities - Selective Bibliography

Teachers
David Miller. The official history of the Olympic Games and the IOC: Athens
to London 1984-2012 / by David Miller

Edinburgh: Mainstream, 2012

Editor
IOC, The Olympic Museum,
Lausanne
3rd edition, 2013
Authors
The Olympic Museum
Educational and Cultural
Services
English translation
IOC Language Services
Graphic design
Oxyde, Lausanne
(www.oxyde.ch)

The Olympic Museum