Unit-1

Computer Fundamentals
What is Computer?
Computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data as input from the user and processes
these data under the control of set of instructions (called program) and gives the result (output) and
saves output for the future use. It can process both numerical and non-numerical (arithmetic and
logical) calculations.
It works the principle of I-P-O Cycle
Input

Process

A computer has four functions:

a. accepts data
b. processes data
c. produces output
d. stores results

Output

Input
Processing
Output
Storage

(While designing the Difference Engine and Analytical Engine Charles Babage has given the
concept of these four units, Hence he is known as Father of Computer.)
Input (Data):
Input is the raw information or facts entered into a computer from the input devices. It is the
collection of letters, numbers, images etc.
Process:
Process is the operation of data as per given instruction. It is totally internal process of the
computer system.
Output:
Output is the processed data given by computer after data processing. Output is also called Result
or information . We can save these results in the storage devices for the future use.
Computer System
The components of the Computer System are:1. Hardware
2. Software
3. Firmware
4. Liveware
COMPUTER SYSTEM = HARDWARE + SOFTWARE+ USER
Hardware = Internal Devices + Peripheral Devices
All physical parts of the computer (or everything that we can touch) are known as
Hardware.
Software = Programs
Software gives "intelligence" to the computer.
USER = Person, who operates computer.
Hardware
All the physical and tangible components of Computer are called Hardware. In other words all the
components that we can touch come under the category of Hardware eg Keyboard, Mouse,
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Software
Software is a set of instructions or a program that enables a hardware to run. Without the use of
software a hardware cannot work.eg. Windows 8, Photoshop, MS Office etc.
Firmware
Instructions written/embedded on a hardware are known as firmware e.g., BIOS instruction on
ROM chip are called Firmware.
Liveware
Persons or the users, using Computers in day to day activity are known as liveware.
Generations of computer:
First Generation (1940-56):
The first generation computers used Vacuum tubes & Machine language was used for giving the
instructions. These computer were large in size & their programming was difficult task. The
electricity consumption was very high. Some computers of this generation are ENIAC, EDVAC,
EDSAC& UNIVAC-1.
Second Generation(1956-63):
In 2nd generation computers, Vacuum tubes were replaced by Transistors. They required only
1/10 of power required by Vacuum tubes. This generation computers generated less heat & were
reliable. The first operating system developed in this generation.
The Third Generation(1964-71):
The 3rd generation computers replaced transistors with Integrated circuit known as chip. From
Small scale integrated circuits which had 10 transistors per chip, technology developed to MSI
circuits with 100 transistors per chip. These computers were smaller, faster & more reliable. High
level languages invented in this generation.
The fourth Generation(1972- present):
LSI & VLSI were used in this generation. As a result microprocessors came into existence. The
computers using this technology known to be Micro Computers. High capacity hard disk were
invented. There is great development in data communication.
The Fifth Generation (Present & Beyond):
Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development,
though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today. The use
of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality.
Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the face of
computers in years to come.

ARCHITECTURE OF COMPUTER

Input Devices: Those devices which help to enter data into computer system. Eg. Keyboard,
Mouse, Touch screen,Bar Code Reader, Scanner, MICR, OMR etc.

Bar code Reader

MICR used in Bank
OMR
Output Devices: Those devices which help to display the processed information.Eg. Monitor,
Printer, Plotter, Projector

Printer

Plotter

Projector

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

The main component to make a computer operate is the computer chip or microprocessor. This is
referred to as the Central Processing Unit (CPU). It is also known as Brain of computer. It
performs arithmetic and logic operations. The CPU (Central Processing Unit) is the device that
interprets and executes instructions.

Processor
Memory: It facilitates the remembrance power to computer system. It refers to the physical
devices used to store programs (sequences of instructions) or data (e.g. program state information)
on a temporary or permanent basis for use in a computer or other digital electronic device.
Memory can be of two types:1. Primary Memory
2. Secondary Memory
The term primary memory is used for the information in physical systems which are fast (i.e.
RAM), as a distinction from secondary memory, which are physical devices for program and data
storage which are slow to access but offer higher memory capacity. Primary memory stored on
secondary memory is called virtual memory.
Primary Memory can be categorized as:1. Volatile Memory (RAM)
2. Non-Volatile Memory(ROM)
Volatile memory (RAM)
Volatile memory is computer memory that requires power to maintain the stored information.
RAM stands for Random Access Memory. The data is primarily stored on RAM. This is also
known as Read-Write memory as both the operation can take place on it. It is volatile in nature
because as soon as the power is off its contents are also removed. It can be of two types:1. Static RAM or SRAM.
2. Dynamic RAM or DRAM
SRAM retains its contents as long as the power is connected and is easy to interface to but uses six
transistors per bit.

Dynamic RAM is more complicated to interface to and control and needs regular refresh cycles to
prevent its contents being lost. However, DRAM uses only one transistor and a capacitor per bit,
allowing it to reach much higher densities and, with more bits on a memory chip, be much cheaper
per bit. SRAM is not worthwhile for desktop system memory, where DRAM dominates, but is
used for their cache memories..
Non Volatile Memory (ROM)
Non-volatile memory is computer memory that can retain the stored information even when not
powered. ROM stands for Read Only Memory. As the name suggests we can perform only read
operation on ROM. It is permanent in nature. In ROM booting instructions for computer in the
form of firmware are stored
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Other examples of non-volatile memory are flash memory and PROM/EPROM/EEPROM

memory.
Cache Memory:
Cache memory is an intermediate between RAM and processor. It is very fast. Cache memory is
random access memory (RAM) that a computer microprocessor can access more quickly than it
can access regular RAM. As the microprocessor processes data, it looks first in the cache memory
and if it finds the data there (from a previous reading of data), it does not have to do the more timeconsuming reading of data from larger memory.
Secondary Memory:
A. Hard Disk (Local Disk)
B. Optical Disks: CD-R, CD-RW, DVD-R, DVD-RW
C. Floppy Disks
D Memory Cards
E. External Hard Disk
F. Blu Ray Disk

Blu-Ray Disk:
Blu-ray (not Blue-ray) also known as Blu-ray Disc (BD), is the name of a new optical disc
format. The format offers more than five times the storage capacity of traditional DVDs and can
hold up to 25GB on a single-layer disc and 50GB on a dual-layer disc. While current optical disc
technologies such as DVD, DVDR, DVDRW, and DVD-RAM rely on a red laser to read and
write data, the new format uses a blue-violet laser instead, hence the name Blu-ray.

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Units of Memory:
The smallest unit is bit, which mean either 0 or 1.
1 bit
= 0 or 1
1 Byte
= 8 bit
1 Nibble
= 4 bit
1 Kilo Byte = 1024 Byte= 210 Byte
1 Mega Byte = 1024 KB= 210 KB
1 Gega Byte = 1024 MB= 210 MB
1 Tera Byte = 1024 GB= 210 GB
1 Peta Byte =1024 TB= 210 TB
1 Exa Byte
=1024 PB= 210 PB
1 Zetta Byte = 1024 EB= 210 EB
1 Yotta Byte = 1024 ZB= 210 ZB
Types of Computer
On the basis of working principle
a) Analog Computer
An analog computer is a form of computer that uses continuous physical phenomena such as
electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the problem being solved.
Eg: Thermometer, Speedometer, Petrol pump indicator, Multimeter

b) Digital Computer
A computer that performs calculations and logical operations with quantities represented as digits,
usually in the binary number system.
c) Hybrid Computer (Analog + Digital)
A combination of computers those are capable of inputting and outputting in both digital and
analog signals. A hybrid computer system setup offers a cost effective method of performing
complex simulations. The instruments used in medical science lies in this category.
On the basis of Size
a) Super Computer
The fastest type of computer. Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed for
specialized applications that require immense amounts of mathematical calculations. For
example, weather forecasting requires a supercomputer. Other uses of supercomputers include
animated graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, and petroleum
exploration. PARAM, Pace & Flosolver are the supercomputer made in India.

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b) Mainframe Computer
A very large and expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds, or even thousands, of
users simultaneously. In the hierarchy that starts with a simple microprocessor (in watches, for
example) at the bottom and moves to supercomputers at the top, mainframes are just below
supercomputers. In some ways, mainframes are more powerful than supercomputers because
they support more simultaneous programs. But supercomputers can execute a single program
faster than a mainframe.

c) Mini Computer
A midsized computer. In size and power, minicomputers lie between workstations and
mainframes. In the past decade, the distinction between large minicomputers and small
mainframes has blurred, however, as has the distinction between small minicomputers and
workstations. But in general, a minicomputer is a multiprocessing system capable of
supporting from 4 to about 200 users simultaneously. Generally, servers are comes in this
category.
d) Micro Computer
i. Desktop Computer: a personal or micro-mini computer sufficient to fit on a desk.
ii. Laptop Computer: a portable computer complete with an integrated screen and keyboard.
It is generally smaller in size than a desktop computer and larger than a notebook
computer.
iii. Palmtop Computer/Digital Diary /Notebook /PDAs: a hand-sized computer. Palmtops
have no keyboard but the screen serves both as an input and output device.

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e) Workstations
A terminal or desktop computer in a network. In this context, workstation is just a generic term for
a user's machine (client machine) in contrast to a "server" or "mainframe."

Software
As specified earlier Software, simply are the computer programs. The instructions given to the
computer in the form of a program is called Software. Software is the set of programs, which are
used for different purposes. All the programs used in computer to perform specific task is called
Software.
Types of software
1. System software:
a) Operating System Software
DOS, Windows XP, Windows Vista, Unix/Linux, MAC/OS X etc.
b) Utility Software
Windows Explorer (File/Folder Management), Compression Tool, Anti-Virus Utilities, Disk
Defragmentation, Disk Clean, BackUp, WinZip, WinRAR etc
c) Language Processors
Compiler, Interpreter and Assembler
2. Application software:
a) General Application Software
Ms. Office 2003, Ms. Office 2007, Macromedia (Dreamweaver, Flash, Freehand), Adobe
(PageMaker, PhotoShop)
b) Tailored or Customized Software
School Management system, Inventory Management System, Payroll system, financial
system etc.
Operating system
Operating system is an interface between hardware and user which is responsible for the
management and coordination of activities and the sharing of the resources of a computer. It hosts
the several applications that run on a computer and handles the operations of computer hardware.
Functions of operating System:
Processor Management
Memory Management
File Management
Device Management
Types of Operating System:
Real-time Operating System: It is a multitasking operating system that aims at executing
real-time applications. Example of Use: e.g. control of nuclear power plants, oil refining,
chemical processing and traffic control systems, air
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Single User Systems: Provides a platform for only one user at a time. They are popularly
associated with Desk Top operating system which run on standalone systems where no user
accounts are required. Example: DOS.
Multi User Systems: Provides regulated access for a number of users by maintaining a
database of known users. Refers to computer systems that support two or more
simultaneous users. Another term for multi-user is time sharing. Ex: All mainframes are
multi-user systems. Example: Unix
Multi-tasking and Single-tasking Operating Systems: When a single program is allowed
to run at a time, the system is grouped under the single-tasking system category, while in
case the operating system allows for execution of multiple tasks at a time, it is classified as
a multi-tasking operating system.
Distributed Operating System: An operating system that manages a group of independent
computers and makes them appear to be a single computer is known as a distributed
operating system. Distributed computations are carried out on more than one machine.
When computers in a group work in cooperation, they make a distributed system.

Commonly used operating system

UNIX: Pronounced uoo-niks, a popular multi-user, multitasking operating system developed at
Bell Labs in the early 1970s. UNIX was one of the first operating systems to be written in a highlevel programming language, namely C. This meant that it could be installed on virtually any
computer for which a C compiler existed.
LINUX: Pronounced lee-nucks or lih-nucks. A freely-distributable open source operating system
that runs on a number of hardware platforms. The Linux kernel was developed mainly by Linus
Torvalds and it is based on Unix. Because it's free, and because it runs on many platforms,
including PCs and Macintoshes, Linux has become an extremely popular alternative to proprietary
operating systems.
Windows: Microsoft Windows is a series of graphical interface operating systems developed,
marketed, and sold by Microsoft. Microsoft introduced an operating environment named Windows
on November 20, 1985 as an add-on to MS-DOS in response to the growing interest in graphical
user interfaces (GUIs). Microsoft Windows came to dominate the world's personal computer
market with over 90% market share, overtaking Mac OS, which had been introduced in 1984.The
most recent client version of Windows is Windows 7; the most recent server version is Windows
Server 2008 R2; the most recent mobile version is Windows Phone 7.5.
SOLARIS: Solaris is a Unix operating system originally developed by Sun Microsystems. It
superseded their earlier SunOS in 1993. Oracle Solaris, as it is now known, has been owned by
Oracle Corporation since Oracle's acquisition of Sun in January 2010.
BOSS: BOSS (Bharat Operating System Solutions) GNU/Linux distribution developed by C-DAC
(Centre for Development of Advanced Computing) derived from Debian for enhancing the use of
Free/ Open Source Software throughout India. This release aims more at the security part and
comes with an easy to use application to harden your Desktop.
Mobile OS: A mobile operating system, also called a mobile OS, is an operating system that is
specifically designed to run on mobile devices such as mobile phones, smartphones, PDAs, tablet
computers and other handheld devices. The mobile operating system is the software platform on
top of which other programs, called application programs, can run on mobile devices.
Android: Android is a Linux-based mobile phone operating system developed by Google.
Android is unique because Google is actively developing the platform but giving it away
for free to hardware manufacturers and phone carriers who want to use Android on their
devices.
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Symbian: Symbian is a mobile operating system (OS) targeted at mobile phones that offers
a high-level of integration with communication and personal information management
(PIM) functionality. Symbian OS combines middleware with wireless communications
through an integrated mailbox and the integration of Java and PIM functionality (agenda
and contacts). The Symbian OS is open for third-party development by independent
software vendors, enterprise IT departments, network operators and Symbian OS licensees.
LANGUAGE PROCESSORS: Since a computer hardware is capable of understanding only
machine level instructions, So it is necessary to convert the HLL into Machine Level Language.
There are three Language processors:
A. Compiler: It is translator which converts the HLL language into machine language in one
go. A Source program in High Level Language get converted into Object Program in
Machine Level Language.
B. Interpreter: It is a translator which converts and executes the HLL language code line by
line. It takes one statement of HLL and converts it into machine code which is immediately
executed. It eliminate the need of separate compilation/run. However, It is slow in
processing as compare to compiler.
C. Assembler: It translate the assembly language into machine code.
Microprocessor:
A microprocessor is a semiconductor chip, which is manufactured using the Large Scale
integration (LSI) or Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI), which comprises Arithmetic Logic Unit,
Control unit and Central Processing Unit (CPU) fabricated on a single chip.
Terminologies:
Registers: A register is a very small amount of very fast memory that is built into the CPU (central
processing unit) in order to speed up its operations by providing quick access to commonly used
values. All data must be represented in a register before it can be processed. For example, if two
numbers are to be multiplied, both numbers must be in registers, and the result is also placed in a
register.
Bus:
A collection of wires through which data is transmitted from one part of a computer to another.
You can think of a bus as a highway on which data travels within a computer. When used in
reference to personal computers, the term bus usually refers to internal bus. This is a bus that
connects all the internal computer components to the CPU and main memory. All buses consist of
two parts -- an address bus and a data bus. The data bus transfers actual data whereas the address
bus transfers information about where the data should go. The control bus is used by the CPU to
direct and monitor the actions of the other functional areas of the computer. It is used to transmit a
variety of individual signals (read, write, interrupt, acknowledge, and so forth) necessary to control
and
coordinate
the
operations
of
the
computer.
The size of a bus, known as its width, is important because it determines how much data can be
transmitted at one time. For example, a 16-bit bus can transmit 16 bits of data, whereas a 32-bit
bus can transmit 32 bits

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Clock speed: Also called clock rate, the speed at which a microprocessor executes instructions.
Every computer contains an internal clock that regulates the rate at which instructions are executed
and synchronizes all the various computer components. The CPU requires a fixed number of clock
ticks (or clock cycles) to execute each instruction. The faster the clock, the more instructions the
CPU can execute per second.
Clock speeds are expressed in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz ((GHz).
16 bit Microprocessor: It indicates the width of the registers. A 16-bit microprocessor can
process data and memory addresses that are represented by 16 bits. Eg. 8086 processor
32 bit Microprocessor: It indicates the width of the registers. A 32-bit microprocessor can
process data and memory addresses that are represented by 32 bits. Eg. Intel 80386 processor, Intel
80486
64 bit Microprocessor: It indicates the width of the registers; a special high-speed storage area
within the CPU. A 32-bit microprocessor can process data and memory addresses that are
represented by 32 bits. e.g. Pentium dual core, Core 2 duo.
128 bit Microprocessor: It indicates the width of the registers. A 128-bit microprocessor can
process data and memory addresses that are represented by 128 bits. e.g. Intel core i7
Difference between RISC & CISC architecture
RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computing):
1. RISC system has reduced number of instructions.
2. Performs only basic functions.
3. All HLL support is done in software.
4. All operations are register to register.
CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computing):
1. A large and varied instruction set.
2. Performs basic as well as complex functions.
3. All HLL support is done in Hardware.
4. Memory to memory addressing mode
EPIC (Explicitly Parallel Instruction Computing):
It is a 64-bit microprocessor instruction set, jointly defined and designed by Hewlett Packard and
Intel, that provides up to 128 general and floating point unit registers and uses speculative loading,
predication, and explicit parallelism to accomplish its computing tasks. By comparison, current 32bit CISC and RISC microprocessor architectures depend on 32-bit registers, branch prediction,
memory latency, and implicit parallelism, which are considered a less efficient approach in micro
architecture design.
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PORTS: A port is an interface between the motherboard and an external device. Different types of
port are available on motherboard as serial port, parallel port, PS/2 port, USB port, SCSI port etc.
Serial port(COM Port): A serial port transmit data one bit at a time. Typically on older PCs, a
modem, mouse, or keyboard would be connected via serial ports. Serial cables are cheaper to make
than parallel cables and easier to shield from interference. It is also called communication port.
Parallel Port (LPT ports): It supports parallel communication i.e. it can send several bits
simultaneously. It provides much higher data transfer speed in comparison with serial port. It is
also called Line Printer Port.
USB (Universal Serial Bus): It is a newer type of serial connection that is much faster than the
old serial ports. USB is also much smarter and more versatile since it allows the "daisy chaining"
of up to 127 USB peripherals connected to one port. It provides plug & play communication.
PS/2 Port : PS/2 ports are special ports for connecting the keyboard and mouse to some PC
systems. This type of port was invented by IBM
FireWire Port : The IEEE 1394 interface, developed in late 1980s and early 1990s by Apple as
FireWire, is a serial bus interface standard for high-speed communications and isochronous realtime data transfer. The 1394 interface is comparable with USB and often those two technologies
are considered together, though USB has more market share.
Infrared Port: An IR port is a port which sends and receives infrared signals from other devices.
It is a wireless type port with a limited range of 5-10ft.
Bluetooth: Bluetooth uses short-range radio frequencies to transmit information from fixed and
mobile devices. These devices must be within the range of 32 feet, or 10 meters for Bluetooth to
effectively work. A Bluetooth port enables connections for Bluetooth-enabled devices for
synchronizing. Typically there are two types of ports: incoming and outgoing. The incoming port
enables the device to receive connections from Bluetooth devices while the outgoing port makes
connections to Bluetooth devices.
Internal Storage encoding of Characters:
ASCII ( American standards code for information interchange): ASCII code is most widely
used alphanumeric code used in computers. It is a 8- bit code, and so it has 28 =256 possible code
groups. It represents all of the standard keyboard characters as well as control functions such as
Return & Linefeed functions.
ISCII (Indian standards code for information interchange) : To use the Indian language on
computers, ISCII codes are used. It is an 8-bit code capable of coding 256 characters. ISCII code
retains all ASCII characters and offers coding for Indian scripts also.
Unicode: It is a universal coding standard which provides a unique number for every character, no
matter what the platform, no matter what the program, no matter what the language. Unicode is a
16-bit code capable of representing more than 65000 characters. The coding for ASCII characters
remain the same in Unicode. It can represent almost all the languages of the world.

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