STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAMS

5-3

Table 5.1.1 Typical Mechanical Properties at Room Temperature

(Based on ordinary stress-strain values)

Metal

Tensile
strength,
1,000 lb/in 2

Yield
strength,
1,000 lb/in 2

Ultimate
elongation,
%

Reduction
of area, %

Brinell
no.

Cast iron
Wrought iron
Commercially pure iron, annealed
Hot-rolled
Cold-rolled
Structural steel, ordinary
Low-alloy, high-strength
Steel, SAE 1300, annealed
Quenched, drawn 1,300F
Drawn 1,000F
Drawn 700F
Drawn 400F
Steel, SAE 4340, annealed
Quenched, drawn 1,300F
Drawn 1,000F
Drawn 700F
Drawn 400F
Cold-rolled steel, SAE 1112
Stainless steel, 18-S
Steel castings, heat-treated
Aluminum, pure, rolled
Aluminum-copper alloys, cast
Wrought , heat-treated
Aluminum die castings
Aluminum alloy 17ST
Aluminum alloy 51ST
Copper, annealed
Copper, hard-drawn
Brasses, various
Phosphor bronze
Tobin bronze, rolled
Magnesium alloys, various
Monel 400, Ni-Cu alloy
Molybdenum, rolled
Silver, cast , annealed
Titanium 6 4 alloy, annealed
Ductile iron, grade 80-55-06

18 60
45 55
42
48
100
50 65
65 90
70
100
130
200
240
80
130
190
240
290
84
85 95
60 125
13 24
19 23
30 60
30
56
48
32
68
40 120
40 130
63
21 45
79
100
18
130
80

8 40
25 35
19
30
95
30 40
40 80
40
80
110
180
210
45
110
170
215
260
76
30 35
30 90
5 21
12 16
10 50

0
35 25
48
30

0
55 30
85
75

100 300
100
70
90
200
120
150
150
200
260
400
480
170
270
395
480
580
160
145 160
120 250
23 44
50 80
50 120

40 30
30 15
26
24
20
14
10
25
20
14
12
10
18
60 55
33 14
35 5
40
33 15
2
26
20
58
4
60 3
55 5
40
17 0.5
48
30
54
10
6

34
40
5
60
8 80
41
11 30
30
75
8
120
55

70 40
70
65
60
45
30
70
60
50
48
44
45
75 65
65 20

39
35
73
55

52
75

25

100
105
45
100
50 170
50 200
120
47 78
125
250
27
352
225 255

NOTE: Compressive strength of cast iron, 80,000 to 150,000 lb/in 2.

Compressive yield strength of all metals, except those cold-worked 5 tensile yield strength.
Stress 1,000 lb/in 2 3 6.894 5 stress, MN/m 2.

men, resulting in what is known as the cup-and-cone fracture. Double

cup-and-cone and rosette fractures sometimes occur. Several types of
tensile fractures are shown in Fig. 5.1.3.
Annealed or hot-rolled mild steels generally exhibit a yield point (see
Fig. 5.1.4). Here, in a constant strain-rate test, a large increment of
extension occurs under constant load at the elastic limit or at a stress just
below the elastic limit. In the latter event the stress drops suddenly from
the upper yield point to the lower yield point. Subsequent to the drop, the
yield-point extension occurs at constant stress, followed by a rise to the
UTS. Plastic ow during the yield-point extension is discontinuous;

Fig. 5.1.3.

to test temperature, test strain rate, and the characteristics of the tensile
machine employed.
The plastic behavior in a uniaxial tensile test can be represented as the
true stress-strain curve. The true stress s is based on the instantaneous

Typical metal fractures in tension.

successive zones of plastic deformation, known as Luders bands or

stretcher strains, appear until the entire specimen gage length has been
uniformly deformed at the end of the yield-point extension. This behavior causes a banded or stepped appearance on the metal surface. The
exact form of the stress-strain curve for this class of material is sensitive

Fig. 5.1.4.

Yielding of annealed steel.

COPPER AND COPPER ALLOYS

bronzes); copper-tin-nickel alloys (nickel-tin bronzes); and copper-aluminum alloys (aluminum bronzes).
The family of alloys known as manganese bronzes, in which zinc is the
major alloying element, is included in the brasses.
Copper-Nickels These are alloys with nickel as the principal alloying element, with or without other designated alloying elements.
Copper-Nickel-Zinc Alloys Known commonly as nickel silvers,
these are alloys which contain zinc and nickel as the principal and
secondary alloying elements, with or without other designated elements.
Leaded Coppers These comprise a series of cast alloys of copper
with 20 percent or more lead, sometimes with a small amount of silver,
but without tin or zinc.
Miscellaneous Alloys Alloys whose chemical compositions do not
fall into any of previously described categories are combined under
miscellaneous alloys.
Temper Designations
Temper designations for wrought copper and copper alloys were originally specied on the basis of cold reduction imparted by the rolling of
sheet or drawing of wire. Designations for rod, seamless tube, welded
tube, extrusions, castings and heat-treated products were not covered. In
1974, ASTM B601 Standard Practice for Temper Designations for
Copper and Copper Alloys Wrought and Cast, based on an alphanumeric code, was created to accommodate this deciency. The general
temper designation codes listed in ASTM B601 by process and product
are shown in Table 6.4.15.
Coppers

Coppers include the oxygen-free coppers (C10100 and C10200), made by

melting prime-quality cathode copper under nonoxidizing conditions.
These coppers are particularly suitable for applications requiring high
electrical and thermal conductivities coupled with exceptional ductility
and freedom from hydrogen embrittlement.
The most common copper is C11000 electrolytic tough pitch. Its
electrical conductivity exceeds 100 percent IACS and is invariably selected for most wire and cable applications. Selective properties of wire
produced to ASTM B1 Hard Drawn Copper Wire, B2 Medium Hard
Drawn Copper Wire, and B3 Soft or Annealed Copper Wire are shown
in Table 6.4.16.
Where resistance to softening along with improved fatigue strength is
required, small amounts of silver are added. This permits the silvercontaining coppers to retain the effects of cold working to a higher
temperature than pure copper (about 600F versus about 400F), a
property particularly useful where comparatively high temperatures are
to be withstood, as in soldering operations or for stressed conductors
designed to operate at moderately elevated temperatures.
If superior machinability is required, C14500 (tellurium copper),
C14700 (sulfur copper), or C18700 (leaded copper) can be selected.
With these coppers, superior machinability is gained at a modest sacrice in electrical conductivity.
Table 6.4.16

Similarly, chromium and zirconium are added to increase elevatedtemperature strength with little decrease in conductivity.
Copper-beryllium alloys are precipitation-hardening alloys that combine moderate conductivity with very high strengths. To achieve these
properties, a typical heat treatment would involve a solution heat treatment for 1 h at 1,450F (788C) followed by water quenching, then a
precipitation heat treatment at 600F (316C) for 3 h.
Wrought Copper Alloys (Brasses and Bronzes)

There are approximately 230 wrought brass and bronze compositions.

The most widely used is alloy C26000, which corresponds to a 70 : 30
copper-zinc composition and is most frequently specied unless high
corrosion resistance or special properties of other alloys are required.
For example, alloy C36000 free-cutting brass is selected when extensive machining must be done, particularly on automatic screw machines. Other alloys containing aluminum, silicon, or nickel are specied for their outstanding corrosion resistance. The other properties of
greatest importance include mechanical strength, fatigue resistance,
ability to take a good nish, corrosion resistance, electrical and thermal
conductivities, color, ease of fabrication, and machinability.
The bronzes are divided into ve alloy families: phosphor bronzes,
aluminum bronzes, silicon bronzes, copper nickels, and nickel silvers.
Phosphor Bronzes Three tin bronzes, commonly referred to as
phosphor bronzes, are the dominant alloys in this family. They contain 5,
8, and 10 percent tin and are identied, respectively, as alloys C51000,
C52100, and C52400. Containing up to 0.4 percent phosphorus, which
improves the casting qualities and hardens them somewhat, these alloys
have excellent elastic properties.
Aluminum Bronzes These alloys with 5 and 8 percent aluminum
nd application because of their high strength and corrosion resistance,
and sometimes because of their golden color. Those with 10 percent
aluminum content or higher are very plastic when hot and have exceptionally high strength, particularly after heat treatment.
Silicon Bronzes There are three dominant alloys in this family in
which silicon is the primary alloying agent but which also contain appreciable amounts of zinc, iron, tin, or manganese. These alloys are as
corrosion-resistant as copper (slightly more so in some solutions) and
possess excellent hot workability with high strengths. Their outstanding
characteristic is that of ready weldability by all methods. The alloys are
extensively fabricated by arc or acetylene welding into tanks and vessels for hot-water storage and chemical processing.
Copper Nickels These alloys are extremely malleable and may be
worked extensively without annealing. Because of their excellent corrosion resistance, they are used for condenser tubes for the most severe
service. Alloys containing nickel have the best high-temperature properties of any copper alloy.
Nickel Silvers Nickel silvers are white and are often applied because of this property. They are tarnish resistant under atmospheric
conditions. Nickel silver is the base for most silver-plated ware.
Overall, the primary selection criteria can be met satisfactorily by one
or more of the alloys listed in Table 6.4.17.

Mechanical Properties of Copper Wire

Hard-drawn

Medium hard

in

mm

ksi

MPa

Elongation
(nominal) in
10 in (250 mm),
% min

0.460
0.325
0.229
0.162
0.114
0.081
0.057
0.040

11.7
8.3
5.8
4.1
2.9
2.05
1.45
1.02

49.0
54.5
59.0
62.1
64.3
65.7
66.4
67.0

340
375
405
430
445
455
460
460

3.8
2.4
1.7
1.4
1.2
1.1
1.0
1.0

Diameter

Tensile strength
(nominal)

SOURCE: ASTM, abstracted with permission.

6-67

MPa

Elongation
in 10 in (250 mm),
% min

Elongation
(nominal) in
10 in (250 mm),
% min

290 340
310 360
330 380
340 385
345 395
350 400
360 405
365 415

3.8
3.0
2.2
1.5
1.3
1.1
1.0
1.0

35
35
30
30
30
25
25
25

Tensile strength
ksi
42.0 49.0
45.0 52.0
48.0 55.0
49.0 56.0
50.0 57.0
51.0 58.0
52.0 59.0
53.0 60.0

Soft or annealed

Table 6.4.17

Composition and Properties of Selected Wrought Copper and Copper Alloys

Mechanical propertiesb

Alloy no. (and name)

C10200 (oxygen-free copper)
C11000 (electrolytic tough pitch copper)
C12200 (phosphorus-deoxidized copper,
high residual phosphorus)
C14500 (phosphorus-deoxidized telluriumbearing copper)
C14700 (sulfur-bearing copper)
C15000 (zirconium copper)
C17000 (beryllium copper)
C17200 (beryllium copper)
C18200 (chromium copper)
C18700 (leaded copper)
C19400
C21000 (gilding, 95%)
C22000 (commercial bronze, 90%)
C23000 (red brass, 85%)
C24000 (low brass, 80%)
C26000 (cartridge brass, 70%)
C26800, C27000 (yellow brass)
C28000 (Muntz metal)
C31400 (leaded commercial bronze)
C33500 (low-leaded brass)
C34000 (medium-leaded brass)
C34200 (high-leaded brass)
C35000 (medium-leaded brass)
C35300 (high-leaded brass)
C35600 (extra-high-leaded brass)
C36000 (free-cutting brass)
C36500 to C36800 (leaded Muntz metal)c
C37000 (free-cutting Muntz metal)
C37700 (forging brass)d
C38500 (architectural bronze)d
C40500
C41300
C43500
C44300, C44400, C44500 (inhibited admiralty)
C46400 to C46700 (naval brass)
C48200 (naval brass, medium-leaded)
C48500 (leaded naval brass)
C51000 (phosphor bronze, 5% A)
C51100
C52100 (phosphor bronze, 8% C)
C52400 (phosphor bronze, 10% D)
C54400 (free-cutting phosphor bronze)
C60800 (aluminum bronze, 5%)
C61000
C61300
C61400 (aluminum bronze, D)
C63000
C63200
C64200
C65100 (low-silicon bronze, B)
C65500 (high-silicon bronze, A)
C67500 (manganese bronze, A)
C68700 (aluminum brass, arsenical)
C70600 (copper nickel, 10%)
C71500 (copper nickel, 30%)
C72500
C74500 (nickel silver, 65 10)
C75200 (nickel silver, 65 18)
C77000 (nickel silver, 55 18)
C78200 (leaded nickel silver, 65 8 2)
a

Nominal composition, %

Commercial
formsa

Tensile strength
ksi

MPa

Yield strength
ksi

MPa

Elongation in 2 in
(50 mm), %b

99.95 Cu
99.90 Cu, 0.04 O
99.90 Cu, 0.02 P

F, R, W, T, P, S 32 66
F, R, W, T, P, S 32 66
F, R, T, P
32 55

221 455
221 455
221 379

10 53
10 53
10 50

69 365
69 365
69 345

55 4
55 4
45 8

99.5 Cu, 0.50 Te, 0.008 P

F, R, W, T

32 56

221 386

10 51

69 352

50 3

99.6 Cu, 0.40 S

99.8 Cu, 0.15 Zr
99.5 Cu, 1.7 Be, 0.20 Co
99.5 Cu, 1.9 Be, 0.20 Co
99.0 Cu c, 1.0 Cr
99.0 Cu, 1.0 Pb
97.5 Cu, 2.4 Fe, 0.13 Zn, 0.03 P
95.0 Cu, 5.0 Zn
90.0 Cu, 10.0 Zn
85.0 Cu, 15.0 Zn
80.0 Cu, 20.0 Zn
70.0 Cu, 30.0 Zn
65.0 Cu, 35.0 Zn
60.0 Cu, 40.0 Zn
89.0 Cu, 1.8 Pb, 9.2 Zn
65.0 Cu, 0.5 Pb, 34.5 Zn
65.0 Cu, 1.0 Pb, 34.0 Zn
64.5 Cu, 2.0 Pb, 33.5 Zn
62.5 Cu, 1.1 Pb, 36.4 Zn
62.0 Cu, 1.8 Pb, 36.2 Zn
63.0 Cu, 2.5 Pb, 34.5 Zn
61.5 Cu, 3.0 Pb, 35.5 Zn
60.0 Cue, 0.6 Pb, 39.4 Zn
60.0 Cu, 1.0 Pb, 39.0 Zn
59.0 Cu, 2.0 Pb, 39.0 Zn
57.0 Cu, 3.0 Pb, 40.0 Zn
95.0 Cu, 1.0 Sn, 4.0 Zn
90.0 Cu, 1.0 Sn, 9.0 Zn
81.0 Cu, 0.9 Sn, 18.1 Zn
71.0 Cu, 28.0 Zn, 1.0 Sn

R, W
R, W
F, R
F, R, W, T, P, S
F, W, R, S, T
R
F
F, W
F, R, W, T
F, W, T, P
F, W
F, R, W, T
F, R, W
F, R, T
F, R
F
F, R, W, S
F, R
F, R
F, R
F
F, R, S
F
T
R, S
R, S
F
F, R, W
F, T
F, W, T

32 57
29 76
70 190
68 212
34 86
32 55
45 76
34 64
37 72
39 105
42 125
44 130
46 128
54 74
37 60
46 74
47 88
49 85
45 95
49 85
49 74
49 68
54
54 80
52
60
39 78
41 105
46 80
48 55

221 393
200 524
483 1,310
469 1,462
234 593
221 379
310 524
234 441
255 496
269 724
290 862
303 896
317 883
372 510
255 414
317 510
324 607
338 586
310 655
338 586
338 510
338 469
372
372 552
359
414
269 538
283 724
317 552
331 379

10 55
6 72
32 170
25 195
14 77
10 50
24 73
10 58
10 62
10 63
12 65
11 65
14 62
21 55
12 55
14 60
15 60
17 62
13 70
17 62
17 60
18 45
20
20 60
20
20
12 70
12 82
16 68
18 22

69 379
41 496
221 1,172
172 1,344
97 531
69 345
165 503
69 400
69 427
69 434
83 448
76 448
97 427
145 379
83 379
97 414
103 414
117 427
90 483
117 427
117 414
124 310
138
138 414
138
138
83 483
83 565
110 469
124 152

52 8
54 1.5
45 3
48 1
40 5
45 8
32 2
45 4
50 3
55 3
55 3
66 3
65 3
52 10
45 10
65 8
60 7
52 5
66 1
52 5
50 7
53 18
45
40 6
45
30
49 3
45 2
46 7
65 60

60.0 Cu, 39.3 Zn, 0.7 Sn

60.5 Cu, 0.7 Pb, 0.8 Sn, 38.0 Zn
60.0 Cu, 1.8 Pb, 37.5 Zn, 0.7 Sn
95.0 Cu, 5.0 Sn, trace P
95.6 Cu, 4.2 Sn, 0.2 P
92.0 Cu, 8.0 Sn, trace P
99.0 Cu, 10.0 Sn, trace P
88.0 Cu, 4.0 Pb, 4.0 Zn, 4.0 Sn
95.0 Cu, 5.0 Al
92.0 Cu, 8.0 Al
92.7 Cu, 0.3 Sn, 7.0 Al
91.0 Cu, 7.0 Al, 2.0 Fe
82.0 Cu, 3.0 Fe, 10.0 Al, 5.0 Ni
82.0 Cu, 4.0 Fe, 9.0 Al, 5.0 Ni
91.2 Cu, 7.0 Al
98.5 Cu, 1.5 Si
97.0 Cu, 3.0 Si
58.5 Cu, 1.4 Fe, 39.0 Zn, 1.0
Sn, 0.1 Mn
77.5 Cu, 20.5 Zn, 2.0 Al, 0.1 As
88.7 Cu, 1.3 Fe, 10.0 Ni
70.0 Cu, 30.0 Ni
88.2 Cu, 9.5 Ni, 2.3 Sn
65.0 Cu, 25.0 Zn, 10.0 Ni
65.0 Cu, 17.0 Zn, 18.0 Ni
55.0 Cu, 27.0 Zn, 18.0 Ni
65.0 Cu, 2.0 Pb, 25.0 Zn, 8.0 Ni

F, R, T, S
F, R, S
F, R, S
F, R, W, T
F
F, R, W
F, R, W
F, R
T
R, W
F, R, T, P, S
F, R, W, T, P, S
F, R
F, R
F, R
R, W, T
F, R, W, T
R, S

55 88
56 75
55 77
47 140
46 103
55 140
66 147
44 75
60
70 80
70 85
76 89
90 118
90 105
75 102
40 95
56 145
65 84

379 607
386 517
379 531
324 965
317 710
379 965
455 1,014
303 517
414
483 552
483 586
524 614
621 814
621 724
517 703
276 655
386 1,000
448 579

25 66
25 53
25 53
19 80
50 80
24 80
28
19 63
27
30 55
30 58
33 60
50 75
45 53
35 68
15 69
21 70
30 60

172 455
172 365
172 365
131 552
345 552
165 552
193
131 434
186
207 379
207 400
228 414
345 517
310 365
241 469
103 476
145 483
207 414

50 17
43 15
40 15
64 2
48 2
70 2
70 3
50 16
55
65 25
42 35
45 32
20 15
25 20
32 22
55 11
63 3
33 19

T
F, T
F, R, T
F, R, W, T
F, W
F, R, W
F, R, W
F

60
44 60
54 75
55 120
49 130
56 103
60 145
53 91

414
303 414
372 517
379 827
338 896
386 710
414 1,000
365 627

27
16 57
20 70
22 108
18 76
25 90
27 90
23 76

186
110 393
138 483
152 745
124 524
172 621
186 621
159 524

55
42 10
45 15
35 1
50 1
45 3
40 2
40 3

F, at products; R, rod; W, wire; T, tube; P, pipe; S, shapes.

b Ranges are from softest to hardest commercial forms. The strength of the standard copper alloys depends on the temper (annealed grain size or degree of cold work) and the section thickness of the
mill product. Ranges cover standard tempers for each alloy.
c Values are for as-hot-rolled material.
d Values are for as-extruded material.
e Rod, 61.0 Cu min.
SOURCE: Copper Development Association Inc.

6-68