Consolidation

Consolidation of Clay
The settlement of soil can be divided into:

1. Elastic settlement (Se):
2. Consolidation settlement (Sc):
3. Secondary settlement or compression (Ss):
For clays: Sc >> Se ,
sometimes Ss > 0
For sands : Sc 0 , Ss 0 , Se > 0
End of
Construction
Time
SAND
Settlement
CLAY
Consolidation Process ( Spring Analogy)

Assumptions:
1. One dimensional consolidation
2. clay is saturated.
3. Compression only due to squeeze of water out of soil voids (solid particles and
water are incompressible).
q kN/m2
SAND
GWT
CLAY
A
z , uo
SAND
Excess Pore
Pressure
Total
Stress
Time
Effective
Stress
Time
Settlement
Time
Time
Fig.
of total
stress
andpressure
pore pressure
with time
Fig.1 1Variation
Variation
of stress,
pore
and settlement
with time
8.2 The Oedometer

The behaviour of soil during one-dimensional loading can be tested using a device called
an oedometer, which is shown schematically in Fig. 2. The one-dimensional condition in
which the vertical strain, zz 0, and the lateral strains, xx = yy = 0 is also referred to as
confined compression.
Load
Loading cap
Displacement
measuring device
Cell
water
Soil sample
Porous disks
Figure 2 Schematic diagram of an oedometer
The following points may be noted:

1. The soil is loaded under conditions of no lateral strain (expansion), as the soil fits
tightly into a relatively rigid ring.
2. Uncontrolled drainage is provided at the top and bottom of the specimen by porous
discs (two way drainage). In more sophisticated oedometer apparatus control of
drainage is possible.
3. A vertical load is applied to the specimen and a record of the settlement versus time is
made. The load is left on until all settlement ceases (usually 24 hours although this
depends on the soil type, impermeable clays may take longer).
4. The load is then increased (usually by a factor of 2, so the vertical stresses might be
e.g. 20, 40, 80, 160 kPa). When the maximum load is reached, the soil is unloaded in
several increments. If desired reloading can be carried out. At each step timesettlement records are made.
5. The relationships between voids ratio and effective stress, and settlement and time are
found from the test. The methods by which these are obtained will be explained in the
laboratory classes.
It is conventional to plot the void ratio versus the logarithm of the effective stress in
examining the behaviour of soil, rather than plotting the relationship between effective
stress and strain as is often done in materials testing. The reason for this is that the
relationship between effective stress and voids ratio is fundamental to an understanding
of soil behaviour. The relationship obtained is similar to that between effective stress and
strain because changes in voids ratio and strain are simply related as shown later.
Presentation of the Results

1. Deformation- pressure curves (most popular void ratio-log pressure)
2. Dial reading versus time curves (most popular square root time and log time
methods)
Calculated Parameters
1. Cc = compression index
2. Cr = recompression index
3. eo = initial void ratio
4. p = maximum past preconsolidation pressure
5. Cc = modified compression index
6. C = coefficient of secondary compression
7. av = coefficient of compressibility
8. mv = coefficient of volume compressibility (coefficient of volume change)
9. Cv = coefficient of consolidation
10. k = coefficient of permeability
Log p
Overconsolidation Ratio
vo = effective overburden stress
define Overconsolidation ratio OCR =
If
If
If
OCR = 1
OCR > 1
OCR < 1
p
vo
Clay is normally consolidated (NC)

Clay is overconsolidated (OC)
Clay is under consolidated ; it has no physical meaning
and does not exist in nature, Because soil was already made
long time ago
Causes of Overconsolidation
1. Removal of soil or load
2. Rise in groundwater table
Soil removed
NC clay
OC clay
Ground water
rose
NC clay
OC clay
Computation of Consolidation settlement
eo
Water and
soil
=
e
voids
ef
H
Voids
Solids Vs =1
Solids
Vs =1
Before
consolidation
Saturated
clay
Hf
After
consolidation
By definition: void ratio = volume of voids / volume of solids

eo = volume of voids/1 = volume of voids
Upon consolidation volume of solids remains the same but volume of voids decreases
and therefore void ratio decreases by e
Therefore
H/H = e/(1+eo)
H =
e
H o = consolidation settlement
1 + eo
Example:
Prior to placement of a soil fill layer over a large area at a site, the thickness of a
compressible clay layer was 10m. Its initial void ratio was 1.0. Sometime after the fill
was placed and due to consolidation of the clay layer, measurements indicated that the
average void ratio was 0.8. Estimate the consolidation settlement of the clay layer.
Computation of Consolidation Settlement from the Results of Laboratory

Consolidation Test
(A) Normally Consolidated Clay (NC):
p= vo
Cr
1
vo+ z
Cc
Cr
1
Log p
Cc =
e
e
=
=
log P LogP1 LogPo
e = C c Log
e
P
Log 1
Po
P1
P o
BUT
Sc =
For NC clay :
Therefore
C H
P
e
H o = c o Log 1
1 + eo
1 + eo
Po
Po = vo
+ z
P1 = vo
Sc =
Cc H o
+ z
Log vo
1 + eo
vo
Examples
A strip loading is applied at the surface of soil profile shown. Find the consolidation
settlement of the clay below the center of strip (the average stress increment at the
middle of the clay is 175 kN/m2). Is the settlement acceptable?
q=200kN/m2
GWT
B=2m
Normally consolidated Clay

= 15 kN/m3
sat = 18 kN/m3
eo = 1.24
Cc = 0.3
Cr = 0.07
H=8m
dense
sand
Additional Problem
A sample of saturated clay of height 20 mm and water content of 30% was tested in an
oedometer. Loading and unloading of the sample were carried out. The final thickness
(Hf ) of the sample at the end of each load increment is shown in the table below. Assume
Gs = 2.7
Stress, (kPa)
Hf (mm)
100
20
200
19.31
400
18.62
200
18.68
100
18.75
(a) Plot the results as (H/H) versus log and find the modified compression index ( Cc
).
(b) Plot the results as void ratio (e) versus log and find the compression index (Cc ),
recompression index Cr , and p ( maximum past preconsolidation pressure)
(Ans. Cc = 0.206; Cr = 0.017)
Time Rate of Consolidation

Traditionally the analysis of consolidation of clays is divided into two parts: one deals
with the total amount of consolidation settlement and the other deals with the time
rate of consolidation. Generally the theory of consolidation is based on the following
assumptions:
1. Soil is saturated
2. Darcy's Law for flow of water in soil is valid (v=ki)
3. Soil solid particles and water are incompressible and deformation occurs only due
to flow of water out of soil voids.
4. Flow of water only occurs in vertical direction (one-dimensional ) and thus the
settlement is only vertical
5. The coefficient of permeability k and the coefficient of volume change mv are
constant during the load increment.
Based on one dimensional flow of water Terzaghi derived the following partial
differential equation for computation of time rate of consolidation settlement: (For
complete derivation see1 )
u
2u
= Cv 2
t
z
Where:
u = excess pore water pressure (water pressure in excess of hydrostatic water pressure),
k
Cv = coefficient of consolidation =
(k and mv were defined above)
mv w
t = time
z = depth
The solution of the above partial differential equation, requires the knowledge of initial
and boundary conditions
Solution was given in terms of two dimesionless parameters T and U.
Time Factor T: is given by:
TH dr2
Cv
where
Hdr = length of drainage path = H/2 for double drainage
= H for single drainage
H = thickness of the clay layer
t=
Average Degree of Consolidation U: Is defined as :
U = (amount of settlement at time t) / (Final total settlement ) =
St
S
T and U are related:

At t =0, T=0, U =0
At t= t , T = T , U = U
At t= , T = , U = 1 or 100% consolidation
The general is given in Figure 7-14, page 202 and in the following table
U (%)
20
40
60
80
100
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
Useful Approximations:
For U < 60 %
For U > 60 %
T=
U2 =
U%
(
4 100
)2
T = 1.781 0.933Log (100 U %)
U (%)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
95
99
99.9
100
T
0
0.007
0.0314
0.0707
0.126
0.196
0.286
0.403
0.567
0.848
1.13
1.78
2.71
Examples
1. Given T =0.05 find U
2. For a soil layer 12 m thick, Cv = 8*10-8 m2/sec. The total consolidation settlement
is 0.52 m. How much time would be required for settlement of 0.25 m to occur?
For (1) single drainage (2) double drainage
3. A 10 m thick clay layer with single drainage settles 9 cm in 3.5 years. The
coefficient of consolidation was found to be Cv = 0.544*10-2 m2/sec. Compute
the (a) Ultimate (final) consolidation settlement (b) How long it will take to settle
90% of this amount?
4. ( Textbook, Example 7-9 page 210)

An 8-ft layer beneath a building is overlain by a stratum of permeable sand and gravel
and is underlain by impermeable rock. The total expected consolidation settlement for the
clay layer due to a footing load is 2.5 inch. The coefficient of consolidation , Cv =
2.68*10-3 in2/min.
(a) How many years will it take for 90% of the total settlement to take place?
(b) Compute the amount of primary consolidation settlement that will occur in 1 year
(c) How many years will it take for consolidation settlement of 1 inch to take place?
Method to Determine the Coefficient of Consolidation (CV)

The results of consolidation test can be used to obtain CV . This can be accomplished by
plotting the dial reading (deformation) with time. The following two methods are usually
used:
1. Casagrande Log time fitting method
2. Taylor square root fitting method
The methods differ in the way the time axis is represented. Generally no method is more
preferred than the other, however, the two methods may not give exactly the same results.
Casagrande Log Time Fitting Method
R1
R
Ro
a
a
t1
Dial Reading
(mm)
Primary
consolidation
t2
R50
Secondary
compression
t50
R100
Log t
Steps:
1. For a given load, plot dail reading versus log time.
2. Locate R100 (dial reading correspond to 100% consolidation).. This can be done
extending to the middle portion of the curve and the tangent to the tail portions of
the curve as shown.
3. The initial portion of the curve is parabola. Choose any time t1 on this portion
with dial reading R1. Choose another time t2 such that t2 = 4 t1 and the
corresponding dial reading is R2. Since this portion of the curve is parabola, it can
be shown that:
R1 R0 = R2 R1 = a (as shown in the figure).
Thus can be located on the figure by scaling R0 = R1 - (R2 R1).
R Ro
R50 = 100
4. Define
and find t50 (i.e. the time for 50% consolidation or
2
U=50%)
5. For U=50%, T = 0.197 (from table or chart). Thus Cv =
sample in consolidation test is double drained)
T 50( H / 2) 2
t50
(The
Taylor Square Root Method
Ro
Dial Reading
(mm)
0.15d
R90
t90
Steps:
1. For a given load, plot the dial reading versus t

2. Plot a line from Ro with all abscissas = 1.15 times as large as the
corresponding values on the curve. The point of intersection of this line with
the lower portion of the curve will give R90 and t90 (i.e. corresponding to 90%
consolidation or U=90%).
3. For U=90%, T=0.848 (from table or chart). Thus:
Cv =
T90 ( H / 2) 2
t90

Consolidation

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Consolidation of Clay

The settlement of soil can be divided into:

Consolidation Process ( Spring Analogy)

8.2 The Oedometer

Figure 2 Schematic diagram of an oedometer

The following points may be noted:

Presentation of the Results

Clay is normally consolidated (NC)

Computation of Consolidation settlement

By definition: void ratio = volume of voids / volume of solids

Computation of Consolidation Settlement from the Results of Laboratory

Normally consolidated Clay

Time Rate of Consolidation

Average Degree of Consolidation U: Is defined as :

U = (amount of settlement at time t) / (Final total settlement ) =

T and U are related:

T = 1.781 0.933Log (100 U %)

4. ( Textbook, Example 7-9 page 210)

Method to Determine the Coefficient of Consolidation (CV)

Taylor Square Root Method

1. For a given load, plot the dial reading versus t

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