UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY JAMAICA

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

Power Systems
Lab # 1
Title: Load flow and power systems planning
Course Name:

Power Systems Analysis

Instructor:

Mr. L.Daley

Programme:

Bachelor of Electrical Engineering

Group members:

Jerrord Thomas
Kirk Gilpin
Sherika Frater
Kesen Drydgen

ID # 9712672
ID # 0010235
ID # 0401213
ID # 070209

Aim:
To gain an appreciation of the data required for load flow studies.
To gain an understanding of a typical system study.
To gain experience on the use of Power World Simulator.
Theory:
In Electrical Power Systems Engineering, power flow study is also classified as Load Flow
Study. Load flow study is an imperative instrument involving numerical analysis applied to a
power system. A power flow study usually uses simplified notation such as a one-line diagram
and per-unit system, and focuses on various forms of AC power that is reactive, real, and
apparent power rather than current and voltage. It analyses the power systems in normal steadystate operation.
The information obtained from a load-flow study is the magnitude and phase angle of the voltage
at each bus and the real and reactive power flowing in each line. With this in mind, a load study
is therefore the determination of the voltage, current, power factor or reactive power at various
points in a transmission network under existing or contemplated conditions of normal operation.
Load studies are essential in planning for future development of the system because satisfactory
operation of the system depends on knowing the effects of interconnections with other power
systems, of new loads, new generating stations, and new transmission lines before they are
installed.
The information which is obtained from digital solutions of load flow is an indication of the great
contribution digital computers have made to the power-system engineers ability to obtain
operating information about systems not yet built and to analyze the effects of changes on
existing systems.
The second purpose of load flow is to calculate the steady state conditions of the power system
network. Under given constraints the program will determine the network voltage profile, current
and the real and reactive power flows.
2

Operating conditions must always be selected for each study. At each bus, except one, the net
real power into the network must be specified. There are always three types of bus, namely: load
bus, generator bus, and swing or slack bus. At load bus (PQ bus), the real and reactive power are
the controlled variables, thus it is always specified and held fix during power flow simulation.
For generator bus (PV bus), the controlled variables are the bus voltage magnitude and the real
power output of the generator. Swing or slack bus, on the other hand, is treated as a reference
bus, thus the voltage magnitude and angle are specified.

Objectives:
To investigate and appreciate load flow and Power Systems Planning. The following was done:
Interpret the instructions in the lab manual.
Construct the circuit as demonstrated in the lab manual.
Measure the various experimental parameters such as bus voltage and Amp flow.
Analyze the results obtain.

System Data:
System Nominal Voltage = 16KV
Generator:
To be place at Bus 1

Generator Set point Voltage = 1.0 p.u. = 16KV

Maximum Generator Output MW = 40MW

Minimum Generator Output MW = 0.0MW

Transmission lines:
All lines:
R = 0.3 p.u
X = 0.6 p.u
MVA limit = 20.0 (As per one-line diagram)
Loads:
To be placed at Bus 2 and Bus 3
Loads are initially 5.0 MW (in the constant power MW value field).

Instructions:
1. Run the system with the initial load values of 5.0MW at Bus 2 and Bus 3.

Record the value of the bus voltages and bus angles at all buses.

Record the MW and AMP flow on each line.

What are the values on line 2-3? Discuss why this is so

2. Increase the load at Bus 2 in 1MW increments up to 10MW.

Record the changes in all Buses and line values and generator output for each
MW increase in load at Bus 2.

What is the direction of current flow on line 2-3 for each increment?

3. Increase the load at Bus 3 in MW increments up to 10MW.

Record the changed in bus, line and generator output values. (Note both loads are
now at 10MW.

What are the values on line 2-3?

4. Continue to increase the load at Bus 3 in 1 MW increments up to 15MW.

Record the changed in all bus, line and generator output values

What is the direction of flow on line 2-3?

5. Open line 1-2.

Record all system changes.

Predict what you expect to happen on a real power system, and why?

6. Adjust the loads at either bus to return the system to safety.

What is the total load value that will return the line values to acceptable levels?

Are the bus voltages at Bus 2 and Bus 3 acceptable? What would be acceptable?

7. Discuss the planning criteria you would use in designing this system or any other power
generation and transmission system.

8. Close line 1-2 and open line 2-3.

Note the changes.

Discuss the reliability of the system under this configuration.

9. Close line 2-3 and change the following values for line 2-3.
I.

R = 0.2 p.u ; X = 0.5 p.u

II.

R = 0.1 p.u ; X = 0.4 p.u

Record the changes observed in each case.

What is the overall transmission loss in the system for all of the cases? How did you
determine this?

How did the changes in the line parameter on line 2-3 affect the system?

Discuss your findings from this laboratory Exercise.

Results:
Instruction #1 with initial load values of 5.0MW at Bus 2 and Bus 3
Measuring
Bus Voltage (KV)
Bus Angles (degrees)

Bus 1
16
0

Bus 2
15.75
-1.75

Bus 3
15.75
-1.75

Measuring
MW flow
Amp flow
MW Loss
MVAR Loss

Line 1-2
5.08
183.30
0.08
0.15

Line 1-3
5.08
183.30
0.08
0.15

Line 2-3
0
0
0
0

Question 1: What are the values on line 2-3? Discuss why this is so.
The values of MW flow and Amp flow on line 2-3 are 0MW and 0A respectively. This is so
because both the line impedance and the loads are balanced resulting in a balanced system. Note,
the potentials at Bus 2 and Bus 3 are the same (15.75kV) hence no current will flow in line 2-3.

Instruction #2 with the load at Bus 2 being increased in 1MW increments up to 10MW

At 6MW load, Generator Output = 11.19MW

Measuring
Bus Voltage (KV)
Bus Angles (degrees)

Bus 1
16
0

Bus 2
15.71
-1.98

Bus 3
15.73
1.87

Measuring
MW flow
Amp flow

Line 1-2
5.76
208.13

Line 1-3
5.42
195.82

Line 2-3
0.34
12.31

At 7MW load, Generator Output = 12.23MW

Measuring
Bus 1
Bus 2
Bus 3
Bus Voltage (KV)
16
15.68
15.71
Bus Angles (degrees)
0
-2.22
-1.98
Measuring
MW flow
Amp flow

Line 1-2
6.45
233.08

Line 1-3
5.77
208.40

Line 2-3
0.67
24.68

At 8MW load, Generator Output = 13.27MW, 1MVAR

Measuring
Bus 1
Bus 2
Bus 3
Bus Voltage (KV)
16
15.64
15.69
Bus Angles (degrees)
0
-2.46
-2.10
Measuring
MW flow
Amp flow

Line 1-2
7.15
258.15

Line 1-3
6.12
221.05

Line 2-3
1.01
37.11

At 9MW load, Generator Output = 14.32MW, 1MVAR

Measuring
Bus 1
Bus 2
Bus 3
Bus Voltage (KV)
16
15.61
15.67
Bus Angles (degrees)
0
-2.70
-2.22
Measuring
MW flow
Amp flow

Line 1-2
7.84
283.35

Line 1-3
6.47
233.76

Line 2-3
1.34
49.59

At 10MW load, Generator Output = 15MW, 1MVAR

Measuring
Bus 1
Bus 2
Bus 3
Bus Voltage (KV)
16
15.57
15.66
Bus Angles (degrees)
0
-2.95
-2.34
Measuring
MW flow
Amp flow

Line 1-2
8.54
308.66

Line 1-3
6.82
246.53

Line 2-3
1.68
62.14

Question 2: What is the direction of current flow on line 2-3 for each increment?
For each 1MW load increment the direction of current flow on line 2-3 is from Bus 3 to Bus 2.
Recall that current flows from a higher to a lower potential. Therefore the current will flow from
Bus 3 (15.66kV) to Bus 2 (15.57kV).

Instruction# 3 Increase the load at Bus 3 in 1MW increments up to 10MW.

At 6MW, Generator output = 16.41MW, 1MVAR

Measuring
Bus Voltage (KV)
Bus Angles (degrees)

Bus 1
16
0

Bus 2
15.55
-3.07

Bus 3
15.62
-2.58

Measuring
MW flow
Amp flow

Line 1-2
8.90
321.43

Line 1-3
7.52
271.60

Line 2-3
1.34
49.84

At 7MW, Generator output = 17.46MW, 1MVAR

Measuring
Bus Voltage (KV)
Bus Angles (degrees)

Bus 1
16
0

Bus 2
15.53
-3.19

Bus 3
15.58
-2.83

Measuring
MW flow
Amp flow

Line 1-2
9.25
334.25

Line 1-3
8.21
296.79

Line 2-3
1.01
37.47

At 8MW Generator output = 18.52MW, 1MVAR

Measuring
Bus Voltage (KV)
Bus Angles (degrees)

Bus 1
16
0

Bus 2
15.51
-3.31

Bus 3
15.55
-3.07

Measuring
MW flow
Amp flow

Line 1-2
9.61
347.14

Line 1-3
8.91
322.11

Line 2-3
0.67
25.04

At 9MW, Generator output = 19.58MW, 1MVAR

Measuring
Bus Voltage (KV)
Bus Angles (degrees)

Bus 1
16
0

Bus 2
15.49
-3.31

Bus 3
15.51
-3.42

Measuring
MW flow

Line 1-2
9.96

Line 1-3
9.62

Line 2-3
0.34
10

Amp flow

360.10

347.56

12.55

At 10MW, Generator output = 20.64, 1MVAR

Measuring
Bus Voltage (KV)
Bus Angles (degrees)

Bus 1
16
0

Bus 2
15.47
-3.56

Bus 3
15.47
-3.56

Measuring
MW flow
Amp flow

Line 1-2
10.32
373.13

Line 1-3
10.32
373.13

Line 2-3
0
0.05

Observation:
As the load is increased form 5MW to 10MW the ampere and MW flow in line 2-3 gradually
decreases to zero. This is a direct result of the load returning to a balanced state and equal
potentials at Bus 2 and Bus 3.

11

Instruction #4: Increase the load at Bus 3 in 1 MW increments up to 15MW.

At 11MW Generator output = 21.71MW, 1MVAR

Measuring
Bus Voltage (KV)
Bus Angles (degrees)

Bus 1
16
0

Bus 2
15.45
-3.68

Bus 3
15.44
-3.80

Measuring
MW flow
Amp flow

Line 1-2
10.68
386.24

Line 1-3
11.03
398.84

Line 2-3
0.34
12.61

At 12MW Generator output = 22.78MW, 1MVAR

Measuring
Bus Voltage (KV)
Bus Angles (degrees)

Bus 1
16
0

Bus 2
15.43
-3.81

Bus 3
15.40
-4.05

Measuring
MW flow
Amp flow

Line 1-2
11.04
399.41

Line 1-3
11.74
422.69

Line 2-3
0.68
25.29

At 13MW Generator output = 23.86MW, 2MVAR

Measuring
Bus Voltage (KV)
Bus Angles (degrees)

Bus 1
16
0

Bus 2
15.41
-3.93

Bus 3
15.36
-4.30

Measuring
MW flow
Amp flow

Line 1-2
11.41
412.66

Line 1-3
12.46
450.68

Line 2-3
1.01
38.03

At 14MW Generator output = 24.95MW, 2MVAR

Measuring
Bus Voltage (KV)
Bus Angles (degrees)

Bus 1
16
0

Bus 2
15.39
-4.05

Bus 3
15.32
-4.55

Measuring
MW flow
Amp flow

Line 1-2
11.77
425.99

Line 1-3
13.18
476.82

Line 2-3
1.35
50.85
12

At 15MW Generator output = 26.04MW, 2MVAR

Measuring
Bus Voltage (KV)
Bus Angles (degrees)

Bus 1
16
0

Bus 2
15.37
-4.18

Bus 3
15.28
-4.81

Measuring
MW flow
Amp flow

Line 1-2
12.14
439.40

Line 1-3
13.90
503.11

Line 2-3
1.70
63.73

Question 4: What is the direction of flow on line 2-3?

For each 1MW load increment the direction of flow on line 2-3 is from Bus 2 to Bus 3. Again
recall that current flows from a higher to a lower potential. Therefore the current will flow from
Bus 2 (15.37kV) to Bus 3 (15.28kV).

13

Instruction #5 Open line 1-2

At 15MW Generator output = 27.81MW, 6MVAR

Measuring
Bus Voltage (KV)
Bus Angles (degrees)

Bus 1
16
0

Bus 2
13.72
-14.12

Bus 3
14.32
-9.64

Measuring
MW flow
Amp flow

Line 1-2
0
0

Line 1-3
27.81
1024.01

Line 2-3
9.99
420.50

Question 5: Predict what you expect to happen on a real power system. Why?
The transmission line 1-3 would possibly trip due to an overload. All current carrying devices are
monitored continuously to ensure that they do not become overloaded or violate other operating
14

constraints [1]. A trip on line 1-3 would result in an interruption of supply at Bus 1 and Bus 2.
Noticeably with line 1-2 out, the system becomes a radial system. A fault on line 2-3 would
therefore result in an interruption of the load at Bus 2; likewise a fault on line 1-3 means both
loads would be interrupted. This line is evidently overloaded as the MVA loading indicates 142%
of the rated capacity.
On a real power system, the existing protection scheme should first attempt to shed load to return
the system to normal. Otherwise the overload protection would cause a trip on line 1-3 to avoid
overheating of the line and subsequent damage.
Instruction#6 Adjust the loads at either bus to return the system to safety

Question 6i: What is the total load value that will return the line values to acceptable levels?
The total load value that will return the line values to acceptable levels is 14MW.

15

Question 6ii: Are the bus voltages at Bus 2 and Bus 3 acceptable? What would be acceptable?
Typical planned minimum voltage criteria for lower HV transmission substations vary from 95 to
97.5% of nominal voltage [5].
Therefore: Vr/Vs>=0.95
At Bus 2:
VR / Vs = 14.57/16 = 0.91
The voltage at Bus 2 (14.57kV) falls outside of the acceptable range. The acceptable voltage at
Bus 2 would be within the range of 15.2 to 15.52kV.
At Bus 3:
VR / Vs = 15.14/16 = 0.95
The voltage at Bus 3 (15.14kV) falls within the acceptable range. Therefore 15.14kV is
acceptable at Bus 3.

16

Instruction #7 Discuss the planning criteria you would use in designing this system or any
other power generation and transmission system.
In designing any power generation and transmission system, planning criteria are used to plan
and build the transmission network with adequate margins to ensure a reliable supply of power to
customers under reasonable equipment outage contingencies. The transmission system should
perform its basic functions under a wide range of operating conditions. Transmission planning
criteria include equipment loading criteria, transmission voltage criteria, stability criteria and
reliability criteria [5]. The planning criteria to be used are adapted from the Jamaica Public Service
Company planning criteria for transmission and distribution.
Equipment Loading Criteria
With no equipment outages, transmission equipment loadings should not exceed normal ratings
for all realistic combinations of generation and interchange. With a single contingency (N-1)
outage, emergency ratings should not be exceeded. One loading criterion is not to exceed twohour emergency ratings when a transmission line or transformer is out of service.
With some of the likely double- contingencies outages, the transmission system should supply all
system loads without exceeding emergency ratings. One criterion is not to exceed two-to-ten day
emergency ratings when any line and generator are out of service. Under these doublecontingency outages, it may be necessary to shed load at some locations during heavy load
periods. Another criterion is to maintain service to critical loads under a double-contingency
outage with the prior outage of a generator.
Transmission Voltage Criteria
Transmission voltages should be maintained with suitable ranges for both normal and reasonable
emergency conditions. Maximum planned transmission voltage is typically 105% of rated
nominal voltage for both normal and reasonable emergency conditions. Single contingency
outages correspond to the loss of any line, transformer or generator [5]. While for this system,
double-contingency outages correspond to loss of any transmission line and generator,
transmission line and transformer, transformer and generator or any two generators.
17

Stability Criteria
System stability is the ability of all synchronous generators in operation to stay in synchronism
with each other while moving from one operating condition to another [5]. There are different
types of stability namely: steady state, transient and dynamic stability.
Reliability Criteria
Reliability criteria are defined and measured in terms of performance of a system under
various contingencies [6]. Prediction of performance is based on simulation, rather than actual
tests. These criteria are based on the fundamental assumption that system integrity will be
maintained for the more probable and less probable contingencies and that there is no loss
of load for the common more probable contingencies.
In summary, the system shall be designed to operate within normal operating ranges for credible
load and generation patterns for base case operation. The system shall be designed to
withstand the more probable contingencies without widespread system failure and instability,
maintaining power quality within specified voltage and frequency fluctuation ranges and
maintaining voltage and thermal loadings within operating limits[6]. The more probable
contingencies to be use in the design of this system will comprise of single contingency (N-1)
and trip - maintenance (N-2) disturbances.
Transmission (As used by JPS Co. Ltd)
-Normal

+/- 5% on 69kv Bus

0.95 p.f

Up to 100% transformer and line loading

-Contingency (N-1, N-2 at generating stations)

+/- 6% on 69kv Bus

Up to 110% line loading

18

Instruction#8 Close line 1-2 and open line 2-3.

Generator output = 14.34MW, 1Mvar

Measuring
Bus 1
Bus Voltage (KV)
16
Bus Angles (degrees) 0

Bus 2
15.48
-3.56

Bus 3
15.80
-1.39

Measuring
MW flow
Amp flow

Line 1-3
4.04
145.68

Line 2-3
0
0

Line 1-2
10.31
372.51

Question 8: Discuss the reliability of the system under this configuration.

The reliability of the a power system is based on adequacy, having the necessary generating
capability and transmission line capacity, and operating reliability, the ability to meet demand
under forecast and unforeseen conditions.The existing system configuration is not as reliable as
the previous configuration.

19

According to NERC system operating and planning standard for ensuring reliability of a
transmission grid; the system should be operated so that it remains in a reliable condition even if
a contingency occurs, such as the loss of a key generator or transmission facility [1]. Now under
this configuration (line 2-3 open) if line 1-3 trips then the load at Bus 3 experiences an outage.
The same applies to the load at Bus 2 if line 1-2 trips. Also if the generator trips then the entire
system would blackout. From these various possible scenarios it is fair to say that the system
under this configuration is NOT reliable.
The NERC Reliability Assessment Guidebook outlines that a power system will achieve an
adequate level of reliability when it possesses following characteristics:
1. The System is controlled to stay within acceptable limits during normal conditions;
2. The System performs acceptably after credible Contingencies;
3. The System limits the impact and scope of instability and cascading outages when they
occur;
4. The Systems Facilities are protected from unacceptable damage by operating them within
Facility Ratings;
5. The Systems integrity can be restored promptly if it is lost; and
6. The System has the ability to supply the aggregate electric power and energy requirements of
the electricity consumers at all times, taking into account scheduled and reasonably expected
unscheduled outages of system components

20

Instruction#9 Close line 2-3 and change the following values for line 2-3.
1. R = 0.2 p.u ; X = 0.5 p.u

Generator output = 14.32MW, 1Mvar

Measuring
Bus Voltage (KV)
Bus Angles (degrees)
Measuring
MW flow
Amp flow

Bus 1
16
0

Bus 2
15.60
-2.78

Bus 3
15.68
-2.14

Line 1-2
8.05
290.56

Line 1-3
6.28
226.79

Line 2-3
2.15
79.54

21

2. R = 0.1 p.u ; X = 0.4 p.u

Generator output = 14.32MW, 1Mvar

Measuring
Bus Voltage (KV)
Bus Angles (degrees)
Measuring
MW flow
Amp flow

Bus 1
16
0

Bus 2
15.62
-2.73

Bus 3
15.66
-2.19

Line 1-2
7.88
284.50

Line 1-3
6.44
232.68

Line 2-3
2.31
85.38

22

Question 9i: What is the overall transmission loss in the system for all of the cases? How did
you determine this?

For Case 1: R=0.3p.u; 0.6p.u

Ploss Total

= PGenerated - PTotal load

= 14.32 14.0
= 0.32 MW

Alternatively, the losses on each transmission line are:

Ploss Total

= Ploss1-2 + Ploss1- 3 + Ploss2-3

= 0.20 + 0.11 + 0.01
= 0.32 MW

For Case 2: R=0.2p.u; 0.5p.u

Ploss Total

= PGenerated - PTotal load

= 14.32 - 14
= 0.32 MW

Alternatively, the losses on each transmission line are:

Ploss Total

= Ploss1-2 + Ploss1- 3 + Ploss2-3

= 0.19 + 0.12 + 0.01
= 0.32 MW

For Case 3: R=0.1p.u; 0.4p.u

Ploss Total

= PGenerated - PTotal load

= 14.32 - 14
= 0.32 MW

Alternatively, the losses on each transmission line are:

Ploss Total

= Ploss1-2 + Ploss1- 3 + Ploss2-3

= 0.19 + 0.12 + 0.01
23

= 0.32 MW
Question 9ii: How did the changes in the line parameter on line 2-3 affect the system?
The change in line parameter on line 2-3 does not affect the system in any way. The losses on the
system remain the same throughout. The I2*R losses are minimal since a small current flows
through line 2-3.

24

25

KESEN DRYDGEN
0702097
BENG 4 (ART)
Power System Lab #1
Discussion:
The load flow program does computation of the voltage magnitude and phase angle at the given
buses and as a result the real and reactive power of the transmission lines is determined.
Inputting values of resistance and reactances the program was also able return values for the
reactive and real power loss, as well as the current carried by the line.
In the first exercise where the load on bus 2 and 3 was 5MW the resulting values for line 2-3 was
0 MW and 0 amperes where as line 1-2 and 1-3 they where equal in value. The values obtain is
as a result of a balance system where there was no variances in the load and line impedances.
With the load at bus 2 being increased in 1MW increments up to 10MW it was observed that as
the load increases the generator output also increases. Also the MW flow and current flow of
each line increases proportionally with each increase in load. It was also observed that as the
load increase the current flow on line 2-3 is from bus3 to bus 2.
With increase load on bus 3 in 1MW increments to 10 MW it was notice that the generator
output was greater than the generator output of the same increment when the load was on bus 2.
For line 1-2 and 1-3 the MW flow and Current flow increases linearly where as for line 2-3 it
decreases linearly for each increment to zero. This could be as a result of the system being
returned to a balanced system.
The load increase on bus 3 continued to 15MW and the generator output continued to increase,
however there was an increase in the reactive output from 1 MVAR to 2 MVAR. The MW flows
and current flow also increases for each line linearly. This maybe as a result of the increase in
load where the load angle also increases which in turn output power of generator increases and
hence the reactive power also increases or merely as a result of the increase of the phase angle
between the voltage and the current.
With line 1-2 open the flow from the system generator will be entirely through line 1-3 thus
causing an overload on that line of 142 % of its rated current capacity which will cause
overheating and possible further damage to the system. However the system protection will

26

cause the line to trip due to it abnormal operating condition. Also with line 1-3 out both buses 2
and 3 and their associated load will be interrupted.
Closing of line 1-2, line 2-3 was open and it was observed that for the other two lines that are
closed both their current and MW flow where equal in value and the generator output was 10
MW with a zero reactive power. The zero reactive power is as a result of the reduction in power
output cause by loss of line 2-3 and thus a reduction of the phase angle difference. This
configuration will not be a reliable one as the transmission line capacity of the system to carry
load will be reduce due to the opening of line 2-3. Also if line 1-2 should trip then bus 2 with its
load will have no power and if the same should happened to line 1-3 then bus 3 and its load will
also be without power. There is also no other generator on the system in case that one trips to
prevent a total blackout.
Line 2-3 was closed and its resistance and reactance values where changed in two instances. The
changes that occurred where observed which shows no MW or current flow in both instances of
resistance and reactance change of line 2-3. This is a s a result of a load balance on bus 2 and 3
as indicated by the results obtained. The overall transmission loss in the system is 0.16 MW in
all three cases and was found by adding all the losses in each line. However it should be noted
that in all three cases the losses in line 2-3 was zero, which is as a result of no current flow in
that line due to a balanced system.

Conclusion:
The objective of this exercise was to get and appreciation and understanding of a load flow
system of how it perform under different conditions by inputting of various values and opening
and closing of different transmission lines. This manipulation and load flow calculations was
accomplished with the use of the Power World Simulator. Also about power system planning,
which we had to research the criterias needed to design this system.
It was observed from the exercise that the simple switching out of a line or changing a network
parameter can have significant impact on how our power system performs and as such careful
attention must be paid to such detail to maintain a reliable power system.
27

The experiment was successful in achieving the objectives and further reinforces of how power
flow analysis is a very effective method of controlling load and other parameters on a system.

28

Jerrord Thomas
9712672
Beng4E_Articulated
Title: Load flow and power systems planning
Question 9iii: Discuss your findings from this laboratory Exercise.

Discussion
A power flow study usually uses simplified notation such as a one-line diagram and per-unit
system, and focuses on various forms of AC power that is reactive, real, and apparent power
rather than current and voltage. The information obtained from a load-flow study is the
magnitude and phase angle of the voltage at each bus and the real and reactive power flowing in
each line. Now from the analysis of the data it was clearly established that there would be no
MW flow and AMP flow in line 2-3 when the loads on bus 2 and bus 3 are balanced. This is
based on the fact that the impedance and resistance of all lines were the same. Simply put when
bus 2 and 3 have the same load the MW flow and Amp flow would be the same for line 1-2 and
line 1-3. Also when the loads on bus 2 and bus 3 were balanced the bus voltages were found to
be the same (15.75kV). Hence under balanced loading condition line 2-3 would be redundant.
However, when the loads on bus 2 and 3 are unbalanced the need for line 2-3 becomes apparent
as it was clearly seen that this line supplied the addition MW needed to the load demanding it.
When either line 1-2 or line 1-3 are opened line 2-3 acts as a tie line supplying the load on either
bus 2 or 3 depending on which line is open. If we were to remove line 2-3 and then open line 1-2
then there would be no way for load connected to line to receive power. The same would be true
if we kept line 1-2 closed and open line 1-3. It can therefore be stated that line 2-3 improves the
reliability of the system. It was also observed that direction of current flow in line 2-3 was
dependent upon the loads connected to bus 2 and bus 3. If load on bus 3 was greater the direction
would be from 2 to 3. However, if the load on bus 2 was greater the direction of current flow
would be from 3 to 2. This is because current will always follow from a higher potential to a
lower potential. This line however, contributed to the overall transmission losses and also the
voltage drops in the system.
29

From the experiment it was clear that the generator would not be severely affect if either line 1-2
or line 2-3 were opened. However, based on the load demand if line 1-2 was opened then line 1-3
could easily be overloaded because it would now be required to carry this additional load. In the
real world however, the overloading of the line would be prevented by either load shedding or by
the lines protection system. In order to return the system to safety this could be accomplished by
load shedding which was what was actually done when the loads on either bus 2 or bus 3 was
varied. The planning criteria play a critical role in the overall designing of the power system.
These scenarios would have to be examined during the planning and designing stages for the
power system. Based on research done it was found out that the acceptable bus voltage level was
95% of the slack bus nominal voltage. Based on the value obtained for the bus voltage at Bus 3
(95%) this was acceptable however that which was obtained for Bus 2 (91%) was unacceptable.
The changing of the line parameters would not affect the system under balanced loading
condition. However, when the loads on the system are unbalanced then the transmission loss
would increase. That is the I2R loss and the voltage drop would increase as the loading demands
increase. The transmission losses for all three cases were found to be 0.32MW. It was observed
that the transmission loss in the system for all the cases were unrealistic as they in MW losses. In
the real world these losses would not be acceptable.

Conclusion
The overall reliability of the power system is affected by whether or not line 2-3 is present in the
system. Line 2-3 is also important in giving the system a high level of redundancy. That is it will
enable maintenance to be done on the other lines without disrupting the supply to the loads
connected to bus2 and bus 3. In the real world the system would be designed to prevent
overloading of the transmission lines. Also the transmission line loss was found to be the same in
all three cases. Finally it can be concluded that the aims and objectives of this lab experiment
were achieved.

30

Discussion
Sherika Frater
0401213

This experiment was conducted using Power World Software package, which examine the load
flow functions. The steady state solution of a network in power system is termed load flow.
Load flow studies are carried out in order to make changes to power system to ensure the
planning and designing of future expansions on existing system.
The real and reactive power, the magnitude and phase angle of the voltage in each branch of the
system are some useful information the study will provide. Nodal voltage analysis is used to
carry out load flow studies, and of the four quantities of interest two are given and the other two
can be determined by calculations.
From the exercise carried out a fair understanding of a typical system study was achieved. It
was possible to identify from theory the different types of bus on the system. Bus 1 was the
slack bus with busses 2 and 3 being load busses. From instructions 1-4, no error was seen by the
system, the system was operational, and thus the loading did not exceed the generator capability.
The values of line 2-3 were recorded and the direction of the current flow as requested and are
indicated in the result table.

For instruction 5 we were ask to open line 1-2.Generators are normally not allowed to operate in
excess in of 80% of its rating. Hence one method used in network parameters for running load
flow is to flag overloads, the overloaded level used in this experiment was 0.8, and after opening
line1-2, the MVA loading were flashing, indicating an overload of 142%. In order to prevent a
recurrence a shunt capacitor can be added to the line in an effort to decrease the power loss.
Opening line 1-2 in a real power system the transmission line 1-3 would possibly trip due to over
load. However the choice of the electrical layout of the proposed power station is based on the
conditions prevailing locally. It should take into consideration the character of the load and the
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necessity for maintaining continuity of service. It should be as simple in arrangement as

practicable to secure the desired flexibility in operation and to provide the proper facilities for
inspection of the apparatus. With more than one generator complete flexibility is obtained by
using duplicate bus and switching equipment.
For instruction 6 the loads at each bus were adjust to return the system to safety.
Practically for this experiment the total load value that returned the line values to acceptable
levels is 14MW. The specific function of transmission and generation planning is to ensure the
coordinated development of a reliable, efficient, and economical system for the transmission of
electricity for the long term benefit of transmission users. The planning process involves the
application of technical reliability criteria, economics, consideration of transmission and
generation operations, maintenance and protection, co-ordination with generation and
distribution functions, information technology, strategic considerations and environmental
aspects.
Some criteria are;
System security
Protection
Consideration of load growth and where this load growth would exist
Type of generation
Consideration of distributed generator
And how one would carry out maintenance etc.
For instruction 8 the reliability of the system under the given configuration was already
discussed in this laboratory exercise, however for a little recap: Reliability is defined and
measured in terms of performance of a system under various contingencies. Prediction of
performance is based on simulation, rather than actual tests. Reliability criteria are based on the
fundamental assumption that system integrity will be maintained for the more probable and less

32

probable contingencies and that there is no loss of load for the common more probable
contingencies. For instruction 9 changing the resistance and reactance values did not affect the
system this was due to the fact that the loads were balanced.

Conclusion:
Sherika Frater
0401213
This experiment was carried to gain an appreciation of the data required for load flow studies,
to gain an understanding of a typical system study and to gain experience on the use of Power
World Simulator. The aim of the experiment was achieved as outlined in the discussion above.
The importance of load flow was also determined theoretically and practically.
It can be concluded that completion of a basic study of the load flow analysis of a system offers
enough information for system controllers and planners to make requisite changes to improve
any power system.
This experiment was very successful, there-by reinforcing the theory on load flow and power
systems planning and the usefulness for various applications could be clearly addressed. Overall
this lab exercise was very productive; a lot of knowledge was gained.
Note briefly assumptions made or conclusions made are solely due to results obtained and
data collected from this experiment. Regardless, the lab proved to be successful and a
wider knowledge was gained.

33

KIRK GILPIN
I.D: 0010235
DISCUSSION
A load flow study is valuable for many reasons. A load-flow study can be used to identify the
voltage at each bus and the power flow in all branch and feeder circuits. Losses in each branch
and total system power losses can also be determined. A Load-flow study can determine if
system voltages remain within specified limits under various contingency conditions, and
whether certain equipment or conductors are overloaded. A power flow analyses play a key role
in the planning of additions or expansions to transmission and generation facilities [3]. In the
exercises done it was determined that in each case the generating capacity was sufficient to
supply the loads. This demonstrates that load-flow studies are also used to identify the need for
additional generation capacity. Power System planning is a study and determination of what
facilities and procedures should be provided to satisfy and promote appropriate future demands
for electricity.
A fair understanding of a typical system study was achieved from the simulation exercises done.
I was able to identify two different types of buses used in a power system, in this case the slack
bus and load buses. Bus 1 was identified as the slack bus and bus 2 and bus 3 being load buses.
The swing or slack bus is treated as a reference bus in which case the voltage magnitude and
angle are specified. It was observed from the data collected that as the load was increased the
bus angles also increased.
In the cases simulated, where one bus at a higher potential than the other, current will always
tend to flow from the higher potential to the lower potential. This was actually verified in the
load flow analysis simulations. When the load is increased at a particular bus, the voltage at that
bus decreases. Also once the load is increased on the system the generator output has to increase
to match the load demand. For case 3 it was observed that as the load was increased from 5MW
to 10MW the ampere and MW flow in line 2-3 gradually decreases to zero. This is a direct result

34

of equal loading at bus 2 and bus 3. With equal potentials (15.47kV) at Bus 2 and Bus 3 no
current will flow in line 2-3.
Based on instruction five it is important for every system to have adequate protection schemes in
place to ensure the reliability of the power system under normal and contingency situations.
Reliability criteria are defined and measured in terms of performance of a system under various
contingencies, which again points to the importance of planning criteria in power system design.
Criteria are also established to ensure the safe and reliable operation of equipment and line in a
power system. Operation design of power systems are such that, as a minimum, the system must
remain operational upon the sudden, unexpected loss of any single facility on the system.
It was also noted that a change in the parameters for line 2-3 did not affect the system in any
major way. The overall transmission losses was found to be 0.32MW, and remained the same
although line 2-3 parameters were varied. The I2*R losses are minimal since a small current
flows through line 2-3.

KIRK GILPIN
I.D: 0010235
CONCLUSION
I learnt that to design this or any power system load flow analysis and certain Planning Criteria
are employed in the planning and building of the network to ensure reliable supply under normal
and contingency situations. The criteria used include equipment loading criteria, voltage criteria,
stability criteria and reliability criteria. Together, all these criteria ensure a reliable supply of
power to customers.
The lab exercise conducted also gave a greater insight into the detailed process involved in
planning and analysis of a power system. A deeper appreciation and understanding of load flow
analysis and the criteria used in the planning and building of a typical system was gained.

35

It was concluded that before changes can be made to power systems load flow studies are carried
out. This study is very important in the planning and designing of future expansions on existing
systems. Finally a better understanding and appreciation was gained of the importance and
practical use of the commercial grade Power World simulator software.

36

Reference:
[1] J.D. Glover, M.S. Sarma & T.J Overbye, Power System Analysis and Design, Fourth
Edition, Cengage Learning (2008)

[2] Grainger, John J. & William D. Stevenson, Jr., Power System Analysis, 1st edition,
McGraw-Hill, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458, (2000).

[3] William D. Stevenson, Jr., Elements of Power System Analysis, 6th edition, McGraw-Hill,
(1992)

[4] Stagg, G.W. & El-Abiad, A.H, Computer methods in Power System Analysis, McGrawHill, (1998)

[5] C. Richard C. Dorf, The Electrical Engineering Handbook: Systems Controls, Embedded
Systems, Energy, and Machines, Third Edition, Taylor & Francis Group (2006)

[6] ESB National Grid - Transmission Planning Criteria Manual, October 1998

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APPENDIX:
Definitions:
(1) Per Unit (P.U.) - Per Unit is a proportional representation of the measurement
quantity. One P.U. is 100% of the nominal value. One P.U. voltage on the power
system is 100% of the nominal system voltage, (i.e., 115kV, 230kV, 345kV, etc.).
(2) Rated Capacity - This is the maximum capacity in MW, MVA, or amps of a
system element that can be sustained for a specified period of time. Each system
element may have several different rated capacities (i.e., seasonal, steady state,
emergency). Rated capacities shall be such that when operated at that level for the
specified period of time there shall be no permanent damage to equipment or
materials, no appreciable loss of useful life, and no violations of applicable safety
codes.
(3) N-1 - This term refers to the condition that occurs when one element of the power system has been
removed from service by either voluntary or involuntary means. Typical elements of the power system
include, but are not limited to transmission lines, transformers, relays, protection and reclosing schemes,
circuit breakers, and disconnects.

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