Feedback and Control Systems

TIME RESPONSE
At the end of this chapter, the students shall be able to:
3.1. (a) Define, compute and plot, on the complex s-plane, the poles and zeros of a transfer function
and explain their relationships with the system response; (b) Determine the response of a system
with real poles, specifying the natural and forced response parts of the total response.
3.2. Define and compute for the parameters of the time response of first-order systems.
3.3. (a) Differentiate the types of second-order system response; (b) identify the type of response of
the system given its transfer function; (c) determine the response of a second-order system based
on the poles and on the type of response.
3.4. (a) Define and compute the two specifications, namely the natural frequency and the damping
ratio, of a general second-order system; (b) Explain the relationship of these specifications to the
type of response of the system and identify the type of the response of the system given these
specifications.
3.5. (a) Define and compute the time response parameters of an underdamped second-order system;
(b) Relate these parameters to the pole location of the system; (c) Design component values for
systems with underdamped response meeting time response specifications.
3.6 (a) Approximate a system with a real third pole into a second-order system, and determine the
validity of such approximation; (b) Determine the response of a second-order system with zeros,
and describe nonminimum-phase behavior if present on such systems; (c) Determine the validity of
approximating a system with pole-zero cancellation.

3.1 Poles, Zeros and System Response

Intended Learning Outcomes: (a) Define, compute and plot, on the complex s-plane, the poles and zeros of
a transfer function and explain their relationships with the system response; (b) Determine the response of
a system with real poles, specifying the natural and forced response parts of the total response.
In the previous discussions, two methods of modeling physical systems were discussed. These were
transfer function and state-space representation. After obtaining a mathematical representation of a
subsystem, the subsystem is analyzed for its transient and steady-state responses to see if these
Time Response

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Feedback and Control Systems

characteristics yield the desired behavior. This part of the discussion demonstrates the application of the
system representation by evaluating the transient response from the system model. A valuable analysis
and design tool, the poles and zeros, will be first described and the analysis of first- and second-order
systems follow after. The order of the system refers to the order of the equivalent differential equation
representing the system the order of the denominator of the transfer function after cancellation of
common factors in the numerator or the number of simultaneous first-order equations required for the statespace representation.
The output of the system is the sum of two responses: the forced response (the steady-state response or
the particular solution) and the natural response (the homogenous solution). This time response can be
evaluated by solving the differential equation model of the system, or if in terms of transfer function,
multiplying the transfer function model of the system with the Laplace of the input and taking the inverse of
the product. However, productivity is aided if less time is devoted in mathematical calculations and more
time is used in qualitatively evaluating the time response. Thus, we use poles and the zeros of the system
to do such task. Learning this relationship gives us a qualitative handle on problems. The concept of poles
and zeros, fundamental to the analysis and design of control systems, simplifies the evaluation of a
systems response.
The poles of a transfer function are (1) the values of the Laplace transform variable s that cause the
transfer function to become infinite, or (2) any roots of the denominator of the transfer function that are
common to roots of the numerator. The zeros of a transfer function are (1) the values of the Laplace
transform variable s that cause the transfer function to become zero, or (2) any roots of the numerator of
the transfer function that are common to roots of the denominator.
Example 3.1
Determine the poles and zeros of the first-order transfer function shown below and plot them on a complex
s-plane.

Determine the output of this system to the given input.

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Answer:

The system has a pole at s = 5 and has a zero at s = 2. The plot of these on the complex s-plane is
shown below (note how poles and zeros are represented in the complex plane).

The time response of the system to the specified input Rs =

(a step input) is
ct =

2 3 
+ e
5 5

The evolution of the response of the system to the step input and its relationship with the poles and zeros
of the input and of the system is graphically illustrated in figure 3.1.

Figure 3. 1. Evolution of natural, forced and total response of the system due to the step input for example 3.1.

From the previous example, the following observations can be drawn about the relationship of the poles
and zeros to the time response of the system.
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A pole of the input function (input pole) generates the form of the forced response.

A pole of the transfer function (system pole) generates the form of the natural response.

A pole on the real axis generates an exponential response of the form e where a is the pole
location on the real axis. Thus, the farther to the left a pole is on the negative real axis, the faster
the exponential transient response will decay to zero. The parameter a is called the exponential
decay frequency.

The zeros and poles generate the amplitudes for both the forced and natural responses.

Example 3.2

Given the system below, write the output ct, in general terms. Specify the forced and natural parts of the
solution.

Answer:
K
+ K !!!!!!!"!!!!!!!#
e + K  e + K  e

ct = Forced
Natural
Response
Response

Example 3.3

A system has a transfer function Gs = 

) 
)+
),
) (. Write, by inspection, the output ct in
(
)
)*

general terms if the input is a unit step.

Answer:

Time Response

ct = K + K  e + K  e+ + K  e, + K  e (

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Feedback and Control Systems

3.2. Time Response of First-Order Systems
Intended Learning Outcome: Define and compute for the parameters of the time response of first-order
systems.
The time response of first-order systems without zeros will be discussed to define a performance
specification for such a system. A first-order system without zeros can be described by the transfer function
shown in figure 3.2, together with its pole plot.

Figure 3. 2. A first-order system without zero. Block diagram representation and pole plot.

If the input to this system is a unit step, Rs =

, the Laplace transform of the step response is Cs,

where
Cs = RsGs =

a
ss + a

(3.1)

Taking the inverse Laplace transform,

ct = 1 e

(3.2)

where the input pole at the origin generated the forced response and the system pole at a generated the
natural response. The first-order system has three performance specifications:
Time Constant. The quantity
T0 =

Time Response

1
a

(3.3)

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Feedback and Control Systems

is called the time constant of the first-order system. It is defined as the time for the natural response to
decay to 37% of its initial value. Alternately, the time constant is also the time it takes for the step response
to rise to 63% of its final value. Figure 3.3 graphically illustrates the idea.
Since T0 is the reciprocal of a and has a unit of sec, then a has a unit of 1/sec or frequency. Thus, the

parameter a is called the exponential frequency. This parameter can also be interpreted as the slope of the

response at t = 0.

Figure 3. 3. First-order system response to a unit step.

Rise Time. Rise time is defined as the time required for the waveform to go from 10% to 90% of its final
value. Thus,
T3 =

2.2
a

(3.4)

Settling Time. Settling time is defined as the time for the response to reach and stay within 2% of its final
value. Thus,
T
=

Time Response

4
a

(3.5)

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Feedback and Control Systems

Example 3.4

A system has a transfer function Gs =

)(. Find the time constant, T0 , the rise time T3 and the settling
time, T
.

(

Answers:

Time constant, T0 = 0.02 sec

Rise time, T3 = 0.08 sec

Settling time, T
= 0.044 sec

Often it is not possible or practical to obtain a systems transfer function analytically. Perhaps the system is
closed, and the component parts are not easily identifiable. Since the transfer function is a representation
of the system from input to output, the systems step response can lead to a representation even though
the inner construction is unknown. With a step input, the time constant and the steady-state value can be
measured, from which the transfer function can be deduced.
Example 3.5
Approximate the transfer function of a system whose step response is shown below.

The transfer function of the system which generated this step response is
Gs =

Time Response

5
s+7

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Feedback and Control Systems

Drill Problems 3.1

1. Find the poles and zeros of the transfer function Gs =

9 )
)

: )*
; )
9 )+
)

2. For the transfer function Gs = 

) (9 , find the location of the poles and zeros, plot them on the s
)

plane and then write an expression for the general form of the step response without solving for the
inverse Laplace transform.
3. Find the output response ct for the systems shown below.

4. Find the capacitor voltage in the network shown below if the switch closes at t = 0. Assume zero initial
conditions. Also, find the time constant, rise time and settling time for the capacitor voltage.

5. For the system shown below: (a) find an equation that relates the settling time of the velocity of the
mass to M; (b) find an equation that relates the rise time of the velocity of the mass to M.

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3.3. Time Response of Second-Order Systems
Intended Learning Outcomes: (a) Differentiate the types of second-order system response; (b) identify the
type of response of the system given its transfer function; (c) determine the response of a second-order
system based on the poles and on the type of response.
Compared to the simplicity of a first-order system, a second-order system exhibits a wide range of
responses that must be analyzed and described. In first-order systems, varying its time constant simply
changes the speed of the response, whereas, in second-order system, a change in parameter can change
the form of the response. In the discussions, second-order systems without zeros are considered.
Second-order systems can be classified depending on their step response, and these are:

Overdamped systems,

Underdamped systems,

Undamped systems; and

Critically damped systems.

Overdamped Systems. Systems with overdamped response are characterized by the following:

Systems with overdamped response to a step input have two real and distinct negative system
poles.

The two system poles generate the natural exponential response, while an input pole at the origin
generates the constant forced response.

The step response has the general form

ct = K + K  e=>  + K  e=9 

(3.6)

where and  are the system poles.

Overdamped systems are named so because of the large amount of energy absorption in the
system which inhibits the transient response from overshooting and oscillating about the steadystate value for the step input.

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Figure 3. 4. Overdamped system and response characteristics.

Underdamped Systems. Underdamped systems have the following characteristics:

Systems with underdamped response have two complex conjugate system poles which results to a
decaying sinusoid. The exponential decay frequency of the decaying sinusoid is equal to the real
part of the complex pole while the imaginary part of the pole matches the frequency of the
sinusoidal oscillation the frequency of oscillation is called the damped frequency of oscillation. A
pole at the origin due to the step input causes the step response of the system to have a constant
forced response.
ct = K + e= K  cos t + K  sin t

(3.7a)

where the poles are equal to j. Equation 3.7a can also be written as
ct = K + e= K  cost 

(3.7b)

where K  = EK   + K   and = tan F; which shows clearly that the response is a

F

decaying sinusoid.

The step response of underdamped systems therefore exhibits overshoot, and oscillates around
the steady-state value before settling down.

Underdamped systems have less energy absorption compared to the overdamped systems.

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Figure 3. 5. Underdamped system and response characteristics.

Undamped Systems. Systems with undamped step response are characterized as follows:

Undamped systems have two complex conjugate imaginary poles. Since the real part of the
system poles is zero, the sinusoid generated from the imaginary poles does not decay, and hence
is oscillating. The pole location determines the natural frequency of oscillation. A pole at the origin
due to the step input generates a constant forced response.

The general form of the step response of undamped systems is

ct = K + K  cos t + K  sin t

(3.8a)

which can be written as

ct = K + K  cost 

(3.8b)

whereK  = EK   + K   and = tan F; .

F

Figure 3. 6. Undamped system and response characteristics.

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Critically Damped System. Critically damped systems are characterized by the following:

Critically damped systems have two equal, real system poles. These generate a natural response
consisting of an exponential and an exponential multiplied by time where the exponential frequency
of the natural response is equal to the pole location. A pole at the origin due to the step input
generates a constant forced response.

The general step response can be written as

ct = K + K  e= + K  te=

(3.9)

The critically damped step response is the fastest possible response without overshoot.

Figure 3. 7. Critically damped system and response characteristics.

The graph below shows the four possible step responses superimposed on a single plot.

Figure 3. 8. Step responses of second-order systems.

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Example 3.6
For each of the transfer functions, write by inspection the general form of the step response, and identify
the type of response.
a) Gs =

9 ) 
)((

b) Gs =

9 )G(
)G((

c) Gs =

9 )(
)

((

G((



d) Gs =
9 )*
*

Answers:

a) ct = K + K  e* cos19.08t + ; the response is underdamped.

b) ct = K + K  e+,. + K  e .* ; the response is overdamped.
c) ct = K + K  e  + K  te  ; the response is critically damped.

d) ct = K + K  cos25t + ; the response is undamped.

Drill Problems 3.2

1. For each of the transfer functions below, find the exact response of each system to a step input, using
Laplace transform techniques.
a. Ts = 
)
)*


b. Ts = 
) (
)(
(
)+

c. Ts =
9 )*
) 
(

d. Ts =
9 )G

)

e. Ts = 
) (9

)

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2. For each of the transfer functions given in item 1, determine the poles and zeros, plot them on the

complex s-plane, and then write an expression for the general form of the step response. State the
nature of the response. Compare your answers with that of item 1.

3. Write the general form of, and determine the exact response of the capacitor voltage for the electrical
network shown below.

4. Solve for the step response of the system shown below.

5. Determine the nature of the response of the second-order system whose transfer function is
Gs =
9 )
) *, and the time response parameters.
*

3.4 The General Second Order System

Intended Learning Outcomes: (a) Define and compute the two specifications, namely the natural frequency
and the damping ratio, of a general second-order system; (b) Explain the relationship of these
specifications to the type of response of the system and identify the type of the response of the system
given these specifications.
Second-order systems are generally described by two physically meaningful specifications, namely:
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Natural frequency,I is the frequency of oscillation of the system without damping.

Damping ratio,d3 is the ratio of the exponential decay frequency to the natural frequency of the
system.

For a general second-order system with a transfer function

Gs =

s

b
+ as + b

(3.10)

The natural frequency is given as

I = b

and the damping ratio as

d3 =

a
2I

(3.11)

(3.12)

Then the general second-order transfer function in terms of I and d3 will be

Gs =

I 
s + 2d3 I s + I 

(3.13)

Example 3.7

For each of the transfer functions, determine the values of I and d3 .

a) Gs =
9 ) 
)((
((

b) Gs =
9 )G(
)G((
G((

c) Gs =
9 )(
)


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Feedback and Control Systems

d) Gs =

*

9 )*

Answers:

a) I = 20, d3 = 0.3
b) I = 30, d3 = 1.5
c) I = 15, d3 = 1

d) I = 25, d3 = 0

The natural frequency and the damping ratio is related to the pole location by
s , = d3 I I Ed3  1

(3.14)

The figure below summarizes the various step responses of second-order systems as a function of the
damping ratio. Note that the figure below can be derived by analyzing equation 3.14 for various ranges of
the damping ratio.

Figure 3. 9. Second-order system response as a function of the damping ratio.

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Example 3.8
Characterize the step response of the second-order system below and write the general form of the step
response.

Answers:

a) Computing the values of I and d3 gives 23and




1.155, respectively. Thus the system is

overdamped and the general form of the step response is

ct = K + K  e + K  e*

b) Computing the values of I and d3 gives 4 and 1, respectively. Thus the system is critically damped
and the general form of the step response is

ct = K + K  e + K  te

c) Computing the values of I and d3 gives 25 and




0.894 respectively. Thus the system is

underdamped and the general form of the step response is

ct = K + K  e cos2t + 

3.5 Underdamped Second-Order Systems

Intended Learning Outcomes: (a) Define and compute the time response parameters of an underdamped
second-order system; (b) Relate these parameters to the pole location of the system; (c) Design
component values for systems with underdamped response meeting time response specifications.
The underdamped step response will be analyzed in detail. The general second-order transfer function is
given as
Gs =
Time Response

I 
s + 2d3 I s + I 

(3.13)

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Feedback and Control Systems

The step response of this system is
Cs = RsGs =

I 
K
K s + K
=
+ 


s + 2d3 I s + I  
ss + 2d3 I s + I 
s

(3.15)

By partial fraction expansion and taking note that since the system is underdamped, 0 < d3 < 1, the

inverse Laplace transform of Equation 3.15 is

ct = 1 eOP QR  Tcos UI tE1 d3  V +

S

ct = 1

where = tan

OP

E OP 9

E 1 d3 

d3

E 1 d3

sin UI tE1 d3  VX

eOP QR Ucos UI tE1 d3  VV

(3.16a)

(3.16b)

. A plot of Equation 3.16b for various values of d3 is shown below. It can be seen

from the graph that the lower the value of d3 , the more oscillatory the response.

Figure 3. 10. Underdamped step response for various values of dr.

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For general second-order systems, we have defined two parameters already: I and d3 . For
underdamped systems, the following characterize the step response, in addition to the natural frequency
and damping ratio:

Rise time, T3 the time required for the waveform to go from 0.1 of the final value to 0.9 of the
final value.

Peak time, TY the time required to reach the first, or maximum, peak.

Percent overshoot, %OS the amount that the waveform overshoots the steady-state, or final,
value at the peak time, expressed as a percentage of the steady-state value.

Settling time, T
the time required for the transients damped oscillations to reach and stay within
2% of the steady-state value.

These parameters are illustrated in the plot of Figure 3.11.

These parameters will be evaluated in terms of the natural frequency and damping ratio, and then in terms
of system poles location.
The peak time TY can be evaluated by differentiating ct and finding the first zero crossing after t = 0.
Thus,
TY =

I E 1 d3 

(3.17)

Figure 3. 11. Underdamped response specifications.

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The percent overshoot, %OS, from the figure, can be evaluated by
%OS =

c^_ c`aIb
100%
c`aIb

(3.18a)

The value of c^_ is the value of the response at the peak time, or c^_ = cdTY e and c`aIb is the final
value of the step response, which is equal to the input, or c`aIb = 1. Thus,
%OS = 100exp T

d3

E
S 1 d3 W


(3.18b)

The settling time can be evaluated by assuming in Equation 3.16b that cos UI tE1 d3  V = 1 at
the settling time, and the amplitude of the decaying sinusoid is 2% of the final value. Thus,
T
=

ln U0.02E1 d3  V
d3 I

4
d3 I

(3.19)

The rise time can be evaluated by using the definition, but will only yield complicated results. For our
purpose, the rise time T will be approximated by the polynomial
T3 =

1.76d3 0.417d3  + 1.039d3 + 1

I

(3.20)

which has an error of less than 0.5% for 0 < d3 < 0.9 (Nise, 2011). One can also use the linear
approximation
T3 =

Time Response

2.16d3 + 0.6
I

(3.21)

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Feedback and Control Systems

which is accurate for 0.3 d3 0.8 (Dorf, 2011).
Example 3.9
Given the transfer function

Gs =

s

100
+ 15s + 100

find the transient step response parameters of this system.

Answer:

I = 10, d3 = 0.75, TY = 0.475 sec, %OS = 2.838%, T

= 0.533 sec and T3 = 0.22 sec.

Example 3.10
Given the transfer function

Gs =

s

361
+ 16s + 361

find the transient step response parameters of this system.

Answer:

I = 19, d3 = 0.421, TY = 0.182 sec, %OS = 23.27%, T

= 0.5 sec and T3 = 0.079 sec.

The pole plot for a general, underdamped, second-order system is shown in figure 3.11.
Recall that the system poles in terms of the natural frequency and damping ratio can be obtained from
Equation 3.14 as
s , = d3 I I Ed3  1

Time Response

(3.14)

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Figure 3. 12. System pole plot for general underdamped system.

The real part of the pole, O = d3 I is called the exponential damping frequency (this is the term that
causes the oscillation to decay) while the imaginary part I E1 d3  = O is called the damped

frequency of oscillation (the frequency of the damping oscillation). From Figure 3.12, the magnitude of the

poles, is , i = jO  + O  = I and the cosine of the angle that the radial line projected from the
origin towards the poles with reference to the negative real axis cos = d3. With this, the peak time
TY =

T
=

4
O

and the settling time

(3.22)

(3.23)

together with the percent overshoot

%OS = 100exp T

d3

E
S 1 d3 W

Time Response

(3.18b)

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Feedback and Control Systems

can then be expressed as a function of the pole location, as:

Peak time TY as a function of the imaginary part of the pole O .

Settling time T
as a function of the real part of the pole O .

Percent overshoot %OS as a function of the cosine of the angle .

From the foregoing discussions, the following observations can be deduced that relates the pole location to
the time response performance parameters of an underdamped system:

The peak time as a function of the imaginary part of the system poles is inversely proportional to

the damped frequency of oscillation O . Since, on the pole-zero map, the horizontal lines depict
constant imaginary part of the poles, the peak time is constant for the same values of the imaginary
part of the poles (i.e. moving poles horizontally does not change peak time) and decreases as the
poles are moved away from the real axis.

The settling time as a function of the real part of the system poles is inversely proportional to the

exponential damping frequency O . Since on the pole-zero map, vertical lines indicate constant
real part of the poles, settling time is constant for the same values of the real part of the poles (i.e.
moving poles vertically does not change peak time) and decreases as the poles are moved away
from the imaginary axis.

The percent overshoot is a function of the cosine of the angle of the radial line from the origin to the
pole with reference to the negative real axis. Thus percent overshoot is constant along these radial
lines (i.e. moving poles along the radial line with constant angle from the negative real axis does
not change the percent overshoot) and increases as the angle of the radial line projected from the
origin towards the poles from the negative real axis is increased.

These observations are summarized in the figure below.

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Feedback and Control Systems

Figure 3. 13. Lines of constant T_p, T_s and %OS.

Moving the system poles in a specified direction will change the underdamped response in the manner
illustrated by Figure 3.14.
Example 3.11
For the given system pole location, determine the natural frequency, the damping ratio and the transient
response parameters.

Answer:

I = 7.6158 , d3 = 0.3939 , TY = 0.4488 sec , T

= 1.3333 sec , %OS = 26.02% and T3 =
0.1905 sec.

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Feedback and Control Systems

Figure 3. 14. Underdamped response in relation to the movement of the system poles.

The components of a control system can be designed to meet time response characteristics of the system.
Example 3.12

Given the system shown below, find the component values J and D to yield 20% overshoot and a settling
time of 2 secs for a step input of torque Tt.

Answer:

Time Response

D = 1.04 N m s/rad and J = 0.26 kg m .

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Feedback and Control Systems

Example 3.13

If va t is a step voltage in the network shown below, find the value of the resistor such that a 20%
overshoot in voltage will be seen across the capacitor if C = 10* F and L = 1H.

Answer:

R = 912

Example 3.14

Consider the translational mechanical system shown. A 1-pound force ft is applied at t = 0. If fw = 1,
find K and M such that the response of the system is characterized by a 4-second settling time and a 1second peak time. Also, what is the resulting percent overshoot?

Answers:

M = 0.5 kg, K = 5.43 N/m

Example 3.15

If va t is a step voltage in the network shown below, find the values of R and C to yield a 20% overshoot
and a 1 msec settling time for v0 t if L = 1 H.

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Feedback and Control Systems

Answer:

R = 8 k, C = 13 nF

Drill Problems 3.3

1. Find the damping ratio and natural frequency for each second-order systems whose transfer functions
are given below. Identify the type of response based on the value of the damping ratio. Note that these
are the transfer functions given in Drill Problems 3.2 (items 1 and 2). Are the results similar?
a. Ts = 
)
)*


b. Ts = 
) (
)(
(
)+

c. Ts =
9 )*
) 
(

d. Ts =
9 )G

)

e. Ts = 
) (9

)

2. A system has a damping ratio of 0.5, a natural frequency of 100 rad/sec and a dc gain of 1. Find the
response of the system to a unit step input.
3. For each of the second-order systems that follow, find d3 , I , T
, TY , T3 and %OS.
a. Ts =
9 )
) *
*

b. Ts =
9 )(.(
)(.(
(.(

c. Ts =
9 ) .* (;
) .( (x
.( (x

4. Find the location of the second-order pair of poles, and the transfer function associated with each of the
following pair of second-order system specifications.
a. %OS = 12%, T
= 0.6 sec
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Feedback and Control Systems

b. %OS = 10%, TY = 5 sec
c. T
= 7 sec, TY = 3 sec

d. %OS = 12.3%, T
= 1 sec
5. Find d3 , I , %OS, T
, TY , and T3 for the following systems shown below:

(a)

(b)
6. Given the translational mechanical system below, where K = 1 and ft is a unit step force, find the
values of M and fw to yield a response with a 17% overshoot and a settling time of 10 sec. Determine
the peak and rise times of the system given these specifications.

7. Find J and K in the rotational system shown below to yield a 30% overshoot and a settling time of 3
seconds for a step input in torque.

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Feedback and Control Systems

8. Given the system shown below, find the damping, D to yield a 30% overshoot in output angular
displacement for a step input in torque.

9. For the system shown below, find N /N so that the settling time for a step torque input is 16 seconds.

10. Given the circuit below, where C = 10 uF, find R and L to yield 15% overshoot with settling time of 7
msec for the capacitor voltage. The input va t is a unit step.

11. For the circuit shown below, find the values of R  and C to yield 8% overshoot with a settling time of 1
msec for the voltage across the capacitor, with va t as a step input.

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12. Find M and K, shown in the system below, to yield xt with 10% overshoot and 15 sec settling time
for a step input in motor torque, T^ t.

3.6. System Response with Additional Poles; System Response with Zeros
Intended Learning Outcomes: (a) Approximate a system with a real third pole into a second-order system,
and determine the validity of such approximation; (b) Determine the response of a second-order system
with zeros, and describe nonminimum-phase behavior if present on such systems; (c) Determine the
validity of approximating a system with pole-zero cancellation.
System response with a real third pole. In the last discussions, systems with one or two poles are
analyzed. It must be emphasized that formulas describing percent overshoot, settling time, and peak time
were derived only for a system with two complex poles and no zeros. If a system has more than two poles
or has zeros, the formulas derived previously cannot be used. However, under certain conditions, a system
with more than two poles or with zeros can be approximated as a second-order system that has just two
complex dominant poles. Once the approximation is justified, the formulas for percent overshoot, settling
time, and peak time can be applied to these higher-ordered systems by using the location of the dominant
poles. This section investigates the effect of an additional negative real pole on the second-order response;
the next section deals with the effect of adding a zero to a two-pole system.
Consider a three-pole system with complex poles and a third pole on the real axis. Assuming that the

complex poles are at d3 I jI E1 d3  and the real pole is at 3 , the step response of the
system can be determined from a partial fraction expansion. Thus, the output transform is
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Cs =

A Bs + d3 I  + CO
D
+
+


s s + d3 I  + O
s + 3

(3.24)

or, in the time-domain,

ct = A + eOP QR B cos O t + C sin O t + De|P

(3.25)

The component parts of ct are shown below for three cases of 3 (Case I: 3 > d3 I but their values
are very near; Case II: 3 d3 I; Case III 3 ).

Figure 3. 15. Component responses of a three-pole system: (a) pole plot; (b) component responses.

The following observations can be noted:

If 3 is not much greater than d3 I (Case I), the third real poles transient response will not decay
to insignificance at the peak time or settling time generated by the second-order pair.

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As the third real pole is moved farther away from the dominant poles (Case II), third real poles
transient response decays fast that it contributes less to the values at the peak time or settling
time. As it approaches infinity (Case III), the third-order response approaches the second-order
response.

The analysis of the magnitude of the exponential response due to the third real pole, D shows that

D 0 as 3 . Thus, the second observation holds true.

Thus it can be concluded that a third-order system with two dominant complex conjugate poles and a
nondominant negative real pole will approach a second-order response if the nondominant pole is very far
from the real part of the dominant complex poles. In this case, the formulas derived for the specifications of
an underdamped second-order system can be used.
How much farther from the dominant poles does the third pole have to be for its effect on the second-order
response to be negligible? The answer depends on the accuracy for which the designer is looking into. As
a rule of thumb, the response of the third pole is considered negligible after five time constants; thus, the
third pole must be at least five times larger than the real part of the dominant poles towards negative infinity
for the approximation of the third-order system into a second-order system to be valid.
Example 3.16
Find the step response of each of the transfer functions shown below, then draw the pole plot and graph
the normalized step response of each.

T s =

T s =

s

24.542
+ 4s + 24.542
(a)

245.42
s + 10s + 4s + 24.542
(b)

T s =

s +

73.626
+ 4s + 24.542

3s
(c)

Which response ( c t or c t ) better approximates c t (the second-order response)? Is the
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approximation valid?

Answers:

(a) c t = 1 1.09e cos4.532t 23.8

(b) c t = 1 0.29e ( 1.189e cos4.532t 53.34

(c) c t = 1 1.14e + 0.707e cos4.532t + 78.63

Plot of the step response of the transfer functions for Example 3.16.

From the plot, it seems that c t is a better approximation of c t compared to c t . Indeed, the

dominant complex poles of the systems T s and T s are 2 j4.5323, and for T s, the real third

pole at = 10, is five times larger than the real part of the dominant complex poles O = 2 towards
the negative infinity. Thus the approximation is valid.

Example 3.17
Write the general form of the step response of the systems whose transfer functions are shown below.
Determine which of these can be approximated as a second-order system.
(a) G s = 
) 
9 )
) ((
+((

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Feedback and Control Systems

(b) G s = 
)
9

*(

)
)G(

Answers:

(a) c t = A + Be cos9.798t +  + De 

(b) c t = A + Be cos9.798t +  + De

The transfer function G s can be approximated by a second-order system because the real third pole is
five times greater than the real part of the dominant poles towards the negative infinity, whereas the
transfer function G s is not.

System Response with Zeros. It can be shown that zeros of a second-order system affect the amplitude,
or the residue, of a response component but do not affect the nature of the response exponential,
damped sinusoid, and so on. The effect of a real-axis zero to a two-pole system will be investigated, first on
the left half-plane then on the right half-plane.
A two pole system with a real zero at the left half-plane has the transfer function
Gs =

s+a
A
B
=
+
s + bs + c s + b s + c

(3.26)

Solving for A and B gives

Gs =

b + a/b + c c + a/c + b
s+a
=
+
s + bs + c
s+b
s+c

(3.27)

If the zero is far from the poles, then a is very large compared to b and c and Equation 3.27 can be
approximated as

1/b + c 1/c + b
a
=
Gs a
+
s + bs + c
s+b
s+c

(3.28)

It can be concluded hence that the zero looks like a simple gain factor and does not change the relative
amplitudes of the components of the response. This can be seen in the plot below, where a two-pole
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system with poles at 1 j2.828 had zeros at -3, -5 and -10. It can be seen that as the zero moves away
from the dominant poles, the response approaches that of a two-pole system.

Figure 3. 16. Response of a second-order system with zeros at different locations.

Another way to look at the effect of a zero is as follows (Franklin, 1991): Let Cs be the response of a

system Gs, with unity in the numerator. If a zero is added to the transfer function, yielding s + aGs,
the Laplace transform of the response will be
s + aCs = sCs + aCs

(3.29)

Thus the response of the system with a zero consists of two parts: the derivative of the original response
and a scaled version of the original response. The following observations can be deduced:

If a, the negative of the zero, is very large, the Laplace transform of the response is approximately

aCs, or a scaled version of the original response. If a is not very large, the response has an
additional component consisting of the derivative of the original response.

As a becomes smaller, the derivative term contributes more to the response and has a greater
effect. For step responses, the derivative is typically positive at the start of a step response. Thus,
for small values of a, we can expect more overshoot in second-order systems because the
derivative term will be additive around the first overshoot.

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If a is negative, the derivative, which is positive initially, will have an opposite sign from the scaled
response term. Thus, if the derivative term sCs is larger than the scaled response aCs, the
response will initially follow the derivative in the opposite direction from the scaled response. A
system that exhibits this phenomenon is known as a nonminimum-phase system. If a motorcycle or
airplane was a nonminimum-phase system, it would initially veer left when commanded to steer
right.

Figure 3. 17. Step response of a nonminimum-phase system.

Example 3.18

(a) Find the transfer function V s/Va s for the operational amplifier circuit shown below.

(b) For this circuit, let R = R  and R  C = 1/10. Find and plot the step response of the system.

Comment on the results.

Answers:

>
> ;

(a) Gs =

>

(b) ct = 1 2e (

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Feedback and Control Systems

The plot of the response shows that the system exhibits nonminimum phase behavior. The step input
(which is positive initially) returns a response that is negative initially.
Pole-Zero Cancellation. For a transfer function with a zero at z and a third real pole at p as in,
Ts =

Ks + z
s + p s + as + b

(3.30)

If z is very close to p , the terms s + z and s + p  may cancel, and the transfer function of 3.30 can
be approximated by a second-order transfer function. The phenomenon is illustrated in the following
example.
Example 3.19
For each of the response functions below, determine there is cancellation between the zero and the pole
closest to the zero. For any function for which pole-zero cancellation is valid, find the approximate
response.

C s =

26.25s + 4
ss + 3.5s + 5s + 6
(a)

C s =

26.25s + 4
ss + 4.01s + 5s + 6
(b)

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Feedback and Control Systems

Answers:

(a) There is no pole-zero cancellation; the closest pole to the zero at 4 is 3.5.

(b) The pole at 4.01 is very near the zero at 4, which makes the residue of the pole at 4.01
negligible compared to the other two residues. Thus, a pole-zero cancellation may be invoked, the
approximation is valid, and the approximate response is

c t = 0.87 5.3e + 4.4e*

Example 3.20
Determine the validity of a second-order step-response approximation for each of the transfer functions
below. Discuss your answers.

G s =

185.71s + 7
s + 6.5s + 10s + 20
(a)

G s =

197.14s + 7
ss + 6.9s + 10s + 20
(b)

Answers:
(a) A second-order approximation is not valid.
(b) A second-order approximation is valid.

Drill Problems 3.4

1. Find the percent overshoot, settling time, rise time and peak time for the system described by the
transfer function

Ts =

s 

14.145
+ 0.842s + 2.829s + 5

2. Find the peak time, settling time, percent overshoot and rise time for only those responses below that
can be approximated as second-order responses.

a. ct = 0.003500 0.001524e 0.001976e cos22.16t 0.0005427e sin22.16t

b. ct = 0.05100 0.007353e, 0.007647e* cos8t 0.01309e* sin8t

c. ct = 0.009804 0.0001857e.  0.009990e cos9.796t 0.001942e sin9.796t

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Feedback and Control Systems

d. ct = 0.007000 0.001667e ( 0.008667e cos9.951t 0.00080404e sin9.951t
3. For each of the following transfer functions with zeros, find the component parts of the unit step
response: (1) the derivative of the response without a zero and (2) the response without a zero, scaled
to the negative of the zero value. Also, find and plot the total response. Describe any nonminimumphase behavior.

a. Gs =
9 )
)*

)

b. Gs =
9 )
)*



For the following response functions, determine if pole-zero cancellation can be approximated. If it can,
find the percent overshoot, settling time, rise time, and peak time.
a. Cs =

)


)
9)
) (

b. Cs =

)
9)
)(

).

c. Cs =

)
9)
)

).

d. Cs =

)
9)
)(

).(

REFERENCES:
N. Nise. (2008). Control Systems Engineering 6th Edition. United States of America: John Wiley & Sons.
R. Dorf & R. Bishop. (2008). Modern Control Systems 12th Edition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
G.F. Franklin, J.D. Powell, and A. Emami-Naeini (1991).Feedback Control of Dynamic Systems 2nd
Edition. MA: Addison-Wesley Reading.

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