The (Not So) Shifting Views of Human Learning

A. In the 60's there was discovery learning:

1. Environment must be free from threats, psychologically safe, and open
communication
2. Whole-person learning, person-centeredness, and student-centered curriculum
3. In changing world, students need learn how to learn
4. Learning must be purposeful, relevant, and meaningful
5. Learners need exciting and challenging learning environment
6. Children are inner directed, eager to learn, and motivated to self-actualize
7. Use discovery/inquiry learning with free choices and self-initiation
8. Peer tutoring and collaboration is important
9. Teachers are facilitators and resources
10. Educ responsive to affective needs: genuine realness, trust, respect, empathy,
openness
B. In the 70's and 80's, there was the cognitive revolution & active/constructivistic
learning: Constructivistic Teaching Principles (Brooks, 1990)
1. Give students choice and decision making in learning activity.
2. Make learning relevant and create tangible products
3. Ask for personal theories and build on student prior knowledge
4. Tell them purpose and goals to increase motivation
5. Student autonomy and active learning encouraged
6. Use of raw/primary data sources and interaction materials
7. Allow student thinking to drive lessons
8. Encourage student dialogue and reflection on experiences
9. Seek elaboration on responses and justification
10. Pose contradictions to original hypotheses
11. Ask open-ended questions and allow wait time
12. Discover relationships and create metaphors
13. Organize info around concepts, problems, misconceptions, and discrepant situations
14. Use small group, cooperative/peer learning, and social interaction
15. Teacher as co-learner, but have audience beyond teacher
C. Now, in the 90's, there is a focus in learner-centered curriculum (Nederland High
Video) (Summary of the 12 Learner-Centered Psychological Principles
(APA/McREL, 1993) (call McREL: For Our Students: For Ourselves (303) 3370990; $79.00?)
Watch tape (a) circle items see in tape; (b) write down keyword descriptors or ideas
Metacognitive and Cognitive Factors:
1. Learning is a natural process of discovery
2. Learners seek meaningful knowledge
3. Learners construct and link new info to old
4. Higher-order strategies oversee thinking

Affective Factors:
5. Information processed depends on motivation and beliefs and expectations
6. Learners are naturally curious and enjoy learning
7. Need l difficulty and novelty
Developmental and Individual Differences:
8. Individuals progress through developmental stages
Personal and Social Factors:
9. Learning is facilitated by social interactions in diverse settings
10. Learning & self-esteem increase in respectful/genuine environments
11. Learners have preferences for learning mode/strategies
12. Personal beliefs are basis for constructing reality

II. Key Humanistic Principles (FOCUS: Why they should do

this) (Maslow, Combs, & Rogers)
1. Free choice
2. Inner directed
3. Motivated to self-actualize
4. Education is responsive to affective needs
5. Genuine student concern, respect
6. Facilitate student self-actualization
7. Exciting & challenging learning environment
8. Student-centered curriculum
9. Accept learner needs & purposes
10. Open & personal environment

B. Per Carl Rogers: Freedom to Learn

1. Children are inherently eager to learn
2. Envir must be free from threats, psych safe, open commun
3. Learning is purposeful and self-initiated
4. Discovery/Inquiry learning
5. Whole-person learning, Person-centeredness
6. Seek relevant/meaningful Learning
7. In changing world need learn how to learn
8. Peer tutoring and collaboration is important
9. Teachers as learning facilitators, resources
10. Genuine realness, trust, respect, empathy

Seven Fundamental Principles of Learning

The Institute for Research on Learning (IRL).
(Kahn, 1993):

1. Learning is Fundamentally Social

(i.e., link learning and social fulfillment).
2. Knowledge is Integrated into the Life of Communities
(i.e., activity, knowledge, and the social world are linked)
3. Learning is an Act of Membership
(i.e., learning is engagement with others)
4. Knowledge is Engagement in Practice
(i.e., concrete learning over abstract)
5. Engagement is Inseparable from Empowerment
(i.e., learning requires access and opportunity)
6. Failure to Learning is Norm Result of Exclusion from Partic
(i.e., learning requires access and opportunity)
7. We Already Have a Society of Lifelong Learners
(i.e., we are learning all the time, and we should learn for some
benefit)

Constructivist Teaching Practices

John Savery (1994)
Foster student autonomy, intuitive, and leadership

Isn't this what education is supposed to do?

Use manipulative, interactive and physical materials

Start with something concrete before becoming too abstract

Use raw data and primary sources

In preference to filtered & homogenized data or someone else's opinions about

someone else

Allow student thinking to drive lessons

Alter/adapt content based on student responses

As a simple courtesy to someone else listen first!

Look for alternative conceptions, design lessons to address any

misconceptions

Help learners 'see' where their thinking is faulty

Frame tasks by using global and specific terms like "Classify,

Analyze, Predict," etc

These terms are tools to help the students organize their thinking

Encourage dialogue among students

Get students to ARTICULATE their ideas

Pose contradictions to students' views - then invite responses

Play 'devil's advocate' and push for commitment/clarity of views

Promote inquiry; ask open-ended questions

This should be SOP

Allow wait-time after posing questions

Learners need time to formulate their thoughts, they are walking on new ground NOT
the well-worn path of mature adult thinking

Provide time for the discovery of relationships and the creation of

metaphors
Same argument...permit learners time to learn on their own

Seek elaboration of students' responses

It's okay to ask students to provide more information, illustrations or examples. The
goal is they become effective communicators too!

Encourage reflection on experiences, then predictions of outcomes

With prediction comes POWER

Cluster lessons around problems, questions and situations

regarding similar concepts

Help learners achieve understanding of complexity and inter-relationships

Adapt the cognitive demand of the content to the students'

cognitive schemes

Don't present problems or ask for explanations of phenomena which are either too
complex or too simplistic given the learners current abilities

Learner-centered psychological principles

(APA, November 1997) (http://www.apa.org/ed/lcp.html)
The following 14 psychological principles pertain to the learner and the learning process
They focus on psychological factors that are primarily internal to and under the control of
the learner rather than conditioned habits or physiological factors. However, the
principles also attempt to acknowledge external environment or contextual factors that
interact with these internal factors.
The principles are intended to deal holistically with learners in the context of real-world
learning situations. Thus, they are best understood as an organized set of principles; no
principle should be viewed in isolation. The 14 principles are divided into those referring
to cognitive and metacognitive, motivational and affective, developmental and social, and
individual difference factors influencing learners and learning. Finally, the principles are
intended to apply to all learners -- from children, to teachers, to administrators, to parents,
and to community members involved in our educational system.
COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTORS
1. Nature of the learning process. The learning of complex subject matter is most
effective when it is an intentional process of constructing meaning from information and
experience.
There are different types of learning processes, for example, habit formation in motor
learning; and learning that involves the generation of knowledge, or cognitive skills and
learning strategies. Learning in schools emphasizes the use of intentional processes that
students can use to construct meaning from information, experiences, and their own
thoughts and beliefs. Successful learners are active, goal-directed, self-regulating, and
assume personal responsibility for contributing to their own learning. The principles set
forth in this document focus on this type of learning.
2. Goals of the learning process. The successful learner, over time and with support and
instructional guidance, can create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.
The strategic nature of learning requires students to be goal directed. To construct useful
representations of knowledge and to acquire the thinking and learning strategies
necessary for continued learning success across the life span, students must generate and
pursue personally relevant goals. Initially, students' short-term goals and learning may be
sketchy in an area, but over time their understanding can be refined by filling gaps,
resolving inconsistencies, and deepening their understanding of the subject matter so that
they can reach longer-term goals. Educators can assist learners in creating meaningful
learning goals that are consistent with both personal and educational aspirations and
interests.
3. Construction of knowledge. The successful learner can link new information with
existing knowledge in meaningful ways.

Knowledge widens and deepens as students continue to build links between new
information and experiences and their existing knowledge base. The nature of these links
can take a variety of forms, such as adding to, modifying, or reorganizing existing
knowledge or skills. How these links are made or develop may vary in different subject
areas, and among students with varying talents, interests, and abilities. However, unless
new knowledge becomes integrated with the learner's prior knowledge and
understanding, this new knowledge remains isolated, cannot be used most effectively in
new tasks, and does not transfer readily to new situations. Educators can assist learners
in acquiring and integrating knowledge by a number of strategies that have been shown to
be effective with learners of varying abilities, such as concept mapping and thematic
organization or categorizing.
4 .Strategic thinking. The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking
and reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning goals.
Successful learners use strategic thinking in their approach to learning, reasoning,
problem solving, and concept learning. They understand and can use a variety of
strategies to help them reach learning and performance goals, and to apply their
knowledge in novel situations. They also continue to expand their repertoire of strategies
by reflecting on the methods they use to see which work well for them, by receiving
guided instruction and feedback, and by observing or interacting with appropriate
models. Learning outcomes can be enhanced if educators assist learners in developing,
applying, and assessing their strategic learning skills.
5. Thinking about thinking. Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental
operations facilitate creative and critical thinking.
Successful learners can reflect on how they think and learn, set reasonable learning or
performance goals, select potentially appropriate learning strategies or methods, and
monitor their progress toward these goals. In addition, successful learners know what to
do if a problem occurs or if they are not making sufficient or timely progress toward a
goal. They can generate alternative methods to reach their goal (or reassess the
appropriateness and utility of the goal). Instructional methods that focus on helping
learners develop these higher order (metacognitive) strategies can enhance student
learning and personal responsibility for learning.
6. Context of learning. Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including
culture, technology, and instructional practices.
Learning does not occur in a vacuum. Teachers play a major interactive role with both the
learner and the learning environment. Cultural or group influences on students can impact
many educationally relevant variables, such as motivation, orientation toward learning,
and ways of thinking. Technologies and instructional practices must be appropriate for
learners' level of prior knowledge, cognitive abilities, and their learning and thinking

strategies. The classroom environment, particularly the degree to which it is nurturing or

not, can also have significant impacts on student learning.
MOTIVATIONAL AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS
7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning. What and how much is learned
is influenced by the learner's motivation. Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by the
individual's emotional states, beliefs, interests and goals, and habits of thinking.
The rich internal world of thoughts, beliefs, goals, and expectations for success or failure
can enhance or interfere with the learner's quality of thinking and information processing.
Students' beliefs about themselves as learners and the nature of learning have a marked
influence on motivation. Motivational and emotional factors also influence both the
quality of thinking and information processing as well as an individual's motivation to
learn. Positive emotions, such as curiosity, generally enhance motivation and facilitate
learning and performance. Mild anxiety can also enhance learning and performance by
focusing the learner's attention on a particular task. However, intense negative emotions
(e.g., anxiety, panic, rage, insecurity) and related thoughts (e.g., worrying about
competence, ruminating about failure, fearing punishment, ridicule, or stigmatizing
labels) generally detract from motivation, interfere with learning, and contribute to low
performance.
8. Intrinsic motivation to learn. The learner's creativity, higher order thinking, and
natural curiosity all contribute to motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by
tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal interests, and providing for
personal choice and control. Curiosity, flexible and insightful thinking, and creativity are
major indicators of the learners' intrinsic motivation to learn, which is in large part a
function of meeting basic needs to be competent and to exercise personal control.
Intrinsic motivation is facilitated on tasks that learners perceive as interesting and
personally relevant and meaningful, appropriate in complexity and difficulty to the
learners' abilities, and on which they believe they can succeed. Intrinsic motivation is also
facilitated on tasks that are comparable to real-world situations and meet needs for choice
and control. Educators can encourage and support learners' natural curiosity and
motivation to learn by attending to individual differences in learners' perceptions of
optimal novelty and difficulty, relevance, and personal choice and control.
9. Effects of motivation on effort. Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires
extended learner effort and guided practice. Without learners' motivation to learn, the
willingness to exert this effort is unlikely without coercion.
Effort is another major indicator of motivation to learn. The acquisition of complex
knowledge and skills demands the investment of considerable learner energy and
strategic effort, along with persistence over time. Educators need to be concerned with
facilitating motivation by strategies that enhance learner effort and commitment to
learning and to achieving high standards of comprehension and understanding. Effective
strategies include purposeful learning activities, guided by practices that enhance positive

emotions and intrinsic motivation to learn, and methods that increase learners'
perceptions that a task is interesting and personally relevant.
DEVELOPMENTAL AND SOCIAL
10. Developmental influences on learning. As individuals develop, there are different
opportunities and constraints for learning. Learning is most effective when differential
development within and across physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domains is
taken into account.
Individuals learn best when material is appropriate to their developmental level and is
presented in an enjoyable and interesting way. Because individual development varies
across intellectual, social, emotional, and physical domains, achievement in different
instructional domains may also vary. Overemphasis on one type of developmental
readiness--such as reading readiness, for example--may preclude learners from
demonstrating that they are more capable in other areas of performance. The cognitive,
emotional, and social development of individual learners and how they interpret life
experiences are affected by prior schooling, home, culture, and community factors. Early
and continuing parental involvement in schooling, and the quality of language
interactions and two-way communications between adults and children can influence
these developmental areas. Awareness and understanding of developmental differences
among children with and without emotional, physical, or intellectual disabilities, can
facilitate the creation of optimal learning contexts.
11. Social influences on learning. Learning is influenced by social interactions,
interpersonal relations, and communication with others.
Learning can be enhanced when the learner has an opportunity to interact and to
collaborate with others on instructional tasks. Learning settings that allow for social
interactions, and that respect diversity, encourage flexible thinking and social
competence. In interactive and collaborative instructional contexts, individuals have an
opportunity for perspective taking and reflective thinking that may lead to higher levels
of cognitive, social, and moral development, as well as self-esteem. Quality personal
relationships that provide stability, trust, and caring can increase learners' sense of
belonging, self-respect and self-acceptance, and provide a positive climate for learning.
Family influences, positive interpersonal support and instruction in self-motivation
strategies can offset factors that interfere with optimal learning such as negative beliefs
about competence in a particular subject, high levels of test anxiety, negative sex role
expectations, and undue pressure to perform well. Positive learning climates can also help
to establish the context for healthier levels of thinking, feeling, and behaving. Such
contexts help learners feel safe to share ideas, actively participate in the learning process,
and create a learning community.
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

12. Individual differences in learning. Learners have different strategies, approaches,

and capabilities for learning that are a function of prior experience and heredity.
Individuals are born with and develop their own capabilities and talents. In addition,
through learning and social acculturation, they have acquired their own preferences for
how they like to learn and the pace at which they learn. However, these preferences are
not always useful in helping learners reach their learning goals. Educators need to help
students examine their learning preferences and expand or modify them, if necessary.
The interaction between learner differences and curricular and environmental conditions
is another key factor affecting learning outcomes. Educators need to be sensitive to
individual differences, in general. They also need to attend to learner perceptions of the
degree to which these differences are accepted and adapted to by varying instructional
methods and materials.
13. Learning and diversity. Learning is most effective when differences in learners'
linguistic, cultural, and social backgrounds are taken into account.
The same basic principles of learning, motivation, and effective instruction apply to all
learners. However, language, ethnicity, race, beliefs, and socioeconomic status all can
influence learning. Careful attention to these factors in the instructional setting enhances
the possibilities for designing and implementing appropriate learning environments.
When learners perceive that their individual differences in abilities, backgrounds,
cultures, and experiences are valued, respected, and accommodated in learning tasks and
contexts, levels of motivation and achievement are enhanced.
14. Standards and assessment. Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and
assessing the learner as well as learning progress -- including diagnostic, process, and
outcome assessment -- are integral parts of the learning process.
Assessment provides important information to both the learner and teacher at all stages of
the learning process. Effective learning takes place when learners feel challenged to work
towards appropriately high goals; therefore, appraisal of the learner's cognitive strengths
and weaknesses, as well as current knowledge and skills, is important for the selection of
instructional materials of an optimal degree of difficulty. Ongoing assessment of the
learner's understanding of the curricular material can provide valuable feedback to both
learners and teachers about progress toward the learning goals. Standardized assessment
of learner progress and outcomes assessment provides one type of information about
achievement levels both within and across individuals that can inform various types of
programmatic decisions. Performance assessments can provide other sources of
information about the attainment of learning outcomes. Self-assessments of learning
progress can also improve students self appraisal skills and enhance motivation and selfdirected learning.

Learner-Centered Strategies:

Peer teaching/tutoring
Mentoring
Cooperative learning
Interdisciplinary learning
Service learning
Building relationships
Inclusion
Higher-order thinking strategies
Multiple intelligences
Performance/authentic assessment
Project-based leering
Electronic networking
Computer-based technologies
Self-assessment and self-monitoring

Learner-Centered Characteristics:

Choice,
Responsibility,
Relevancy,
Challenge,
Control,
Connection,
Competence,
Respect,
Cooperation,
Self-directed learning,
Personal mastery.

Why is Learner-Centeredness Popular?

1. Better Researched
(each principle has extensive backing)
2. Many Personal Stories that It Works
3. More Understandable than Other Terms
4. More Integrative and Cohesive
5. More Agreeable and Less Political
6. Implementable in Degrees
7. Tests/Assessments Changing
8. Block Scheduling
9. Numerous Strategies Available
10. Can Teach Content and Thinking!!!

BigPictureRevisited
a.Whatcanteachersdoto"assist"instudentlearning?
TenTechniquesToAssistInLearning:(Bonk&Kim,Inpress;Tharp,1993)
1.Modeling(illustratingandverbalizinginvisibleperformancestandards);
2.DirectlyInstructing(provideclarity,neededcontentandmissinginformation);
3.Coaching(observeandsuperviseinguidingtowardexpertperformance);
4.ScaffoldingandFading(supportingwhatlearnercan'tdoandlaterremovingsupport);
5.CognitiveTaskStructuring(explaining/organizingthetaskwithinzonesofdevelopment);
6.Questioning(requestingaverbalresponseusingamentalfunctionlearnercaretyetdo);
7.ArticulatingandDialoguing(encouragingdescription/summaryofreasoningprocesses);
8.Reflecting(fosteringselfreflectionandanalysesofpreviousperformances);
9.Exploring(pushingstudentdiscoveryandapplicationofproblemsolvingskills);
10.Managing&Feedback(givingperformancefeedbackandpositivereinforcement).
b.Whatresourcesexistforalrngenvironment?(Bonk,Hay,&Fischler,1996).
Answeriseightdifferentthings:
(1)Teachers,
(2)Peers,
(3)Curriculum/Textbooks,
(4)Technology/Tools,
(5)Experts/Community,
(6)Assessment/Testing,
(7)SelfReflection,
(8)Parents.
c.MatrixofActiveLearningResources
Directions:Fillinthematrixgridbylookattheintersectionofresourcesandteaching
techniquesandplaceaplus("+")toindicatewhetheritispossible,anegative(#I")to
indicateitmaynotbepossible,andaquestionmark("?")whenyouareuncertainifitis
possible.
1.
Tchrs
1.Model
2.Directly
Instruct
3.Coach
4.Scaffold&
Fade
5.Cogn.Task
Structure
6.Question
7.Articulate
&Dialogue
8.Reflect

2.
Peers

3.
Texts

4.Tech.
Tools

5.
Experts

6.
Assess

7.
Self

8.
Parents

9.Pushto
Explore
10.Manage
andFeedback

Active Learning Assessments (sample questions):

A. Reflection #1: A New Teacher Self-Assessment for active learning. (Bonk, 1995:
The Social Constructivism and Activie Learning Environments (SCALE) Scale)
Rate: Never = 1; Seldom = 2; Sometimes = 3; Often = 4; Very Often = 5.
In my classes ... (sample questions)
____ 1. students have a say in class activities and tests.
____ 2. I help students to explore, build, and connect their ideas.
____ 3. students share their ideas and views with each other and me.
____ 4. students can relate new terms and concepts to events in their lives
____ 5. students work in small groups or teams when solving problems.
____ 6. students use computers to help them organize and try out their ideas.
____ 7. I give hints and clues for solving problems but do not give away the answers.
____ 8. I relate new information or problems to what students have already learned.
____ 9. students prepare answers with a partner or team b/4 sharing ideas with the class.
____10. I ask questions that have more than one answer.
____11. students take sides and debate issues and viewpoints.
____12. students develop ideas from a variety of library and electronic resources.
____13. students bring in information that extends across subject areas or links topics.
____14. students suggest possible problems and tasks.
____15. I provide diagrams or pictures of main ideas to make confusing info clearer.
B. Reflection #2: A Dept. thoughtfulness Report Card: In this dept. (or class):
____ 1. There is sustained examination of few topics, rather than superficial coverage of many.
____ 2. The lessons display substantive coherence.
____ 3. Students are given an appropriate amount of time to think
____ 4. Teachers carefully consider explanations and reasons for conclusions.
____ 5. Teachers ask challenging questions and structure challenging tasks.
____ 6. Teachers press students to justify or clarify assertions and answers.
____ 7. Teachers try to get students to generate original ideas, explanations, and solutions.
____ 8. Teachers are a model for thoughtfulness.
____ 9. Students assume the roles of questioners and critics.
____10. Students offer explanations and reasons for their conclusions.
C. Reflection #3: Student Thinking Report Card (Excerpts from Teacher Assessment
of Student Thinking from John Barrell, 1991, Teaching for Thoughtfulness, Longman Pub.).
Rating Scale:1=completely false (F); 2=mostly F; 3=partly F/T; 4=mostly True; 5=completely True
____ 1. The student is very interested in ideas.
____ 2. The student works well in discussion groups.
____ 3. The student can express ideas clearly.
____ 4. The student cannot tell which ideas are more important
____ 5. The student can often combine many ideas into one idea.
____ 6. The student runs out of ideas quickly.
____ 7. The student can often suggest ideas not mentioned before.
____ 8. The students thinking is not well organized.
____ 9. The student is a lazy thinker.
____10. The student asks good questions.
____11. The student likes to try difficult problems.
____12. The student cannot concentrate for too long.
____13. The plans the student makes are well thought out
____14. The student has trouble making decisions.
____15. The student can think well about a wide range of things.

Appendix D. Subscales of S.C.A.L.E: (Social Constructivism & Active Learning

Environments). (Bonk, 1995)
(The items below are based on learning preferences. In my classes, I prefer it when)
Factor 1. Clarification, Elaboration, and Explanation: extent to which students are provided with
explanations, examples, and multiple ways of understanding a problem or difficult material.
1.
teachers attempt to explain things in another way when someone is confused.
2.
Students and teachers explain how they got their answers.
3.
Students can ask teachers for more information about anything unclear or confusing.
4.
Teachers explain difficult material in more than one way so I understand it better.
5.
Teachers provide a diagram or picture of main ideas to make confusing information clearer.
Factor 2. Student Autonomy/Centeredness: extent to which learning and thinking decisions are
placed in the students' hands (i.e., the degree of student meaningful and deliberate control over
learning activities).
6.
students have a say in class activities and tests.
7.
students are encouraged to come up with ideas about what we should do next.
8.
Students take responsibility for classroom activities.
9.
My classmates and I suggest possible problems and tasks.
10. My classmates and I help make decisions about what we learn.
Factor 3. Teacher Scaffolding/Guidance: extent to which the teacher demonstrates problem steps
or structure and provides hints, prompts, for successful completion.
11. teachers provide information and suggestions in ways that help me do the work on my own.
12. Teachers who us possible next steps after giving us a chance to solve a problem.
13. Teachers give hints and clues for solving problems but do not give away the answers.
14. Teachers present just enough information to help me succeed.
15. Teachers give feedback and guidance that helps me while I'm solving a problem.
Factor 4. Student Prior Knowledge/Meaningfulness: extent to which learning activities are
personally relevant and related to the students' prior learning and practical experiences.
16. learning activities are not related to what I've learned in the past.
17. I can relate new terms and concepts to events and experiences in my life.
18. Teachers relate new information or problems to what I've already learned.
19. I use what I've already learned to understand new information.
20. I use ideas and information I already know to understand something new.
Factor 5. Generate Connections: extent to which students build their own knowledge connections
and generate learning products (i.e., forge their own learning links and experience learning as a
personally problematic experience).
21. teachers help me to explore, build, and connect my ideas.
22. I explore how information I'm learning relates and links to other topics and subjects.
23. I memorize facts instead of connecting them to what I know.
24. I bring in information that extends across and links topics we are studying.
25. I make something for teachers that shows or summarizes new topics I have investigated.
Factor 6. Questioning/Discussing: extent classroom conjecture, discussion, and question-asking
behavior is encouraged.
26. we discuss correct and incorrect solutions to a problem.
27. Teachers encourage me to question and discuss answers given in the book.
28. Teachers discourage me from asking questions in class.
29. I am allowed to question whether answers are good or bad.
30. Teachers ask questions that have more than one answer.
Factor 7. Media and Resource-Based Exploration: extent to which technological tools and other
academic resources facilitate idea generation and knowledge building.

31.
32.
33.
34.
35.

I create, design, and try out new ideas by using technology.

I use computers to help me organize and try out my ideas.
I use the computer to explore original ideas and possible answers to problems.
I find new information about topics and subject areas using electronic tools.
I develop ideas from a variety of library and electronic resources.

Factor 8. Collaboration and Negotiation: extent to which students socially interact to derive
meaning and build consensus.
36. I share my ideas, answers, and views with teachers and students.
37. My classmates and I work in small groups or teams when solving problems.
38. Students prepare answers with a partner or team before sharing ideas with the class.
39. I learn what other students think about a problem and to try and see their viewpoints.
40. Students take sides and debate issues and viewpoints.