Metal Forming Analysis

Lab Manual

Course teacher:
Department
7th sememster

INDEX

Sr.No.
1.
2.
3.

4.
5.

6.
7.

List of Experiments
To construct a slip-line net for upsetting a work piece
Experimental determination of stress strain behavior for ductile material
and to evaluate the various elastic and plastic constants.
To analyze flow stress of the given material and to plot a graph of forging
ratio vs. flow stress. Plot the bulge profile of the forged pieces, to find the
radius of curvature of bulging of the forged pieces and to plot a graph of
forging ratio vs. Hf / Rc.
To analyze the bending force vs. bending angle for V bending of strip
and to plot the strain distribution.
To measure the force required in extrusion of model material by using a
die having different diameter and to draw the graphs between extrusion
force vs. extrusion ratio.
To study the rolling process and plot the graph for percentage reduction
in area vs. power in rolling
Industrial visits for exposer to various metal forming process and report
preparation based on observations and learning.

Design based Problems (DP)/Open Ended Problem:

1. Review of various methods for experimental measurements of friction in
metal forming processes. 2. To plot the forming limit diagram and to study
the effect of various strain paths on formability 3. To review research paper
on experimental strain measurement in sheet metal forming processes

Expriment No : 4
AIM: To analyze the bending force vs. bending angle for V bending of strip and
to plot the strain distribution.

1.1 Sheet metal bending

Bending of sheets and plates is widely used in forming parts such as

corrugations, flanges, etc. Bending is a forming operation in which a sheet metal
is subjected to bending stress thereby a flat straight sheet is made into a curved
sheet. The sheet gets plastically deformed without change in thickness. Die and
punch are used for bending. If a v shaped die and punch are used, the bending
is called v-bending. If the sheet is bent on the edge using a wiping die it is called
edge bending. In this process, one end of the sheet is held like a cantilever using
a pressure pad and the other end is deformed by a punch which moves
vertically down, bending the sheet. Usually, edge bending is done in order to
obtain an angle of 90o. During bending of a strip, the material outward of the
neutral axis is subjected to tensile stress. Material inside is subjected to
compressive stress. Bend radius R is the radius of curvature of the bent sheet
inside the bending. The neutral axis remains at the center of the thickness of
the sheet for elastic bending. For plastic bending, however, the neutral axis
shifts towards the inside of the bend. The rate of elongation of outer fibers is
greater than the rate of contraction of inner fibers. Therefore, there is a
thickness reduction at the bend section.

V-bending and edge bending operations

U-Bending.swf V-Bending.swf Fig. 1.1.1A: U bending and V bending
animations

1.2 Theory of bending:

In plastic bending, we ignore the thickness reduction. Therefore, we assume that

the neutral axis remains at the center of the sheet thickness. Consider a sheet
of thickness t, subjected to bending so that it is bent to a radius of curvature of
R. We can ignore strain along the width direction. Let be the bend angle. Bend
allowance is the arc length of the neutral axis in the bend area. It is an
important design parameter. It is given by:
Lb = (R+kt), where k is a constant which is equal to 0.5 for ideal bending-neutral
axis remains at center. K = 0.33 to 0.5 for R<2t or R>2t. respectively. We can
write the strain on outer fiber or inner fiber as (both are equal):

e = 1/ (2R/t)+1
In actual bending, the outer fibers stretch more than the inner fibers getting
shrunk. This difference in strain between outer and inner fibers increases with
decrease in radius of bending or decrease in R/t. Beyond a certain minimum R/t
the tensile strain on outer fiber may reach so high a value that the material
outside starts cracking. The particular radius at which cracks appear on the outer
surface of the bent sheet is called minimum bend radius. It is usually given in terms of the
sheet thickness, t.

The following table gives minimum radius for some materials:

Table 1.2.1: Minimum radius for bending
Material

Soft

Aluminium alloys

6t

Low carbon steel

0.5t

4t

2.5t

4t

Titanium alloys

Hardened

Note, that a minimum bend radius of zero means that the sheet can be bent on
itself. In order to obtain an expression for minimum bend radius, the true strain
of a material during uniaxial tensile test at fracture can be equated to the strain
in bending.

From this, we obtain:

R/t minimum = 1/2r - 1 , where r is reduction in area of the sheet during
bending.
Or, Rmin/t = 50/r 1, in which r is expressed as percent area reduction. This
expression is applicable for reduction in area less than 0.2. For 50% area
reduction, R=0 which means the material can be folded on itself.

Fig. 1.2.1: Minimum bend radius versus percent area reduction

The above graph shows the variation of minimum bend radius with respect to
percent area reduction.

Fig. 1.2.2: Bending terminology and geometry

In bending the ductility of the sheet metal plays very important role. If the
ductility is lower, the minimum bend radius is larger. Similarly, a state of biaxial
stress in bend region may also reduce ductility on outer fibers. For larger values
of width to thickness ratio (w/t) of the sheet, the state of biaxial stress can be
expected. State of biaxiality reaches when w/t reaches a value of 8. Larger w/t
ratios reduce the critical strain required for fracture. As a result the bend radius
will be higher. Narrow sheets undergo crack at the edge because the state of

stress along edge is more biaxial than at center. Wider sheets, when subjected
to larger radius of bend, undergo crack at center because the center is
subjected to more biaxial state of stress. In order to increase the minimum
radius, sheets are polished or ground.
Ability to undergo bending, called bendability can be improved by subjecting the
material to hydrostatic stress. This improves the ductility (percent area
reduction). Inducing compressive stress on outer fibers may also increase the
bendability. Rough edges of the sheet reduces bendability because the rough
edges can easily crack during bending. Cold working of the edges can also lead
to cracking. Edge cracking may also happen due to inclusions or anisotropy of
the material due to operations such as rolling having been cariedout on it.

1.3 Springback:
Elastic recovery of the sheet after the bend load is removed is called springback.
Even after plastic deformation, small elastic recovery may happen in ductile
materials, after removal of load. In bending springback reduces the bend angle.
Similarly, the bend radius after springback is larger. Springback will be larger for
materials having lower elastic modulus and higher yield strength. Springback
increases for a sheet with higher width to thickness ratio as the stress state is
biaxial or plane stress. After releasing the load during bending, the bend radius
changes. However, the bend allowance does not change. Therefore, we have:

K is springback factor, Ri is initial radius of curvature before releasing the load,

Rf is radius of curvature of bend after releasing the load.
K = 1 indicates that there is no springback. K=0 means there is total elastic
recovery as in springs.
Springback depends on R/t ratio. As the ratio increases, the spring back also
increases, as indicated by decreasing K value from the graph below.

R/t
Fig. 1.3.1: Springback factor versus bend radius
Negative springback is a situation in which the bend angle becomes larger after
removal of load. Negative spring back happens in v-bending. The material bends
inward after the load removal due to large strains. Another expression for
springback in terms of bend radius is:

Springback decreases as the yield strength decreases.

Overbending is one way of compensating for springback. Another way is by
subjecting the sheet to compressive stress coining between die and punch
before bending. This is called bottoming. High temperature can also reduce
springback, as the yield stress is reduced. Stretch bending, in which the sheet is
subjected to tensile stress at the time of bending can also reduce springback.
This is because excess tensile stress applied during stretching reduces the
bending moment for bending.

1.4

Bend force:

The force required for bending a sheet of thickness t, length L, to a radius

R is given by:

The maximum bend force is given by:

Fmax = kUTSLt2 / W Where UTS is ultimate tensile strength of the
material, W is die opening width ktakes values between 1.2 to 1.33
for v-die bending and 0.3 to 0.4 for wiping.

Other bending processes:

Long and narrow sheet metals are usually formed or bent to required
shapes, using a hydraulic or mechanical press. Simple long die and tool

and cast iron or carbon steel die materials make this press brake forming
process a very widely used process. Air bending is the bending of sheets
freely between an upper roll or punch and a lower die freely. In roll
bending, a pair of rolls support the plate to be bent and the upper roll
applies the bend force. In continuous roll bending, called roll forming, a
series of rolls are used. The strip or sheet is passed through the rolls,
making the bending in stages. Panels, frames, channels etc can be
formed by this process. Rolls are made of gray cast iron and chrome
plated. Basic force involved in roll forming is bending, not compression as
in rolling. Beading or curling: In this process, the edge of the sheet is
bent into a circular or other contour shape of the die itself, or formed into
a curl, using one die or a pair of dies. Beading of ends of a sheet
improves its stiffness by enhancing its moment of inertia at the edges.
Hinges are examples for beading. Hemming refers to a bending process
in which the end of a sheet is bent into itself, to increase stiffness or
protect the edge of the sheet, or to avoid sharp edge. Seaming is
assembling of two hemmed sheet ends in order to form a joint of the
sheets. Double seams are used for water tight or air tight joints, such as
that used in food beverage containers. U shapes, corrugations, channels,
tubes can be formed by bending sheet metals to specific shapes using a
pair of shaped dies. Flanging: Bending the edge of sheets to 90 degrees
for improving their stiffness or for assembly is called flanging. If the angle
of bend is less than 90 degrees, it is called flaring. Either compressive or
tensile hoop stress is involved in flanging process. Flanges can also be
made by combining piercing the sheet with a punch and followed by
expansion of the pierced edge using an expander punch. This process is
called dimpling. A bullet shaped piercing punch is also sometimes used.