Computer Fundamentals

Computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data as input from the
user and processes it under the control of set of instructions (called program), gives
the result (output), and saves it for the future use.

A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or versatility which
made it an integrated part in all business organisations.
Computer is used in business organisations for:

Payroll calculations

Budgeting

Sales analysis

Financial forecasting

Managing employees database

Maintenance of stocks etc.

Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer is/was being

used. Initially, the generation term was used to distinguish between varying hardware
technologies. But nowadays, generation includes both hardware and software, which
together make up an entire computer system.
There are totally five computer generations known till date. Each generation has been
discussed in detail along with their time period and characteristics. Here approximate
dates against each generations have been mentioned which are normally accepted.
Following are the main five generations of computers
Generation & Description
First Generation

The period of first generation: 1946-1959. Vacuum tube based.

The period of first generation was 1946-1959. The computers of first generation
used vacuum tubes as the basic components for memory and circuitry for CPU
(Central Processing Unit). These tubes, like electric bulbs, produced a lot of heat
and were prone to frequent fusing of the installations, therefore, were very
expensive and could be afforded only by very large organisations. In this
generation mainly batch processing operating system were used. Punched cards,
paper tape, and magnetic tape were used as input and output devices. The
computers in this generation used machine code as programming language.

Second Generation
The period of second generation: 1959-1965. Transistor based.
The period of second generation was 1959-1965. In this generation transistors
were used that were cheaper, consumed less power, more compact in size, more
reliable and faster than the first generation machines made of vacuum tubes. In
this generation, magnetic cores were used as primary memory and magnetic
tape and magnetic disks as secondary storage devices. In this generation
assembly language and high-level programming languages like FORTRAN, COBOL
were used. The computers used batch processing and multiprogramming
operating system.

Third Generation
The period of third generation: 1965-1971. Integrated Circuit based.
The period of third generation was 1965-1971. The computers of third generation
used integrated circuits (IC's) in place of transistors. A single IC has many
transistors, resistors and capacitors along with the associated circuitry. The IC
was invented by Jack Kilby. This development made computers smaller in size,
reliable and efficient. In this generation remote processing, time-sharing, multiprogramming operating system were used. High-level languages (FORTRAN-II TO
IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, BASIC, ALGOL-68 etc.) were used during this
generation.

Fourth Generation
The period of fourth generation: 1971-1980. VLSI microprocessor based.
The period of fourth generation was 1971-1980. The computers of fourth
generation used Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits. VLSI circuits having
about 5000 transistors and other circuit elements and their associated circuits on

a single chip made it possible to have microcomputers of fourth generation.

Fourth generation computers became more powerful, compact, reliable, and
affordable. As a result, it gave rise to personal computer (PC) revolution. In this
generation time sharing, real time, networks, distributed operating system were
used. All the high-level languages like C, C++, DBASE etc., were used in this
generation.

The main features of fourth generation are:

VLSI technology used

Very cheap

Portable and reliable

Use of PC's

Very small size

Pipeline processing

No A.C. needed

Concept of internet was introduced

Great developments in the fields of networks

Computers became easily available

Fifth Generation
The period of fifth generation: 1980-onwards. ULSI microprocessor based
The period of fifth generation is 1980-till date. In the fifth generation, the VLSI technology
became ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology, resulting in the production of
microprocessor chips having ten million electronic components. This generation is based on
parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence) software. AI is an emerging branch
in computer science, which interprets means and method of making computers think like human
beings. All the high-level languages like C and C++, Java, .Net etc., are used in this generation.

The main features of fifth generation are:

ULSI technology

Development of true artificial intelligence

Development of Natural language processing

Advancement in Parallel Processing

Advancement in Superconductor technology

More user friendly interfaces with multimedia features

Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper rates

Computers can be broadly classified by their speed and computing power.

Sr.No.
1

Type
PC (Personal
Computer)

WorkStation

Mini Computer

Main Frame

Supercomputer

Specifications
It is a single user computer system having moderately powerful
microprocessor
It is also a single user computer system which is similar to personal
computer but have more powerful microprocessor.
It is a multi-user computer system which is capable of supporting
hundreds of users simultaneously.
It is a multi-user computer system which is capable of supporting
hundreds of users simultaneously. Software technology is different
from minicomputer.
It is an extremely fast computer which can execute hundreds of
millions of instructions per second.

Following are few of the important input devices which are used in a computer:

Keyboard

Mouse

Joy Stick

Light pen

Track Ball

Scanner

Graphic Tablet

Microphone

Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)

Optical Character Reader(OCR)

Bar Code Reader

Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

Following are few of the important output devices which are used in a computer.

Monitors

Graphic Plotter

Printer

A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions. Computer memory
is the storage space in computer where data is to be processed and instructions required for
processing are stored. The memory is divided into large number of small parts called cells. Each
location or cell has a unique address which varies from zero to memory size minus one. For
example if computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024=65536 memory
locations. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.
Memory is primarily of three types

Cache Memory

Primary Memory/Main Memory

Secondary Memory

Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up CPU. It acts as a
buffer between the CPU and main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and program
which are most frequently used by CPU. The parts of data and programs are transferred from
disk to cache memory by operating system, from where CPU can access them.
Advantages

The advantages of cache memory are as follows:

Cache memory is faster than main memory.

It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.

It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.

It stores data for temporary use.

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows:

Cache memory has limited capacity.

It is very expensive.

Primary Memory (Main Memory)

Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which computer is currently working.
It has limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally made up of
semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers. The data and instruction
required to be processed reside in main memory. It is divided into two subcategories RAM and
ROM.
Characteristics of Main Memory

These are semiconductor memories

It is known as main memory.

Usually volatile memory.

Data is lost in case power is switched off.

It is working memory of the computer.

Faster than secondary memories.

A computer cannot run without primary memory.

Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than main
memory. These are used for storing data/Information permanently. CPU directly does not access
these memories instead they are accessed via input-output routines. Contents of secondary
memories are first transferred to main memory, and then CPU can access it. For example : disk,
CD-ROM, DVD etc.

Characteristic of Secondary Memory

These are magnetic and optical memories

It is known as backup memory.

It is non-volatile memory.

Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.

It is used for storage of data in a computer.

Computer may run without secondary memory.

Slower than primary memories.

Few higher storage units are following

Sr.No.
1
2
3
4

Unit
Kilobyte (KB)
Megabyte (MB)
GigaByte (GB)
TeraByte (TB

Description
1 KB = 1024 Bytes
1 MB = 1024 KB
1 GB = 1024 MB
1 TB = 1024 GB

PetaByte (PB)

1 PB = 1024 TB

When we type some letters or words, the computer translates them in numbers as computers can
understand only numbers. A computer can understand positional number system where there are
only a few symbols called digits and these symbols represent different values depending on the
position they occupy in the number.
A value of each digit in a number can be determined using

The digit

The position of the digit in the number

The base of the number system (where base is defined as the total number of digits
available in the number system).

Decimal Number System

The number system that we use in our day-to-day life is the decimal number system. Decimal
number system has base 10 as it uses 10 digits from 0 to 9. In decimal number system, the
successive positions to the left of the decimal point represent units, tens, hundreds, thousands
and so on.
Each position represents a specific power of the base (10). For example, the decimal number
1234 consists of the digit 4 in the units position, 3 in the tens position, 2 in the hundreds position,
and 1 in the thousands position, and its value can be written as
(1x1000)+ (2x100)+ (3x10)+ (4xl)
(1x103)+ (2x102)+ (3x101)+ (4xl00)
1000 + 200 + 30 + 4
1234

As a computer programmer or an IT professional, you should understand the following number

systems which are frequently used in computers.
S.N
.

Number System and Description

Binary Number System

1

Base 2. Digits used : 0, 1

2

Octal Number System

Base 8. Digits used : 0 to 7

Hexa Decimal Number System
3

Base 16. Digits used : 0 to 9, Letters used : A- F

Binary Number System

Characteristics of binary number system are as follows:

Uses two digits, 0 and 1.

Also called base 2 number system

Each position in a binary number represents a 0 power of the base (2). Example 20

Last position in a binary number represents a x power of the base (2). Example 2x where
x represents the last position - 1.

Example

Binary Number : 101012

Calculating Decimal Equivalent:
Step

Binary Number

Decimal Number

Step 1

101012

((1 x 24) + (0 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) + (1 x 20))10

Step 2

101012

(16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1)10

Step 3

101012

2110

Note : 101012 is normally written as 10101.

Octal Number System

Characteristics of octal number system are as follows:

Uses eight digits, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7.

Also called base 8 number system

Each position in an octal number represents a 0 power of the base (8). Example 80

Last position in an octal number represents a x power of the base (8). Example 8x where x
represents the last position - 1.

Example

Octal Number : 125708

Calculating Decimal Equivalent:
Step

Octal Number

Decimal Number

Step 1

125708

((1 x 84) + (2 x 83) + (5 x 82) + (7 x 81) + (0 x 80))10

Step 2

125708

(4096 + 1024 + 320 + 56 + 0)10

Step 3

125708

549610

Note : 125708 is normally written as 12570.

Hexadecimal Number System

Characteristics of hexadecimal number system are as follows:

Uses 10 digits and 6 letters, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F.

Letters represents numbers starting from 10. A = 10. B = 11, C = 12, D = 13, E = 14, F =
15.

Also called base 16 number system

Each position in a hexadecimal number represents a 0 power of the base (16). Example
160

Last position in a hexadecimal number represents a x power of the base (16). Example
16x where x represents the last position - 1.

Example

Hexadecimal Number : 19FDE16

Calculating Decimal Equivalent:
Step

Binary Number

Decimal Number

Step 1

19FDE16

((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (F x 162) + (D x 161) + (E x

160))10

Step 2

19FDE16

((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (15 x 162) + (13 x 161) + (14 x

160))10
Step 3

19FDE16

(65536+ 36864 + 3840 + 208 + 14)10

Step 4

19FDE16

10646210

There are many methods or techniques which can be used to convert numbers from one base to
another. We'll demonstrate here the following:

Decimal to Other Base System

Other Base System to Decimal

Other Base System to Non-Decimal

Shortcut method - Binary to Octal

Shortcut method - Octal to Binary

Shortcut method - Binary to Hexadecimal

Shortcut method - Hexadecimal to Binary

Decimal to Other Base System

steps

Step 1 - Divide the decimal number to be converted by the value of the new base.

Step 2 - Get the remainder from Step 1 as the rightmost digit (least significant digit) of
new base number.

Step 3 - Divide the quotient of the previous divide by the new base.

Step 4 - Record the remainder from Step 3 as the next digit (to the left) of the new base
number.

Repeat Steps 3 and 4, getting remainders from right to left, until the quotient becomes zero in
Step 3.
The last remainder thus obtained will be the most significant digit (MSD) of the new base
number.

Example

Decimal Number : 2910

Calculating Binary Equivalent:
Step

Operation

Result

Remainder

Step 1

29 / 2

14

Step 2

14 / 2

Step 3

7/2

Step 4

3/2

Step 5

1/2

As mentioned in Steps 2 and 4, the remainders have to be arranged in the reverse order so that
the first remainder becomes the least significant digit (LSD) and the last remainder becomes the
most significant digit (MSD).
Decimal Number : 2910 = Binary Number : 111012.

Other base system to Decimal System

Steps

Step 1 - Determine the column (positional) value of each digit (this depends on the
position of the digit and the base of the number system).

Step 2 - Multiply the obtained column values (in Step 1) by the digits in the
corresponding columns.

Step 3 - Sum the products calculated in Step 2. The total is the equivalent value in
decimal.

Example

Binary Number : 111012

Calculating Decimal Equivalent:
Step

Binary Number

Decimal Number

Step 1

111012

((1 x 24) + (1 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) + (1 x 20))10

Step 2

111012

(16 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1)10

Step 3

111012

2910

Binary Number : 111012 = Decimal Number : 2910

Other Base System to Non-Decimal System

Steps

Step 1 - Convert the original number to a decimal number (base 10).

Step 2 - Convert the decimal number so obtained to the new base number.

Example

Octal Number : 258

Calculating Binary Equivalent:
Step 1 : Convert to Decimal
Step
Octal Number

Decimal Number

Step 1

258

((2 x 81) + (5 x 80))10

Step 2

258

(16 + 5 )10

Step 3

258

2110

Octal Number : 258 = Decimal Number : 2110

Step 2 : Convert Decimal to Binary
Step
Operation
Result

Remainder

Step 1

21 / 2

10

Step 2

10 / 2

Step 3

5/2

Step 4

2/2

Step 5

1/2

Decimal Number : 2110 = Binary Number : 101012

Octal Number : 258 = Binary Number : 101012

Shortcut method - Binary to Octal

Steps

Step 1 - Divide the binary digits into groups of three (starting from the right).

Step 2 - Convert each group of three binary digits to one octal digit.

Example

Binary Number : 101012

Calculating Octal Equivalent:
Step

Binary Number

Octal Number

Step 1

101012

010 101

Step 2

101012

28 5 8

Step 3

101012

258

Binary Number : 101012 = Octal Number : 258

Shortcut method - Octal to Binary

Steps

Step 1 - Convert each octal digit to a 3 digit binary number (the octal digits may be
treated as decimal for this conversion).

Step 2 - Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 3 digits each) into a single binary
number.

Example

Octal Number : 258

Calculating Binary Equivalent:
Step

Octal Number

Binary Number

Step 1

258

210 510

Step 2

258

0102 1012

Step 3

258

0101012

Octal Number : 258 = Binary Number : 101012

Shortcut method - Binary to Hexadecimal

Steps

Step 1 - Divide the binary digits into groups of four (starting from the right).

Step 2 - Convert each group of four binary digits to one hexadecimal symbol.

Example

Binary Number : 101012

Calculating hexadecimal Equivalent:
Step

Binary Number

Hexadecimal Number

Step 1

101012

0001 0101

Step 2

101012

110 510

Step 3

101012

1516

Binary Number : 101012 = Hexadecimal Number : 1516

Shortcut method - Hexadecimal to Binary

steps

Step 1 - Convert each hexadecimal digit to a 4 digit binary number (the hexadecimal
digits may be treated as decimal for this conversion).

Step 2 - Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 4 digits each) into a single binary
number.

Example

Hexadecimal Number : 1516

Calculating Binary Equivalent:
Step

Hexadecimal Number

Binary Number

Step 1

1516

110 510

Step 2

1516

00012 01012

Step 3

1516

000101012

A logic gate is an elementary building block of a digital circuit. Most logic gates have two inputs
and one output. At any given moment, every terminal is in one of the two binary conditions low
(0) or high (1), represented by different voltage levels. The logic state of a terminal can, and

generally does, change often, as the circuit processes data. In most logic gates, the low state is
approximately zero volts (0 V), while the high state is approximately five volts positive (+5 V).
There are seven basic logic gates: AND, OR, XOR, NOT, NAND, NOR, and XNOR.
The AND gate is so named because, if 0 is called "false" and 1 is called "true," the gate acts in
the same way as the logical "and" operator. The following illustration and table show the circuit
symbol and logic combinations for an AND gate. (In the symbol, the input terminals are at left
and the output terminal is at right.) The output is "true" when both inputs are "true." Otherwise,
the output is "false."

AND gate
Input 1

Input 2

Output

1
1
1

The OR gate gets its name from the fact that it behaves after the fashion of the logical inclusive
"or." The output is "true" if either or both of the inputs are "true." If both inputs are "false," then
the output is "false."

OR gate

Input 1

Input 2

Output

1
1

1
1

The XOR ( exclusive-OR ) gate acts in the same way as the logical "either/or." The output is
"true" if either, but not both, of the inputs are "true." The output is "false" if both inputs are
"false" or if both inputs are "true." Another way of looking at this circuit is to observe that the
output is 1 if the inputs are different, but 0 if the inputs are the same.

XOR gate
Input 1

Input 2

Output

A logical inverter , sometimes called a NOT gate to differentiate it from other types of electronic
inverter devices, has only one input. It reverses the logic state.

Inverter or NOT gate

Input

Output

1
1

The NAND gate operates as an AND gate followed by a NOT gate. It acts in the manner of the
logical operation "and" followed by negation. The output is "false" if both inputs are "true."
Otherwise, the output is "true."

NAND gate
Input 1

Input 2

Output
1

1
1
1

1
1

The NOR gate is a combination OR gate followed by an inverter. Its output is "true" if both
inputs are "false." Otherwise, the output is "false."

NOR gate
Input 1

Input 2

Output
1

1
1
1

The XNOR (exclusive-NOR) gate is a combination XOR gate followed by an inverter. Its output
is "true" if the inputs are the same, and"false" if the inputs are different.

XNOR gate
Input 1

Input 2

Output
1

1
1
1