Building Services Design: Electrical Installation (Higher)

DET
Building Services Design

Electrical Installation
(Higher)
7062
June 2000
HIGHER STILL
Building Services Design

Electrical Installation
(Higher)
Support Materials
CONTENTS
Teachers Guide
Student Material
Outcome 1
Outcome 2
Outcome 3
Tutorial
Tutorial Solutions
DET: Building Services Design: Electrical Installation (Higher)
TEACHERS GUIDE
Support Materials overview
The support materials for Building Services courses at Higher level have been
designed to assist students to develop knowledge and skills relating to the provision
and design of common Building Services within the building process.
The Support Materials for each unit have been divided into outcomes. This will assist
lesson planning and assessment scheduling.
Building Services support materials follow a common format:
1. an outline of the outcome content
2. a statement of expected student attainment for each outcome
3. teaching and learning activities
4. tutorial activities for each outcome
5. formal assessment.
It should be noted that national assessments have been designed to allow assessment
at either the end of each outcome or each unit.
Support Materials content

Outcome 1 Determine the minimum size of cable required for a given circuit.
The purpose of this unit of work is to introduce students to the procedures that are
followed to determine the minimum cross-sectional area of cable for a given electrical
circuit.
On completion of this unit of work students should be able to:
1. calculate the design current of a circuit
2. apply appropriate correction factors to the design
3. select a suitable overcurrent device
4. determine the current carrying capability of the circuit conductor
5. check that the voltage drop is within the acceptable limits
6. select a suitable cable size for a given situation.
Outcome 2 Design an artificial lighting layout for a regular shaped room.

The purpose of this unit of work is to introduce students to the procedures that are
followed when designing an artificial lighting scheme. This will be achieved by
introducing students to lighting terminology, referring to CIBSE indoor lighting
design guide and by identifying the factors which affect the number of luminaires
required for a given lighting scheme.
1. select appropriate illuminance levels for a given situation
2. identify factors that affect the number of luminaires required for a given situation
3. calculate correctly the number of luminaires required for a given situation
4. produce a suitable layout of luminaires for a given situation.
Outcome 3 Design an automatic fire detection and warning system for a small
commercial building.
The purpose of this unit of work is to introduce students to the procedures to be
followed when designing automatic fire detection and warning system for a given
building.
1. select appropriate reference for compliance with current practice
2. describe the purpose of a particular system
3. identify the correct number of zones within a given building
4. correctly layout fire detection equipment at correct spacing.
STUDENT MATERIAL
OUTCOME 1 DETERMINE THE MINIMUM SIZE OF CABLE REQUIRED
FOR A GIVEN CIRCUIT.
Outcome 1 in this unit you will study the procedures to follow to enable you to
correctly select a minimum cable size for a given circuit.
Cable sizing is a fundamental and important part of electrical installation design.
Electricity like fire serves a great purpose for human needs, but if it is not used
properly it can prove to be very dangerous, therefore, the need for planned methods of
electrical installations is governed by regulations, recommendations and British
Standards (BSs). In some cases these references are mandatory and are enforced by
law, however, others are non-statutory.
Cable types
There are many types of cable available for use in electrical circuits. These range
from the small single-core wire used in electronics, to large oil and gas insulated
cables used to transmit high voltage electricity across the country. In this unit we will
study cables that may be found in circuits for small building use.
The structure of these cables is classified in 2 parts (see figure 1):
1. conductor (or conductors)
2. sheathing and insulation.
P V C SH E ATH
C O N D UC TO R
INS U LATIO N
C PC
Fig. 1
Conductors
As the name implies, this is the actual conducting part of the cable that carries the
current. It consists of a single wire or group of wires in contact with one another.
Metals are very good conductors and are, therefore, used in cable construction, mainly
in the form of copper or aluminium.
Circuits for small buildings use solid conductors rather than stranded conductors.
Solid conductors may be either circular or rectangular in cross-section and are used
for fixed wiring.
Sheathing and insulation

Almost all conductors have both sheathing and insulation. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
is most often used for circuits in small buildings for both insulating and sheathing
purposes, as shown below in figure 2.
PVC SHEATH
PVC INSULATION
CONDUCTOR
CIRCUIT PROTECTIVE
CONDUCTOR (CPC)
Fig.2
This type of cable is easy to work and cheap, however, it should not be used where
there is a risk of mechanical damage, corrosion or extremes of temperatures.
Other types of cables for wiring purposes include mineral insulated metal sheathed
(MIMS) used for wiring fire protection devices and for increased strength and
durability, (see figure 3) and armoured cable for increased robustness.
METAL SHEATH
INSULATION
CONDUCTOR
Fig.3
Other systems used for conducting electricity in buildings include trunking and
conduit.
A conduit is a pipe in which conductors are run. The conduit replaces the PVC
sheathing of a cable. Conduit is often used in larger buildings (see figure 4). Steel
conduit is mechanically strong and is ideal in areas where mechanical damage could
occur, such as industrial buildings. Plastic conduit is used mainly in light industrial
buildings and commercial buildings and in areas where dampness and corrosion is a
risk.
METAL CONDUIT
(ALSO USED AS CPC)
VOID
INSULATION
CONDUCTOR
Fig.4
Trunking
Trunking serves the same purpose as a conduit but is larger in size. It is often used in
industry, engineering and other large buildings and is available in many shapes and
sizes (see figure 5).
TR UN K IN G
INS U LATE D
C O N D UC TO R S
Fig.5
In most small buildings the supply voltage is single-phase 230 V. Therefore, for the
purpose of this unit we will only deal with this supply voltage. As mentioned
previously, PVC sheathed and insulated cable is used in most small buildings and
therefore we will also assume that this type of cable is to be used in all examples.
Electric circuit protection

The most important factor in any electrical system is safety. Electricity is responsible
for many wonderful things in modern life, however, if a system is not designed and
installed properly it can have serious, if not fatal consequences.
Therefore, to ensure a system operates effectively, efficiently and safely, we must
ensure that it is protected against the following:
1. mechanical damage
2. environmental effects
3. overcurrent.
1. Mechanical damage
There are many ways in which an electrical circuit can be mechanically (or
physically) damaged. An overcurrent left unchecked for a period of time could cause
the conductor to become distorted and the insulation may break down.
In industrial buildings there may be a risk of impact from tools and equipment and
therefore, mechanical protection may be provided of conduit or mineral insulated
cable.
2. Environmental effect
The environment in which a circuit is to be installed will have a direct bearing upon
the degree of protection required. Corrosion may pose a risk in certain damp
environments, electrolytic corrosion could also be a potential risk, therefore, corrosion
resistant material should be used in these places.
PVC cables may degrade due to heat and light effects. The IEE regulations
recommend that PVC sheathed cables and thermo-plastic fittings for lights should not
be installed if the temperature is expected to rise above 60oC. PVC conduit and
trunking should also be avoided at such temperatures. High temperature PVC cables
are available for use where temperatures do not exceed 80oC.
On the contrary, PVC cables become brittle and crack easily at low temperatures and
therefore, should not be used if the temperature constantly drops below 0oC.
Protection against shock is essential to ensure that people and livestock (or pets in
houses) are not injured.
There are two ways in which electric shock can occur:
a) direct contact resulting from contact with a conductor which forms part of the
circuit
b) indirect contact resulting from contact with something that has become live due
to a fault.
Ensuring that people cannot come in to touch with live conductors mainly prevents
direct contact. This is usually done by insulating the live parts and further protecting
by sheathing or conduit, placing out of reach, providing barriers or enclosures or by
using residual current devices (RCDs) which switch off the circuit quickly if the
current rises to a pre-set level.
Indirect contact is prevented by ensuring that when a fault occurs the supply is cut off
within a safe time, usually by limitation of earth fault loop impedance or by cutting
off the supply before a fatal shock can be received using residual devices.
3. Overcurrent protection
Overcurrent is a greater level of current than the materials in use will tolerate for a
long period of time. It may be either an overload current or a short-circuit current.
Overload current is an overcurrent occurring in a circuit that is electrically sound, due
to loading in excess of the design current of the circuit.
Short-circuit current is an overcurrent resulting from a fault of negligible impedance
between live conductors having a difference in potential under normal operating
conditions.
Overcurrent protection devices are generally of 2 types, fuses and MCBs.
a) Fuses:
i)
ii)
iii)
There are 3 main types of fuses used in electrical systems:

semi-enclosed (rewireable) BS3036
cartridge (BS 1361 & BS 1362)
high breaking capacity (HBC BS88 pt.4).
Generally the advantages fuses have over MCBs are:

there are no mechanical moving parts
low cost to install and replace
simple to observe when fuse has blown.
(b) MCBs: There are also 3 types of MCB used in electrical systems:
i)
thermal and magnetic
ii)
magnetic and hydraulic
iii)
assisted bimetal.
The advantage MCBs have over fuses are:
tripping characteristics are set during manufacture and cannot be altered
they will trip for a sustained overload but not for transient overload
faulty circuits are easily identified
supply is quickly restored
they are virtually tamper proof.
10
Regardless of which type of overcurrent protection device is used, it must be capable

of breaking the circuit before any overload current could cause a rise in temperature
which may damage insulation, joints or surrounding of conductors. This means that
the circuit protective device is selected to ensure that overheating does not occur to a
degree of breakdown of insulation.
The rating of overload device is related to the maximum temperature that the
insulation of the conductor can withstand for a period of time without significant
deterioration. Therefore, it is important that the following is observed:
Ib
Where:
<
In
<
Iz
Ib is the design current of the circuit.

In is the current rating (or setting) of the overload protective device for
the circuit.
Iz is the current carrying capacity of the circuit conductor.
The design current Ib for a single-phase system is found using the following formula:
Ib
Where:
P
-V
P = Power of the load.

V = Voltage drop (230 V).
In many non-domestic single-phase systems which have a power factor (PF) and
perhaps machinery, efficiency will be taken into account and the formula would then
become:
Ib
P x 100
------------------------------V x PF efficiency
Example: What is the design current for a single-phase 230 V supply to a 3 kW oven?
Ib
P
----------------V
11
Ib
3000
----------------230
Ib
13 amps
Therefore, knowing that Ib < In, the current rating of the protective device can be
selected. The rating (or nominal setting) is found in tables 41B1, B2 or D of the IEE
regulations depending on the fuse type or MCB selected.
The current carrying capacity of the circuit conductor (Iz) is selected to ensure it will
not prove problematic. Overheating can occur due to the method of installation and
the environment in which cable pass. These conditions must be taken into account,
and therefore, four correction factors may be used within the design.
These are:
a) Ca = Correction factor for ambient temperature where ambient temperature
exceeds 30oC. Table 4C1 of the IEE regulations provides appropriate factors.
b) Cg = Correction factor for grouping. Cables grouped or bunched together
exchange heat with each other, and therefore the greater the number of cables the
build up of heat. Table 4B of the IEE Regulations provides appropriate factors.
c) Ci = Correction factor for thermal insulation. Excessive heat may build up where
cables are in contact with thermal insulation. Table 52A of the IEE regulations
provides appropriate factors.
It should also be noted that if a BS 3036 fuse is used to protect a circuit, then the
rating of the fuse should be corrected using a correction factor Ct of 0.725.
Example
Determine the current carrying capacity of the circuit conductor (Iz) under the
following conditions and also the minimum cable size:
1. design circuit is 18A
2. a type 1 MCB to BS3871 is to be used (Table 41B2)
3. ambient temperature is 40oC
4. circuit to be run in flat 2-core (with cpc) 70oC pvc-insulated and sheathed cable
with copper conductors
5. cable to be grouped with three other multi-core cables
6. cable to be clipped directly to a wall surface.
12
Solution
Ib = 8A, knowing that In > Ib, then from table 41B2 select a current rating for the
protective device In, in this case a 20A rating would be suitable.
Now, from Table 4C1 select the appropriate correction factor for an ambient
temperature (Ci) of 40oC, in this case Ci = 0.87.
From Table 4B select the appropriate correction factor (Cg) for grouping of cables, in
this case Cg = 0.9
Now apply the following formula.
In
----------------Ci x Cg
Iz
20
----------------0.87 x 0.9
Iz
25.6A
Iz
From table 4D2A select a suitable live conductor for a current capacity of 25.6A, in
this case a 2.5 mm2 cable would be suitable as it has a current capacity of 27A.
13
Summary of steps for selection of live conductor size:

1. Determine the design current of the circuit (Ib). This is usually:
Ib
V
--Z
2. Determine the nominal setting or current rating (In) of the overcurrent device.
Remember, In > Ib.
3. Determine the correction factor for ambient temperature (Ca) from Table 4C1,
4C2.
4. Determine the correction factor for grouping (Cg) from Table 4B1.
5. Determine the correction factor for contact with thermal insulation (Ci) from
Table 52A.
6. Select an overcurrent device and use a correction factor of 0.725 if a semienclosed fuse (BS 3036) is used.
7. Determine the current carrying capacity of the circuit conductor (Iz)
8. Select the size of circuit conductor, current rating Iz using Table 4D1A, 4D2A.
14
Cable voltage drop

When selecting cable sizes consideration must be given to the voltage drop within the
circuit. The longer the lengths of cable run the greater the resistance and therefore, an
increasing voltage drop.
The IEE regulations state that the voltage drop Vc should be limited in order that
equipment will operate safely and that in any case, a voltage drop of not greater than
4% of the nominal voltage at the origin would be satisfactory.
Hence, for single phase 230 V, the voltage drop should not exceed 4% of 230 V i.e.
9.2 V and for 3-phase 400 V, the voltage drop should not exceed 4% of 400 V i.e. 16
V.
Example:
The voltage drop on a circuit supplied from a 230 V supply by a 10

mm2 cable 2-core copper cable 30 m long, clipped direct and carrying a
design current Ib of 27 A is determined by:
Vc
mV x Ib x L
-----------------1000
Note: the value of mV is found in Table 4D2B.
Vc
4.4 x 27 x 30
-----------------1000
Vc
3.564V
This value is acceptable, as the voltage drop is less than 4%, for example, less than
9.6 V.
It can be seen from the above formula that the maximum length of cable length can be
calculated by transposing the formula.
15
Tutorial Example
Determine the minimum cable size that may be selected if the voltage drop is not to
exceed 2.5% of the nominal voltage of the installation.
Data
230 V single phase circuit run in flat 2-core (with cpc) 70o C pvc-insulated and
sheathed cable with copper conductors.
Cable clipped direct and not grouped with cables of other circuits.
Circuit to be protected by a BS 88 fuse against overload and short circuit.
Design current: 42A.
Circuit length: 27 m.
Ambient temperature: 40oC.
16
Tutorial solution
Ib = 42A and In > Ib, therefore from table 41B1 select a 50A fuse.
Identify correction factors Ca, Cg and Ci.
No correction factors to be applied for grouping or insulation in this case.
From Table 4C1 Ca = 0.87
In
---------------Ca
Iz
50
---------------0.87
Iz
57.5A
Iz
From table 4D2A for an Iz rating of 57.5A select a 10 mm2 cable as it has a current
carrying capacity of 64A.
Now check the voltage drop is within the 2.5% limit
From Table 4D2B mV for a 10 mm cable is 4.4 mV/A/m
mV x Ib x L
---------------1000
Vc
4.4 x 42 x L
----------------1000
Vc
5V
Vc
Maximum voltage drop permitted is 2.5% of 230 V = 5.75 V therefore cable size is
suitable.
17
OUTCOME 2: DESIGN AN ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING LAYOUT FOR A

REGULAR SHAPED ROOM
LIGHT
Outcome 2 In this outcome you will study the procedures to follow in order to
design an artificial lighting scheme.
What is light?
Light is a form of energy which is able to pass through space by radiation. Light
waves are electromagnetic and are only part of a large range of wavelengths known as
the electromagnetic spectrum.
The portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that enables the eye to distinguish
between different wavelengths within it by the sensation of colour is known as the
visible spectrum (see figure 1).
km
Fig.1
The visible spectrum ranges from around 380 nm to 760 nm.
18
Vision and the eye

The sensitivity of the human eye is not uniform over the visible spectrum as it varies
with wavelength.
The eye distinguishes different wavelengths within the visible spectrum as different
colours. The short wavelengths give violet and blues, whereas, the long wavelengths
create the oranges and reds (see figure 2).
Fig.2
19
Visual acuity
Visual acuity is the ability of the eye to distinguish between details that are very close
together and is proportional to the amount of light available, i.e. the more light
available the greater the acuity up to around 10000 lux (see figure 3). Beyond this
level acuity gain is negligible.
Fig.3
Each person has a unique pair of eyes and therefore, also unique vision, however,
some generalisations can be made to assist us in designing lighting systems.
Visual acuity is greatest in young children and deteriorates slowly with age (see figure
4). This information is useful as it enables us to adjust lighting level design for
buildings such as, nursery schools and homes for the elderly.
Fig.4
20
Sources of light
Light is available in two forms:
1. natural light
2. artificial light.
1. Natural light
Most rooms in buildings contain windows that provide daylight.
Psychologically humans prefer natural light to artificial, that is, they prefer to be
in rooms with windows than those without. This should be borne in mind by
building and lighting designers.
All natural light comes from the sun and therefore, the quantity of available light
in a room at any given time is dependent upon a number of factors, such as:
a) the time of year (more daylight is available in Scotland in summertime)
b) the time of day (no natural light is available at night time)
c) the percentage area of windows or other glazed areas
d) the orientation of the building.
The above factors make it highly unlikely to depend solely upon natural light for
buildings, and therefore, nearly all buildings can be lit totally by artificial lighting
to the required light level or by a combination of natural and artificial lighting
where possible.
2. Artificial light
Artificial lighting in most buildings is by electrical systems using either one or
both types of the following lamps:
a) incandescent lamps
b) discharge lamps.
a) Incandescent lamps
These lamps work by passing an electric current through a filament of metal
and raising the temperature to around 28000K whereby, white heat is produced
making the metal incandescent (or glowing) and produce useful quantities of
light. The design of a tungsten filament lamp is shown in figure 5.
21
Fig.5
The metal is prevented from burning (oxidation) by being sealed in a glass

case and surrounded by an inert gas such as argon or nitrogen. When the lamp
is in use tungsten evaporates from the filament and deposits on the glass
causing it to stain. The filament becomes progressively thinner with use,
weakens and eventually breaks.
The lamp produces a spectral distribution of light which is continuous but
deficient in blue. The quality of light is seen as warm i.e. predominantly red
and orange distribution and is suitable for most social and domestic uses. The
lamps are generally cheap, however, due to their short life span, maintenance
costs may be very high and may offset low initial costs.
The simple tungsten lamp such as a light bulb is the least efficient and short
lived type of electrical light source and is being replaced by others. In fact,
only about 5% of the electrical energy is converted to visible light and the
remainder is converted to heat. However, the properties of filament lamps
have been improved using halogen gases and lower voltages.
Tungsten-Halogen lamps are a development from the tungsten filament lamp
to reduce the dispersal of tungsten particles from the filament. The filaments
run at higher temperatures in the presence of a small amount of a halogen gas
such as, iodine or bromine. When tungsten evaporates from the filament it is
deposited on the wall of the case where it combines with iodine. The new
compound is a vapour which carries the tungsten back onto the lamp and redeposits it on the hot filament, whilst the iodine is also re-cycled.
22
The envelope of the lamp is made of quartz instead of plain glass to

accommodate high temperatures. Increasing the vapour pressure in the lamp
may reduce the rate of evaporation. Using gases, which are chemically inert
with hot tungsten, can do this. The most common gas is a mixture of argon
and nitrogen.
b) Discharge lamps
The principle of operation of this type of lamp is ionisation of a gas to produce
light. There are many types of discharge lamps available including:
i)
low pressure mercury vapour lamps (fluorescent tube)
ii)
low pressure sodium vapour lamps
iii)
high pressure sodium vapour lamps
iv)
neon tube lamps.
The most common type of lamps used in non-domestic buildings is the lowpressure mercury vapour lamps, better known as fluorescent lamps. These
lamps operate by passing an electric current through a gas or vapour so that a
luminous arc is formed within the glass container. This produces
electromagnetic wavelength energy which is around 10% or less in the visual
spectrum wavelength and 90% or more in the ultra-violet range.
The ultra-violet energy is absorbed by chemical phosphors which are coated on
the inside surface of the tube and re-emitted as visible light energy. The
chemical composition of the phosphor determines the colour of the light
output. The tube is filled with a mercury vapour at low pressure and a small
quantity of argon is added to assist starting and at the ends of the tube are
filaments are coated with an oxide. Discharge occurs when a high voltage is
applied across the ends of the tube.
Figure 6 shows the construction of a typical lamp and illustrates the electrical
control gear that the lamp requires. The gear is required to provide a starting
pulse of high voltage, to control the discharge current and to improve
efficiency (power factor). Modern types of control gear use electronic circuits
to replace wire wound components.
23
Fig.6
Discharge lamps in general decrease in light output and efficacy (light

output/watt) with use, therefore, they should be replaced by cyclic
maintenance after a specific period of time. The life span is also dependent
upon the number of times the lamp is switched on and off.
Other types of discharge lamps may have improved efficacy, however, the
spectral distribution of the lamps are often poor, in some cases
monochromatic, and therefore they are not used for internal lighting, they are
however, popular for external lighting including street lighting.
Characteristics of lamps
Table 1 shows typical characteristics of some common lamps.
Table 1
Lamp type
Wattage
Efficacy
Lifespan
Colour
Temp
Uses
Tung. filam
Tung. halog
Fluorescent
LowP. Sod.
HighP. Sod
40 - 200
300 - 2000
20 - 125
35 - 180
70 - 1000
12
21
60
180 @180w
125@400w
1000
2000 - 4000
8000+
8000+
8000+
2700
3000
3000 - 6500
N/A
2100
homes etc
display
offices etc
roads etc
factories
24
Lighting terminology
a) Luminous efficacy
This is the ability of a lamp to convert electrical energy into light energy. The
luminous efficacy is important as it provides information on the likely operating
cost of the lamp or the lighting system. The following formula is used to
determine the luminous efficacy value.
Luminous effiicacy
Luminous flux output

----------------------------Electrical power input
As seen on table 1 luminous efficiency is related to the wattage of the lamp and to
the type of lamp.
b) Luminous intensity (I)
This is the power of the light source, on an illuminated surface, to emit light in a
particular direction. The unit is the Candela (cd). The mean spherical intensity of
a 100 W light bulb is approximately 100 cd.
c) Luminous flux (F)
This is the rate of flow of light energy. The unit of luminous flux is the lumen. One
lumen is the luminous flux emitted within one steradian by a point source of light
of one candela.
d) Illuminance (E)
When luminous flux falls on a surface it causes the surface to be illuminated. The
lighting effect is known as illuminance. It is the density of luminous flux reaching
a surface. The unit of illuminance is the lux, whereby, 1 lux = 1 lumen/m2. Also,
if light is falling at right angles to the surface, then illuminance (E) is given by:
F
--------A
25
Figure 7 below illustrates lighting terms and units.
Fig.7
Colour temperature
The quality of light emitted by heated objects is dependent upon the temperature of
the heated object, this may be used to describe the colour of light. The most
appropriate colour of light is up to personal choice; however, it is accepted that at low
lighting levels cool colours can give a gloomy appearance.
Colour rendering
This is the ability of a lamp to reveal the colour appearance of objects under such
light; the appearance is then compared to a reference source such as natural daylight.
There are many different colour indices; however, the CIE colour-rendering index is
the most commonly used. This method uses eight Munsell test colours and its general
index Ra is based upon:
a) the spectral reflectance of the test colours
b) the spectrum of the source under test
c) the spectrum of the reference source.
The index gives a maximum value of 100 for the ideal lamp against a reference source
of a black body radiator. The CIBSE 1984 Lighting Code uses a 5-grade scale based
on the Ra index. The problem with a single index is that it cannot fully describe the
effect on colours from a lamp.
It is possible to distort colours by enhancing the content of a particular colour; this can
be advantageous for display lighting purposes.
26
Intensity distribution diagrams (polar curves)

This diagram shows the intensity distribution, usually in a vertical plane. The spokes
represent the various angles from the downward vertical and the circles represent the
magnitude of intensity. The luminous intensity of a lamp can be measured using a
photometer and the results plotted and joined by a curve which in turn represents the
distribution of light output from the lamp. In many cases the distribution is not
symmetrical about the vertical axis, such as a linear fitting, in which case more than
one vertical plane needs to be plotted and drawn (see figures 8 & 9).
Fig.8
27
Fig. 9
In the 1980s a system called the British Zonal (BZ) system was used, however, today
we use intensity distribution diagrams based on a 1000 lamp lumen output.
The curve plotted is for a specific vertical plane. The plane containing the lamp axis
of a fluorescent luminaire normally has a different set of values of intensity to those
found in the plane across the lamp axis (see figure 10). Here the light distribution
around the luminaire would be asymmetrical. In this case the convention is to have
the transverse plane B in figure10 on the left and the axial plane A on the right.
28
Fig.10
Many manufacturers produce illustrations of polar curves for all their lamps within
their catalogues. An example of this is shown in figure 11 whereby, the shape gives
an outline of the light distribution for a surface mounted linear diffuser.
29
Fig.11
Light output ratios

The efficiency of a lamp may be expressed in terms of light output ratio. This
describes the distribution of light from a luminaire by numbers. The following terms
are used:
Total lumen output of luminaire

-------------------------------------Total lamp lumen output
Dwrd lumen output of luminaire

---------------------------------------Total lamp lumen output
Upward light output ratio (ULOR)
Uwrd lumen output of luminaire

---------------------------------------Total lamp lumen output
Therefore: LOR
DLOR + ULOR
Light Output Ratio (LOR)
Downward light output ratio (DLOR)
30
Lighting design levels (service illuminance)

The amount of light required over an area is measured or calculated at the working
plane height. This is the level at which the main activities will be carried out. For
example, at desk height in an office or classroom.
Recommended levels of lighting for most buildings are given in the CIBSE codes for
interior lighting 1994.
The desired lighting level may be achieved in most cases by using a number of
overhead fluorescent lamps. The number of lamps required is not only dependant
upon the desired lighting level but also on other factors, such as:
a) the luminous flux of the lamps
b) the properties of the lamps
c) the dimensions of the room
d) the room surface reflectances
e) the standard of maintenance.
Once the designer has decided upon a suitable lamp type for a room then the luminous
flux and properties of the lamp will be available. The dimensions of the room and the
surface reflectances will be found from drawings and specifications or by carrying
out a survey of the room.
Standard of maintenance
Lamps will lose some of their light output due to soiling. For example, dust, dirt and
also due to ageing of the lamps. Maintenance should be planned in order that
luminaires are cleaned routinely at times when the loss of light due to soiling is at an
acceptable likely maximum. The level of maintenance required is also dependent
upon the environment in which they are located.
The CIBSE 1994 Lighting Code provides data to enable a reasonable estimate of the
maintenance standard based upon the following expression:
MF
LLMF
+ LSF + LMF + RSMF
Whereby:
MF
LLMF
LSF
LMF
RSMF
=
=
=
=
=
Maintenance Factor
Lamp Lumen Maintenance Factor
Lamp Survival Factor - only used for group replacement
Luminaire Maintenance Factor
Room Surface Maintenance Factor
31
Figure 12 illustrates the pattern of light loss due to soiling and due to lamp
depreciation. It also shows the effect of maintenance on the luminaire.
Fig.12
Utilisation factor (U.F.)

This is a measure of the efficiency of the lighting scheme and is the ratio of lamp flux
that reaches the working plane to the flux output of the lamp (the working plane being
the level where activity is carried out, e.g. desktops).
The U.F. is usually found using tables which take account of the properties of the
luminaire, room size, height of lamps above the working plane and the reflectances
of the room surfaces.
Manufacturers tables are used to determine the U.F. however, the room index value
and the surface reflectance value must be known in order to determine the utilisation
factor.
Surface reflectances
The amount of light reflected from the surface will depend upon the emissivity and
the colour of the surfaces.
Ceiling reflectances can range between 0% and 70%, wall reflectances between 0%
and 50% and floors between 0% and 20%. The surface finish must be known at this
stage and selection of appropriate reflectance values are made based on low values of
reflectance for rough dark finishes to high reflectance values for bright shiny surfaces.
32
Room index (R.I.)

This index provides information on the shape of the room this will affect the amount
of reflected light into the room. The room index is the ratio of the area of horizontal
surfaces to vertical surfaces in the room.
Note: vertical surfaces are measured from the working plane height to the centre of
the luminaire.
The room index is found using the formula:
R.I
Length x width
-----------------------------------------(length + width) x vertical height
When the room index is found and surface reflectances have been selected, then, the
U.F. may be found using manufacturer tables.
Lighting design
When an appropriate the lighting design level has been selected for a particular room
and a suitable luminaire and has also been chosen, then, the number of luminaires
needed to provide the desired lighting level may be calculated. A popular method
used to calculate the number of luminaires required is the lumen method of design.
The number of lamps can be found using the formula:
ExA
-----------------F x UF x MF
Whereby:
N
E
A
F
UF
MF
=
=
=
=
=
=
number of luminaire
design illuminance level (lux)
area of working plane (m2)
initial luminous flux output of each lamp (lm)
utilisation factor
maintenance factor
33
Layout of luminaires
The layout of luminaires must ensure that the ratio of the minimum to the average
illuminance over the area to be illuminated should not be less than 0.8 throughout.
This will be achieved if the layout of the luminaires is carried out in accordance with
manufacturers guidelines on the maximum space to height ratio (SHR).
Spacing (S) should be measured from centre point to centre point of luminaires both
in a longitudinal and transverse direction; however, some manufacturers may quote
separate values for longitudinal and transverse spacing.
Height (H) is measured vertically from the height of the illuminated surface to the
lamp.
Example 1
Using the data supplied below and in table 2 calculate the number of luminaires
required, and suggest a suitable layout.
Room type:
Room size:
Height of luminaire from the working plane:
Design illuminance level:
Initial luminance flux output per lamp:
Luminaires are double lamp type and 2.0m long.
Surface reflectances:
Maintenance factor:
Space to Height Ratio (SHR) 1.85
Room
Reflectances
C
W
F
0.7
0.5
0.3
0.1
0.2
general office
18 x 12 x 3.5 (high)
2.6m
500 lux
4000 lumens
walls 0.3
Ceiling 0.7
Floor 0.2
0.8
Utilisation Factor
Room Index
0.75
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
0.4
0.36
0.32
0.47
0.42
0.38
0.55
0.5
0.47
0.6
0.56
0.52
0.63
0.59
0.56
0.66
0.62
0.59
Table 2
34
Solution
Preliminary calculations:
LxB
--------------------(L + B) x H
RI
18 x 12
--------------------(18 + 12) x 2.6
RI
2.77
Room Index (RI)
Using the surface reflectance values provided and the RI value we can now select the
Utilisation Factor (UF). In this case the UF lies approximately in the centre between
0.59 and 0.62, therefore, select a UF value of 0.605.
Now, apply the Lumen Design formula:
ExA
----------------------F x UF x MF
500 x (18 x 12)

----------------------2 x 4000 x 0.605 x 0.8
27.9 say 28 luminaires
35
Let us now try a layout

28 luminaires try 4 rows of 7 luminaires:
Total lamp length per row is 7 x 2 m = 14 m, therefore, remaining space = 4 m.
4
Longitudinal spacing between luminaires
so, longitudinal spacing
-------------------7
1.0 + 0.57 + 1.0
0.57
2.57
0.98
3m
1.15
2.57
and longitudinal SHR
-------------------2.6
12
transverse spacing
-------------------4
3
transverse SHR
-------------------2.6
In both cases the SHR is less than the maximum SHR of 1.85, therefore, this layout is
suitable.
36
OUTCOME 3: DESIGN AN AUTOMATIC FIRE DETECTION AND

WARNING SYSTEM FOR A SMALL COMMERCIAL BUILDING
Outcome 3 in this outcome you will study the uses and operation of automatic
fire detection systems
Automatic fire detection

The purpose of automatic fire detection and warning system is to detect one or more
changes in the protected area and to give an early warning of fire in a building.
The design of a system is based upon one or two priorities, these being:
1. to enhance the safety of the occupant by increasing their chances of escape
2. to increase the likelihood of early extinction of fire and, therefore, reduce loss or
damage to the building.
Fire and the products of combustion

When a fire occurs it causes various effects, such as:
heat production causing an increase in environmental temperature
smoke production
toxic gas production
flame production (in most cases).
The products of the fire are carried either by radiation or mass movement of the
atmosphere, carrying smoke, heat, etc. Radiation is fast moving in straight lines,
whereas, mass movement is slower moving, but more flexible.
Initially mass movement will be dependent upon the size of the room in which the fire
occurs and upon the storey height. As heat is generated convection currents occur,
taking the products of combustion upwards to the ceiling, where it spreads out along
the ceiling surface (see figure 1).
37
C EILING
Fig.1
A fire at floor level in a room 2.5 m high would need 22.5 kW of heat to raise the
room ceiling temperature from 200 to 650 whereas, a similar room 10 m high would
require 720 kW of heat to do likewise. This illustrates that it would take a much
larger fire to activate a fire detector in the 10m high room compared to the 2.5 m high
room.
Heat takes longer to be transported than smoke or radiation, and therefore, it should
not be used as the only means of detection if a high-speed response is required. For
example risk to life.
Smoke production
Smoke is suspended solids or liquids in a gaseous atmosphere. The particles of smoke
will depend mainly upon the type of material that is burning and how it is burning.
As a fire burns smoke particles coagulate into larger particles, and is dependent upon
the source and speed of combustion. Slow burning fires usually produce large
particles.
38
The optical particles of a particle will affect light by absorption or refraction. Smoke
can appear almost white to a sooty black, depending upon the amount of light being
absorbed or scattered by refraction.
These effects may influence the choice of detector.
Radiation
Flames emit radiation, the intensity and wavelength depends upon what is burning and
the availability of oxygen. The wavelength can be absorbed by background
interference, such as sunlight. Infra-red radiation from the sun is more powerful than
infra-red from a fire, so the effect from the sun has to be taken into account in the
design of radiation detectors, this is usually done by detecting flame flicker.
Other types of interference may be due to welding or tungsten lamps and again,
design of detectors must take account of this in order that false alarms will not occur.
Ultra-violet radiation is also given off by fire. The sun also produces ultra-violet
radiation, however, the ozone layer filters out a certain band of ultra-violet
wavelength, therefore, detectors can use this band to detect fire.
Other sources of ultra-violet radiation are welding and tungsten lamps, therefore the
same precautions must be taken. Lightening produces ultra-violet radiation, however,
because it occurs only over a very short period of time it can be ignored.
Radiation detectors (or flame detectors) need to see the protected area clearly as
radiation travels in straight lines.
Types of automatic fire detectors
Automatic fire detectors may operate under the following conditions:
a) when invisible products of combustion are being released
b) when smoke is being produced
c) when the temperature in the vicinity of the fire rises rapidly or reaches a
predetermined level.
The types of detector designed to operate under these conditions respectively are:
a) radiation detectors
b) smoke detectors
c) heat detectors.
39
Even when an appropriate detector has been selected, care must be taken to ensure
that it will not fail its purpose due to any of the following occurrences:
a)
wind or draught fluctuations may cause false temperature readings
b)
obstructions to smoke travel, heat or flame radiation preventing the detector
from acting quickly
c)
the detector may be unable to detect the products of a particular fire
d)
a fault in the system may make the detector inactive
e)
the system may be switched off for maintenance
f)
insects or moisture droplets may trigger false alarms.
Radiation detectors
As mentioned previously, fire gives off radiant energy in the form of infra-red
radiation, visible radiation (as light) and ultra-violet radiation, and hence, radiation
detectors are designed to respond these effects.
Visible radiation detectors could not be used for obvious reasons and therefore, they
are designed either as infra-red or ultra-violet types.
These detectors use special photo-electric cells and have the advantage of reacting
extremely quickly. They differ from smoke and heat detectors in that they have
remote sensing. Typically an infra-red radiation detector will react within 3 seconds
after sensing a flame 100 mm high at a distance of 20 metres, whereas, heat and
smoke detectors can only detect changes in the atmosphere once those changes reach
the sensors location.
Smoke detectors
a) Ionisation smoke detector
An atom is made up of protons, electrons and neutrons. If an atom is subjected to
radiation from a radioactive source some electrons become detached. As a result the
atom becomes positively charged the free electrons quickly link up with other atoms
which become negatively charged. These new atoms are called ions and the process
used to create them is known as ionisation.
If the atoms of air in a container are subjected to radiation, ionisation will take place
in this way, and the atoms will move around at random. If we then introduce a
positively charged plate and a negatively charged plate to the container a more orderly
and predictable movement of ions will take place. The positive ions will be attracted
to the negative plate and the negative ions will be attracted to the positive plate. This
is the basis of the ionisation detector.
The movement of ions between plates in the chamber reduces the resistance of the air
so that a small electric current flows in the external circuit. The current is small and is
amplified so that it can be monitored easily.
40
Under fire conditions smoke particles entering the chamber become attached to the
ions due to electrostatic attraction and slow their movement. This causes a reduction
in the current flow. When current falls below a predetermined level the amplifier
senses it and initiates the alarm, hence, the ionisation detector is used to detect the
invisible products of combustion (see figures 2 & 3).
Fig.2
Fig.3
41
b) Optical smoke detectors

This type of detector responds to the visible products of combustion for example,
particles of carbon and other chemicals that give smoke its characteristic appearance.
An optical detector has two main components, a light source and a photoelectric cell.
The amount of light falling on the photoelectric cell is the key factor in determining
the operation of this type of detector.
In some instances optical detectors are designed to receive more light onto the
photoelectric cell under fire conditions, these are known as the light scatter type.
Other types are designed to receive less light on the photoelectric cell during fire
conditions and are known as light the obscuration type. There are also other types of
optical smoke detectors designed specifically for ducting, such as the sampling
detector.
i) Light scatter type
Under non-fire conditions a light beam flows into a light trap, however, under fire
conditions smoke enters the detector. The smoke deflects the light-beam onto a
photoelectric cell; this produces an electric current which activates the alarm
(see figs 4 & 5).
Fig.4
Fig.5
42
ii) Light obscuration type

This detector uses a beam of light, which is projected, across a protected area
close to the ceiling. The light falls on to a photoelectric cell and a small current of
electricity is produced which activates the alarm. The majority of light
obscuration detectors have a range of around 15 m; however, greater coverage can
be achieved by using laser beams with ranges of around 100m (see figures 6,7
& 8).
Fig.6
Fig.7
Fig.8
Heat detectors
In buildings or parts of buildings where smoking is permitted, heat detectors may be
used as an alternative to smoke detectors.
These types of detectors are slower to react than smoke detectors, and usually operate
at temperatures between 50o C and 100o C. These detectors are insensitive to
smouldering fires, however, they are relatively cheap and are reliable.
43
There are many types of heat detectors, these are outlined below.
a) Fusible alloy heat detector
This type of detector contains a thin walled case fitted with heat collecting fins at
its lower end and a conductor passing through the centre. The case is lined with a
fusible alloy, which acts as a second conductor. Heat from a fire melts the fusible
alloy at a predetermined temperature causing it to make contact with the central
conductor. This completes the electric circuit to sound the alarm (see figure 9).
Fig.9
b) Bimetallic coil heat detector
Heat from a fire passes through the cover to the bimetallic coils, whereby, the
lower coil receives more heat at the initial stage of a fire than the upper coil. The
lower coil quickly makes contact with the upper coil to complete the electrical
circuit and activate the alarm (see figure 10).
These detectors are also known as rate of temperature rise detectors, and must
Operate at a fixed temperature, otherwise, the detector could fail to sense a fire
with a slow growth rate.
44
Fig.10
c) Pneumatic heat detectors
This is a type of fixed temperature heat detector that is activated by expanding air
in a reservoir. The reservoir is covered with a flexible diaphragm. As the air
temperature rises due to fire conditions, the air in the reservoir expands, raising the
diaphragm which makes contact with an electrical sensor, which in turn, activates
the alarm (see figure 11).
Fig. 11
45
Detector circuits
The purpose of a detector circuit in an automatic detection system is to transmit the
signal given by the activated detector or manual call point to centrally situated control
and indicating equipment from which the alarm is raised. There are many circuit
combinations possible for such systems. There are, however, only two basic types of
circuit, these are:
a) the open circuit
b) the closed circuit.
a) Open circuit
A basic open circuit detector (or call point) schematic is shown in figure12. In
this case a number of alarm points are connected in parallel, if any one of them is
actuated by the contacts being closed, the circuit is completed and therefore, the
alarm will sound. No current will flow when in standby mode.
As no current flows in standby mode it is not self-monitoring; however, it
consumes little electricity in standby and is therefore, economic to operate. The
disadvantage of this system is that if there is a broken circuit some detectors may
not operate.
The detector circuit and the alarm circuit are kept separate (except in very simple
systems) and are connected at the alarm control point.
A feature of this circuit is that every alarm point must be capable of carrying the
full current taken by all sounders and bells operating simultaneously.
Fig.12
46
b) Closed circuit
Closed circuit detectors (or call points) may be regarded as a series of switches
whose contacts are normally closed when the system is on standby, hence, a
circuit flows in the detector circuit at all times. The circuit energises the relay
which holds the contact back from the alarm circuit rendering that part redundant
(see figure 13).
When a detector (or call point) is activated the detector circuit is broken
interrupting current flow to the relay. The relay then becomes de-energised and
releases the contact, enabling it to complete the alarm circuit and sound the
alarms.
Any break in the circuit would cause the alarms to sound, hence, false alarms may
occur. Also, as current is being drawn at all times, the size and cost of the battery
and charger will be greater. Short circuits could go unnoticed, as it completes a
separate path for current flow and could therefore, by-pass some detectors or call
points.
Fig.13
Power supplies for automatic fire detectors
The power supply for an automatic fire detector must be very reliable. The supply
may come from mains or battery. Any supply must have a standby supply available
in the event of failure of the primary supply. The standby supply is normally a fully
charged battery.
Cable types
In order for a fire alarm system to operate effectively the inter-connections between
components must be suitable. The control equipment should be able to maintain the
alarm without a continued signal from the detector or call point.
All components of the system including the wiring are required to operate for
significant periods during fire conditions. A wide variety of cables are available for
use in fire alarm systems, however, due to the varying abilities to resist both fire and
electrical or mechanical damage the choice may be limited in some cases.
47
The applications are classified according to the need for fire protection as outlined
below.
1.
Applications in which prolonged operation during a fire is required.

Cables in this category must have a minimum of 0.5-hour fire resistance and in
some cases 1-hour fire resistance is required.
2.
Applications in which prolonged operation during a fire is not required.

Cables in this category will usually be only those to detector or call points, in
which failure of the cables due to a fire will not lead to a dangerous condition.
Selection of detector
When deciding upon which type of detector to select for a particular environment, it
should be remembered that the detector must be able to distinguish between fire
conditions and the normal environment within the building, for example, smoking,
fumes from machinery.
Positioning of heat and smoke detectors
Under fire conditions the greatest amount of smoke and hot gases will normally occur
at the upper parts of enclosed areas, therefore, detectors should be positioned at these
locations.
Heat detectors should be positioned so that heat sensitive element is between 25 to
150 mm below the ceiling or roof surfaces. If protecting a space with a pitched roof,
smoke detectors should be located in each apex.
The maximum horizontal distance between any point in the area being protected and
the nearest line or beam detector is as follows:
below flat ceilings & corridors > 5 m wide: 5.3 m for point heat detectors. (50 m2
max area) & 7.5 m for point smoke detectors (100 m2 max area)
square arrays: 10 m between smoke detectors & 7 m between heat detectors
corridor < 5 m wide: 50% of difference between 5 m and the width of the
corridor to be added to 7.5 m for point smoke detectors
apex of a pitched roof: add 1% to each degree of slope up to 25% to the
maximum horizontal distance (for example 7.5 m for pt smoke).
Note: allowances must be made for disturbed flow due to ceiling obstructions
48
Detector operation may be severely delayed in areas with high floor to ceiling heights.
The area protected by a single optical beam detector should not exceed 100 m in
length. The beam should not pass nearer than 500 mm to a wall or partition.
Positioning of flame (radiation) detectors

Flame detectors do not need to be located on the ceiling, as they are not dependent
upon the movement of heat or smoke towards them. They should always be installed
in accordance with manufacturer instructions. In order to detect a fire quickly, more
than one detector may be used to cover the same area.
Manual call points

It is important that manual call points are easy to distinguish and simple to use
without instructions and the user should know within 3 seconds if the alarm has been
raised.
Manual call points should be located on exit routes, on the floor landings of stairways
and at exits to the open air and be located at a height of 1.4 m above floor level.
Zones
Fire alarm systems are normally based on zone protection. When a fire is detected
and the alarm signalled, a number of events may take place, for example, it may alert
the fire brigade, it may initiate evacuation procedures, it may summon assistance from
volunteers, etc. It is therefore, important that the entire operation is properly
controlled and co-ordinated. For this purpose, it is essential that communication is
made using easily identifiable zones into which the building may be divided (see
figure 15).
When a fire is detected it is important that the zone from which the detector initially
operated is clear to those who assist in evacuation and other emergency procedures.
In order to assist in this matter, the zone should be small enough for a fire to be
located quickly. Fire separating walls may be required between zones if the
evacuation requires occupants to move from one zone to another for refuge.
In large buildings there should be a central control panel to indicate the zone in which
the fire originated, and the monitoring of the panel should be part of fire safety
procedures for these buildings when the alarm is sounded.
49
The size and number of zones within a building should comply with the following:
The floor area of a single zone should not exceed 2000 m2.
The search distance (the distance that the searcher has to travel inside a zone to
visually determine the position of the fire) should not exceed 30 m.
If the total floor area of the building does not exceed 300 m2 it may be considered
as a single zone, even if it is more than one storey.
If the total floor area exceeds 300 m2 then all zones should be restricted to a single
storey, with the exception of lift shafts, stairwells, etc whereby the volume of the
shaft should be considered as a separate zone.
Where a zone extends beyond a single compartment the zone boundaries should be
boundaries of fire compartments. It is not permissible to have a zone extending into
parts of two compartments or a compartment that extends into two zones.
In premises providing sleeping accommodation the above mentioned factors
should be considered in relation to the fire routine adopted by the premises. It is of
utmost importance in a life risk situation that the exact location of the origin of an
alarm is quickly determined.
Symbols
The following symbols should be used to illustrate components within fire alarm and
detection systems:
50
TUTORIAL
1. Outline the main components of a fire alarm and warning system.
2. Select a suitable detector for the following locations:
a) a general office
b) an engineering workshop
c) a kitchen
d) an escape corridor.
3. What is the main purpose of a fire detection and alarm system?
4. Outline the main headings of a specification for an Automatic Fire Detection and
alarm system to comply with BS 5839 Part 1.
5. Outline the classifications of a fire alarm system as prescribed in BS 5839 and
state the type of protection provided by each.
6. What is the purpose of zoning?
7. Describe generally, where call points, sounders and control equipment should be
located in buildings.
51
TUTORIAL SOLUTIONS
1.
The main components of fire detection and warning system are call points,
detectors, sounders, control equipment and wiring.
2.
a)
b)
c)
d)
ionisation smoke detector

radiation
heat detector
optical smoke detector.
3.
The main purpose is to protect life and property.
4.
The main headings of a specification:

a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
j
5.
purpose and type of system

zone details
control equipment
manual call points
alarm sounders
type & spacing of detection equipment
standby power supplies
wiring details
installation of cables
routine testing & maintenance
Detectors are classified as follows:

L1
L2
P1
P2
M
protection of life
protection of life
protection of property
protection of property
manual protection
6.
Zoning is required to provide emergency services and others involved in

evacuation and rescue operations with information on the area of the building
where fire has occurred and where fire fighting should commence from.
7.
Manual call points should be located in exit routes particularly at floor landings
and exits to the open air.
8.
Sounders, at least one sounder should be located in each fire compartment and
they should be suitably distributed throughout the building to ensure all occupants
will be alerted.
9.
Control equipment should be located so that it is easily available to the fire

brigade and staff, preferably on the ground floor at the fire brigade entrance.
52

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Building Services Design

Building Services Design

DET: Building Services Design: Electrical Installation (Higher)

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DET: Building Services Design: Electrical Installation (Higher)

Support Materials content

Outcome 2 Design an artificial lighting layout for a regular shaped room.

DET: Building Services Design: Electrical Installation (Higher)

DET: Building Services Design: Electrical Installation (Higher)

Sheathing and insulation

DET: Building Services Design: Electrical Installation (Higher)

DET: Building Services Design: Electrical Installation (Higher)

DET: Building Services Design: Electrical Installation (Higher)

Electric circuit protection

DET: Building Services Design: Electrical Installation (Higher)

There are 3 main types of fuses used in electrical systems:

Generally the advantages fuses have over MCBs are:

DET: Building Services Design: Electrical Installation (Higher)

Regardless of which type of overcurrent protection device is used, it must be capable

Ib is the design current of the circuit.

P = Power of the load.

DET: Building Services Design: Electrical Installation (Higher)

DET: Building Services Design: Electrical Installation (Higher)

DET: Building Services Design: Electrical Installation (Higher)

Summary of steps for selection of live conductor size:

DET: Building Services Design: Electrical Installation (Higher)

Cable voltage drop

The voltage drop on a circuit supplied from a 230 V supply by a 10

Note: the value of mV is found in Table 4D2B.

DET: Building Services Design: Electrical Installation (Higher)

DET: Building Services Design: Electrical Installation (Higher)

DET: Building Services Design: Electrical Installation (Higher)

OUTCOME 2: DESIGN AN ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING LAYOUT FOR A

DET: Building Services Design: Electrical Installation (Higher)

Vision and the eye

DET: Building Services Design: Electrical Installation (Higher)

DET: Building Services Design: Electrical Installation (Higher)

DET: Building Services Design: Electrical Installation (Higher)

The metal is prevented from burning (oxidation) by being sealed in a glass

DET: Building Services Design: Electrical Installation (Higher)

The envelope of the lamp is made of quartz instead of plain glass to

DET: Building Services Design: Electrical Installation (Higher)

Discharge lamps in general decrease in light output and efficacy (light

DET: Building Services Design: Electrical Installation (Higher)

Luminous flux output

DET: Building Services Design: Electrical Installation (Higher)

Figure 7 below illustrates lighting terms and units.

DET: Building Services Design: Electrical Installation (Higher)

Intensity distribution diagrams (polar curves)

DET: Building Services Design: Electrical Installation (Higher)

DET: Building Services Design: Electrical Installation (Higher)

DET: Building Services Design: Electrical Installation (Higher)

Light output ratios

Total lumen output of luminaire

Dwrd lumen output of luminaire

Upward light output ratio (ULOR)

Uwrd lumen output of luminaire