8

UNIT 16

DATA BASE SYSTEM

Learning Objectives
After having read this unit, you will be able to:

understand the meaning and components of database;

understand the concept of database management system;

explain the types of database;

explain the design principles of database.

Structure
16.1.

Introduction

16.2.

What is a Database?

16.3.

Database Management Systems

16.4.

Database Technology

16.5.

Types of Databases

16.6.

Design Principles of Database

16.7.

Summary

16.8.

Review Questions

16.1. Introduction
Data is a vital organizational resource which is an important input in an
information system. This data resource is traditionally called the database. It is
from this database that data is processed and converted into information to
satisfy information needs of the organisation. Nowadays we find that the

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internal and external information resources available to organisations are
increasing at a rapid rate, due to which databases are becoming larger and
larger in size. At the same time, business environment has forced the
businesses to take quick and right decisions for which databases are required
to be queried frequently. Queries may be varied, e.g. one manager may be
interested to know the names of all those products for which sales in the
current year exceed that of the previous year, one may require information on
the total amount outstanding, or one may require the list of products having a
market share greater than 30 per cent and so on. To correctly process varied
types of queries and to ensure a fast response time the use of computer-based
information systems have become a necessity of any business.
To meet the objective of fast retrieval of data, computer-based information
system should be able to organize, store and manage data effectively and
efficiently. There are two main methods to organize data on computer media,
which are known as files and databases.

16.2. What is a Database?

Traditionally, different types of information are stored in different places, e.g.,
product information is stored in a filing cabinet, supplier phone numbers in a
card file, order information in a computerized spreadsheet like MS-Excel, and
customer addresses in mailing list. Compiling and updating information from
these multiple sources of data can turn out to be a very tedious process.
A database is a collection of information in the digital form related to a
particular subject or purpose, such as tracking customer orders or maintaining
a music collection. If an organizations database is not stored on a computer,
or only parts of it are, it may be tracking information from a variety of sources
that have to be coordinated and organized. Using a DBMS such as MSAccess, all such information can be managed from a single database file.
Within the file, data is divided into separate storage containers called tables.
Table data can be viewed, added, and updated using online forms. An
organization can find and retrieve just the data it requires using queries, and

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analyze or print data in a specific layout using reports. The advantage of
storing data in a database is that data are stored only once in a single location,
can be viewed from multiple locations, and if updated at a single point, it is
automatically updated everywhere it appears.
A database is a collection of records in a structured format. Data in a
structured format are easily retrievable for analysis and calculations. It is
possible to query data that exist in a structured format. For example, if a
manager wants to select the best customer, he need not ask the information
systems department for a report on sales figures, but can simply compare the
total amounts and customer ID fields for all the records in the sales order
database and select the best customer, as shown in Table 16-1.
Table 16-1 Database of online sales orders
Order
ID
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Customer ID
Stop N Shop
Stop N Shop
Stop N Shop
Stop N Shop
Old World
Old World
Old World
Canyon Grocery
Canyon Grocery
Canyon Grocery

Employee
ID
Steven
Steven
Nancy
Andrew
Steven
Nancy
Andrew
Andrew
Janet
Andrew

Order date
2/2/07
3/14/00
4/18/07
4/21/07
2/1/07
4/9/07
4/11/07
2/18/07
3/26/07
4/1/07

PO
number
52
32
87
125
145
444
555
55
222
666

Total
amount
231.95
87.3
144.65
11.3
42.45
31.6
52.3
52.3
137.1
136.65

A database provides information at a mangers desktop (that is, on his

computer) and gives him the power to make right decisions in a small time.
Every single transaction through a computer generates a record, or a row of
data. The filling in of the sales order form once will be called one transaction
and will create a single record or a row of data in the sales database.

Objectives of Database
They provide a guide to the database requirements process and data modelling.
The database objectives are:

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i)

Availability Data should be available for use by applications (both

current and future) and by queries.

ii)

Share ability Data items prepared by one application are available

to all applications or quires. No data items are owned by an
application.

iii) Evolvability The database can evolve as application usage and

query needs.
iv) Data independence The users of the database establish their view of
the data and its structure without regard to the actual physical storage
of the data.
v)

Data integrity The database establishes a uniform high level of

accuracy and consistency. Validation rules are applied by the DBMS.

16.3. Database Management Systems

A database management system (DBMS) is simply the software that permits
an organization to centralize data, manage them efficiently, and provide access
to the stored data by application programs. The DBMS acts as an interface
between application programs and the physical data files. When the
application program calls for a data item such as gross pay, the DBMS finds
this item in the database and presents it to the application program. Using
traditional data files the programmer would have to specify the size and format
of each data element used in the program and then tell the computer where
they were located. A DBMS eliminates most of the data definition statements
found in traditional programs.
The DBMS relieves the programmer or end user from the task of
understanding where and how the data are actually stored by separating the
logical and physical views of the data. The logical view presents data as they
would be perceived by end users or business specialists; whereas the physical
view shows how data are actually organized and structured on physical storage
media. There is only one physical view of the data, but there can be different

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logical views. The database management software makes the physical
database available for different logical views presented for various application
programs. For example, an employee retirement benefits program might use a
logical view of the human resources database that requires only the
employees name, address, social security number, pension plan, and
retirement benefits data.
A database management system has three components:
i)

A data definition language

ii)

A data manipulation language

iii) A data dictionary.

A data definition language is the formal language programmers use to specify
the content and structure of the database. The data definition language defines
each data element as it appears in the database before that data element is
translated into the forms required by application programs.
Most DBMS have a specialized language called a data manipulation language
that is used in conjunction with some conventional application programming
languages to manipulate the data in the database. This language contains
commands that permit end users and programming specialists to extract data
from the database to satisfy information requests and develop applications.
The most prominent data manipulation language today is Structured Query
Language, or SQL. End users and information systems specialists can use
SQL as an interactive query language to access data from databases, and SQL
commands can be embedded in application programs written in conventional
programming languages.
The third element of a DBMS is a data dictionary. This is an automated or
manual file that stores definitions of data elements and data characteristics
such as usage, physical representation, ownership (who in the organization is
responsible for maintaining the data), authorization, and security. Many data
dictionaries can produce lists and reports of data use, groupings, program

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locations, and so on. A data element represents a field. In addition to listing the
standard name, the dictionary lists the names that reference this element in
specific systems and identifies the individuals, business functions, programs,
and reports that use this data element.
By creating an inventory of data contained in the database, the data dictionary
serves as an important data management tool. For instance, business users
could consult the dictionary to find out exactly what pieces of data are
maintained for the sales or marketing function or even to determine all the
information maintained by the entire enterprise. The dictionary could supply
business users with the name, format, and specifications required to access
data for reports. Technical staff could use the dictionary to determine what
data elements and files must be changed if a program is changed.
Most data dictionaries are entirely passive; they simply report. More advanced
types are active; changes in the dictionary can be automatically used by related
programs. For instance, to change ZIP codes from five to nine digits, one
could simply enter the change the dictionary without having to modify all
application programs using ZIP codes.
In an ideal database environment, the data in the database are defined only
once and used for all applications whose data reside in the database, thereby
eliminating data redundancy and inconsistency. Application programs, which
are written using a combination of the data manipulation language of the
DBMS and a conventional programming language, request data elements from
the database. Data elements called for by the application programs are found
and delivered by the DBMS. The programmer does not have to specify in
detail how or where the data are to be found.
A DBMS can reduce program-data dependence along with program
development and maintenance costs. Access and availability of information
can be increased because users and programmers can perform ad hoc quires of
data in the database. The DBMS allows the organization to centrally manage
data, their use and security. The Window on Management illustrates some of
these benefits.

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16.4. Database Technology

Object-Oriented Databases
Object oriented database is an approach to data management that stores both
data and the procedures (functions) acting on the data as objects that can be
automatically retrieved and shared. While traditional database management
systems are designed for homogeneous data that can be structured into predefined data fields and records, object-oriented databases are capable of
manipulating heterogeneous data that include drawings, images, photographs,
voice and full-motion video. Object-oriented approach also enables to
overcome the limitations of the relational database management system. no
doubt, the relational model is powerful but its abstraction level is low and the
manipulation of the relationships of tables is captured by the programs and not
by the model itself. On the other hand, an object-oriented database, stores the
data and procedures as objects that can be automatically retrieved and shared.
Distributed Databases
A distributed database, as the name indicates, is stored in more than one
physical location. The database is stored partly in one location while it is
partly stored and maintained in other locations. In other words, a distributed
database coordinates data access from various locations. In this approach,
databases are designed as an entity and are linked through communication
networks. Distributed database approach is an alternative to the central
database approach that advocates concentration of all databases at a central
place. However, any breakdown in the central database approach leads to
system-wide breakdown and it also causes undue congestion of traffic at the
central hub. On the other hand, distributed systems overcome these problems.
They also allow increases in the systems processing power by installing
smaller, less expensive minicomputers thereby increasing the responsiveness
to local users. Nowadays, many databases are distributed across geographical
areas. For example, networks of libraries, networks of banks, transactions of
credit in one or more countries and networks of offices of organisations across
the world are a reality. These systems are growing rapidly. The advent of

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microcomputers and powerful telecommunication systems will further boost
the growth of distributed systems.
Client-Server Systems
These systems are closely related to the concept of distributed database. In the
client/server model, the database and processing power are distributed over the
organisation rather than having a centralized database. This model splits
processing between clients and servers on a network, assigning these
functions to the machine that it is most able to perform.
Servers, in general, are high performance machines that support heavy
transaction processing known as server processes, whereas the clients are lowend microcomputers with rich graphical user interface (GUI). Client-servers
are growing in popularity these days and are being used by a large number of
organisations.

16.5. Types of Databases

Continuing developments in information technology and its business
applications have resulted in the evolution of several major types of databases.
Figure 16-1 illustrates several major conceptual categories of databases that
may be found in many organizations. Lets take a brief look at some of them
now.

Operational Databases
Operational databases store detailed data needed to support the business
processes and operations of a company. They are also called subject area
databases (SADB), transaction databases, and production databases. Examples
are a customer database, human resource database, inventory database, and
other database containing data generated by business operations. This includes
databases of Internet and electronic commerce activity, such as click stream
data describing the online behavior of customers or visitors to a companys
website.

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Distributed
Databases
on Intranets
and Other
Networks

Client PC
or NC

External
Databases on
the Internet
and Online

Network
Server

Services

Operational
Databases of

the
Organization

End User
Databases

Data
Warehouse

Data
Marts

Figure 16-1 Examples of some of the major types of databases

Distributed Databases
Many organisations replicate and distribute copies or parts of databases to
network servers at a variety of sites. These distributed databases can reside on
network servers on the World Wide Web, on corporate intranets or extranets,
or on other company networks. Distributed databases may be copies of
operational or analytical databases, hypermedia or discussion databases, or
any other type of database. Replication and distribution of databases is done to
improve database performance and security. Ensuring that all of the data in an
organizations distributed databases are consistently and concurrently updated
is a major challenge of distributed database management.

External Databases
Access to a wealth of information from external databases is available for a
fee from commercial online services, and with or without charge from many
sources on the Internet, especially the World Wide Web. Websites provide an
endless variety of hyperlinked pages of multimedia documents in hypermedia
databases for you to access. Data are available in the form of statistics on

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economic and demographic activity from statistical data banks. Or you can
view or download abstracts or complete copies of hundreds of newspapers,
magazines, newsletters, research papers, and other published material and
other periodicals from bibliographic and full text databases.

Hypermedia Databases
The rapid growth of websites on the Internet and corporate intranets and
extranets has dramatically increased the use of databases of hypertext and
hypermedia documents. A website stores such information in a hypermedia
database consisting of hyperlinked pages of multimedia (text, graphic, and
photographic images, video clips, audio segments, and so on). That is, from a
database of interrelated hypermedia page elements, rather than interrelated
data records.

Data Warehouses
They are designed for strategic decision support and built from operational
databases. They contain a vast amount of data. Smaller, local data warehouses
are called data marts. A data warehouse is a must where high volumes of data
processing is required, cross-functional flow of information is required, single
and centralized data source is a necessity, and increased quality and
consistency of an organizations data are a must.

Unstructured Databases
Nowadays most office tasks are computerized. Documents exist in the text
format; GIS store data in the form of maps and locations. A database for
software engineering might store program statements, while a chemical
database might store protein structures. Multimedia data exist in the form of
audio, video, images, etc. All these kinds of data are known as unstructured
data. The web is emerging as a universal data repository, offering access to
sources whose data organization varies from strictly structured databases to
almost completely unstructured pages. Consequently, much research has
recently focused on data integration and data translation systems, whose goals

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are to allow applications to utilize data from many sources, with possibly
widely varying formats.

16.6. Design Principles of Database

There are the basic steps in designing a database:
Determine the purpose of the database.
Determine the tables needed by the organization in the database.
Determine the fields needed in the tables.
Identify the primary unique keys.
Determine the relationships between tables.

Determine the Purpose of the Database

The first step in designing a database is to determine the purpose of the
database and how it is to be used. An organisation needs to know what
information it wants from the database. Once this is known, it can determine
the subjects required to store facts about (the tables) and the facts required to
store about each subject (the fields in the tables).
SALES ORDER
Customer Name
Address
Phone
Order Details:
S.No
Product

Customer ID
Order Date
Order ID
Product Code

PO Number
Sales Tax Rate
Ship Date
Shipping Method
Authorized signatory
Figure 16-2 A sales order online form.

Unit Price

Quantity

Amount

Order Subtotal
Sales Tax
Total Amount
Payment Made
Balance Amount Due

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For example, a manager might want to create a database to store order details
from a sales order form as shown in Figure 16-2. Here the facts about which
he will need to store data will be the fields in Table 16-1.
The process of database designing starts with understanding the traditional
method of work. People who will use the database need to be consulted. A
manager should brainstorm about the questions he would like the database to
answer. He should sketch out the reports he would like it to produce. The
forms currently used to record data should be analysed, and similar, welldesigned databases should be examined.

Determine the Tables Needed

Determining the tables can be the trickiest step in the database design process.
This is because the results a manger wants from a database the reports he
wants to print, the forms he wants to use, the questions he wants answered
do not necessarily provide clues about the structure of the tables that produce
them. When designing tables, pieces of information should be divided,
keeping the following fundamental design principles in mind.
A table should not contain duplicate information, and information should
not be duplicated between tables. When each piece of information is
stored in only one table, it can be updated in one place. This is more
efficient, and also eliminates the possibility of duplicate entries that
contain different information. For example, a manager would want to
store each customer address and phone number once in one table.
Each table should contain information about one subject. When each table
contains facts about only one subject, you can maintain information about
each subject. For example, customer addresses would be stored in a
different table from customers orders, so that an order could be deleted
without deleting the customer information.

Determine the Fields Needed

Each table contains information about the same subject, and each field in a
table contains individual facts about the tables subject. For example, a

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customer table may include customer name, address, city, and phone number
fields. Some points to remember while creating a table are:
Relate each field directly to the subject of the table.
Do not include derived or calculated data (data the result from an
expression).
Include all the information needed.
Store information in its smallest logical parts (for example, first name and
last name, rather than name).

Identify the Primary/Unique Keys

In order to connect information stored in separate tables (for example, to
connect a customer to all his orders), each table in the database must include a
field or set of fields that uniquely identifies each individual record in the table.
Such a field or set of fields is called a primary key.

Determine the Relationships between Tables

Now that the information is divided into tables and primary key fields are
identified, what is needed is a way to bring related information together in a
meaningful way. To do this, relationships have to be defined between tables.
A database management system, such as MS-Access, Oracle, DB2, can be
used to create tables and specify relationships between the tables. A manager
can practice this by entering a few records of data in each table.
DBMS Vs RDBMS
DBMS
Relationship among data not
necessary for prior items should be
pre-defined
User has to interact with database in a
procedural way
Re-organisation of database is not
flexible

RDBMS
Not necessary for prior definition of
relationship.
User can interact with database in a
non-procedural way.
Re-organisation of database is
flexible.

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16.7. Summary
A database is a collection of information in the digital form related to a
particular subject or purpose, such as tracking customer orders or maintaining
a music collection. A database is a collection of records in a structured format.
A database management system (DBMS) is simply the software that permits
an organization to centralize data, manage them efficiently, and provide access
to the stored data by application programs. The DBMS acts as an interface
between application programs and the physical data files. A database
management system has three components: A data definition language, A data
manipulation language, and A data dictionary.
There are the basic steps in designing a database: i) Determine the purpose of
the database. ii) Determine the tables needed by the organization in the
database. iii) Determine the fields needed in the tables. iv) Identify the primary
unique keys and v) Determine the relationships between tables.

16.8. Review Questions

1) Define in your own words a database and database management
system. Discuss the objectives of a database.
2) Discuss the difference between data stored in a traditional file system
and a DBMS.
3) Discuss the designing principles of database.
4) Discuss the use of various types of databases.