Electronic Components

CAMTECH/S/2002/EC/ER-3
C O N T E N T S
01. Passive devices, Resistors, Capacitors and Inductors.

02. Semiconductor Diodes and its uses.
03. Zener Diode and its applications.
04. Special types of Diodes.
05. Transistors- Bipolar, Testing and Applications.
06. Transistor- Field Effect and its uses.
07. SCR, UJT, Diac, Triac.
08. ICs analogue and digital, precautions while handling and testing.
09. Regulated power supply.
10. DC-DC Converter and Filter Circuit.
Electronic Components
COURSE DURATION
Sub:- 18 GHz Communication System and Radio Block Interface ( ST-57)
SL
NAME OF THE
NO.
COURSE
LENGTH OF THE
COURSE
NO. OF
DURATION
DAYS
IN HOURS
1.
Equipment Course
Long
36
2.
Initial Course
Medium
18
3.
Refresher Course
Short
LESSION PLAN
CHAPTER
----
CONTENTS
TIME ALLOCATION IN HOURS

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Practical Hours
Teaching Aids
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& Transparencies
in hours
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Passive Devices, Resistors, 3

Capacitors and Inductors
Semi-Conductor Diodes & 2
its uses
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0.5
0.5
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Zener Diode & its applications

Special types of Diodes
Transistor-Bipolar, Testing
& applications.
Transistor- Field Effect &
its uses.
SCR,UJT, DIAC & TRIAC
ICs Analogue & Digital,
Precautions while handling
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And testing.
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Regulated Power Supply

DC-DC Converter & Filter
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circuits.
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12
CHAPTER 1
PASSIVE
DEVICE
PASSIVE DEVICE
Consists of
Electrical Components (or elements or Parameters)
According to their character, 3 types
Resistors
Capacitors
Inductors
1. Resistors :- Resistor is an electrical element (or an electrical component

or an electrical parameter) which is made of resistive material which
oppose the flow of current, i.e. the component having the property of
resistance is called Resistor.
1.1.
Classification of different types of Resistors :Fundamentally, there are three types of resistors These are
(1) Fixed or Linear Resistors,
(2) Variable (Potentiometer type.) resistor and
(3) Special type resistor .
(1) Fixed Resistor:- Again fixed resistor can be divided in to eight different
types .
These are:- (i )Carbon Resistance.(ii)Wire Wound resistance(iii) Film
type resistance (iv)Integrated resistor (v) Printed resistor (vi) Semi
conductor resistor(vii) Chip resistor and (viii)Filament resistor.
(2) Variable Resistor:- Again variable resistor can be divided into two (2)
types.
These are :- i. Linear type variable resistors and ii. Non-linear type
(Logarithmic variation ) .
(2) i. The Linear type variable resistors again sub divided into two forms.
Such
as a. Wire wound variable type linear type variable resistors.
b. Carbon film linear type variable resistor.
(2) ii. The non-linear type variable resistor is made by carbon film nonlinear variable resistor.
1.2 COLOUR CODE OF RESISTORS :Most of the manufacturers identify their resistance value by means of a
colour code. There are two methods of applying this code.
Such as
1) A series of coloured band are painted on the resistor.
C = Multiplier.
A&B= 1st. & 2nd. Significant resistance
Codes.
A
Tol
TOL= Tolerance Band.
2) The entire body of the resistor is coloured. There are one or more colours
on the ends of the resistor (called tip colours) and lastly there is a spot of point
on the body.
TOL
2nd SIGNIFICANT DIGIT
CODE
MUTIPLIER
1ST SIGNIFICANT CODE

TOLERANCE BAND
The following colour code system was originally called RMA code (Radio
manufacturers association code). Now, it is called EIA code (Electronic
industries association code) or MIL code (Military code).
1.2.1 GENERAL COLOUR CODE AND ITS MODE OF REMEMBRANCE :In general, colour code is depicted on the body of the resistor. According to the colour
code, the value of the resistance is calculated. The values of 1st. and 2nd. Significant colour
codes are as in the following :-
SL
No.
COLOUR CODE
VALUE
SL
COLOUR CODE
VALUE
No
1.
Black
2.
3.
4.
5.
Brown
Red
Orange
Yellow
0
1
2
3
4
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Green
Blue
Violet
Grey
White
5
6
7
8
9
Now, easy way to remember the colour code is as in the following:B.
B.
R O Y OF Great Britain Has
Very
Good
Wife
3 4
The third colour code indicates number of zeros to be arranged after putting first and
second digits according to colour code ( 1st and 2nd digit).
A fourth colour code is also there which indicates percentage tolerance. If that colour
be golden then that will indicate 5% tolerance.
Similarly, if the coating is of silvery lining then the tolerance is 10% and for general
colour it is 20 %.
1.2.2
A concrete example of colour code :RESISTOR
Blue Grey Red Gold

In this case value of resistance will be calculated in the following way :1st digit indicates
6
nd
2 digit indicates
8
rd
3 digit indicates
2 i.e. two zeros.
th
4 digit indicates
5% tolerance.
These four items when arranged in a row that will be the calculated value.
Thus resistance value of the above mentioned resistor will be 6800
ohm+/- 5% of 6800 ohm = 6800 ohm+/- 340 ohm.
1.3 Statement :Capacitor is an electrical component composed of two conducting plates

separated by an insulating medium called dielectric.
Formation :- Capacitance is the property of a capacitor and is expressed as C.
Value of capacitor is expressed as capacitance. It is the ability of a capacitor to
store charge. C=Q/V, Q is charge stored on plates and potential difference
established betweens the plates is V.
Two
Parallel plates
Dielectric material
Properties of a capacitor :Capacitor possesses the following properties :a) It has the ability to store change.
b) It opposes any change of voltage in the circuit in which it is connected.
c) It blocks DC.
1.3.1 Factors on which capacitance depends :Capacitance value of a capacitor depends upon the following factors :1) Plate area : C varies as A. A is plate area.
2) Plate separation : C varies as 1/d. d is plate separation.
Here, i) Value of C (Capacitance) increases with the decrease of distance
between the two plates.
ii)
Similarly, value of C decreases with the increases of distance
between plates.
3) Type of dielectric :- It depends upon relative permittivity of the material.
Here, C varies as relative permittivity .Types of Capacitors :- Capacitors are
of two types :- (1) F IXED and (2)VARIABLE.
Fixed capacitors are also two types (i) Electrolytic and (ii)Non Electrolytic .
Non-Electrolytic capacitor are divided in to several parts .Those are (i)Mica
capacitor,(ii)Ceramic capacitor and (iii)Paper capacitor etc.
In these cases no polarity indication is required. That is they may be connected

to the circuits irrespective of polarity (+ve or ve).
1.3.2 COMPARSION AMONG DIFFERENT TYPES OF FIXED CAPACITORS :SL
NO
TYPE
MATERIAL
OF PLATES
DIELECTRIC
MATERIAL
CONSTRUCTION
RATING
---- ------
--------------
----------------
--------------------
----------
1.
Paper
Tin Foils
Tissue Paper
a) 0.001 to 2.0 F.
b) 2000 V.
2.
Mica
Metal Plates
Mica Sheets
50-500 F 500 V
and above.
Dielectric
Disc
0.01 F (1 to 500
PF) 10 KV.
Conducting Plate
3. Ceramic
Thin coating
of silver
Compound
Dielectric Plate
Conducting Plate
1.3.3 Advantages of ceramic over mica and paper capacitor :(1) Economical,
(2) Very High working voltage rating, (3) Very small size but large
capacitance, (4) It has very low power factor and value decreases with increase in frequency.
1.3.4 Electrolytic Capacitor- The entire sandwich with plates and dielectric is rolled up into a
compact cylinder and placed inside a metal cylinder or can. Here, electrolyte is used as (-)ve
plate. Thus these are polarised capacitors. These are connected in circuit according to (+)ve
and (-)ve marking on the capacitor.
Construction:- Gauze saturated
With electrolyte (Borax). A thin
Film of A1203 (Alumina) made
By electro chemical process).
Gauze saturated
Its range is from 1F to10000F.
Electrolyte
USES:- 1) It is used to remove AC
Ripple from power supply.
A thin film of Alumi
2) It is used as blocking capacitor
na(Al2O3)
to block DC and to pass AC
1.3.5 VARIABLE CAPACITOR

Its capacitance value can be varied by rotating a shaft. It consists of metal plates separated
from each other by air, one set of plate is stationary and called stator and the other set is
known as rotor. One knob is fitted to the shaft a variable capacitor to rotate it.
On rotation of the shaft the rotor goes in and out of the stator and value of capacitance varies
from maximum to minium.
When two or more capacitors are operated by a single shaft the same becomes GANGED
CAPACITOR.
TRIMMERS/PADDERS are small capacitor used in connection with main variable
capacitors. This is done for fine adjustment.
Ranges :- 1) trimmers- 5 Pf to 30 Pf.
2) padders- 10 Pf to 500 Pf.
USES:- used in radio receivers.
VOLTAGE RATING OF CAPACITOR :1) paper & mica- 200-500 v DC
2) Ceramic 1-12 KV DC.
3) Electrolytic capacitor :- (i) 25V, 150V, 450V DC, (ii) Miniature type 6-10 V
DC.
1.3.6 Combination of Capacitors :- It has mainly two types of combinations :(1) Series combination and (2) Parallel Combination.
C1
C2
C3
Series Combination :- Here, (i) Charge of every capacitors
Is Q, (ii) Voltage of total no. of capacitors in series is
V1
V2
V3
V1+V2+V3, (iii) Value of combined capacitance is
oVo
1/C= 1/C1+1/C2+1/C3
C1
Parallel Combination :i)
Here, each Q differs Q1 = Q1+Q2+Q3.
C2
ii)
Applied V to each is same.
iii)
C = C1+C2+C3.
C3
EnergyStoresinCapacitor:-Storesenergy=CVJoules.
1.3.7 Ohmmeter indication of faults in capacitor :1. If the pointer goes to zero and stay there then the capacitor is shorted.
2. If the pointer goes to low resistance side and then comes up to a reading less than
normal then it is leaky.
3. If Pointer does not go to low resistance value but proceeds to (Infinity) then it is open.
4. If the Pointer goes to low value (Charged) and then proceeds to (Infinity) then it is
OK.
1.4
10
I N D U C T O R
Statement :- Inductor is an electrical component composed of a coil wound on a core. It has

the property of growing opposing force (Counter e.m.f) when current passes through it.
Formation:- Inductor is formed by solid copper wire
Wrapping a core as shown in the figure. Air core
Inductors are also available in which coils themselves
Support each other. Inductance is the property of an
Inductor and is expressed as L.
Here, in an inductor V is di/dt, that is rate of change of
Current through the coil. Now, V = L di/dt
where, L is the constant of proportionality.
It may be expressed like this :- When current through an
Inductor changes at the rate of di/dt then counter e.m.f.
Induced in the inductor is
di
V=L
Solid copper wire

A coated with enamel
insulation.
B
Magnetic insulations
material.
i.e. L =
dt
di/dt
1.4.1 Types of Inductors:- Inductors are of two types : (1) Fixed Inductors and (2) Variable
Inductors.
(1) Fixed Inductors:- Fixed inductors are those whose set values cannot be changed.
(2) Variable Inductors:- Variable inductors are those whose inductances can be varied
over some range. Usually variable inductors are made, so that the core can be moved into and
out of the winding. The position of the core determines the inductance value.
Inductors are also known as chokes or coils.
Inductors may be arranged in series or parallel.
If two inductors be arranged in series then the total value of inductance L (Total) = L1+L2.
Similarly, two inductors when arranged in parallel then L total = 1/L1 + 1/L2.
Now, the reactance offered by an inductor id known as inductive reactance that is expressed
as XL.
Here, XL = 2 fL. Where f is the frequency and L is the inductive value.
Here, one thing important to note is that an inductor is a combination of inductor coil and a
resistance in series as in the following:-
11
Now, in case of series combination of two coils mutual inductance (between the two coils)
is a criteria. In that case if the case be:- (1) Series aiding then L aiding = L1+L2+2M.
(2) Series opposing then L opposing = L1+L2-2M.
Subtracting:- La-Lo = 4M
or 4M= La-Lo so, M= La-Lb/4.
12
1.
2.
T1
T2
T3
T4
Series aiding
Series opposing
PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION OF THE ABOVE CASES:CHAPTER-2

SEMI CONDUCTOR DIODES AND ITS USES
INTRODUCTION
Modern communication system is based on electrical and electronic devices. So to carry on
the communication perfectly we should know their operation perfectly. To attain perfection
in that sphere we should know operation of the components incorporated inside those
devices. Thus we should observe the behaviours of the electrical and electronic components
closely. Thus the knowledge so acquired will help us to operate the said devices perfectly.
2.1
Before studying semi conductor diodes we should know something regarding
semiconductors. Semiconductors are those which behave half like conductors and half like
insulators are called the semi conductors. Semi conductors are of two types, intrinsic and
extrinsic according to their behaviours.
Now, we should observe these semiconductors more closely.
Intrinsic semi conductor behaves mostly as insulator. When temperature increases then due to
thermal energy some covalent bonds break down and electrons come out as free electrons.
Those free electrons become responsible for conduction of electricity inside intrinsic
semiconductor.
Having seen this property of intrinsic semiconductor some special techniques have been
applied to make the intrinsic semiconductor conductive.
That process is known as doping. Intrinsic semiconductors when doped with doping
agents, extrinsic semiconductor evolves out. This type of semiconductor behaves like
conductor. One funny thing is that doping level is one per 10 6 or 10 8 nos. of semiconductor
atoms.
This extrinsic semiconductor is of two types:- (i) P type semiconductor and (ii) N type
semiconductor depending upon the properties of doping agents.
Now, let us consider the types of doping agents, which are responsible for evolution of P
type and N type semiconductor.
13
Two types of doping agents are:- (i) Trivalent and (ii) Pentavalent. These doping agents are
known as impurity atoms.
Thus Trivalent/Pentavalent impurity atoms are utilised in formation of P type/N type
semiconductor.
Now, (i) Trivalent impurity means the impurity which contains three valence electrons (i.e.
3 e in outermost orbit) examples are Boron, Galium, Indium etc.
Similarly (ii) Pentavalent impurity, means the impurity which contains five valence
electrons. Examples are- As, Sb and P.
Now, these types of impurity atoms possess other names also. We can better remember the
types of semiconductors according to these names.
These are as in the following :(i)
(ii)
Acce P tor type Impurity (P type impurity).

Do N or type Impurity (N type impurity).
Thus :- Intrinsic semiconductor + P type impurity = P type semiconductor and intrinsic

semiconductor + N type impurity = N type semiconductor.
Now, we should search the clue regarding conductivity of P type and N type
semiconductor.
These two types of semiconductors possess mainly two types of carriers. Those are named
as majority holes and majority electrons.
In case of P type semiconductor majority carriers are holes. In N type semiconductor
majority carriers are electrons.
Here, holes are positive type and electrons are negative type carriers.
Now, coming the case how holes are evolved in P type semiconductor. Here, P type
semiconductor contains P type impurity i.e. accepter type impurity i.e trivalent impurity. Let
us consider a figure showing the composition of intrinsic semiconductor and trivalent
impurity atoms.
Si
Si
Si
Figure shows that B
Contains three valence

Electrons. Naturally it
has afinity to attract
B
Si
Si

One electron to complete
another one
e
Covalent bond to
Attain inertness.
Due to this affinity it causes bombardment of one covalent bond of one neighbouring
semiconductor atom. This bombardment causes evolution of hole and electron pairs from
which one electron is attracted towards the hole created in the impurity atom Boron (B).
Similarly, in case of N type semiconductor donor impurity atom P(Phosphorous) donates
one free electron i.e gives out one free electron responsible for conductivity in N type
semiconductor.
14
In this way generation and recombination of holes and electrons take place inside P and N
type semiconductor.
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
Electron flow(real flow)

Hole flow(apparent flow)
Si
Si
*
o
Si
Si
Si
Si
Si
*
o
Now, we can consider the case of Semiconductor diodes. Semiconductor diode is a device
in which P type semiconductor and N type semiconductor remains side by side keeping a
junction amid.
Here, one thing important to note is that as electrons flow from right to left so hole flow is
recorded from left to right but this is not real flow but apparent flow. It resembles movement
of train and apparent movement of trees buildings etc. (which actually does not move).
2.2 Formation of Semiconductor diode :- It is formed by doping a semiconductor with Ptype impurity on one side and N type impurity on the other side.
Pictorial description of a semiconductor diode.
Junction
_
o
_
o
_
o
_
o
_
o
_
o
_
o
_
o
_
o
_ +
_
+Donor ion
(immobile)
+
+
Electron
(majority
carrier)
Immobile
Acceptor ion
Hole
Depletion region
15
The figure shows:- Majority Carriers :- (i) Holes for P- type SC.
(iii) Electrons- N- type SC.
Different ions are :- (i) (-)ve acceptor ions,immobile in nature.
(ii) (+)ve donor ions, immobile in nature.
Immobile ions existing in depletion region are:- (i) (-)ve acceptor ions (On left) and (ii) (+)ve
donor ions on the right.
2.2.1 DEPLETION REGION:- Depletion region means the region which is depleted from
mobile carriers (i.e. holes and free electrons). This is also known as space charge region or
transmission region.
N.B :- Width of this depletion region is of the order of micrometer or (10 6) m.
Now, we should study semiconductor diode closely.
Let us consider a block diagram of semiconductor diode / PN JN diode.
In case of unbiased P. N JN. depletion region creates

A potential hill which may be considered as cell of mini
EMF. P side of this mini cell is (-)ve and N side is (+)ve.
The depletion region remains wide to some extent in
Unbiased condition.
In case of biased P.N JN. depletion region remains
narrower than that in unbiased condition.
Unbiased PN junction
Here, we see that P side is supplied with (+)ve

potential and N side with (-)ve potential
(connected from out side) and as a result
the area of depletion region decreases as
compared to the depletion region in UNBIASED
condition.
Now biasing provided to PN JN diodes are of two types :(i)
Forward biasing and (ii) Reverse biasing.
Now let us study the biasing cases more closely.
In figure a holes flow from P side to N side and
Electrons flow from N side to P side and as a result
Unidirectional flow of current takes place i.e PN JN
Material acts as rectifier. Thus in FB condition of
PN JN the diode conducts current from P side to
N side.
This type of biasing is observed in ordinary diodes.
In case of reverse biased diode the case becomes as in the
Following figure b.
Here minority current flows minority hole below N.
+ + +
+ + +
16
Symbol of ordinary diode :-
Used :- These are used as :- (a) Rectifier (AC to DC)

(b) Switch (Unidirectional).
CHAPTER - 3
3.1 Zener Diodes and their applications :- We know ordinary diodes work in forward biased
condition and majority carriers become responsible for carrying current. But zener diode
works in reverse biased condition and minority carriers become responsible for carrying
current.
Statement of Zener Diode :- These are diodes which have adequate power dissipations
capabilities to operate in break down region. Here, one thing important to note is that in case
of zener diode, zener break down action takes place.
Symbol of Zener diode:3.2 Break Down Phenomena:- In case of reverse biased diodes break down
Occurs. Here in reverse biased condition after a particular applied voltage,
Bombardment (rupture) of covalent bond takes place at a greater speed
And electron hole pairs evolve and increase in current flow takes place.
The critical voltage for which sharp rise of reverse current (IR) takes place is known as
break down voltage. This break down voltage depends upon width of depletion region i.e. it
depends upon doping level.
Two types of break downs are there:- (i) Zener break down and (ii) Avalanche break down.
3.2.1 Mechanism for Break Down :Zener break down:- Here P and N parts are
P
N
Heavily doped as a result JN becomes narrow.
In such a situation when applied voltage is
increased bit by bit then just below or at 6 V,
the zener break down occurs while electric
Field intensity becomes ZX 107 V/Meter.
This process does not involve collision of the carriers with crystal ions. Here, actually
presence of high field exerts great force on covalent bonds and as a result bonds rupture.
Here, one thing important to note is that beyond zener break down avalanche break down
takes place.
Wide depletion
Here, minority carriers collide with
region
Semiconductor atoms at depletion region.
As a result covalent bonds break down
And formation of electron hole pairs take place.
These again collide against the other covalent
Bonds and another group of electron hole
Pairs take place. In this way, carriers (electr

Hole pairs) from avalanche break down (snow
Slide). This avalanche break down occurs at
Above 6 V.
17
Lightly doped P-N junction
18
Zener diode as Regulator:- Figure (1) shows a zener regulator circuit from figure (2) we can
write
IS = Iz + IL, So Iz = IS IL(Here, we see that it has been divided into parts I2 and IL).
Or, Iz = VS Vz / RS Vz/RL,
Or, Iz = VS Vz/RS Vz/RL.
Rs
+
The equation shows that IL depends
Upon RL but IS is independent of RL.
Vs
Z
RL
Vo
Thus Iz may be changed with the
Change of value of RL but O/P remains
Constant Vz
_
3.3 Different ratings of zener diode:(i)

Voltage rating :- 2.4 V to 200 V (Temperature dependent).
(ii)
Power Rating :- 150 MW to 50 Watts.
3.4 Application of Zener diode :1) As voltage regulators.

2) As peak clippers.
3) For meter protection against excessive voltage.
4) As fixed reference voltage for biasing and comparison purpose.
19
CHAPTER 4
SPECIAL TYPES OF DIODES
4.1 Introduction:- Semiconductor diodes like ordinary diodes, zener diodes etc. work as
rectifier, voltage regulators etc. There are some special types of diodes which perform
different functions like Amplification, Oscillation, Frequency multiplication modulation and
the like.
This is done by varying doping levels in extrinsic semiconductor (P type or N type) or
using both intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor simultaneously. In this way robustness of
equipments has been avoided and sizes of equipments have been minimised to portable size.
4.1.1 Special Types of Diodes are :1. Varactor Diode.
2. Step Recovery Diode.
4. Tunnel Diode.
5. Pin Diode.
3. Impatt Diode.
6. Gunn Diode.
4.1.2 Description of Special Types of Diodes :Varactor Diode:- Varactor means variable capacitor. This is so named because in this case
junction capacitance is easily varied electronically. This is done by changing reverse bias
voltage of the diode. These are used as tuning component in microwave frequency
multipliers.
Here, in varactor diode silicon (Si) is semiconductor material. These semiconductor materials
are utilised in MW frequencies due to the follow reasons.
Case of Silicon :- Here, the advantages are :a) High power handling capacity.
b) Low noise property.
c) Remains unaffected by ambient temperature.
d) Large reverse break down voltage. For this property large voltage swing results.
e) Maximum usable frequency is 25 GHz.
N.B:- Above fc/10 frequency Rb in (operating frequency fc/10 = 250/10 creases and diode
quality drops down and noise increase in parametric amplifier and power description increase
in frequency multiplier.
Case of Ga and As :- Here, the advantages are :a) Higher maximum usable frequency (100 GHz).
b) Function is better in lowest temperatures (-260o)C.
These two are practicable due to higher mobility of charge carriers.
20
4.2 Construction of Varactor Diode:-
Gold plated molibdenum stud

(Cathode)
Gold plated wire.
Junction diode.
Copper strip(Anode).
Gold plated molibdenum stud.
(Anode)
Symbol of Varactor Diode :-
4.2.1 Working principle of Varactor Diode:Here, band N regions are heavily doped as a result depletion region (at JN) is narrower
and capacitance is high. When reverse bias is changed the capacitance value also changes.
Here, as band N parts are heavily doped, so the depletion region is narrower here. As
reverse bias voltage increases, width in depletion region increases and capacitance value
decrease.
Depletion region
P
o
o
o
N
o
o
o
_
_
_
+ *
+ *
+ *
*
*
*
21
Thus capacitance value changes with the change of reverse bias voltage. Thus Jn
capacitance value is inversely proportional to width of the depletion region. It is made clear
by the figure. Here, Co = Cj for zero bias voltage of the varactor diode. Avalanche occurs at
very high reverse voltage.
4.2.2 Equivalent Circuit of Varactor Diode :Particular Values :Cc = 1.4 PF.
Co = 25 PF(Capacitance at zero bias)
Cmin = 5 PF.
Ls = 0.013 H.
Rb = 1.3 Ohms.
Particular Values :Co = 25 PF, Cc = 1.4 PF.
C min = .5 PF, Ls = 0.013 H
Rb = 1.3 Ohms.
Rj
Cj
Cc
Rb
Ls
4.2.3 Applications of Varactor Diode:1. Suitable for parametric amplifiers and harmonic generators. Varactor diode is suitable
due to the following reasons:i)
Large variation of capacitance value.
ii)
Small value of Cj(Junction capacitance).
iii)
Lowest possible value of series resistance (Rb).
2. Suitable for super high frequent applications (MW). This is because it has the
property of minimum high frequency loss.
3. Used as frequency multiplier in case of MW working.
4. Used in frequency and phase modulator circuit.
a) Practical Modulator Circuit:Rb
Vb
O/P to
oscillator circuit
b) Step Recovery Diode:- It is also known as Snap off varactor It is

PN JN diode made up of Si or Ga As.
22
4.3 Symbol of step recovery diode :- Construction :- Same as that of Varactor diode. But
doping of PN JN is different here.
Doping Profile :- Here, P and N parts are lightly doped near to JN as compared to away from
JN.
Doping level
Distance from junction.
4.3.1 Working Principle:- SRD is designed to store charges in forward biased condition and
discharges briefly the stored energy in the form of sharp pulse in reverse bias condition and
goes off after a particular period and repeats the cycle in the next and so on. The sharp pulses
formed are very rich in harmonies. The duration of pulses is 100 to 1000 pulses/second
depending upon the diode design.
It has been found that when the diode goes from forward to reverse bias, the free electrons
and holes temporarily goes away from the junction resulting in reverse current but due to
unusual doping the reverse current stops immediately at some point in the reverse half cycle.
Wave form study reveals the conditions of charging and discharging more clearly :10 MHz
I/P
Sharp pulses
Discharging half cycle
Charging half cycle
Here, we see that during discharge the reverse current stops suddenly at a point of the curve
i.e snaps off at a point (as if diode has been kept open at that particular point).
Equivalent Circuit:This is a low power device
I/P high frequency signal
4.3.2 Applications:- 1) SRD can be used in frequency multiplier circuits in UHF and lower
range of microwave frequencies.
2) SRD amplifier are used as power sources in :- (i) UHF, (ii) Transmitter of lower range
of MW frequencies, (iii) Receiver of lower range of MW frequencies, (iv) Signal
generators of lower range of MW frequencies.
3) Used in Combiner Generator. It is possible to use SRD without a tuned O/P circuit to
produce multiple harmonies in so called com B GEN.
4) Staking of several SRDS is possible in a single package to increase power handling
capacity.
23
IMPATT DIODE :4.4 IMPATT = IMP act Avalanche and Transit Time.
Construction:- The construction is as in the following :Copper cathode
Gold wire
Gold alloy contact

Ceramic tube
Copper anode
Indications :Pt = Heavily doped P region.

Nt = N region.
N = Normally doped n- region.
(-) = Minority electrons.
(+) = Minority holes.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
The device consists of two copper electrodes between which P+ type, N type and N+ type
semi conducting materials are arranged and gold wire and gold alloy contacts are kept in
between for fool proof contact.
4.4.1 PRINCIPLE OF WORKING:IMPATT diode works on the principle of impact avalanche and transit time (IMPATT).
This also exhibits negative resistance characteristics. This may be better explained if it be
shown that applied voltage and resulting current are 180o out of phase. That means when
voltage is minimum current will be maximum and vice versa.
24
RF Voltage = 0
WAVE FORM STUDY :Applied DC RF
Voltage.
RF voltage = Max.
Time
Current pulse
I/P pulse at cathode.
Time.
From the figure it is clear that:i) When RF voltage is zero current attains peak i.e. here V and J are 90o out of phase.
ii) When RF voltage is max. (-) ive, current attains another peak V & I is again 90o out of
phase.
When we unite these (i) and (ii) it reveals that V & I are in 180o phase opposition. Thus the
diode possesses (-) ive resistance characteristic is proved.
The current pulse forms at junction and then flows towards cathode (due to presence of
reverse bias) at a drift velocity depending upon the value of the high DC field.
Time taken by the pulse to reach the cathode depends upon this drift velocity and also on
the thick
ness of the heavily doped ( N + ) layer. The thickness of the drift space is so
selected that the time taken for the current pulse to arrive at the cathode corresponds to the
time of ( - ) ive peak of the RF voltage.
Thus 180o phase difference attains between RF voltage and the current pulse at the cathode.
This proves the existence of dynamic RF ( - ) ive resistance applied DC voltage (due to
externally applied signal or due to existence of RF oscillations in the circuit) then the
following cases happen:During (+) ve swing of the RF signal , the reverse voltage across the diode is
greater than its avalanche threshold voltage and then free electron hole pairs cross the
junction with a higher velocity .In such a situation additional hole and electron pairs are
formed due to bombardment of co-valent bonds by the electron hole pairs moving with a
super high speed.
Thus the great IMP act of the carriers (electrons& holes) Avalanche current multiplication
results in IMPATT diode.
25
4.4.2 Application:1. IMPATT diode is used as microwave oscillator due to the presence of (-)ve
resistance.
2. It is used in MW amplifiers due to existence of avalanche multiplication of
current.
N.B:- It is used mainly in 7D17 TOSHIBA radio as an amplifier.
4.5 TUNNEL DIODE OR ESAKI DIODE:It is a heavily doped P-N junction diode, which exhibits (-) ve resistance in forward biased
condition. Here P and N parts are heavily doped so depletion region is very thin of the order
of 0.01 micrometer.
CONSTUCTION :- Germanium (Ge) or Ga As is preferred for formation of tunnel diode.
Symbol of tunnel diode
Hermatically sealed
Kover cathode
0
Tin dot
Mesagreen container
GaAs semiconductor
Kover Anode
4.5.1 PRINCIPLE OF WORKING:+I
2mA
0.2mA
B
+V
-V
50mV
300mV
valley voltage
peak voltage
valley current
-I
TUNNEL DIODE V-I CURVE FOR Ge
26
Here, semiconductor materials are doped as one thousand times more than an ordinarily
doped semiconductors. Here, due to heavily doped semiconductor materials, the depletion
layer is very very thin in order of 0.01 micro meter . As a result tunnelling occurs very easily.
Moreover, time taken by the carrier to cross the junction is considerably short and as a result
MW operation is practicable by this device.
4.5.2 STUDY OF V-I CHARACTERISTIC CURVE :The curve reveals the following points:1. Forward current increases with the increase of forward voltage up to peak value as
seen in OA part. The corresponding current is known as peak current.
2. As forward voltage(i.e forward bias) increases till further the forward current
gradually drops down and attains VALLEY VALUE (of voltage). It is depicted at
point B. The corresponding current is called valley current. Thus AB part shows (-)ve
resistance. This makes the diode useful for oscillator and amplifier.
3. As forward bias value is increases till further, the forward current increases very
rapidly. This part behaves as ordinary diode. It is depicted by BC part of the
characteristic curve.
4. Peak current here is 2mA and valley current is 0.2 mA. Thus peak to valley ratio is
2/0,2= 10
4.5.3 APPLICATION:1. used as Mw oscillator.
2. used as (-)ve resistance amplifier.
4.5.4 A concrete example how tunnel diode is attached to the circuit :-
Termination
Antenna
4 port network
R
f > 50 GHz
LP
I/P
RP
Load resistance
27
4.6 PIN DIODE :- Pin diode means the diode which contains P type semiconductor and N
type semiconductor separated by a intrinsic semiconductor.
Formation :-
ANODE
CATHODE
N type semiconductor
Intrinsic semiconductor
( very lightly doped N-type
semiconductor )
Narrow layer of P-type semiconductor.
CONSTRUCTION:-
Metallic contact cathode.

N-type semiconductor
Intrinsic semiconductor
P-type semiconductor
Metallic contact anode
SYMBOL OF PIN DIODE :-
4.6.1 Principle of action of Pin Diode :PIN diode acts as ordinary diode up to a frequency of . It ceases to work as ordinary diode
rectifier above this frequency as carrier is stored up in intrinsic semiconductor. At microwave
range diode acts as variable resistance.
When bias is varied in a pin diode the following actions take place :i)
When forward biased, the resistance varies between 1 to 10 ohms.
ii)
When reverse biased, the resistance varies between 5 K ohms to 10 K ohms.
Thus pin diode resistance may be varied to a large range of value (Unit is ohms). In that
case PIN diode acts as microwave switch.
Applications:- 1. Used for MW switching, frequency range up to 15 GHz and power handling
capacity up to 200 watts range from 40 Ns (for high power) to 1 ns at low powers.
2. PIN diode may be used as amplitude modulator.
3. It can be used as a limiter.
28
29
4.7 GUNN DIODE :- Gunn diode has been named after GUNN ( a scientist). Its operation
does not depend upon the junction properties but bulk properties of a semiconductor material.
CONSTRUCTION OF GUNN DIODE :-
Symbol of Gunn Diode :-
4.7.1 Principle of Working :- When a high DC voltage gradient in excess of 3300 V/cm. is
applied across a thin slice of GaAs, a (-)ve resistance is developed in the crystal. If this slice
be connected to a suitably tuned circuit, oscillations will occur.
Now, as voltage gradient applied is very high so carrier (electron) velocity is also very high
and so oscillations will occur in MW frequency.
Here, oscillations occur in the GUNN diode due to Transferred Electron Effect or GUNN
Effect.
This GUNN effect is independent from total voltage/current and remains unaffected by
magnetic field or different types of contacts GUNN effect occurs only in N type material and
so majority carriers are electrons.
Frequency of oscillations matches here with the time of transfer of electrons according to
intensity of applied voltage. Thus a domain of electrons (a bunch of electrons) evolves once
per cycle and arrives at (+)ve end of the slice to excite oscillations in the associated tuned
circuit.
4.7.2 STUDY OF V-I CHARACTERISTIC CURVE :I
A
B
0
30
4.7.3 Explanation of V-I Characteristic Curve :- When voltage is applied across the slice
of Ga as the excess electrons formed in doped N type semiconductor flow to the (+)ve end
(anode) of the slice.
As voltage is increased till further, electrons move towards (+)ve end with greater velocity
and as a result current also increases.
Here, (i) in OA region (+)ve resistance is developed, (ii) In AB region (-)ve resistance
grows and (iii) BC region is again (+)ve resistance.
4.7.4 Applications :- 1. Used as MW oscillator, (2) Used as local oscillator.
Availability Ranges:- 4 GHz (1.5 Watt CW MAX) to 75 GHz (50 MW CW MAX).
A practical circuit :-
Conducting mounting
Bias voltage via OV prot.
Loading
end screws
RF
choke
g/2
Conducting tuning plug
4.8 Scott key Barrier Diode :4.8.1 Construction :- It has a metallic part (Titanium surrounded by gold for low ohmic
resistance) and a N type semiconductor part. Gold plated titanium
N-type Ga As
As majority carriers are
electrons here so scottkey
barrier diode is a unipolar device.
FB (Forward Bias)
Symbol :-
Circuit containing scottkey barrier diode :-
31
4.8.2 Principle of operation of Scottkey barrier diode :1. When the diode is unbiased, free electrons on N part are at a lower energy level than
free electrons on the metal side. That is orbits of free electrons on N side are smaller
than those on the metal side. This difference in orbit size or energy level is called
Scottkey Barrier.
2. When diode is forward biased, free electrons on N side gain enough energy to travel
in larger orbits. Due to this free electrons can cross the junction and enter the metal
side. Now, as the free electrons plunge into the metal with energy so they are also
called Hot Carriers and the scottkey barrier diode is called Hot Carrier.
One thing important to note is that as the metal has no holes (one type of carrier),
there is no depletion layer or stored charges in the junction so this diode can off and
on fester than a bipolar diode.
4.8.3 Applications :- Used as Mixers and Detectors. Availability :- Up to 100 GHz MW.
32
CHAPTER ; 5
5.0 Transistors- Bipolar, Testing and Applications :5.1 Introduction:- Among two principal semiconductor devices, Transistor, rather bipolar
junction transistor is one. This device is mainly used for amplification and switching. Now
the device should be studied to know about its specialities in construction and principle of
operation.
Basically, Bipolar Junction transistor is a transistor having two junctions and two carriers,
holes and electrons are involves in operation. As it has two polarities of carriers slot is
known as bipolar junction transistor. When it is observed closely it shows as it is constructed
by joining two semiconductor diodes back to back.
5.2 Meaning of Transistor :- Transistor = TRANSfer + ResISTOR.
First part of the transistor is known as emitter, second part is base and the last part is
collector. When transistor comes into action then its emitter part emits carrier, this carrier
diffuses to the next part i.e base and then goes direct to the third part known as collector part
and gets collected there . This is why the three parts of the transistor are named as emitter
part base part and collector part. The figure shows that 1st. part is medium ( size ).
P
N
P
5.2.1 Principle of Operation :Here, two junctions are there. One
O
*
is PN Junction and another is NP
E
C
o
*
Junction. 1st junction is forward
Biased and the next junction is
B
Reverse biased.
When forward bias is applied to
Emitter base JN then emitter part
Emits holes as P part contains
Majority holes. These then diffuses to the base (hole is minority carrier here in PN part. Here,
some holes are lost due to recombination of holes and electrons.
Now, as reverse bias is applied to the base collector junction (Electric field is confined here
to the depletion region and the field is zero at the rest of the semiconductor) the holes
reaching the junction (B-C JN) are swept to the collector and collected in the collector region.
33
Moreover, holes generated into the base region (Minority holes due to B-C reverse bias)
cross into the collector section and electrons (Minority electrons) thermally generated in the
collector region cross the junction into the base layer. These two types of carriers constitute
the reverse saturation current.
Thus collector current is composed of :(i)
Injected holes at E-B diode and
(ii)
Thermally generated carriers crossing the collector base junction.
5.2.2 Type of Transistors :- Transistors here are of two types :(i)
PNP Transistor and (ii) NPN Transistor.
Symbols of Transistors :C
B
C
B
Symbolically represented transistor in operation (Showing transistor currents and voltage

drops inside transistor).
5.2.3 Explanation of Terms :a) IE = Emitter current (+ ve when indicated into the transistor).
b) IB = Base Current.
c) IC = Collector Current.
d) VBE = Voltage drop between base and emitter.
e) VCB = Voltage drop between collector and base.
f) Common Base = Base is common to both voltages (Voltage drops).
Here, IC = IE +I
5.3 Types of Transistors according to configuration:Transistors are of three types as per configuration those are:i) Common Base configuration.
ii) Common emitter configuration.
iii )Common collector configuration.
34
Description of these types of transistors :5.3.1 Common Base Configuration:- Here, base is common to both input and output
circuit.
Common Base PNP Transistor :Here, VEE = Emitter supply voltage.
VCC = Collector supply voltage.
Ie
Ic
E
I/p
VEB
Ib
C
VCB R
O/P
Other voltages have already been stated as per

signal
Figure :- (i) Emitter base junction is forward biased.
(ii) Base collector junction is reverse biased.
AC
VEE
VCC
IE, IB and IC are currents flowing into the transistor and considered as (+)ve in nature.
Here, dc is the ratio of dc values of IC and IE. This signifies the measure of the quality of
the transistor.
Thus dc = IC/IE forward current transfer ratio.
Or IC = dc x IE
Now, IE = IB + IC or, IB = IE IC = IE - IE = (1 - ) IE
So, IB = (1 - ) IE.
5.3.2 Common Emitter configuration :Here, dc is the ratio between dc values
Of IC and IB.
So, dc = IC/IB or IC = IB.
Now IE = IB + IC = IB + IB = (1 + ) IB
I/P Signal
IC
IB
VCE
VBE
IE
Relationbetweenand:Current amplification factor :- = IC /IE for common

Base and = IC/IB for common emitter.
VBE
So, / = IE / IB
Now, IB = IE - IC
So = IC / IE -IC
Or = / 1 - -------------------------------- 1
Thus
= / 1+ -------------------------------- 2
From equation 1& 2
1 - = 1 / 1+ -------------- 3
VCC
RL
35
And
From equation 3& 4
Thus it may be written as :IE = IB / ! - ;
1 + = 1 / 1 - -------------- 4
= / 1+
and = / 1 -
I B = IE ( 1 - )
and
I C = . IE
IE : IB : IC = 1 : ( 1- ) :
So,
5.3.3 Common collector configuration :This configuration may be named as emitter follower as output flows from emitter here. Here,
collector is common to both input and output circuit.
IC
Here, also, IE = IB + IC = IC/IB
Or, IC = IB
IB
VCC
Thus, IE = IB + IC = IB + IB
= (1 + ) IB.
That is output current is equal to
(1 + ) x input current.
VI
VEE
IE
VO
5.4 Leakage currents in Transistors :Let us consider the conditions of different currents like IE, IB, IC etc. flowing in a transistor.
P
IE
IC
*
IB
VEE
VCC
Here, in figure (a) IE, IB and IC are emitter, base and collector currents respectively of a PNP
transistor.
VEE and VCC are biasing voltages between emitter, base and base collector respectively.
These may also be named as emitter supply and collector supply voltage respectively.
In figure (b) emitter is open circuited
As a result the leakage current CBO
Flows from base to collector.
P
E
This may be named as leakage current

Between collector and base when
Emitter is open circuited i.e ICBO.
C = Collector
B = Base
O = Open (Emitter).
From figure the following may be written:i) Emitter current is IE.
N
IE
IE
P
C
IE
IB= (1-) IE
ICBO
36
ii) Base current is IB = (1 - ) IE ICBO.

iii) Collector current is IC = IE where is the current amplification factor (Current
gain).
iii)
Leakage current between collector and base when emitter is open circuited is
ICBO.
From these four items it may be written as IC =IE + ICBO ---(1) here, is current
amplification factor Or
current gain and is equal to
IC/IE.
IB = (1 - ) IE ICBO ---- (2)
Adding (1) and (2) IC + IB = IE + ICBO + IE - IE ICBO = IE.
Thus, IE = IB + IC or, IC = IE IB.
IB
5.4.1 Leakage current in common emitter configuration :C
B
VCC
Open
ICEO
NPN
IB
ICEO
VBB
IE
NPN
Transistor
ICEO = Leakage current from collector to emitter when base is open circuited.
In figure (2):- IC = IB + ICEO = IE + ICEO, Again, IB = IE IC.
Thus, IB = IE IC = IE ( IE + ICEO) = IE IE ICEO or, IB = (1 - ) IE ICEO.
5.5 Biasing of Transistor :If transistor be made to operate, biasing circuit is a must. It is well known that Bipolar
Junction Transistor is a bi junction device. It (Transistor) contains emitter, base and collector
parts.
Emitter and base parts constitute E-B junction and base, collector parts constitute B- C
Junction.
Until and unless EB Junction is forward biased and BC junction is reverse biased no.
transistor current will flow.
37
It may be said that EB Junction is responsible for pushing majority carriers toward
collector and B-C JN is responsible for pulling those carrier towards the large size collector
part.
Thus it is clear that biasing voltages should be adjusted in such a way that these push and
pull conditions may be satisfied for easy flow of transistor current.
5.5.1 Function of Biasing Circuit :- Biasing circuit has two functions :- (1) To achieve the
desired Q point, (2) To maintain the Q point at desired value and stabilise it against variation
of temperature power supply etc.
(1) Location of Q- Point :-
IC
C
IB
VCE
E
VBB
IE
VCC
PNP
5.5.2 Conditions to be considered for locating Q Point :1) Maximum allowable collector current = IC max.
2) Maximum permissible CE voltage = VCE max.
3) Maximum permissible collector dissipation (PD i.e power dissipation) = VCC
x IC.
4) Saturation line near VCE = O.
5) Cut off line at IB = O.
saturation line
IC max
IB
If all the five conditions are satisfied
load line
Then quisent point will exist at the
middle position of the curves which are
A
PD (VCC. IC)
Almost linear in nature.
IC
This Q-Point determines :i)
IB, (ii) IC and (iii) VCE.
B
VCE
VCE max
5.6 Biasing Rules :For P N P
For N P N
C
VCB
C
VCB
VBE
38
VBE
VEB = E is more (+) ive than B (Second subscript)
VBE = B is more (+) ive than E

(B is less
(-)ive than E).
VCB = C is more (+)ive than B.
VBC = B is more (+) ive than C (i.e B is less

(-)ive than C).
Different types of Biasing Circuits :5.6.1
1.Fixed Bias Circuit :-
RB
+ Vco
IB
IC
RL
C
+
+
VCE
+
V- I/P
VBE
V - O/P
E
_
Here, in NPN transistor circuit :Vcc = IB x RB + VBE or, IB x RB = VCC VBE or IB = VCC VBE/RB -------- (1).
Now, as Vcc
VBE So, IB
Vcc/RB.
Thus, IB is almost fixed.

IC
Again, Vcc = ICRL + VCE So, VCE = Vcc IC RL.

5.6.2
+ VCC
RL
2.Collector to Base Bias :RB
From the figure it is clear that

VCE VBE = IB x RB,
Or, IB = VCE VBE/RB.
IB
C1
VCE/RB as VBE << VCE

So, IB = VCE/RB or, VCE = IB x RB.
Again, VCE = Vcc (IB + IC) x RL.
C2
RS
NPN
VBE
VCE
V O/P
39
Thus, IBRB = VCC IBRL ICRL

Or, IBRB + IBRL = VCC ICRL
VS
_
Or, IB (RB + RL) = VCC ICRL.

Or, IB = VCC ICRL/RB + RL = VCC/RB + RL ICRL/RB + RL.
5.7 Applications :5.7.1 Common Base :-As an interface between low impedance and high impedance device as it
contains low I/P impedance and high output impedance. As an interface between moderately high
I/P impedance and high O/P impedance.
5.7.2 Common Collector :- As an interface between high impedance device as it contains high
input impedance and low O/P impedance.
5.7.3
COMPARISON AMONG CB, CE AND CC AMPLIFIER AS PER PERFORMANCE
PERFORMANCE
Ai (Current gain)
Av (Voltage gain)
Ri (Input resistance)
Ro (Output resistance)
CB
0.98
70
20 Ohms
1 M Ohms
CE
50
70
1000 Ohms
50 K Ohms
CC
51
0.00
100 K Ohms
30 Ohms.
5.7.4 Applications of Transistors as per performance :Transistor

Configuration
CB
CE
CC
Matches Between
Applications
Low impedance source to

(As CB has low I/P
Impedance and high O/P
Impedance.)
Moderately high I/P
Impedance to
High impedance source
to (As CC has high I/P
Impedance and low O/P
Impedance.
High impedance
load.
High O/P
impedance
Low impedance
load
As pre amplifier stage.
In different types of amplifier.

Buffer amplifier to isolate the
previous stage.
40
5.8 Cascade Amplifier Stages :- If we want to form cascade amplifier then the different stages of
the cascade amplifier may be depicted as in the following :5.8.1 Case I :- When external source is a low impedance source :Moderately high I/P
impedance
CB
High I/P impedance
High O/P
CE
impedance
( Pre- Ampr )
High I/P impedance
High O/P
CC
Low O/P
impedance
impedance
Buffer
amplifier
5.8.2 Case II :- When external source has high I/P Impedance :Moderately high
Impedance
High I/P
Impedance
CC
Low O/P
Impedance
CE
High I/P
Impedance
High O/P
Impedance
( Pre- amplifier )
CC
Low O/P
Impedance
( Buffer amplifier )
CHAPTER 6
6.1 Introduction :- After thyristor family, field effect transistors come into picture where the
transistor operates by the effect of Electric Field. Here, the current is controlled by Electric Field.
In case of a conventional transistor it has been found that operation depends upon both types of
carriers (Holes and electrons i.e. two polarities) and thus it is named as BJT (Bipolar Junction
Transistor). But carrier (Single Polarity) i.e. majority carriers only. This is why it is known as
UNIPOLAR DEVICE.
Another major difference between BJT and FET is that BJT has low input impedance where as
FET has high input impedance (like unipolar valves) valve is of the order of mega ohms.
Some other remarkable advantages of FET as compared to BJT are :a) It produces lesser noise than B J T.
b) Effect of radiation is less as compared to that of BJT.
c) It has better thermal stability.
d) In fabrication of IC (Integrated circuit) FET is simpler to develop.
e) It is an excellent signal chopper due to absence of off set voltage at zero drain current.
41
But major draw back in FET is that it has very small gain band with product as compared to BJT.
FET may be subdivided into the following categories as given in tabular form.
FET
_________________________________________________
JFET
(In field effect Transistor)
MOSFET
(Metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor. It
may also be called as IGFET / Insulated Gate FET.).
_______________________
Single Gate
_______________________________________
Dual Gate
Enhancement mode
MOS FET
Depletion Mode
MOS FET
Construction:P-type strip(on both sides)

IG
N-type channel
symbol of FET
( drain ) D
Source- S
IS
Drain-D
ID
(gate ) G
_
VGG/VGS Gate-G
VDD/VDS
_ +
N- channel FET
( source) S
In FET, there is a bar of N- type known as channel and a strip of heavily doped P- type
semiconductor. Here, P- type semiconductor is formed on channel by alloying or diffusion. If P- type
semiconductor is sandwiched between heavily doped N- type region then it is known as P- channel
FET. Ohmic contacts are formed (Made) at the two ends of the channel (N- type here in figure).
Voltage is applied between source and drain. Here, current flows from one end of channel to the
other (When voltage is applied between S and D).
6.1.1 The Source :- This is the terminal through which the majority carriers enter the bar. The
conventional current is 1s.
6.1.2 The Drain :- This is the terminal through which majority carriers go out of the bar or leave
the bar. The conventional current here is ID. VDS = VDD is the drain to source voltage.
6.1.3 The Gate :- This is present on both sides of N- channel and forms controlled electrodes
(Known as gate). Here, voltage VGS = VGG is applied between gate to source so as to reverse bias the
PN JN. current at gate is IG.
6.1.4 The Channel :- This is the bar sandwiched between the two gates through which majority
carrier flows from source to drain.
42
6.2 Operation of N- Channel FET :- Before operation of N- channel FET is discussed the fact
should be recapped about reverse biased PN JN. The figure shows the conditions of mobile and
immobile ions present in RB PN JN.
As in the figure, due to the fact of reverse biased gate and heavily doped P region the depletion
region penetrates into the N- type bar and reduces the conducting area of N- channel. The decrease
in conducting area causes decrease in the channel conductivity and thus causes decrease in current
flowing from source to drain.
From the figure it is clear that as VGG (Gate to source voltage) is increased, the reverse bias at
gate JN increase and thickness of depletion region further increases and effective conducting area of
N- channel decreases and thus source to drain current decreases.
Thus for a fixed drain to source voltage it is possible to control the ID (Drain Current) by varying
reverse bias voltage across the gate junction.
Any time varying signal voltage VGS
If applied in series with VGG i.e. bias voltage
Gate then varying component of drain current
And time results and as a result varying
Voltage across load results in drain circuit.
This VDS is amplified version of signal
Voltage VGS.
ID
IG
VGG
VGS
VDS
VDD
IS
S
6.2.1 Clarification of the name field effect Transistor :Here, current control is the effect of the extension of the field associated with the depletion region
as caused by the increasing reverse bias.
12
0V
6.2.2 The characteristic curves show:10
When V GS = O, the gate junction is fully open.
0.5V
Then with VDS = O no attraction potential
8
exist at the drain as a result no ID flows through
-1.0V
the drain terminal.
6
Now, for small increase of VDS N-type bar acts
-1.5V
as semiconductor and ID increases with increase
4
of VDS. Now with increase of ID, ohmic voltage
-2.0V
drop between the source and the channel region,
2
the gate junction resulting in the corresponding
constriction of the ducting portion of the channel.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
43
As VDS is increased stage by stage a particular voltage reaches at which the channel is pinched off
i.e. FET behaves more or less as blocked i.e. most of the free charges are removed from the channel.
The voltage, for which the channel is pinched off, is known as pinch off voltage when VDS
increases still further, ID increases and attains almost constancy value.
As VGS goes more and; more (-)ve, the reverse bias also increases accordingly. Here the curves
gets shapes like the curve for VGS = 0 only difference is in Vp (Pinch off voltage) which attains
lesser values in each stage of negative values of VGS.
When VDS is increased still further avalanche break down occurs at the gate junction and ID shoots
to a high value. Here, it is observed that avalanche break down occurs at successive lower values of
VDS as gate reverse bias magnitude is increased.
6.3 MOSFET :- MOSFET means, metal oxide semiconductor. Field Effect Transistor or insulated
gate FET.
Aluminium metalization
6.3.1 Construction :SiO2 layer
S
G
D
--_
- -
1000 to
2000oA
P+
- - + + + + +
+ + +
10- 20 m
P+
Highly doped P-region

Lightly doped N-type
substrate
Induced P-channel
P channel enhancement FE
Here, in MOSFET parallel plate condenser is formed with the metal area, siozlayer (as didertric) and
semiconductor channel N. Thus the gate is insulated by means of siozlayer. This is why MOSFET is
called insulated FET. This sioz layer is responsible for very high input impedance of MOSFET
(Range of impedance is 1010 1015 Ohms).
The gate is (-) ive and N type substrate is grounded and an electric field results normal to sioz
layer. This electric field originates from induced (+)ive charges on N substrate and terminates on (-)
ive charges to reseutag as the lower surface of sioz layer.
These induced (+) ive charges from minority carriers of N- type substrate and an INVERSION
LAYER FORMS.
Magnitude of these (+) ive charges increase with the increase of (-)ive voltage applied on gate.
44
The region just below the SiO2 layer, P type carriers (Holes) are existing (Due to induced P channel).
In such a position the conductivity of this region increases there by current flow from source to drain
increase (through this channel).
Thus the drain current (ID) is enhanced on application of (-)ive gate voltage. This is why this type
of MOSFET is called enhancement MOSFET.
6.3.2 Characteristic Curve :-10
The figure shows drain characteristics
( a graph when ID VDS versus ID is
drawn). The graph reveals :- (i) ID is
very small (NA) when as VGS is more
(-)ive, a slower increase in ID results.
(ii) When VGS is made still more (-)
ive the current ID increases more as
compared to case (ii).
-8
-6
ID
(mA)
-20V
-16V
-12V
-8V
-4V ( VGS )
-4
-2
0
-5
-10
-15 -20 -25

VDS (volts)
Here, one thing important to note is VGS (Gate source threshold voltage) or VT, a voltage at
which a typically small value of ID (of the order of 10
A) results. This VGST is indicated by
manufacturer in the DATE other things which manufacturers indicate in their DATA sheet are:- ID
(Drain current), (ii) VGS. For a typical P channel MOSFET VGST or V T = -4 volts.
VDS = -12 volts.
Now, it is known that the commercial 5 volt supply needed for operation of bipolar IC which
becomes insufficient for the operation of MOSFET.
Techniques are applied to keep VT small (Smaller than 4 volts ) to avail the following
advantages:a) Lower supply voltages are needed i.e. less expensive power supply arrangement is utilised
there.
b) Operation is easier with bipolar IC devices.
c) Lower I/P voltage swing results for turning the MOSFET ON AND OFF. This results in
smaller switching time and faster operation.
To lower the magnitude of VT the essential changes to be done in construction of P- channel
enhancement MOSFET is :
i)
Changing of orientation from 111 to 100.
ii)
Replacement of sio2 layer by a mixture of si2 N4 (Silicon nitride ) and Sio2 layer. This
change take the VT down to 2 volts due to higher dielectric contents (twice that of sio2
alone).
iii)
Replacement of Al (Gate electrode) polycrystalline. Silicon doped with boron.
These to operations reduce the value of VT = 4-6 V to VT = 1.5 2.5

45
6.3.3 Power Supply for P-Channel Enhancement MOSFET :Supply Voltages
Source Grounded
Drain Grounded
With high VT
With low VT
With high VT
With low VT
VSS (Source supply)
+12
+5
VDD (Drain Supply)
- 12
-5
VGG (Gate Supply)
- 24
- 12
- 12
- 12
6.3.4 Depletion MOSFET :The figure is self explanatory.

Speciality :- ID (drain ) current flows appreciably for VGS is 4Volts
S
n+
G
+
+
- - - + + + +
- - - + + + +
Aluminium metallisation
SiO2 layer
n+
Diff. Used channel
P type substrate
When gate voltage is made (-) ve, (+) ve charge gates induced in N- type channel through Al
metallisation and Sio2 layer comprising capacitor (Plates are(i) Al metallisation and (ii) N- channel
and Sio2 acts as dielectric).
Here, in N- channel MOSFET, majority carriers are electrons and induced carriers are ( + )
changes these (+) ve charges cause the N- channel less conductive.
Here, as N- type channel is depleted of majority carriers so it is named as depletion N- channel
MOSFET
46
Here, N- channel depletion MOSFET may be converted to enhancement MOSFET by applying

(+) ve voltage to gate. In that case (-) ve charges will be induced in N- type channel there by
increasing
(-) ve carrier (induced + majority). Thus SD increases.
CHAPTER 7
SCR, UJT, DIAC, TRIAC Etc.
7.1 Introduction :- After study of special types of diodes, a particular type of semiconductor device
to be studied presently. This type of device is known as Thyristor. Thyristor literally means Thermal
Resistor (Thyriatric Resistor or Thermal resistor). Although it is known as resistor yet it is a three
junction device. More clearly, Thyristor is a combination of two transistors PNP and NPN.
Two Transistor Analogy :P N
Anode
Cathode
J1
N
J2
J3
N
Three junction device
This was invented by a general electric company (in the year 1960). Now a days, thyristor have
largely replaced the devices like : (i) Thyratron, (ii) Mercury Arc Rectifiers, (iii) Excitrons and (iv)
Ignitrons etc.
7.1.1 Family of Thyristor :- The family of thyristor may be described in tabular form like this.
SL
NAME OF THE DEVICE
----------------------------------1.
SCR (Silicon controlled rectifier).
(A 3 terminal reverse blocking
triode thyristor).
CONSTRUCTION
----------------------A
P N P N
SYMBOL
-----------K
A
47
GC
2.
SCS (Silicon controlled switch)

(4 terminal reverse blocking tetrode A
thyristor).
GA (anode gate)
GC
P N P N
K
A
GC
GA
3.
DIAC (Two terminal by directional

PNP switch).
P1 N
N
K
4.
P
N
TRIAC (3- terminal by directional

PNPN Switch).
G
G
Let us now go through the cases one by one.

7.1.2 SCR :Basic Structure
A
P1
N1
Formation Technique
C
B
E
Transistor-2 N1 P2 N2
P2 N2
7.1.3
I2
I3
P1 N1 P2 Transistor-1
E
Circuit Representation:+A
E
IC2
T1(PNP)
B
C
IC1
VSS
G
IG
T2(NPN)
C
G
48
K_
7.1.4 Operation :- At first the gate terminal G is not connected to any external circuit. In that case
IG = 0.
When supply voltage is connected between A&K of SCR increase with resistance R, the case
happens like this:i)
ii)
J1 & J3 are forward biased.

J2 is reverse biased.
Thus the three junctions are properly biased for proper operation of the transistors T1 and T2. The
collector currents are given by:IC1 = - 1I + IC 01 -------- (1)
IC2 = 2I + IC o2 -------- (2)
For PNP transistor ICO1 (-)ve while for NPN transistor ICO2 (+)ve.
Hence, ICO2 = - ICO1 = Ic/2.
For PNP ICO1 is (-)ve.
For NPN = ICO2 is (+)ve.
For transistor sum of all the currents is zero. Thus for transistor T1 : I + IC1 IC2 = 0 (As current
entering into transistor is (+)ve.).
Putting the values of IC1 & IC2 on (3) we get :
I + - 1 I + ICO1 ( 2 I + ICO2) = 0.
Or, I 1 I 2 I + ICO1 ICO2 = 0.
Or, I { 1 ( 1 + 2 ) } + ICO1 ICO2 = 0.
Or, I { 1 ( 1 + 2) } = ICO2 ICO1.
ICO2 ICO1
Thus, we can write I = ---------------------{ 1 ( 1 + 2) }
Here, when IG (Gate current) appears at gate terminal SCR is fired and acts as short circuit
between A and K. A limiting R1 (Load resistance) is connected to prevent high current through A
and K.
49
When gate is (+)ive with respect to cathode, IG flows first through gate G, then through base to
emitter and in the mean time current from collector to base of T2 flows and base current flows from
T1 to T2 as a result collector current flows from T1 to base of T2 and as a result larger gate current
(IG) results. In this time saturation state of conduction reaches between T1 and T2. In this state a
condition of feed back results and due to that after triggering when gate is switched off i.e. IG = 0
then also conduction continues.
After that when the anode potential is taken down below holding level, SCR goes off. During
triggering, a pulse of a few a value (I6 = a few mA) is applied momentarily (4 ) at gate terminal.
The output of the SCR becomes many amp. Value.
This pulse when used in AC circuit then the SCR is fired by IG at particular instant within each
(+)ve half cycle.
7.1.5
ON AND OFF TIMES OF GATE ;- Initially, the SCR remains in OFF state. When
triggering pulse is applied then the SCR goes from OFF state to ON state. The time taken to turn on
the SCR is known as Turn-On-Time. (of SCR).
For taking a SCR from OFF State to ON State we should take care of the following :i)
The pulse amplitude should be kept sufficiently large .
ii)
Pulse duration should be so adjusted that Gate time to Hold condition may be reached.
If this condition is not reached, the SCR will turn from ON state to OFF state again (after
immediate with drawl of triggering pulse).
Similarly, at the time of taking the SCR from ON State to OFF state the anode voltage should be
dropped down below the holding voltage VH.
Now, time taken to make the SCR OFF (from ON State) is known as turn off time. This time is
defined as the time interval starting from the dropping of anode voltage needed to complete the
switching off process.
One thing important to note it that the anode voltage must be kept below holding voltage for a
particular period of time known as Gate Recovery Time. Otherwise, the SCR will return back to
ON State.
7.1.6 VOLT-AMPERE CHARACTERISTICS OF S C R :Let us observe the characteristics stage by stage.
Forward current
(I)
on state
IG2 IG1 IG0
saturation region
IH
IBO
-Ve resistance region
VRA
-V
IG < 0 off state

VH
VBO
+V
50
rev. voltage
forward voltage
-I (rev. current)
IG = Gate current
i) Here, when IG = 0, no conduction takes place.

ii) When large forward voltage is applied between anode and cathode then a break over voltage
VBO fires the SCR. Here, if base bias is such that applied voltage is less than VBO then (+)
ive triggering voltage/current may be applied to the cathode gate so as to lower Vbo than
applied voltage. In such condition SCR is turned ON.
In this way, IG comes in, fires the SCR and SCR goes to ON state and a forward curve results
which resembles curve of ordinary diode (as indicated in the figure).
After triggering, SCR remains at ON state even after reverse biasing of gate.
Now, to turn the SCR OFF we should reduce the anode voltage below the holding voltage VH
i.e. by reducing anode current below the holding current.
51
A
7.1.7 SYMBOL OF S C R :-
G
K
In V-I characteristic curve it is seen that the firing voltage (i) decrease with increasing (+)ive gate
current and (ii) increase with increasing (-)ive gate current. The current after break over is larger
than that before break over by a factor 1000 or more.
The V-I characteristics curve reveals the following particular :(a)
With VF (Forward voltage) applied to SCR, a small forward current flows until the
applied voltage equals to Vbo. At this Vbo, forward current is Ibo.
(b) With VF applied there off a series resistor R and exceeding Vbo the diode switches over from
OFF state (Block state) to ON state (Saturation state) and thereby operates in saturation
region. The design is known then said to latch (i.e changes from OFF state to ON state). This
ON state is continue till the current reduces to a value IH called holding current or latching
current. The corresponding voltage VH is called holding voltage or latching voltage.
For different PN PN diodes the ranges of Vbo and Ibo are :(i) Vbo varies from tens of volts to several hundreds of volts, (ii) Ibo varies up to a few
hundreds of amps.
Moreover, in the OFF range i.e. for currents from 0 to Ibo the dynamic resistance varies from a few
M ohms to several hundred
7.1.8 S C R Ratings :a) Current ratings (IA) Exceeding 100 Amps.
b) Voltage ratings (VA) Exceeding 1000 volts.
c) Holding voltage (VH) 1 volt.
d) Gate current (IG) ratings- 1/1000 x IA.
Here, IG of about 40 mA is enough to turn on an anode current of 100 Amps.
7.1.9 SCS Silicon Controlled Switch:SCS may be operated in the following ways :i)
ii)
Two transistor equivalent of SCS and

Diode transistor equivalent of SCS.
52
7.1.10 Application of SCR:SCR is used as (i) Motor speed control in both DC and AC motors. (ii) Power control (iii) Power
Transmission (v) Switch. SCS- Silicon controlled switch:This may be operated in the following ways:GA
i)
Two transistor equivalent:-
P
GC
Here, the figure shows to transistor

Complementary pair with regenerative
Feedback.
T1( PNP)
GA
C
GC
IC2
IB
T2(NPN)
Here, base current of transistor T2 (NPN) is IB and this IB being amplified by the gain B2 of the
transistor T2 becomes collector current of transistor T2 and this is the base current to transistor T1.
This B2 IB being multiplied by B1 i.e gain of transistor T1, becomes B1B2IB which constitutes the IC
of T1 and this B1B2IB becomes the base current to transistor T2.
Now, if B1B2IB exceeds IB (Initial base current) then both the transistors go into conducting and
thus SCS is in the ON state.
Now, if IA (Anode current) reduces, B1 and B2 reduces and the product B1B2 reduces and B1B2 1.
In such a situation regeneration ceases and SCS gets switched off.
53
7.2 Volt Ampere Characteristics of S C S :Here, as applied forward voltage (VF)

region
Anode is increased, the current at first
Slowly increases up to point A and
Rapidly in the region AB as in SCR.
At point B, the product B1B2 and
Suddenly the ON condition results.
region
Anode current
IA
forward conduction
ON
IV
IH
OFF
VV
B
Forward block
V (forward
voltage)
54
CHAPTER - 8
INTEGRATED CIRCUIT
8.1 Introduction :- Semiconductor devices had been invented to overcome the problems faced in
valves like diode, triode, tetrode etc of early days. Now, in the early days of semiconductors we have
got semiconductor diodes and transistors which had been utilised along with other circuits elements
like resistor, inductor, capacitor and the like.
In recent days to overcome the complexities in connecting semiconductor devices with other
circuit elements as stated above the integrated circuits have been invented. This invention has
inserted another feather to the crown of electronics.
Here, in IC, the semiconductor circuit elements i.e active elements other elements like R.L.C etc.
i.e passive elements have been made along with their interconnection in a single chip and
complexities have been minimised.
With the advent of IC, Micro Electronics have been pioneered.
Micro Electronics (Flow Chart) :MICRO ELECTRONICS
Functional Devices (BPF)
Hybrid Circuits
Si thin
Flim circuit
Integrated Circuits
Active & Passive Circuits

(Monolithic (Lithos Stone)
Single)
Discrete
active deVices &
Thin film
Circuits.
Multichip
Interconnections.
Minidiscrete Devices
Passive film circuits
Thin film
circuit
Thick film
circuit.
55
8.1.1 Formation of monolithic integrated circuits :Monolithic literally means single chip, Monolithic is a Greek word. When divided in syllable it
means :- (i) Mono mean single and (ii) Litho means stone.
Thus single stone. Here, stone is replaced by chip. In this way monolithic integrated circuit has
become IC CHIP (Made up of silicon- Si). Let us now consider a concrete example to show the
information of IC CHIP.
The circuit to be made on single IC CHIP :-
3
C
2
B
R
1
D1
T1
E
4
D1= Diode (s.c) R=Resistor and T1= Transistor (NPN)

Fabrication;- Fabrication of IC chip (FOC the given circuit) involves the following steps :i)
Epitaxial Growth.
ii)
Isolation Diffusion.
iii)
Base Diffusion
iv)
Emitter Diffusion.
v)
Aluminium Metallisation.
vi)
Securing and mounting.
Before describing all these we should know the following techniques first :i) Grown Junction, ii) Diffused Junction, iii) Epitaxial grown Junction.. l
i)
8.1.2 1)Grown Junction:- In this case at first the semiconductor like Si/Ga/As is taken then; first
doped with P-type impurity then that P- type material is doped with N- type material. In large
quantity thus a continuous crystal is made which is party P-type and partly N- type in nature with a
JN a mid i.e. JN DIODE is formed. Similarly in case of JN transistor alternate layers of P,N and P
are formed by this technique.
8.1.3
2)Diffused Junction :- Before going through diffused junction we should know about the
process or diffusion. Diffusion means spreading like kerosene layer on the floor. Thus the JN
produced by spreading process is known as diffused junction. Here, the JN is produced by gaseous
diffusion of P and N type material on semiconductor wefer.
8.1.4 3)Epitaxial grown Junction :- Epistaxis literally means like this (i) Epis in Greek means
layered and taxis ordered. Now, the fabrication of IC chip may be discussed thoroughly in
the following way :-This means growing of a material on a substrate material in such a way
that the grown material forms a continuation of the substrate material.
8.1.5 Epitaxial Growth :- In this process, on a highly resistive P-type substrate, N-type layer is
grown epitaxially in such a way that the N type material forms a continuation with P type
material. This operation is performed inside a special furnace called reactor ( temp. is 900 to
1000 ).
SiO2 layer
N-type epitaxial layer
P-type substrate
56
Here, P type substrate is highly resistive (10 ohms cm approx.) and N type material is off lower
resistivity (0.1 to 0.6 ohms cm). In the next, the epitaxial grown layer so formed is cleaned and
polished. After cleaning and polishing, a layer of sio2 is formed on N type material by heating the
layer to a temperature of 1000o C in an oxygen atmosphere. This sio2 layer prevents diffusion of
impurities through it.
8.2 Isolation Diffusion :-
P N
Here, we see that silicon dioxide

Layer is removed at different
Places. This is done through
Photolithographic etching
Process.
P-type substrate
8.3 PHOTO LITHOGRAPHIC ETCHING :- This is the process which helps removing of silicon
dioxide layer selectively to form openings through which impurities may be diffused. At first the
wefer is coated with a uniform film of photosensitive emulsion . After that a mask is prepared
keeping an eye on desired circuit elements to be grown on the water (thin slice). In the next, the
mask is placed on the wefer and exposed to ultraviolet rays. The rays enter the wefer through
transparent parts of the mask and attacks the sio2 layer and removes the desired parts.
Now, P type impurities penetrate through N type epitaxial grown layer and reach the P types
substrate. As a result N type ISOLATION ISLANDS or isolation regions are formed. Thus the
figure shows different isolation island which reveals that several PN junction are evolved. This helps
electrical isolation between different circuit components. Here, concentration of accepter atoms in
the region between isolation is land is much greater which is depicted by Pt. Region.
Here, a parasitic capacitances grow as a by product of isolation process. Those are (capacitances)
i)
Cb means capacitance between bottom of N type region and substrate.
ii)
CW means capacitance between side walls of isolation is lands and Pt. Region..
Cb + Cw = CT = a few PF (Pico Farad).
8.4 BASE DIFFUSION :- In this process consists of :a) Forming a new layer of Sio2.
b) Creating of openings by photolithographic
process.
c) Diffusing P type impurities (Boron) through
these openings.
P N
P-type substrate
The depth of diffusion should be carefully regulated so that N type material does not penetrate to the
substrate. The resistivity of region is higher than the isolation (n type) region. Thus this P region
may constitute :- (i) A resistor , (ii) Base of an NPN transistor (B), (iii) Anode of a diode (A) or
(iv) A junction capacitor (CJ).
57
cathode of diode
8.5 EMITTER DIFFUSION :-
emitter
W1
In this process a layer of Sio2 is

Again formed and openings are
Formed by photolithographic
Process in the P region. N type
Impurities (Phosphorous) are then
Diffused through these opening
To form :-
W2
P
N
P-type substrate
(i)Emitter of a transistor, (ii) Cathode of a diode or (iii) Emitter JN capacitor.

In addition to windows in P region windows are also formed in N region to the insert leads (when
required) leads are ohmic contacts made of Aluminium.
Diffusion of phosphorous into N region results in formation of heavy concertration (denoted as
N+) at the points of contact with the aluminium.
SiO2
8.5.1 ALUMINIUM METALIZATION :Resistor
Aluminium
In this process :- (i) A new layer of Sio2 is formed.
(ii) Forming a new set of windows on the new layer
of Sio2 at the points where aluminium contacts
are to be made.
N
(iii) Making inter connections using vacuum
P-type substrate
deposition of this even layer of aluminium on the
entire region of the wefer.
(iv) Etching away all undesired aluminium areas using photo resist technique, leaving only the
desired pattern of interconnection as shown on the figure above.
Let us now consider the circuit to be formed on the wefer :-
The circuit is : (to be formed) :2

R
1
D1
8.5.2 The monolithic IC :Thus it can be concluded that the steps to be followed for fabrication of IC CHIP are :i)
Crystal growth of a substrate.
ii)
Epitaxial growth.
iii)
Growth of Sio2 layer.
iv)
Photo etching.
v)
Diffusion.
vi)
Vacuum evaporation of aluminium.
58
8.6 Types of I C S in Tabular Form :ICs

______________________________________________________________________
Analogue IC
Logic Gates
(+ive logic
ive logic).
a) Power amplifier.
b) High frequency
amplifiers.
c) Differential
operational
amplifier.
d) Voltage regulator.
_____________________________________________
Monostable
Bistable
Astable
Memories
_______________________________________
Combinational Memories
___________________________________
AND
Multivibrator
NOT
NAND
Sequential Memories
Flip Flops (RS, JK & D type)
OR
NOR
Registers
Counters
It is clear that the IC in which different analogue components like resistors, capacitors, inductors,
transistors etc are formed, is called analogue IC.
Let us now go through the analogue I.C first:8.6.1 RESISTORS:- Resistors may be of three types:(a) Diffused resistors (b) thin film resistors and (c) thick film resistors.
Al metallisation
Al-metallisation
P
P-type substrate
Diffused resistor
SiO2
resistors
SiO2
Ni-chromium
N- type
Isolation region
thin layer
SiO2 layer
Thin film resistor
59
8.6.2. CAPACITORS:- Capacitors may be of three types:a) Diffused junction capacitor,

b) Thin film capacitor and
c) MOS capacitor.
Here, N+ emitter and P type base forms the desired capacitor ( JN capacitor) :The capacitance between reverse biased P- region and N type isolation island is some how reduced
due to large capacitance of the forward biased junction in diffused junction series (with P type based
capacitor isolation).
SiO2
N
Emitter
Base
P
N+
N-region
8.6.3 MOS- Capacitors:- It is like a parallel plate capacitor of the following layers. Al- metallisation
forms the top plate SiO2 layer form the dielectric and N+ layer forms the bottom plate of the MOScapacitor.
Al-metallisation.
SiO2
N
P+
P+
N+
N-region isolation
P-type substrate
8.6.4 Equivalent circuit:- Here, C is the MOS capacitor R is the series resistor or N+ region. C1 is
the parasitic capacitance between P-type. Substrate and N- type isolation layer. P type substrate and
N- type isolation forms diode D1.
C1
R( 5 - 100 )
B
C2
D1
60
8.6.5 Parameters of Junction Capacitors and Thin Film MOS capacitors:Parameters

1. Capacitance,PP/Hil2
2. Maximum Capacity, PF
3. Break Down Voltage, Volts
4. Tolerance
Junction Capacitor
0.2
400
5-20
20%
Thin Film Mos Capacitor

0.25 to 0.5
800
50-200
20%
8.7 Integrated Inductors:- To form an inductor in a single IC chip is difficult so it is connected

externally with different ICs in a circuit.
One process is there where integrated inductors are simulated using other
devices like :- i) Transistor, (ii) A transistor in conjunction with RC circuit and (iii) An operational
amplifier.
8.7.1 Monolithic Bipolar Junction Transistor:- In this case NPN type of transistor is formed in
general. Here, the following steps are followed one after another. (i) A P-type silicon wefer of
thickness 25 mm is used to form the substrate (Resistivity 0.1 ohms-m).
61
CHAPTER-9
9.1 Regulated Power Supply:Power supply is a must to run any type of electrical or electronic device. Modern
communication is based on micro electronic composed of sophisticated electronic components link
diodes, transistors, ICs, Microprocessor chips and the like.
Now, for smooth running of those units/components properly introduced from which (device)
more or less constant output DC voltage come out as output. Those types of outputs cause smooth
and secured running of modern sophisticated micro electronic oriented circuits.
Thus regulated power supplies are those which give out constant outputs inspite of fluctuation of
voltage in the inputs.
A voltage regulator is basically a voltage stabilizer with additional provision of varying stabilized
voltage output as and when required.
A voltage regulator performs two functions:i)
Regulating or varying the output voltage of a circuit.
ii)
Keeping the voltage constant at the desired value inspite of variations in the
supply voltage in the load.
The category (ii) is most common in use. This may be classified into three categories:- Type AHere, output voltage remains constant inspite of the changes in input voltage.
Type B- Here, output voltage remains constant in spite of variations in the load.
Type C- Here, output voltage remains constat inspite of variation of both the input voltage and the
load.
9.1.1 Principle of Automatic Voltage Regulator :It consists of two unites:- (i) The measuring unit and (ii) The regulating unit.
The measuring unit performs the following functions:a) It detects and measures the change in the input or output voltage of the regulator and
b) It produces a signal to operate the regulating unit.
The regulating unit receives signals from the measuring unit and acts to correct the output voltage of
the regulator to a constant value with least possible variation.
In a perfect automatic voltage regulator measuring and regulating units can be separately
identified. These two units are generally called stabilizers (those which stabilizes the output voltage).
9.1.2 Ordinary Voltage Stabilizer using zener diode:IL
+
Unregulated
DC voltage Vi
_
+
Output Voltage
ZL
V0
_
62
Here, from the circuit it is clear that zener diode is connected direct across the load impedance. Here
the output voltage V0 appears across load impedance ZL. Thus output voltage remains almost
constant inspite of input voltage (V1) or load impedance.
Forward
current
9.1.3 VI characteristics of Zener Diode:We know, zener diode is a reverse biased
Diode. So, in this diode the current is equal
to reverse saturation current I0 depicted in
the annexed figure.
V2
I0
Forward
I0 = 1 A for Germanium diode.
= 1 nA for silicon diode.
voltage
Reverse
Voltage
Reverse Voltage
Now, as magnitude of reverse bias increases and attains a critical voltage known as zener voltage
Vz, the zener break down takes place and IR reverse current increases suddenly as shown in the
figure. This Vz depends upon the material used.
9.1.4 DC Voltage regulators:- This device gives out a stabilized output de voltage inspite variations
of de input voltage. This stabilized voltage may be carried at all types of de voltage regulates:1) Series voltage regulator, (ii) Shunt voltage regulator.
Series voltage regulator :- Block diagram of series voltage regulator
Control
unit
Amplifier
Unit
+
Input Voltage
Vi
_
Comparison
Unit
Voltage
Sampling
Unit
+Output
V0
_
Reference Unit
9.1.5 Short description of Block Diagram :- At first the sampling unit picks up a sample of the
output voltage and feeds it to the comparison unit. The comparison unit compares the fraction of V0
(Output voltage) with the reference voltage supplied by reference unit and produces at its output a
signal which is proportional to the difference. This signal is fed to the amplifier unit. The amplifier
63
unit should be so chosen that it can amplify the difference signal to a suitably high level to drive the
control unit.
64
In most of the cases a single transistor amplifier serves both the purpose as comparison unit and
the dc amplifier .
The control unit utilises the amplified difference signal to maintain a constant output voltage.
9.2 Short description of different units :9.2.1 1) Sampling Unit :- It is a simple voltage divider network across the output voltage as shown
in the figure:R1
To comparison Unit
+
V0
R2
_
9.2.2 (2) Reference Unit:- This unit provides a reference voltage which remains constant through
out a wide range of current. Silicon break down diode is generally used as voltage reference as its
break down voltage is almost constant over a wide range of reverse current.
Diagram of a reference voltage unit is as in the following:-
R3
I1
I1
O/P
R
Voltage
V0
VR
Equivalent circuit of reference unit
V0
Reference
VR
Voltage
65
9.3 Comparison Unit :- This unit compares fraction of V0 (output voltage) with the reference
voltage. The circuit of this unit may be drawn as in the following :out put to control
unit
R1
T1
I2
V0 (output voltage)
R2
9.3.1 DC amplifier Element:- It has high gain and low gain.

1) High gain helps to amplify differential signal to a suitably high level to drive the control unit.
2) Low gain helps in retaining circuit stability.
9.3.2 Necessary circuit of DC amplifier element:R4
R5
T1
T2
D1
Vo (out put voltage)
9.3.3 Control Unit:- This ;helps to maintain a constant output voltage. Necessary circuit is as in the
following:Io
+
+
Vi
from DC amplifier
And current
Vo
66
Series regulator unit

9.4 Some more information regarding regulated power supply:Let us first consider some power supply, which is unregulated in character. This type of power
supply unit consists of:a) Transformer, b) Rectifier and c) Filter.
The circuit containing this elements is as in the following:9.4.1 Half wave rectifier with capacitor filter:+
AC input
(Vi)
+
RL
Vi
C
vo
_out put waveform
9.4.2 Full wave rectifier circuit:D1

+
I1
Vm
AC input
RL
A
Vm
+
0
D2
I2
out put waveform
9.5 Short coming of unregulated power Supply:There are certain reasons due to which unregulated power supply in is not sufficient for many
applications.
The reasons behind that are:1) First one is its poor regulation. The output voltage is not constant as load varies.
2) Second thing is that the dc output voltage varies with the AC input.
3) Third reason is that the DC output voltage varies with temperature as semiconductor devices
are used here.
All these three short comings should be over come in the following circuit and thus regulated power
supply is regulated by this circuit.
67
Ro
Vin
IL
R1
Unregulated DC
power supply
+
_
Vo
reference
voltage
Vi
_
Feed back
network
R2
Differential
amplifier
RL
68
CHAPTER- 10
10.1 DC DC Converter and Filter Circuit :- Different electronic devices/components like,
transistors, flip flops, logic ;gates, different memory devices counters, ICs etc. require standard and
stable voltages for their accurate and fool proof operation.
Moreover, various dc voltages like 5 V, 12V, 18V etc. are required to operate various
electronic devices and components.
To do so it is required to arrange different DC supplies from; individual DC sources. To arrange
this is a non economic and some job. To solve this type of problem DC-DC converts lave been
harnessed.
10.1.1 A concrete example of DC-DC converter with labelled block diagram:-
- 48V DC
+ 5VDC
DC-DC
Converter
- 5VDC
These voltages energise

different
electronic devices and
components.
+ 48V DC
+ 12V DC
DC-DC converters are devices to convert either:- 1) Low DC to high DC or
DC.
Now for this type of conversions two basic operations are required those are:1) DC to AC then again 2) AC to DC.
2) High DC to low
A simplified block diagram may be drawn as below:-
Battery
supply
(A)
Cyclic
on/off
switch
(B)
Trans former
(C)
Rectifier
and Filter
Vo (output DC)
(D)
The diagram is self explanatory. Here at first (i) DC is converted to AC and in the next (ii) AC is
reconverted to DC and smoothen by filter circuit.
10.1.2 Filter Circuits:In case of DC-DC converter it has been found that at first DC is converted to AC then AC is
reconverted to DC. After reconversion, it is required to smoothen that DC i.e. to keep the output free
from ripple. Filter circuits are arranged to do so i.e. to smoothen the DC.
10.1.3 Statement of Filter Circuits:It is a device, which removes the AC components of rectifier output but allows the DC components
to reach the load.
69
10.1.4 Description of Filter Circuits:Filter circuits are arranged between the rectifiers and load. This circuit is a combination of inductors
and capacitors to pass DC and by pass AC respectively. Similarly inductors offer high attenuation to
AC and capacitors block DC.
A simplified block diagram of filter circuit is as in the following :V
V
T
Out put from rectifier
Filter circuit
Pure DC out put
10.2 Types of Filter Circuits:- There are three types of Filter Circuits commonly used :1. Capacitor filter, 2. Choke input filter and 3. Capacitor input filter or filter.
10.2.1 Capacitor Filter:- It is a fact that capacitor bypasses AC and blocks DC. Rectifier output
when fed to load keeping capacitor across the rectified output. Block diagram of capacitor filter is as
in the following:Here, pulsating DC voltage of
the rectifier is applied across
the capacitor. As rectifier
voltage increases, it charges
the capacitor as well as supplies
current to load.
V
A
Rectifier
out put
RL
E
B
G
D
F
T
At the end of the quarter cycle at point A the capacitors charged to the peak value Vm of the
rectifier voltage. Now, rectifier voltage starts decreasing and in this time the capacitor discharged
through the load and voltage across it decreases from A to B. The voltage across load decrease only
slightly because in the next moment the next voltage leak comes and recharges the capacitor. This
process is repeated again and again and the output voltage wave form becomes ABCDEFH (as
shown in figure).
USES :- It is commonly used in transistor radio battery eliminators.
10.2.2 Choke Input Filter:Here, rectified DC enters the circuit (filter circuit) through choke
which offers high resistance to AC and low resistance to Dc. In this circuit the capacitor is connected
across the load.
70
10.2.2 (a) Circuit Diagram of Choke Input Filter:L

V AC + DC
Components
C
V
load
out put from rectifier

10.2.2 (b) Working of Filter Circuit:- The output of the rectifier enters into the choke input filter
and passes through choke which offers high resistance to AC component of the rectified Dc and low
resistance to the rectified DC.
Thus it is clear that almost the whole of AC appears across choke and the DC component goes
through to the load and gets rid of AC component.
When the rectifier output passes through the point 3 the capacitor by passes the AC and offers
high resistance of DC component.
10.2.3 Capacitor Input Filter or Filter:- In this type of filter rectifier output centres the circuit
through capacitor. This is the reason for the nomenclature (capacitor input filter).
10.2.3 Circuit Diagram of Capacitor Input Filter:L
C1
C2
Load
Out put from

rectifier
The figure is self-explanatory. Here, two capacitor in parallel and one choke in series makes a
network.
71
10.2.3 (a) Working of Capacitor input Filter:The pulsating output from the rectifier is applied across input terminals 1.2 of the filter.
Action of the filters are in the following:a) The capacitor C1 offers low reactance to AC component of rectifier output and offers
maximum reactance to the DC component. Thus C1 bypasses maximum AC ripple and DC
goes into the choke without any obstruction.
b) The choke offers high reactance to the AC component. Thus this allows DC component to
flow through it and blocks the AC.
c) The other capacitor C2 by passes the AC component which the choke failed to block. Thus
pure DC component appears across the load.

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CAMTECH/S/2002/EC/ER-3

01. Passive devices, Resistors, Capacitors and Inductors.

TIME ALLOCATION IN HOURS

Long Med- Short Long Med- Short Long MedShort

Passive Devices, Resistors, 3

Zener Diode & its applications

Regulated Power Supply

1. Resistors :- Resistor is an electrical element (or an electrical component

2nd SIGNIFICANT DIGIT

1ST SIGNIFICANT CODE

codes are as in the following :-

Now, easy way to remember the colour code is as in the following:B.

R O Y OF Great Britain Has

Blue Grey Red Gold

1.3 Statement :Capacitor is an electrical component composed of two conducting plates

In these cases no polarity indication is required. That is they may be connected

1.3.5 VARIABLE CAPACITOR

Statement :- Inductor is an electrical component composed of a coil wound on a core. It has

Solid copper wire

PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION OF THE ABOVE CASES:CHAPTER-2

Acce P tor type Impurity (P type impurity).

Thus :- Intrinsic semiconductor + P type impurity = P type semiconductor and intrinsic

Figure shows that B

Contains three valence

Electron flow(real flow)

In case of unbiased P. N JN. depletion region creates

Here, we see that P side is supplied with (+)ve

Symbol of ordinary diode :-

Used :- These are used as :- (a) Rectifier (AC to DC)

Pairs take place. In this way, carriers (electr

Lightly doped P-N junction

3.3 Different ratings of zener diode:(i)

3.4 Application of Zener diode :1) As voltage regulators.

4.2 Construction of Varactor Diode:-

Gold plated molibdenum stud

Symbol of Varactor Diode :-

b) Step Recovery Diode:- It is also known as Snap off varactor It is

Gold alloy contact

Indications :Pt = Heavily doped P region.

4.5.1 PRINCIPLE OF WORKING:+I

TUNNEL DIODE V-I CURVE FOR Ge

Metallic contact cathode.

SYMBOL OF PIN DIODE :-

CONSTRUCTION OF GUNN DIODE :-

Symbol of Gunn Diode :-

Circuit containing scottkey barrier diode :-

Symbolically represented transistor in operation (Showing transistor currents and voltage

Other voltages have already been stated as per

Relationbetweenand:Current amplification factor :- = IC /IE for common

This may be named as leakage current

ii) Base current is IB = (1 - ) IE ICBO.

5.4.1 Leakage current in common emitter configuration :C

VEB = E is more (+) ive than B (Second subscript)

VBE = B is more (+) ive than E

VBC = B is more (+) ive than C (i.e B is less

1.Fixed Bias Circuit :-

Thus, IB is almost fixed.

Again, Vcc = ICRL + VCE So, VCE = Vcc IC RL.