Shear Strength of Soils

CEL 610 Foundation Engineering

Strength of different
materials
Steel

Tensile
strength

Concrete

Compressive
strength

Complex
behavior

Soil

Shear
strength

Presence of pore water

Shear failure of soils

Soils generally fail in shear
Embankment
Strip footing

Failure surface
Mobilized shear
resistance

At failure, shear stress along the failure surface

(mobilized shear resistance) reaches the shear strength.

Shear failure of soils

Soils generally fail in shear

Retaining
wall

Shear failure of soils

Soils generally fail in shear

Retaining
wall

Mobilized
shear
resistance
Failure
surface

At failure, shear stress along the failure surface

(mobilized shear resistance) reaches the shear strength.

Shear failure mechanism

failure surface

The soil grains slide

over each other along
the failure surface.
No crushing of
individual grains.

Shear failure mechanism

At failure, shear stress along the failure surface ()

reaches the shear strength
g ((f )).

Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion

(in terms of total stresses)

f c tan

Friction angle

Cohesion

f is the maximum shear stress the soil can take without

failure, under normal stress of .

Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion

(in terms of effective stresses)

f c' ' tan '

' u

Effective
cohesion

u = pore water
pressure

Effective
f i ti angle
friction
l

f is the maximum shear stress the soil can take without

failure, under normal effective stress of .

Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion

Shear strength consists of two
p
cohesive and frictional.
components:

f c' ' f tan '

f tan

frictional
component

c
f

'

c and are measures of shear strength

strength.
Higher the values
values, higher the shear strength
strength.

Mohr Circle of stress

1

Soil element

1
Resolving forces in and directions,
directions

1' 3'

Sin2

2
'
'
'
'

' 1 3 1 3 Cos
C 2
2
2

' 2
3

'

2

'
1

' 2
3

'
1

Mohr Circle of stress

1

Soil element

' 2
3

'

2

'
1

' 2
3

'
1

1' 3'
2

3'

1' 3'
2

1'

Mohr Circle of stress

1

Soil element

' 2
3

'

2

'
1

' 2
3

'
1

,
1' 3'

3'

1' 3'
2

PD = Pole w.r.t. plane

1'

Mohr Circles & Failure Envelope

p

Failure surface

f c' ' tan '

Y
X

Soil elements at different locations

Y ~ stable
X ~ failure

Mohr Circles & Failure Envelope

p
The soil element does not fail if
the Mohr circle is contained
within the envelope
GL

c
Y

c
Initially, Mohr circle is a point

c+

Mohr Circles & Failure Envelope

p
As loading progresses, Mohr
circle becomes larger

GL

c
Y

c
c
.. and finally failure occurs
when Mohr circle touches the
envelope

Orientation of Failure Plane

1

Failure envelope

, f

3'

1' 3'
2

PD = Pole w.r.t. plane

Therefore,
=

45

45 +
/2
/2

1'

Mohr circles in terms of total & effective stresses

v
X

v
h

u
h

effective stresses

v h

total stresses

or

Failure envelopes in terms of total & effective

stresses
v
X

If X is on
failure

v
h

u
h

Failure envelope in terms

of effective stresses

effective stresses

c c

v h

Failure envelope in
terms of total stresses

total stresses

or

Mohr Coulomb failure criterion with Mohr circle

of stress
v = 1
X

Failure envelope in terms

of effective stresses

h = 3
effective stresses

X is on failure

c
c
3

cc Cot

Therefore,

1' 3'
1' 3'
Sin '

c' Cot '

2
2

Mohr Coulomb failure criterion with Mohr circle

of stress

1' 3'
1' 3'
Sin '

c' Cot '

2
2

'
1

3' 1' 3' Sin

S '2c' Cos
C '

'

1 Sin ' 3 1 Sin ' 2c' Cos '

Cos '
'
' 1 Sin '
1 3
2c'
1 Sin '
1 Sin '
'
1

'
'

Tan 45 2c' Tan 45

2
2

'
1

'
3

Determination of shear strength parameters of

soils (c,
(c or c
c

Laboratory
tests
on
specimens
taken
from
representative undisturbed
samples
Mostt common laboratory
M
l b
t
t t
tests
to determine the shear strength
parameters are,
1.Direct shear test
2.Triaxial shear test
Other laboratory tests include,
Direct simple shear test, torsional
ring
i
shear
h
t t plane
test,
l
strain
t i triaxial
ti i l
test, laboratory vane shear test,
laboratory fall cone test

Field tests

1.
1
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Vane shear
V
h
t t
test
Torvane
Pocket penetrometer
Fall cone
Pressuremeter
Static cone p
penetrometer
Standard penetration test

Laboratory tests
Field conditions

A representative
soil sample

vc
hc

hc
vc

Before construction

vc +
hc

hc
vc +

After and
Aft
d during
d i
construction

vc +

Laboratory tests
Simulating field conditions
in the laboratory
vc

hc

0
Representative
soil
sample
taken from the
site

hc

hc
vc +

vc

hc
vc

vc

Step 1
Set the specimen in
the apparatus and
apply
l
th
the
i iti l
initial
stress condition

St 2
Step
Apply
the
corresponding field
stress conditions

Direct shear test

S h
Schematic
ti di
diagram off th
the di
directt shear
h
apparatus
t

Direct shear test

Directt shear
Di
h
t t is
test
i mostt suitable
it bl for
f
consolidated
lid t d drained
d i d tests
t t
specially on granular soils (e.g.: sand) or stiff clays

Preparation of a sand specimen

Porous
plates

Components of the shear box

Preparation of a sand specimen

Direct shear test

Preparation of a sand specimen

Leveling
L
li
the
h top surface
f
of specimen

Pressure plate

Specimen preparation
completed

Direct shear test

Test procedure

St l ball
Steel
b ll
Pressure plate

Porous
plates
S

Proving ring
to measure
shear force

Step 1: Apply a vertical load to the specimen and wait for consolidation

Direct shear test

Test procedure

St l ball
Steel
b ll
Pressure plate

Porous
plates
S

Proving ring
to measure
shear force

Step 1: Apply a vertical load to the specimen and wait for consolidation
Step 2: Lower box is subjected to a horizontal displacement at a constant rate

Direct shear test

Shear box

Dial gauge to
measure vertical
displacement

Proving ring
to measure
shear force

Loading
g frame to
apply vertical load

Dial
gauge
g
g
to
measure horizontal
displacement

Direct shear test

Analysis off test results

Normal force (P)

Normal stress
Area of cross section of the sample
Sh
Shear
resistance
i
d l d at the
developed
h sliding
lidi surface
f
(S)
Shear stress
Area of cross section of the sample
Note: Cross-sectional area of the sample changes with the horizontal
d sp ace e t
displacement

Direct shear tests on sands

She
ear stre
ess,

Stress-strain relationship
p
Dense sand/
OC clay
l

f
f

Loose sand/
NC clay

Expansiion
Compres
ssion

Ch
hange in height
of the sam
mple

Shear displacement

Dense sand/OC Clay

Shear displacement

Loose sand/NC Clay

y

Direct shear tests on sands

She
ear stress
s,

How to determine strength parameters c and

Normal stress = 3
Normal stress = 2

f3

f2

f1

Normal stress = 1

Shea
ar stress
s at failure, f

Shear displacement

Mohr Coulomb failure envelope

Normal stress,

Direct shear tests on sands

Some important facts on strength parameters c and of sand

Sand is cohesionless
hence c = 0

Direct shear tests are

drained and pore water
pressures
are
dissipated hence u = 0
dissipated,
Therefore,
= and c = c = 0

Direct shear tests on clays

In case of clay, horizontal displacement should be applied at a very
slow rate to allow dissipation of pore water pressure (therefore, one
test would take several days to finish)

Shearr stress a
at failure
e, f

Failure envelopes for clay from drained direct shear tests

Overconsolidated clay
y ((c 0))
Normally consolidated clay (c = 0)

Normal force,

Interface tests on direct shear apparatus

IIn many foundation
f
d ti
d i
design
problems
bl
and
d retaining
t i i
wall
ll problems,
bl
it
is required to determine the angle of internal friction between soil
and the structural material (concrete, steel or wood)
P

Soil

Foundation material

f ca ' tan

Where,
ca = adhesion,
dh i
= angle of internal friction

Triaxial Shear Test

Piston (to apply deviatoric stress)

Failure plane

O-ring
impervious
membrane

Soil
sample

Soil sample
at failure
Perspex
cell

Porous
stone
Water

Cell pressure
Back pressure

Pore pressure or
pedestal

volume change

Triaxial Shear Test

Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)

Sampling tubes
Sample extruder

Triaxial Shear Test

Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)

Edges of the sample

are carefully
y trimmed

Setting up the sample

in the triaxial cell

Triaxial Shear Test

Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)

Sample is covered
with
a
rubber
membrane and sealed

Cell is completely
p
y
filled with water

Triaxial Shear Test

Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)
Proving ring to
measure
the
deviator load
Dial gauge to
measure vertical
displacement

Types of Triaxial Tests

c
Step 2
Step 1
c

deviatoric stress
(( = q)

c+ q

c
Under all-around cell pressure c
Is the drainage valve open?
yes

Consolidated
sample

no

Shearing (loading)
Is the drainage valve open?
yes

no

Unconsolidated
lid t d

Drained
i d

Undrained
d i d

sample

loading

loading

Types of Triaxial Tests

Step 2

Step 1
Under all
all-around
aro nd cell pressure
press re c

Sh
Shearing
i (loading)
(l di )

Is the drainage valve open?

yes

Consolidated
sample

Is the drainage valve open?

no

yes

Unconsolidated
sample

CD test

Drained

Undrained

l di
loading

loading

UU test
CU test

no

Consolidated- drained test (CD Test)

Total,

Neutral u
Neutral,

Effective
Effective,

Step 1: At the end of consolidation

VC

Drainage

VC = VC

hC

hC =
hC

Step 2: During axial stress increase

VC +

Drainage

hC

V = VC + =

1

h = hC = 3

Step 3: At failure

VC + f

Drainage

hC

Vf = VC + f = 1f

hf = hC = 3f

Consolidated- drained test (CD Test)

1 = VC +

3 = hC

Deviator stress (q or d) = 1 3

Consolidated- drained test (CD Test)

Ex
xpansion

Time
Compres
ssion

V
Volume
change o
c
of the
sample
s

Volume change
g of sample
p during
g consolidation

Consolidated- drained test (CD Test)

D
Deviato
r stress
s, d

Stress-strain relationship
p during
g shearing
g
Dense sand
or OC clay

d)f
d)f

Loose sand
or NC Clay

Expansiion
Compres
ssion

Vo
olume ch
hange
of the sam
mple

Axial strain

Dense sand
or OC clay
y
Axial strain

Loose sand
L
d
or NC clay

Dev
viator strress, d

CD tests

How to determine strength parameters c and

d)fc

1 = 3 + (
( d)f
3c
C fi i stress
Confining
t
= 3b
Confining stress = 3a

Confining stress =

d)fb

d)fa

She
ear stre
ess,

Axial strain

Mohr Coulomb
failure envelope

3a

3b 3c 1a
(d)fa
(d)fb

1b

1c

or

CD tests
St
Strength
th parameters
t
c and
d obtained
bt i d from
f
CD tests
t t

Since u = 0 in CD
tests =
tests,

Therefore, c = c

and =
cd and d are used
to denote them

CD tests Failure envelopes

S
Shear
stress
s,

For sand and NC Clay, cd = 0

d
Mohr
M
h Coulomb
C l
b
failure envelope

3a

1a

or

(d)fa
Therefore, one CD test would be sufficient to determine d
of sand or NC clay

CD tests Failure envelopes

For OC Clay, cd 0

NC

OC

(d)f

or

Some practical applications of CD analysis for

clays
1. Embankment constructed very slowly, in layers over a soft clay
deposit

Soft clay

= in situ drained
shear strength

Some practical applications of CD analysis for

clays
2. Earth dam with steady state seepage

Core

= drained shear
strength of clay core

Some practical applications of CD analysis for

clays
3. Excavation or natural slope in clay

= In situ drained shear strength

Note: CD test simulates the long term condition in the field.
Thus, cd and d should be used to evaluate the long
term behavior of soils

Consolidated- Undrained test (CU Test)

Total,

Neutral u
Neutral,

Effective
Effective,

Step 1: At the end of consolidation

VC

Drainage

VC = VC

hC

Step 2: During axial stress increase

VC +

No
drainage

hC

Step 3: At failure

hC

V = VC + u =

1
h = hC u
= 3

Vf = VC + f uf = 1f

VC + f

No
N
drainage

hC =
hC

uf

hf = hC uf = 3f

Consolidated- Undrained test (CU Test)

Ex
xpansion

Time
Compres
ssion

V
Volume
change o
c
of the
sample
s

Volume change
g of sample
p during
g consolidation

Consolidated- Undrained test (CU Test)

D
Deviato
r stress
s, d

Stress-strain relationship
p during
g shearing
g
Dense sand
or OC clay

d)f
d)f

Loose sand
or NC Clay

Axial strain

Loose sand
/NC Clay

Axial strain

Dense sand
or OC clay

Shear s
stress,

Dev
viator strress, d

CU tests

ccu

How to determine strength parameters c and

d)fb

1 = 3 + (d)f
Confining stress =

3b

Confining stress =

3a

3
d)fa

Total stresses at failure

Axial strain

cu

Mohr

Coulomb
failure envelope in
terms of total stresses

3a

3b

(d)fa

1a

1b

or

Shea
ar stres
ss,

CU tests

How to determine strength parameters c and

1 = 3 + (d)f - uf

Mohr Coulomb failure

envelope
p
in terms of
effective stresses

uf

Effective stresses at failure

Mohr

Coulomb
f il
failure
envelope
l
i
in
terms of total stresses

ccu

3a

3b
3a

ufa

3b

= 3 - uf

1a
(d)fa

cu

ufb

1b
1a

1b

or

CU tests
St
Strength
th parameters
t
c and
d obtained
bt i d from
f
CD tests
t t

Shear
strength
parameters in terms
p
of total stresses are
ccu and cu

Shear
strength
parameters in terms
of effective stresses
are c and

c = cd and
= d

CU tests Failure envelopes

F sand
For
d and
d NC Clay,
Cl
ccu and
d c = 0

Sh
hear stress,

Mohr Coulomb failure

envelope
l
i terms
in
t
off
effective stresses

Mohr

Coulomb
failure envelope in
terms of total stresses

3a 3a

1a 1a

cu

or

(d)fa
Therefore, one CU test would be sufficient to determine
Therefore
cu and = d) of sand or NC clay

Some practical applications of CU analysis for

clays
1. Embankment constructed rapidly over a soft clay deposit

Soft clay

= in situ undrained
shear strength

Some practical applications of CU analysis for

clays
2. Rapid drawdown behind an earth dam

Core

= Undrained shear
strength of clay core

Some practical applications of CU analysis for

clays
3. Rapid construction of an embankment on a natural slope

= In situ undrained shear strength

Note: Total stress p
parameters from CU test ((ccu and cu) can be used for
stability problems where,
Soil have become fully consolidated and are at equilibrium with
the existing stress state; Then for some reason additional
stresses are applied quickly with no drainage occurring

Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)

Data analysis
Initial specimen condition
No
drainage

Specimen condition
during shearing

C = 3
C = 3

No
drainage

3 + d

I i i l volume
Initial
l
off the
h sample
l = A0 H0
Volume of the sample during shearing = A H
Since the test is conducted under undrained condition,
A H = A0 H0
A (H0 H) = A0 H0
A (1 H/H0) = A0

A0
A
1 z

Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)

Step 1: Immediately after sampling
0
0

Step 2: After application of hydrostatic cell pressure

3 = 3 - uc
C = 3

No
drainage

C = 3

uc

3 = 3 - uc

uc = B
3
Increase of pwp due to
increase of cell pressure

Increase of cell pressure

Skemptons pore water
pressure parameter, B

Note: If soil is fully saturated, then B = 1 (hence, uc = 3)

Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)

Step 3: During application of axial load
No
drainage

1 = 3 + d - uc

3 + d
3

3 = 3 - uc

ud

ud

uc ud

ud = ABd
Increase of pwp due to
increase of deviator stress

Increase
stress

Skemptons pore water

pressure parameter, A

of

deviator

Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)

Combining steps 2 and 3,

uc = B 3

ud = ABd

Total pore water pressure increment at any stage, u

u = uc + ud
u = B [3 + Ad]
u = B [3 + A(1 3]

Skemptons pore
water
pressure
equation
ti

Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)

Total,

Neutral u
Neutral,

V0 = ur

Step 1: Immediately after sampling

0
0

h0 = ur

-ur

Step 2: After application of hydrostatic cell pressure

No
drainage

C
C

-ur uc = -ur c
(Sr = 100% ; B = 1)

Step 3: During application of axial load

No
drainage

C +
C

-ur c u

C + f
C

VC = C + ur - C = ur

h = ur
V = C + + ur - c

-ur c uf

h = C + ur - c
Vf = C + f + ur - c

Step 3: At failure

No
drainage

Effective
Effective,

uf = 1f

hf = C + ur - c
= 3f

uf

Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)

Total,

Neutral u
Neutral,

C + f
C

Effective
Effective,

Vf = C + f + ur - c

Step 3: At failure

No
drainage

uf = 1f

hf = C + ur - c
= 3f

-ur c uf

uf

Mohr circle in terms of effective stresses do not depend on the cell

pressure.
Therefore, we get only one Mohr circle in terms of effective stress for
different cell pressures

Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)

Total,

Neutral u
Neutral,

C + f
C

Effective
Effective,

Vf = C + f + ur - c

Step 3: At failure

No
drainage

uf = 1f

hf = C + ur - c
= 3f

-ur c uf

uf

Mohr circles in terms of total stresses

Failure envelope, u = 0

cu
ub

3a

3b
3

ua

1a
1b
1

or

Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)

Effect of degree of saturation on failure envelope

S < 100%

3c 3b

S > 100%

c 3a b

a or

Some practical applications of UU analysis for

clays
1. Embankment constructed rapidly over a soft clay deposit

Soft clay

= in situ undrained
shear strength

Some practical applications of UU analysis for

clays
2. Large earth dam constructed rapidly with
no change in water content of soft clay

Core

= Undrained shear
strength of clay core

Some practical applications of UU analysis for

clays
3. Footing placed rapidly on clay deposit

= In situ undrained shear strength

Note: UU test simulates the short term condition in the field.

Thus cu can be used to analyze the short term
Thus,
behavior of soils

Unconfined Compression Test (UC Test)

1 = VC +

3 = 0

Confining pressure is zero in the UC test

1 = VC + f

She
ear stres
ss,

Unconfined Compression Test (UC Test)

3 = 0
qu

Normal stress,

f = 1/2 = qu/2 = cu

Various correlations for shear strength

For NC clays, the undrained shear strength (cu) increases with the
effective overburden pressure, 0

cu

'
0

0.11 0.0037( PI )

Skempton (1957)

Plasticity Index as a %
For OC clays, the following relationship is approximately true

cu
'
0 Overconsolidated

cu
'
(OCR)0.8
0 Normally Consolidated

Ladd (1977)

For NC clays, the effective friction angle () is related to PI as follows

Sin ' 0.814 0.234 log( IP)

Kenny (1959)

Shear strength of partially saturated soils

In the previous sections, we were discussing the shear strength of
saturated soils. However, in most of the cases, we will encounter
unsaturated soils

Water

Solid

Saturated soils

Pore water
pressure, u

Effective
stress,

Air

Pore air
pressure, ua

Water

Pore water
pressure, uw

Solid

Effective
stress,

Unsaturated soils

Pore water pressure can be negative in unsaturated soils

Shear strength of partially saturated soils

Bishop (1959) proposed shear strength equation for unsaturated soils as
follows

f c'( n ua ) (ua u w ) tan '

Where,

n ua = Net normal stress

ua uw = Matric suction
= a parameter depending on the degree of saturation
( = 1 for fully saturated soils and 0 for dry soils)

Fredlund et al (1978) modified the above relationship as follows

f c'( n ua ) tan '(ua u w ) tan

Where
Where,
tanb = Rate of increase of shear strength with matric suction

Shear strength of partially saturated soils

f c'( n ua ) tan '(ua u w ) tan

Same as saturated soils

Apparent cohesion
due to matric suction

Therefore, strength of unsaturated soils is much higher than the strength

of saturated soils due to matric suction

- ua

How it become possible

build a sand castle

f c'( n ua ) tan '(ua u w ) tan

Same as saturated soils

Apparent cohesion
due to matric suction

Apparent
cohesion

ua