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Automatic Control System

Book January 2003

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361

9,298

2 authors, including:
M. Farid Golnaraghi
Simon Fraser University
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Retrieved on: 23 July 2016

Automatic Control
Systems
FARID GOLNARAGHI
Simon Frser University

BENJAMIN KUO
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

WILEY
JOHN WILEY & SONS. INC.

Contents
Preface

2-2-8
2-2-9
2-2-10
2-2-11
2-2-12

iv

CHAPTER 1

Introduction
1-1

1-2

1-3

1-4

Introduction 1
1-1-1
Rasic Components of a Control
System 2
1-1-2
Examples of Control-System
Applications 2
1-1-3
Open-Loop Control Systems
(Nonfeedback Systems) 5
1-1-4
Closed-Loop Control Systems
(Feedback Control Systems) 7
What Is Feedback, and What Are Its Effects? 8
1-2-1
Effect of Feedback on Overall Gain
1-2-2
Effect of Feedback on Stability 9
1-2-3
Effect of Feedback on External
Disturbance or Noise 10
Types of Feedback Control Systems 11
1-3-1
Linear versus Nonlinear Control
Systems 11
1-3-2
Time-Invariant versus Time-Varying
Systems 12
Summary 14

2-3

2-4

2-5

2-6

CHAPTER 2

Mathematical Foundation
2-1

2-2

16

Complex-Variable Concept 16
2-1-1
Complex Numbers 16
2-1-2
Complex Variables 18
2-1-3
Functions of a Complex Variable 19
2-1-4
Analytic Function 20
2-1-5
Singularities and Poles of a
Function 20
2-1-6
Zeros of a Function 20
2-1-7
Polar Representation 22
Frequency-Domain Plots 26
2-2-1
Computer-Aided Construction of the
Frequency-Domain Plots 26
2-2-2
Polar Plots 27
2-2-3
Rode Plot (Corner Plot or Asymptotic
Plot) 32
2-2-4
Real Constant 34
2-2-5
Poles and Zeros at the Origin,
(jcofP 34
2-2-6
Simple Zero, 1 +ja>T 37
2-2-7
Simple Pole, 1/(1 +ja>T) 39

2-7

2-8
2-9

2-10
2-11
2-12
2-13

Quadratic Poles and Zeros 39

Pure Time Delay, ->* 42
Magnitude-Phase Plot 44
Gain- and Phase-Crossover Points 46
Minimum-Phase and NonminimumPhase Functions 47
Introduction to Differential Equations 49
2-3-1
Linear Ordinary Differential
Equations 49
2-3-2
Nonlinear Differential Equations 49
2-3-3
First-Order Differential
Equations: State Equations 50
2-3-4
Definition of State Variables 50
2-3-5
The Output Equation 51
Laplace Transform 52
2-4-1
Definition of the Laplace
Transform 52
2-4-2
Inverse Laplace Transformation 54
2-4-3
Important Theorems of the Laplace
Transform 54
Inverse Laplace Transform by
Partial-Fraction Expansion 57
2-5-1
Partial-Fraction Expansion 57
Application of the Laplace Transform
to the Solution of Linear Ordinary
Differential Equations 62
2-6-1
First-Order Prototype System 63
2-6-2
Second-Order Prototype
System 64
Impulse Response and Transfer Functions
of Linear Systems 67
2-7-1
Impulse Response 67
2-7-2
Transfer Function (Single-Input,
Single-Output Systems) 70
2-7-3
Proper Transfer Functions 71
2-7-4
Characteristic Equation 71
2-7-5
Transfer Function (Multivariable
Systems) 71
Stability of Linear Control Systems 72
Rounded-Input, Bounded-Output
(BIBO) StabilityContinuous-Data
Systems 73
Relationship between Characteristic Equation
Roots and Stability 74
Zero-Input and Asymptotic Stability of
Continuous-Data Systems 74
Methods of Determining Stability 77
Routh-Hurwitz Criterion 78

Vll

viii Contents

2-14

2-15

Routh's Tabulation 79
Special Cases when Routh's
Tabulation Terminates
Prematurely 80
MATLAB Tools and Case Studies 84
2-14-1
Description and Use of Transfer
Function Tool 84
2-14-2
MATLAB Tools for Stability 85
Summary 90

4-1-5

2-13-1
2-13-2

4-2

4-3

CHAPTEB 3

Block Diagrams and Signal-Flow Graphs

3-1

3-2

3-3
3-4

104

Block Diagrams 104

3-1-1
Typical Elements of Block Diagrams
in Control Systems 106
3-1-2
Relation between Mathematical
Equations and Block Diagrams 109
3-1-3
Block Diagram Reduction 113
3-1-4
Block Diagram of Multi-Input
SystemsSpecial Case: Systems with
a Disturbance 115
3-1-5
Block Diagrams and Transfer
Functions of Multivariable
Systems 117
Signal-Flow Graphs (SFGs) 119
3-2-1
Basic Elements of an SFG 119
3-2-2
Summary of the Basic Properties of
SFG 120
3-2-3
Definitions of SFG Terms 120
3-2-4
SFG Algebra 123
3-2-5
SFG of a Feedback Control
System 124
3-2-6
Relation between Block Diagrams
and SFGs 124
3-2-7
Gain Formula for SFG 124
3-2-8
Application of the Gain Formula
between Output Nodes and
Noninput Nodes 127
3-2-9
Application of the Gain Formula to
Block Diagrams 128
3-2-10
Simplified Gain Formula 129
MATLAB Tools and Case Studies 129
Summary 133

4-4

4-5

4-6

4-7

4-8

4-9

4-10
4-11
4-12
4-13

Backlash and Dead Zone (Nonlinear

Characteristics) 164
Introduction to Modeling of Simple Electrical
Systems 165
4-2-1
Modeling of Passive Electrical
Elements 165
4-2-2
Modeling of Electrical Networks 165
Modeling of Active Electrical Elements:
Operational Amplifiers 172
4-3-1
The Ideal Op-Amp 173
4-3-2
Sums and Differences 173
4-3-3
First-Order Op-Amp
Configurations 174
Introduction to Modeling of Thermal Systems 177
4-4-1
Elementary Heat Transfer
Properties 177
Introduction to Modeling of Fluid Systems 180
4-5-1
Elementary Fluid and Gas System
Properties 180
Sensors and Encoders in Control Systems 189
4-6-1
Potentiometer 189
4-6-2
Tachometers 194
4-6-3
Incremental Encoder 195
DC Motors in Control Systems 198
4-7-1
Basic Operational Principles of DC
Motors 199
4-7-2
Basic Classifications of PM DC
Motors 199
4-7-3
Mathematical Modeling of PM DC
Motors 201
Systems with Transportation Lags
(Time Delays) 205
4-8-1
Approximation of the Time-Delay
Function by Rational
Functions 206
Linearization of Nonlinear Systems 206
4-9-1
Linearization Using Taylor Series:
Classical Representation 207
4-9-2
Linearization Using the State Space
Approach 207
Analogies 213
Case Studies 216
MATLAB Tools 222
Summary 223

CHAPTER 4
It- C H A P T E R S

Theoretical Foundation and Background

Material: Modeling of Dynamic Systems 147

Time-Domain Analysis of Control Systems 253

4-1

5-1

Introduction to Modeling of Mechanical

Systems 148
4-1-1
Translational Motion 148
4-1-2
Rotational Motion 157
4-1-3
Conversion between Translational and
Rotational Motions 161
4-1-4
Gear Trains 162

5-2
5-3
5-4

Time Response of Continuous-Data Systems:

Introduction 253
Typical Test Signals for the Time Response of
Control Systems 254
The Unit-Step Response and Time-Domain
Specifications 256
Steady-State Error 258

Contents *4 ix
5-4-1

5-5
5-6

5-7

5-9

5-10

5-11
5-12
5-13

Steady-State Error of Linear

Continuous-Data Control Systems 258
5-4-2
Steady-State Error Caused by
Nonlinear System Elements 272
Time Response of a Prototype First-Order
System 274
Transient Response of a Prototype
Second-Order System 275
5-6-1
Damping Ratio and Damping
Factor 277
5-6-2
Natural Undamped Frequency 278
5-6-3
Maximum Overshoot 280
5-6-4
Delay Time and Rise Time 283
5-6-5
Settling Time 285
Speed and Position Control of a DC Motor 289
Speed Response and the Effects of
5-7-1
Inductance and Disturbance-Open
Loop Response 289
5-7-2
Speed Control of DC Motors:
Closed-Loop Response 291
5-7-3
Position Control 292
Time-Domain Analysis of a Position-Control
System 293
Unit-Step Transient Response 294
5-8-1
The Steady-State Response 298
5-8-2
Time Response to a Unit-Ramp
5-8-3
Input 298
5-8-4
Time Response of a Third-Order
System 300
Basic Control Systems and Effects of
Adding Poles and Zeros to Transfer
Functions 304
5-9-1
Addition of a Pole to the
Forward-Path Transfer Function:
Unity-Feedback Systems 305
Addition of a Pole to the
5-9-2
Closed-Loop Transfer Function 307
Addition of a Zero to the
5-9-3
Closed-Loop Transfer Function 308
Addition of a Zero to the
5-9-4
Forward-Path Transfer Function:
Unity-Feedback Systems 309
Dominant Poles and Zeros of Transfer
Functions 311
5-10-1
Summary of Effects of Poles and
Zeros 313
5-10-2
The Relative Damping Ratio 313
5-10-3
The Proper Way of Neglecting the
Insignificant Poles with Consideration
of the Steady-State Response 313
Basic Control Systems Utilizing Addition of Poles
and Zeros 314
MATLAB Tools 319
Summary 320

CHAPTER 6

The Control Lab 337

6-1
6-2

6-3
6-4

6-5
6-6

6-7

Introduction 337
Description of the Virtual Experimental
System 338
6-2-1
Motor 339
6-2-2
Position Sensor or Speed Sensor
6-2-3
Power Amplifier 340
6-2-4
Interface 340
Description of SIMLab and Virtual Lab
Software 340
Simulation and Virtual Experiments 345
6-4-1
Open-Loop Speed 345
6-4-2
Open-Loop Sine Input 347
6-4-3
Speed Control 350
6-4-4
Position Control 352
Design Project 1Robotic Arm 354
Design Project 2Quarter-Car Model 357
Introduction to the Quarter-Car
6-6-1
Model 357
Closed-Loop Acceleration
6-6-2
Control 359
Description of Quarter Car
6-6-3
Modeling Tool 360
6-6-4
Passive Suspension 364
6-6-5
Closed-Loop Relative Position
Control 365
6-6-6
Closed-Loop Acceleration
Control 366
Summary 367

339

CHAPTER

Root Locus Analysis

7-1
7-2
7-3

372

Introduction 372
Basic Properties of the Root
Loci (RL) 373
Properties of the Root Loci 377
7-3-1
= 0 and = oo Points 377
7-3-2
Number of Branches on the Root
Loci 378
7-3-3
Symmetry of the RL 378
7-3-4
Angles of Asymptotes of the RL:
Behavior of the RL at \s\ = oo 378
7-3-5
Intersect of the Asymptotes
(Centroid) 379
7-3-6
Root Loci on the Real Axis 380
7-3-7
Angles of Departure and Angles of
Arrival of the RL 380
7-3-8
Intersection of the RL with the
Imaginary Axis 380
7-3-9
Breakaway Points (Saddle Points)
on the RL 380
7-3-10
The Root Sensitivity 382

x Contents
7-4

7-5
7-6
7-7

Design Aspects of the Root Loci 385

7-4-1
Effects of Adding Poles and Zeros
to G(s)H(s) 385
Root Contours (RC): Multiple-Parameter
Variation 393
MATLAB Tools and Case Studies 400
Summary 400

8-12

8-13
8-14
8-15

CHAPTER

Frequency-Domain Analysis
8-1

8-2

8-3
8-4
8-5

8-6

8-7
8-8

8-9

8-10

8-11

409

Introduction 409
8-1-1
Frequency Response of
Closed-Loop Systems 410
8-1-2
Frequency-Domain Specifications 412
M r , LOr, and Bandwidth of the Prototype
Second-Order System 413
8-2-1
Resonant Peak and Resonant
Frequency 413
8-2-2
Bandwidth 416
Effects of Adding a Zero to the Forward-Path
Transfer Function 418
Effects of Adding a Pole to the Forward-Path
Transfer Function 424
Nyquist Stability Criterion: Fundamentals 426
8-5-1
Stability Problem 427
8-5-2
Definition of Encircled and
Enclosed 428
8-5-3
Number of Encirclements and
Enclosures 429
8-5-4
Principles of the Argument 429
8-5-5
Nyquist Path 433
8-5-6
Nyquist Criterion and the L(s) or
the G(s)H(s) Plot 434
Nyquist Criterion for Systems with
Minimum-Phase Transfer Functions 435
8-6-1
Application of the Nyquist Criterion
to Minimum-Phase Tranfer
Functions That Are Not Strictly
Proper 436
Relation between the Root Loci and the
Nyquist Plot 437
Illustrative Examples: Nyquist Criterion
for Minimum-Phase Transfer
Functions 440
Effects of Adding Poles and Zeros
to L(s) on the Shape of the Nyquist
Plot 444
Relative Stability: Gain Margin and Phase
Margin 449
8-10-1
Gain Margin (GM) 451
8-10-2
Phase Margin (PM) 453
Stability Analysis with the Bode Plot 455
8-11-1
Bode Plots of Systems with Pure
Time Delays 458

8-16
8-17
8-18

Relative Stability Related to the Slope of the

Magnitude Curve of the Bode Plot 459
8-12-1
Conditionally Stable System 459
Stability Analysis with the Magnitude-Phase
Plot 462
Constant-M Loci in the Magnitude-Phase Plane:
The Nichols Chart 463
Nichols Chart Applied to Nonunity-Feedback
Systems 469
Sensitivity Studies in the Frequency Domain 470
MATLAB Tools and Case Studies 472
Summary 472

p- CH,A P T E R 9

Desig n of Control Systems 487

9-1

9-2

9-3

9-4
9-5

9-6

9-7
9-8

Introduction 487
9-1-1
Design Specifications 487
9-1-2
Controller Configurations 489
9-1-3
Fundamental Principles of Design 491
Design with the PD Controller 492
9-2-1
Time-Domain Interpretation of PD
Control 494
9-2-2
Frequency-Domain Interpretation of
PD Control 496
9-2-3
Summary of Effects of PD Control 497
Design with the PI Controller 511
9-3-1
Time-Domain Interpretation and
Design of PI Control 513
9-3-2
Frequency-Domain Interpretation and
Design of PI Control 514
Design with the PID Controller 528
Design with Phase-Lead Controller 532
9-5-1
Time-Domain Interpretation and
Design of Phase-Lead Control 534
9-5-2
Frequency-Domain Interpretation and
Design of Phase-Lead Control 535
9-5-3
Effects of Phase-Lead
Compensation 554
9-5-4
Limitations of Single-Stage Phase-Lead
Control 555
9-5-5
Multistage Phase-Lead Controller 555
9-5-6
Sensitivity Considerations 559
Design with Phase-Lag Controller 561
Time-Domain Interpretation and
9-6-1
Design of Phase-Lag Control 561
Frequency-Domain Interpretation
'-6-2
and Design of Phase-Lag Control 563
9-6-3
Effects and Limitations of Phase-Lag
Control 574
Design with Lead-Lag Controller 574
Pole-Zero-Cancellation Design: Notch Filter 576
9-8-1
Second-Order Active Filter 579
9-8-2
Frequency-Domain Interpretation and
Design 580

Contents < xi
9-9
9-10

9-11

9-12

9-13

9-14
9-15
9-16

Forward and Feedforward Controllers 588

Design of Robust Control Systems 590
Minor-Loop Feedback Control 601
9-11-1
Rate-Feedback or
Tachometer-Feedback Control 601
9-11-2
Minor-Loop Feedback Control with
Active Filter 603
A Hydraulic Control System 605
9-12-1
Modeling Linear Actuator 605
9-12-2
Four-Way Electro-Hydraulic
Valve 606
9-12-3
Modeling the Hydraulic System 612
9-12-4
Applications 613
Controller Design 617
9-13-1
P Control 617
9-13-2
PD Control 621
9-13-3
PI Control 626
9-13-4
PID Control 628
MATLAB Tools and Case Studies 631
Plotting Tutorial 647
Summary 649

C H . 1 0

State Variable Analysis

10-1
10-2

10-3
10-4

10-5

10-6
10-7
10-8

673

Introduction 673
Block Diagrams, Transfer Functions, and State
Diagrams 673
10-2-1
Transfer Functions (Multivariable
Systems) 673
10-2-2
Block Diagrams and Transfer Functions
of Multivariable Systems 674
10-2-3
State Diagram 676
10-2-4
From Differential Equations to State
Diagrams 678
10-2-5
From State Diagrams to Transfer
Function 679
10-2-6
From State Diagrams to State and
Output Equations 680
Vector-Matrix Representation of State
Equations 682
State-Transition Matrix 684
10-4-1
Significance of the State-Transition
Matrix 685
10-4-2
Properties of the State-Transition
Matrix 685
State-Transition Equation 687
10-5-1
State-Transition Equation Determined
from the State Diagram 689
Relationship between State Equations and
High-Order Differential Equations 691
Relationship between State Equations and
Transfer Functions 693
Characteristic Equations, Eigenvalues,
and Eigenvectors 695

10-8-1

Characteristic Equation from a

Differential Equation 695
10-8-2
Characteristic Equation from a Transfer
Function 696
10-8-3
Characteristic Equation from State
Equations 696
10-8-4
Eigenvalues 697
10-8-5
Eigenvectors 697
10-8-6
Generalized Eigenvectors 698
10-9
Similarity Transformation 699
Invariance Properties of the Similarity
10-9-1
Transformations 700
Controllability Canonical Form (CCF)
10-9-2
701
10-9-3
Observability Canonical Form (OCF) 703
10-9-4
Diagonal Canonical Form (DCF) 704
10-9-5
Jordan Canonical Form (JCF) 706
10-10 Decompositions of Transfer Functions 707
10-10-1
Direct Decomposition 707
10-10-2
Cascade Decomposition 712
10-10-3
Parallel Decomposition 713
10-11 Controllability of Control Systems 714
10-11-1
General Concept of Controllability
716
10-11-2
Definition of State Controllability 716
10-11-3
Alternate Tests on Controllability 717
10-12 Observability of Linear Systems 719
10-12-1
Definition of Observability 719
10-12-2
Alternate Tests on Observability 720
10-13 Relationship among Controllability,
Observability, and Transfer Functions 721
10-14 Invariant Theorems on Controllability and
Observability 723
10-15 Case Study: Magnetic-Ball Suspension
System 725
10-16 State-Feedback Control 728
10-17 Pole-Placement Design Through State
Feedback 730
10-18 State Feedback with Integral Control 735
10-19 MATLAB Tools and Case Studies 741
10-19-1
Description and Use of the State-Space
Analysis Tool 741
Description and Use of tfsym for
10-19-2
State-Space Applications 748
10-20 Summary 751
INDEX

773

Appendices can be found on this book's companion Web site:

www.wiley.com/college/golnaraghi.
p. A P P E N D I X A

Elementary Matrix Theory and Algebra

A-l

Elementary Matrix Theory A-l

A-l-1
Definition of a Matrix

A-1
A-2

xii >" Contents

A-2

A-3

Matrix Algebra
A-5
A-2-1
Equality of Matrices A-5
A-2-2
Addition and Subtraction of
Matrices A-6
A-2-3
Associative Law of Matrix (Addition and
Subtraction) A-6
A-2-4
Commutative Law of Matrix (Addition
and Subtraction) A-6
A-2-5
Matrix Multiplication A-6
A-2-6
Rules of Matrix Multiplication A-7
A-2-7
Multiplication by a Scalar A-8
A-2-8
Inverse of a Matrix (Matrix Division) A-8
A-2-9
Rank of a Matrix A-9
Computer-Aided Solutions of Matrices A-9

Difference Equations
B-l

PPEMBIX S

ACSYS 2008: Description of the Software

G-1
G-2

G-3

H-1
H-2

B-l

APPENBSK

Laplace Transform Table

C-1

APPENDIX D

z-Transform Table

D-1

APPENDIX S

Properties and Construction of the Root Loci

E-l
E-2
E-3
E-4
E-5
E-6
E-7
E-8
E-9

E-10

E-1

= 0 and = oo Points E-1

Number of Branches on the Root Loci E-2
Symmetry of the Root Loci E-2
Angles of Asymptotes of the Root Loci and
Behavior of the Root Loci at |s| = E-4
Intersect of the Asymptotes (Centroid) E-5
Root Loci on the Real Axis E-8
Angles of Departure and Angles of Arrival of the
Root Loci E-9
Intersection of the Root Loci with the
Imaginary Axis E - l l
Breakaway Points E - l l
E-9-1
(Saddle Points) on the Root Loci E-ll
E-9-2
The Angle of Arrival and Departure of
Root Loci at the Breakaway Point E-12
Calculation of on the Root Loci E-16

H-3

H-4

APPEMOIX F

General Nyquist Criterion

F-l

F-2
F-3

F-1

Formulation of Nyquist Criterion F-1

F-l-1
System with Minimum-Phase Loop
Transfer Functions F-4
F-l-2
Systems with Improper Loop Transfer
Functions F-4
Illustrative ExamplesGeneral Nyquist Criterion
Minimum and Nonminimum Transfer Functions F-4
Stability Analysis of Multiloop Systems F-13

G-4

!- A P P E N D I X

Discrete-Data Control Systems

B-l

Difference Equations

Installation of ACSYS G-1

Description of the Software G-1
G-2-1
tfsym G-2
G-2-2
Statetool G-3
G-2-3
Controls G-3
G-2-4
SIMLab and Virtual Lab
Final Comments G-4

G-1

H-5

H-6

H-1

Introduction H-1
The z-Transform H-1
H-2-1
Definition of the z-Transform H-1
H-2-2
Relationship between the Laplace
Transform and the z-Transform H-2
H-2-3
Some Important Theorems of the
z-Transform H-3
H-2-4
Inverse z-Transform H-5
H-2-5
Computer Solution of the PartialFraction Expansion of Y(z)/z H-7
H-2-6
Application of the z-Transform to the
Solution of Linear Difference
Equations H-7
Transfer Functions of Discrete-Data
Systems H-8
H-3-1
Transfer Functions of Discrete-Data
Systems with Cascade Elements H-12
H-3-2
Transfer Function of the Zero-OrderHold H-13
H-3-3
Transfer Functions of Closed-Loop
Discrete-Data Systems H-14
State Equations of Linear Discrete-Data
Systems H-16
H-4-1
Discrete State Equations H-16
H-4-2
Solutions of the Discrete State
Equations: Discrete StateTransition Equations H-18
H-4-3
z-Transform Solution of Discrete State
Equations H-19
H-4-4
Transfer-Function Matrix and
the Characteristic Equation H-20
H-4-5
State Diagrams of Discrete-Data
Systems H-22
H-4-6
State Diagrams for Sampled-Data
Systems H-23
Stability of Discrete-Data Systems H-26
H-5-1
BIBO Stability H-26
H-5-2
Zero-Input Stability H-26
H-5-3
Stability Tests of Discrete-Data
Systems H-27
Time-Domain Properties of Discrete-Data

Contents < xiii

Systems
H-6-1

H-31
Time Response of Discrete-Data
Control Systems H-31
H-6-2
Mapping between s-Plane and z-Plane
Trajectories H-34
H-6-3
Relation between CharacteristicEquation Roots and Transient
Response H-38
7
Steady-State Error Analysis of Discrete-Data
Control Systems H-41
8
Root Loci of Discrete-Data Systems H-45
9
Frequency-Domain Analysis of Discrete-Data
Control Systems H-49
H-9-1
Bode Plot with the
^-Transformation H-50
10 Design of Discrete-Data Control Systems H-51
H-10-1
Introduction H-51

H-10-2

Digital Implementation of Analog

Controllers H-52
H-10-3
Digital Implementation of the PID
Controller H-54
H-10-4
Digital Implementation of Lead and
Lag Controllers H-57
H-ll Digital Controllers H-58
H-ll-1
Physical Realizability of Digital
Controllers H-58
H-12 Design of Discrete-Data Control Systems in
the Frequency Domain and the z-Plane H-61
H-12-1
Phase-Lead and Phase-Lag Controllers
in the -Domain H-61
H-13 Design of Discrete-Data Control Systems
with Deadbeat Response H-68
H-14 Pole-Placement Design with State
Feedback H-70