Permagarden Field Manual

Growing Vegetables and Fruits to Impact Household Nutrition and

Economic Strengthening

Lorna Ezekiel and son in semi-arid Dodoma, Tanzania and their

Bio-Intensive Permagarden two months after planting.

Peter Jensen
Permagarden Specialist
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Feeding the World - One Family at a Time

April 2013

Table of Contents
The Permagarden Vision
3
Why call it a Permagarden ... 4
Key Steps to Create a Permagarden ................. 4
Water Management: Stop Slow Sink Spread Save..

The Circle of Sustainability: Why and How it Works .

Deep Soil Preparation ..

Close and Precise Plant Spacing .....
Bed Dimensions ..
Creating a Healthy Microclimate
The Role of Compost ..
Local Tools ..
Mini Farming with Permagardens ..

8
8
9
9
10
10
10

Compost: Benefits - How to Make - How to Use .. 12

Materials Needed .
How to Build a Compost Pile ..

13
14

Soil Amendments- wood ash, charcoal, and biochar. 15

Double Digging 15
Seed Spacing 17
Growing Seedlings 18
Crop Rotation 20
Training of Trainers .. 21
Appendices:
Bio-Intensive Circle of Sustainability
Bio-Intensive Plant Spacing Chart .
Permagarden Sketch ...
Compost The Key to Soil Health .
Home and Garden Compost Making
Nutrient Summary
The Permaculture Guild ..
Current Meal vs. Better Meal ..
Training and Visit System
Permagarden Teaching Checklist
Seed Starting
Zeer Pot Refridgerator .
Productive Behavior Checklist
Training Notes .

23
24
25
26
27
29
30
31
32
33
35
36
37
40

The Permagarden Vision

Dietary diversity is one of the main objectives of the livelihood and economic strengthening
sub-component of the ENGINE project. In order to realize the intended objective, focus on
support for vegetable and fruit production and provision of productive livestock are the main
activities that receive emphasis under the project. Concomitantly, the livelihood activities of
ENGINE are geared towards support for homestead production of vegetables and fruits and
provision of productive livestock to the most vulnerable households; while demonstration of
agronomic practices and cooking of vegetables at FTCs and schools is intended to reach the
wider community to establish productive and efficient backyard gardens.
In order to provide quality technical support for the project implementers and targeted small
holder farmers, ENGINE embarked upon an innovative TOT program for its own technical
staff and government counterparts in in the area of Permaculture and Bio-Intensive Home
Gardens. The goal of the program will be to provide to smallholder farmers, and ENGINE
targeted most vulnerable households in particular, with an attainable, practical and
sustainable method to increase their own household food production and consumption so as
to impact household nutrition. Results from across Africa have proven the methods
effectiveness to significantly increase household food production and income from
smallholdings with a high probability of replication by other organizations and individuals.
The method is sustainable as it involves only local materials; fits within accepted gender
roles; and strengthens the local environment in an economically viable manner.
Through the adoption of permaculture and bio-intensive home gardens high quality food can
now grow, potentially year-round, near homes where little to none had grown before. This
simple, visual technique is suitable for low literacy populations; requires little to no capital
outlay to begin; and has been accomplished solely with local tools, plants and seeds. While
the method does require an initial increase in labor for soil preparation, composting and the
layout of water retention swales, this applies principally to the first growing season. With
proper and timely management, planting and care, weed growth and water loss are reduced
by 80%, significantly cutting overall labor requirements while at the same time increasing
home food and income potential.
With a Bio-Intensive Permagarden families can begin to feel in control of their own futures.
Higher yields of nutrient-dense fruits, vegetables, staple grains and legumes close to home,
builds empowered families with reason to be hopeful for tackling malnutrition at household
levels. A familybased Permagarden serves as a classroom whereby many lessons can be
learned and taught to others, not just in terms of dietary diversity but overall resilience as
well.
The longterm vision of permagardening is the creation of empowered and resilient people
able to improve the quality of their own lives in a manner of their own choosing. For this
vision to be realized we must address the tangible and measurable goals of food and income
security. The objective to meet such goals is the Permagarden. They are much more than just
kitchen gardens. Rather, they are a part of a systematic, family-based, livelihoodimprovement approach that focus on activities that begin with increasing household food
security. With further work, families can graduate to other improvements in farm and
nonfarm business performance as they gain greater confidence and control. By improving
and stabilizing overall economic livelihoods and reducing key vulnerabilities at the
household level, families will be able to build economic self respect, reduce aid dependency,
3

engage in more productive behaviors, and build basic financial and business literacy. All of
this is vital for sustaining income generating activities over the longterm. Based solely on
locally available resources, these steps become the primary building blocks to more advanced
levels of economic development. With this overall strategy in mind, Permagardens provide
families with a tangible, visual, adaptable tool to maximize their productive household
livelihood assets.
Why call it a Permagarden: CLOSE = Close.Local.Organic.Sustainable.Easy
This home-based garden system combines many of the basic principles of Permacultural
Design and Bio-Intensive Organic Gardening. As this manual will point out, there are
various steps to undertake in the creation of this highly productive garden. We have chosen
to refer to this as a garden with its implication of smaller size and proximity within the home
landscape where more direct control and management can be exercised on a daily basis.
Permaculture (a combination of the words permanent and agriculture) as used in this
model, gives us permanent, soil-based structures: rainwater directing swales and holes (to
maximize minimal while minimizing maximum rains); permanent pathways between garden
beds to capture and direct water; as well as perennial plantings (known as guilds) within and
along the created berms/beds to direct and control the water. In essence, permaculture is
used around the edges of the garden to control and manage water - and to provide a potential
for year round supplemental food production on the berms - while bio-intensive refers to
the efficient system of deep digging, composting, triangular planting and management of the
annual crops in beds within these protective berms. In summary: permaculture protects while
bio-intensive produces.
It should be noted that while we use the term permanent garden, this does not mean to imply
that the garden is always thriving and producing even during dry periods. Moisture is still
essential for continuous plant growth. However, as soil tilth continues to improve (with
additions of organic matter) so too does subsoil moisture retention. As such you will find
that the amount of water required to achieve a good harvest, even during dry periods, will be
far less than what is needed in more conventional gardens that dry quickly even after rainfall.
While individual aspects are taken in their turn throughout the manual it should be noted and
understood that the permagarden is an evolving, organic system meant to maximize and fit
within the potential of any given piece of property; working with, not against, its unique set
of challenges and assets such as shade, sun, slope and security. Permagardens are a clear
example of the saying: The whole is greater than the sum of its parts. All components must
work in harmony with the family and the home landscape to build a sustainable future.
Key Steps to Create the Permagarden
(Note: Each step can be done in an hour or less, depending on initial soil quality. It is best to
do these actions over several mornings rather than all at once so as to not become
overwhelming.)
1.
Garden Location and Resource Assessment. Take a walk through the home
landscape with a family. Together, explore the property and determine the challenges and
assets found there. Productive assets are land, water, plants, animals, people and structures.
Pose the following questions as you walk: Where does the rainwater move? How can it be
4

stopped, slowed and allowed to spread effectively? Can the slope be altered? Is terracing
required? Is there adequate sun? Where can materials for compost come from and where can
the piles be located? What is the quality and depth of the soil? How can it be improved?
How are plants currently growing? What is needed to make them thrive? How can animals
be better utilized in support of the family? What structural areas can be used or enhanced?
The key here is to help people see their landscape with new eyes. To see all the local
resources that can be brought to bear at little to no additional cost.
2.
Prepare the Planting Area. Once a household asset map has been created and a
good, small, garden area discovered, clear the soil of weeds and grasses for later composting.
Lightly cultivate the entire area -a good starting point is 4mx4m more space can be added
later depending on family acceptance of the idea. Starting small is the best way to ensure full
acceptance and adoption. Smooth the surface to allow a garden layout map to be drawn.
3.
Create Water Controlling Berms. Across the top of the slope, against the main
flow of runoff or roof water, dig a 30 cm deep x 30 cm wide swale (ditch) to stop and redirect
the water. Soil should be placed down slope to serve as a perennial planting berm/bed. Dig
50 cm wide and deep holes on either end to catch excess runoff with similar swales aiming
slightly downhill with holes at the end of each. Tops of berms should be raked smooth like
a tabletop to minimize surface erosion. Within the space created by the berms (refer to the
cover photo) mark off one meter wide beds with 40 cm pathways in between. You should be
able to see how the garden will look upon completion.
4.
Plant the Berms. Before beginning to dig the bio-intensive garden beds that you
have marked out, it is important to protect the swales and holes by planting perennial leafy
greens and grasses along the top and side berms. Perennial sweet potato vine (Sekuar dinech
here in Ethiopia) with its Vitamin A/iron-rich perennial leaves, lemongrass, and aloe vera are
good examples of companion plants for the berms. Prior to planting, apply one 20 liter
bucket of mature compost or well rotted manure to the 4m long berms. Mix it in and rake it
smooth. Pay particular attention to keeping a flat surface.
5.
Double Dig and Plant the Beds. Start with a single dig of the meter wide beds to
make the job much easier. Rake it smooth and do the second dig followed by the various soil
amendments. See more details later. You are now ready to plant seeds and seedlings.
6.
Plant the Guilds. Below and around each water retention hole is an ideal location
for a mini permaculture guild. Papaya, aloe, lemongrass, and tenadam work very well
together and maximize space and protection and provide food as well.
7.
Make a Plan for or Plant a Living Fence. Fencing is important for security as
well as for wind protection. Wind will dry soil very rapidly so it is important to establish this
right away. Chickens, goats, etc are also particularly destructive and must be accounted for.
Various trees can be truncheoned to create living fence poles which will eventually bear
leaves and/or fruit. Tall grasses (vetiver) can be planted between the truncheons.
8.
Visit the Garden Every Day.
Your shadow is the best thing to put on your
garden to make it grow and flourish. Get those weeds when they are an inch tall; prop the
tomato plant back up the moment it falls over; this will ensure a bounty to come.

A completed Permagarden near

Gabriel Mbenas home in Morogoro,
Tanzania. Note living fence along
the lower berm. Beds are laid out on
the contour to capture and redirect
water coming from the nearby roof
and hillside. Runoff water is under
control now so there is no erosion
and the deeply dug beds readily
absorb excess water leaving the soil
moist for many days following the
rain. This garden took two days to
create and will be easy for the family
to maintain and enjoy for many years.
For more detail on the above, refer to Creating the Edible Landscape: Permagarden Lessons
for Family Food Security as well as pages 16-18.
Water Management: Stop Slow Sink Spread - Save
Water is arguably the most limiting factor to successful gardens. And with increasing
worries over climate change brought about by global warming, this is becoming more of an
issue, especially in places which previously enjoyed reliable rainfall patterns. The design
of the Permagarden allows for the efficient capture and retention of even the most minimal
rainfall while at the same time allowing for the safe and easy removal of the excess. In this
way, erosion is minimized and in many instances completely eliminated. Swales, holes and
their corresponding berms work to stop and slow the water down which allows it to sink and
spread slowly through the soil profile where it is then readily absorbed and saved within the
amended soil of the bio-intensive garden bed. This very lesson can be taken from the garden
and applied to the broader landscape.
The picture below explains it well. Torrential rain had been falling heavily for 2 hours when
this photo was taken. Due to the berms, the water is being moved effectively around the
fragile, single dug, garden beds in the middle. Had the upper most berm not been in place
to stop the main flow of water down the hillside, the bare soil would not have stood a chance
and massive erosion would have been the result. It is advised therefore to create the
protective features of the permagarden first and then move on to the more involved garden
bed work of double digging, amending and intensive planting.

A permagarden complete
with berms and swales to
capture and redirect water
to wherever the gardener
wishes it to go. Simple
ditches and holes can help
mitigate the impact of
climate change: by
minimizing maximum
rains and maximizing
minimum rains. Without
such structures this garden
would have simply
washed away before it had
a chance to get started.
Njombe, TZ. March 2009.

Once the rain stopped, the berm on the left (top of the garden) and the large hole near the old
stump remained full of water for 8 hours; the water slowly sinking and working its way
through the soil profile. Later, when plants are actively growing in the beds in the middle,
the roots will be able to continue to absorb water for many days longer than nearby gardens
where no water capture measures had been put in place. With a minimal amount of work
(under an hour) and some advanced planning and site assessment the result can be a garden
without water stress due to recharged subsoil moisture extending even into the dry season.
The Circle of Sustainability Why and How Bio-Intensive Works.
Bio-intensive gardening fits well within the overall soil fertility management plan for the
family garden. The deeply-dug, compost-enriched, garden beds encourage precise plant
spacing; a dense leaf canopy which holds valuable nutrients, water and CO2; and creative
companion planting to provide a bounty of nutrient-dense, colorful vegetables and staples. In
essence, the bio-intensive garden bed is a seasonal guild, or symbiotic grouping of plants,
created to mimic nature. By taking full advantage of the power that nature provides free of
charge, families and farmers alike can begin to grow more nutrient-dense crops than they
ever thought possible within astonishingly small spaces. This can easily find its way into tiny
nooks and niches all around the home in so-called complementary gardens.
Several years of work and practice has shown that Bio-Intensive garden beds, developed
within permanent water controlling berms, can, within a few seasons, provide 3 to 4 times as
much food on the land area of conventional home gardens. We are maximizing nature to
the benefit of all. Permacultural guilds and water management techniques (swales, berms and
holes) work to support the fringes of the property taking advantage of height, space and shade
on corners and edges. The bio-intensive garden beds are then developed and managed within
the open, sunny spaces. The following section describes in greater detail the circle of
sustainability (see handout in the appendix) which gives the rationale for the work to come.

BIOINTENSIVE MINI-FARMING
Sustainable Diet Production
DEEP SOIL PREPARATION
allows
When added to

Plante

COMPOST

Provide
Material
for

d w ith

CLOSE, PRECISE
PLANT SPACINGS

SEEDS (acclimated to local

growing conditions)

produce

INSECTS &
DISEASE

resist

PEOPLE

creates

HEALTHY MICROCLIMATE

holds

feed

NUTRIENTS, WATER
& CO2

THRIVING
HEALTHY
PLANTS

es
duc
pro

stimulates
GROWTH

CIRCLE OF SUSTAINABILITY

Deep Soil Preparation

The average agricultural field or garden is tilled to the depth of the equipment normally used
to work the land. At best this means soils are aerated less than 20 cm, or the length of the
average hoe blade. Over time, after successive tillage to the same level, a near impermeable
hoe pan is created which blocks the movement of air and water through the soil profile
which in turn stunts the growth of the roots of plants. If plant roots arent encouraged to go
deep (which they can only do if there is good air-water dynamics in place) then they must be
planted farther apart so as not to compete with their neighboring plants. As they must be
farther apart, sunlight will easily reach the soil surface causing weed seed germination,
evaporative moisture loss, less carbon dioxide retention and generally weaker, underproducing plants overall. We avoid all these losses by digging deeper.
By preparing the soil deeply (see double digging on page 16); breaking through and
amending that compacted subsoil layer, plant roots will be able to go much deeper. In some
cases, over time, as much as 5-6 feet (1.5-1.8 meters) deep! This process allows us to place
plants closer together in a smaller space and where we begin to approach those higher yields
per unit area. It has been proven that a mere 2% increase in root health (due to greater depth
and better air and water retention) will give a corresponding doubling of yield per unit area.
It all starts with proper and deeper soil preparation which is followed by additions of locally
available amendments such as char, ash, cured compost or well-rotted manures with each
new crop being planted.
8

Close and Precise Plant Spacing

As the garden bed is now well aerated to a depth of at least 40 cm - and has been amended
with wood ash, char, aged manure and locally made compost to add to its microbial health,
nutrient and moisture holding levels - it can be planted with greater and closer precision.
Each vegetable, grain or fruit plant will have a certain root spread and growth habit. It will
also have its own unique canopy of leaves and stems. The master charts found in How to
Grow More Vegetables (John Jeavons, Ecology Action, USA) can serve as a guide here and
you are encouraged to study this text in depth. A summary chart of key crops can be found in
the appendix of this manual and used as a handout for trainings.
Note: The next time you are walking through the rural areas, take a moment to observe a
nearby healthy ecosystem. Do you see plants in rows? Probably not. In fact, does Nature
ever plant in rows? Hardly at all. It was this observation that lead to the birth of the modern
concept of Permaculture in the first place. The stacked forest gardens created by the
people living on the slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro have sustained families for generations and
will continue to do so. In this case, people have mimicked nature and families have thrived
for centuries as a result. So rather than in rows, a bio-intensive garden is planted in triangles
(much like the cells in a honeycomb - a brilliant example of natures space-saving design) to
allow a complete leaf canopy to develop over the bed. Within this natural cover, plants will
maximize their space without competition while maximizing use of essential nutrients,
moisture and carbon dioxide. In this way, the garden bed looks in many ways like the
original layered (stacked) forest gardens from the slopes of Kilimanjaro.
Bed Dimensions 1 meter wide only
The dimensions of these permanent garden beds and paths is an important detail. While bed
length is purely up to the individual landscape (though 5 meters is a good and convenient
length), it is the width which must be watched carefully. Once the bed is fully texturized or double-dug to a 2 foot (60 cm) depth it is never to be walked on again. Each time you
walk on the soil say when you must weed between the rows of the conventional garden
you are pressing out the air and compacting the soil, seriously jeopardizing root health which,
as has been pointed out, is critical if we want to achieve high yields. Therefore, a width of no
more than 1 meter is ideal as this makes it possible for the gardener to reach the center of the
bed and its plants from either side without ever having to step on the bed itself.
Double digging with local tools
allows for closer plant spacing as
the roots can grow down rather
than merely to the sides. These
are permanent beds and
permanent paths which also work
to capture rain water. Crops are
then rotated between beds from
season to season to maximize
control, break disease and insect
cycles and achieve higher yields
without a decline in soil fertility
or quality. In fact, soil quality will
improve over time.
9

Healthy Microclimate
As the plants grow to maturity, and after early attention to small weed removal, the leaves
will form a dense, protective canopy. The closed canopy will capture and hold moisture and
carbon dioxide while allowing more leaf surface area above for sunlight capture and greater
photosynthesis. The carbon dioxide comes up from the rich and diverse microbial life found
in the compost youve added prior to planting. Carbon dioxide is of course the first
ingredient in the process we know of as photosynthesis whereby carbon and water mix to
form sugars and oxygen for plant growth via the chlorophyll found within the structure of
healthy leaves and stems. Additional moisture needs are also diminished greatly due to an
increase in bed shading and a decline in evaporative water loss. This micro climate works
to stimulate the growth of thriving, healthy plants which feed people; resist insects and
diseases (it is well known that insects and diseases will prey more readily on weak plants);
produce seed acclimated to local growing conditions; and, not to be forgotten, provide
copious amounts of material for compost so that the process can be continued for long term
sustainability.
In subsequent seasons, compost will be reapplied to enrich and replenish the soil. Crops will
be rotated from one bed to another so as not to mine the soil as well as to break disease and
insect cycles. See the Leaf-Fruit-Root rotation discussion later. With careful management of
weeds and water, the garden can flourish, potentially throughout the year, or at least to a far
greater extent than before. A viable measure of control has been achieved.
Compost
Compost is perhaps the most valuable contribution the gardener can make to improve soil
quality, water retention and overall plant vigor; all of which will lead to greater family food
security in the long term. Simply put, compost helps us manage problem soils: a sandy soil
will be able to hold water and nutrients for the plants while a clay soil will release water and
nutrients for the plants. While this valuable soil conditioner can hold 6 times its weight in
water, its also teeming with hugely beneficial microbial life. In fact, over 6 billion beneficial
microbes can be found in just one tablespoon of mature compost. These microbes generate
much needed carbon dioxide which is needed for photosynthesis, but also, when mixed with
water in the soil, creates carbonic acid which acts as a catalyst for the release of soil-bound
plant nutrients. For example, phosphorus is changed into the plant available form known as
phosphate due its interaction with the carbonic acid now found in the soil. Without this acid,
phosphate would need to be purchased and applied. And as if all that werent enough, these
microbes are also responsible for a natural increase in growth hormones, plant vitamins and
antibiotics. So while the bio-intensive method means more plants per unit area due to soil
depth and triangular planting style, it also results in healthier, higher-yielding plants as well.
Compost is one of the simplest and most natural things we can add to improve not only the
long term health of any problem soil but the very people who depend upon it as well. Further
details on compost making and use can be found beginning on page 12.
Tools
What is the most appropriate tool to use to improve the agricultural productivity of
subsistence farming families? The answer: the tool they already possess. Are special,
imported, expensive tools required? Absolutely not! Bio-intensive permagardens work and
are being successfully adopted across the region because only locally available tools and
10

plants are used in its initial creation. Local hoes, rakes and buckets are all that is required to
get started and to be successful. As success builds and as the family decides on the best ways
to use its new wealth, they may elect to purchase a better watering can or a new hoe blade or
handle to make their work easier and even more effective. But to begin it is not necessary
(and in fact it is a mistake) to have brand new hoes and buckets and watering cans. The
excellent reference book, How to Grow More Vegetables , details the double dig method
utilizing western spades and digging forks. While the result are in effect the same, these
foreign tools only serve as one more barrier to adoption as seen by families here in Ethiopia.
Here in the land of the hoe, we need look no further. It is the ideal tool, not only because it is
available already, but because it works really well to break up those heavily compacted soils
or loose infertile sands so many families and their crops are struggling with.
Nutrition Security Farming through Permagardens
It is when all these soil fertility processes and techniques are combined that we begin to see
how we have gone beyond mere gardening and are indeed looking at mini-farming. In
many cases this can be accomplished right outside the back door; a very important
consideration for family members with significant care giving responsibilities and thus little
time to tend distant farmland. Real income can be achieved along with real increases in
quality, nutrient-dense, vegetables and staple grains. Land that would have otherwise laid
fallow, or which has been so overworked that it has become worn out, can now be
revitalized and brought back into productive use. Home gardens can once again be
rejuvenated and produce real bounty. Bio-intensive methods have been proven to work on
some of the least fertile, driest soils and thus can be valuable tools in regions of the world
debilitated by perennial drought. If most vulnerable households can grow greater quantities
of healthier food closer to their homes where they are needed to assist their loved ones, then
they will be that much closer to a meaningful and sustainable improvement in their quality of
life and overall sense of accomplishment and empowerment.
As yield levels increase, (often by a factor of 5) so too does the potential for real income
generation opportunity. Poverty reduction and better nutrition are often cited as the greatest
needs in the fight against malnutrition. With Bio-Intensive techniques, both can be achieved:
poverty reduction through income generation AND balanced food and well-being through an
improved and varied diet of abundant staple grains and vegetables of vibrant color. (See
pages 29, 31).
In the promotion of permagardens for family food security we must remember to keep good
and varied diet in mind as well. As access to food quantity increases so to will the
willingness to expand nutritional choices. And this is what people hope to gain from all this
extra work of double digging. Better food and more of it too. The Bio-Intensive
Permagarden helps people see that they can take control through tangible action. With greater
control of the landscape comes greater food, nutrition and income as well as the very real
sense of pride in this accomplishment. As worries and stress over food and some economic
difficulties become part of the past, a renewed sense of hope for the future begins to take
hold. With this feeling of hope comes a greater willingness to become part of the many other
solutions to community problems that are being promoted. By keeping actions local and
simple people will more fully grasp how these relatively minor changes in agricultural
behavior can lead to enormously positive differences for themselves, their families and their
communities.

11

Mr. Gabriel Mbena teaching primary students the permagarden method in Morogoro,
Tanzania. This manual is dedicated to Gabriel for all his outreach work.
.

Compost: Benefits - How to Make - How to Use

In brief, compost is a cheap, easy to make, organic material which when added to even the
hardest, poorest, or sandiest soil can improve the soil structure, quality and fertility for many
years to come. Compost is what makes soil, the crops and the people who eat them more
resilient to climatic, economic and societal shocks. It is THE answer to so many problems.
Basically, compost is organic matter (plant and animal residues) which has rotted down by
the action of trillions of bacteria, fungi and other organisms over a period of time. Many
types of organic matter such as leaves, grass, fruit and vegetable peelings and animal manures
can be used to make compost but whatever the initial ingredients, the end product will be a
powerful, highly prized soil amendment that will be dark brown, cool to the touch, have a
pleasant, earthy aroma that is teeming with vital, soil building, microbial life.
We all know that most crops need a soil rich in fertility. While adding compost to your soil
will provide some nutrients, the real benefit of compost comes in the form of greater water
and air holding ability. This allows newly planted seeds, seedlings and crops to withstand
periods of overly dry or rainy weather. In essence, compost improves the soils ability to
withstand shocks, to become more resilient. As a result, the plants themselves will become
more resilient and healthier just like the people who eat them. That being said, the billions
of microbes found in just one handful of finished compost will add certain compounds
(carbonic acid and certain growth hormones) to the soil which will cause the existing soil
nutrients to be released in a slow and proper manner to the growing crops. Compost will
provide these benefits with no additional cost other than the time spent in the making.

12

On the other hand, chemical fertilizers are not only extremely expensive, but the cost is
repetitious. Plants become dependent. With repetitive use, these chemicals will deplete the
naturally-occurring nutrients, beneficial microbes and insects from the soil, creating an
unhealthy dependency on these expensive synthetics. And as if that were not enough, plants
that are grown with chemical fertilizers tend to be more attractive to pests because they are
likely to have more green, sappy, succulent growth.
Compost is one of those essential ingredients for a truly productive, long term, permagarden.
It simply takes planning, time and a bit of management but the impact it has is certainly well
worth it. The mere act of building a pile now for future use is also a marvelous example of
prevention. Planning and preparation now works to prevent problems in the future.
The many advantages to using organic compost include:

Improved soil structure for easier workability, root penetration, initial and residual
water capture and slow release for improved drought resistance.

Greater resistance to erosion due to decreased soil crusting and compaction.

Slow and steady release of essential trace and macronutrients. Organic acids in
compost dissolve minerals in the soil, making mineral nutrients more available to
crops. These acids also increase the permeability of root membranes increasing water
and nutrient uptake.

Microbially-rich compost, when mixed into soil, adds natural anti-biotics which make
crops more vigorous and healthier thus increasing their ability to resist disease. It has
been proven that pest insects will infest unhealthy crops growing in poor quality soil
(ie without compost).

Less need for chemical pesticides and fertilizers which can potentially be harmful to
human health as well as the health and sustainability of our soil.

Materials for Making Compost

There are really only a few materials necessary for the creation of quality compost. The first
two materials can be classed simply as "greens" (nitrogen-rich materials) and "browns"
(carbon-rich materials). A key point here is that you will need to gather enough materials to
make a one square meter pile in one go. This may require you to gather the browns after
harvest season and save them till the rainy season when the greens are in abundance. The
pile will be made up of one-third green and two-thirds brown materials.
The "greens" consist of organic materials that have been recently cut or pulled - weeds,
grasses, tree leaves, etc: essentially, those biodegradable materials which are known to be
high in nitrogen. Food scraps are considered "green" and can be added throughout the
process or in a separate pile made solely for them to be decomposed. Livestock manure is
valuable not only as a source of bacteria but as a strong nitrogen source as well which is
especially important when working with more woody carbon-rich materials.
The "brown" materials are those that are dry and high in carbon. In many cases, these can be
formerly green grasses which have already dried, lost their green color and which have
13

begun to break down already. Grass, once cut and dried, is now considered a brown material
as most of the nitrogen (the green) has been lost to the atmosphere. Dried leaves, wood
chips, sawdust, straw, are all examples of high carbon brown materials and which will
make up the majority of the compost pile. No matter the color, the smaller the piece, the
faster the decomposition, as bacteria eat along the edges.
The third component is good healthy topsoil to add the necessary decomposing microbes.
Manure can be used but is not required so long as the soil used is of good quality. The final,
and perhaps most critical, element to be added is water. Without adequate moisture, the
bacterial population will decline and decomposition will grind to a halt.
Materials that should NOT be added to a compost pile:

Plants infected by disease or a severe insect attack where eggs could be preserved or
where the insects themselves could survive in spite of the compost pile's heat. Most
diseases, insects (and weed seeds) will be killed if the pile reaches 160 F but it is best
to be on the safe side and avoid these in the first place.

Plants which are toxic to other plants and microbial life such as hemlock, acacia,
juniper, bamboo, gmelina, castor bean and eucalyptus.

Plants which may be too acidic like pine needles. (However, special compost piles
can be created using acidic materials to lower the pH level in soils that are too basic.)

Invasive weeds such as wild morning glory, Kuch or Bermuda grass, and/or black
jack. These are tough weeds may not break down in the pile.

Meat or the manure from meat eating animals, like cats and dogs, which may contain
pathogens, are toxic to small children and adults alike.

How to Build a Compost Pile (see also the 2-page handout in the appendix)
Compost piles are built using a system of layering, followed by a gentle mixing to make a
thoroughly homogenous mix. The minimum size for a completed compost pile is 1mx1m.
This allows maximum heat and moisture retention while still allowing proper air movement.
A pile that is smaller does not provide enough insulation, and the heat generated will escape
while a pile that is larger will not allow enough air to flow through which will also cause the
decomposition process to slow or stop altogether.
First, a good spot must be chosen for your piles. The ideal spot will be a section of ground,
near the garden, but which has plenty of shade. Shade means no sun. No sun means less
evaporation. This greater internal moisture means faster,more thorough decomposition.
However, if shade is not available, it will be necessary to cover the pile with plastic sheeting,
banana leaves, etc so as to keep the sun from drying it out completely. This covering is also
good to keep excess moisture off the pile during heavy rainy periods.
Once you have found a good spot, it is necessary to clear the space of leaves, weeds and other
debris so you can see clear soil. Next, you will want to loosen the soil to a depth of six to
twelve inches or fifteen to thirty centimeters. This provides the pile with a place for water to
be absorbed.
14

The next step is to begin to build your first layer. It is important to understand that the first
layer is going to be larger than the rest, and the brown materials used are going to be thicker
than the rest to allow air flow through the bottom. You will want to use brown maize stalks,
twigs, and/or small branches for the first layer. Again, these materials provide the pile with
good drainage. Stack up the brown maize stalks, branches or twigs, until you have a small
pile that is roughly six inches or fifteen centimeters high and one meter squared.
The second layer consists of three inches or about eight centimeters of fresh green material.
This should be piled directly on top of the first layer, covering it completely.
The third layer is that of old compost, good quality topsoil or medium quality soil mixed with
manure. A few handfuls is enough as this is your source of decomposing bacteria.
Gently mix these 3 layers so that all ingredients are in contact. Add some water- enough so
that the pile remains damp, but not soaked. You want the pile to feel like a wrung out
sponge. This will energize the bacteria which will begin to generate significant heat within
36 hours. That heat is the sign of decay that you are looking for.
Continue this layering/mixing/watering process until your pile is one meter high. Cover the
pile with a 2 inches or 5 centimeters layer of soil to retain the heat and moisture and allow to
sit for 2-3 weeks.
A quick check of the interior moisture and temperature level can be done periodically if a
long stick is placed in the center of the pile from the beginning. The temperature should rise
quickly, so much so that the stick cannot be held for more than a second. If that is the case,
then most of the disease pathogens and weed seeds have been killed. After about a week, if
the stick can be held for more than 5 seconds, and is still moist to the touch, that indicates the
compost is in an active decomposition phase. If however, the stick is dry and cool soon after
making, then you must add water, air and perhaps more green materials to get the
decomposition process moving forward.
After the initial two week settling in period, mix the pile once per week, adding moisture as
needed. You will know if there is enough moisture if, when squeezed, two or three drops of
water fall from your fist. If not, add water to keep the bacteria working and thriving. By the
end of two months you will be left with compost that is cool to the touch, has a rich, earthy
aroma and which looks like loose, dark soil. What you wont see are the trillions of beneficial
microbes ready to go to work to improve your garden soil, but trust me, they are in there!
One finished pile should provide 12-15 20-liter buckets of finished compost. That will be
enough to amend 3, 4-meter-long, bio-intensive garden beds. Simply place one bucket of
finished compost per one square meter of garden bed. Spread it out evenly over the entire
surface and lightly till it into the top 10 centimeters. This should be done prior to each new
crop you plant.

Soil Amendments: Wood Ash, Charcoal and Biochar

Wood ash has long been recognized as a good source of pH balance and plant nutrients
(calcium, potassium, magnesium, phosphate) but what about the char? Charcoal fines, the
15

tiny pieces left at the bottom of the bag or on the ground at the selling and/or making point,
do indeed make a very useful soil amendment. Charcoal holds and filters water; serves as
home for millions of microbes; and lasts forever (or at least for 1500 years as determined by
research in Amazonia). And as if that were not enough, it is carbon negative, meaning it will
actively absorb excess atmospheric carbon dioxide, hold it (sequester) in the soil and slowly
release minute amounts of carbonic acid which will work as a catalyst to increase soil fertility
naturally over time. Woody crop residues such as maize stalks, which are very difficult to
compost and therefore routinely burned, can also be charred in much the same way (and in
much less time)as wood. This is what is known as biochar. While it may not work well as
a fuel, it will have huge impacts upon soil quality as listed above. Simply collect and add one
large bucket of charcoal bits and dust per 5 meters of garden bed and mix in to the top 10cm
of the surface.
Double Digging: The key step to Permagarden Success
With an active composting system in place (with multiple piles at varying stages of decay and
use) you can easily maintain a complete permagarden. But what if you dont have compost
ready? No worries. Relax. The compost, while indeed critical for longer term sustainability,
is not essential for initial creation of the bio-intensive permagarden. Using well-rotted
manures will also help soils hold moisture and create the healthy carbon dioxide rich
microclimate just as well as compost will in the future. However, there is a danger with
relying on manure. First, it is not always readily available (as compost can be later on) and
second, it can inject a huge amount of weed seeds into your garden soil as it has not gone
through the intense heat cycle of a well made compost pile. But DO NOT let an initial lack
of compost keep you from getting started. Just keep after the weeds while they are very small
and all will be well.
A properly constructed garden bed will allow plants to gather and absorb all the water and
nutrients they need to grow more strongly. A 4-meter long garden bed can be completely
double dug and amended by one person in just less than two hours. This may seem like a
lot of extra work at first but when 5-fold yield increases are the result, the work seems
minimal in the extreme. It should also be noted that in most cases, double digging need only
be done once, or perhaps twice in the truly hard-packed soils. The goal is to achieve a deep
soil profile with good air and water flow. Once created, in subsequent years you will need
only to amend the surface with compost, mix, smooth and plant.
To complete the fully texturized double dug bed, follow these simple steps:

Remove weeds and grasses within the entire garden area, but in particular the space
where you are about to dig the garden bed. These old plants can be used in your
compost piles, especially if they have not already gone to seed.

Along the contour of the land so as to maximize water capture in the permanent
pathway created between garden beds - mark off a space that is 1 meter wide and 4-5
meters long. Simply stand with your legs a comfortable width apart to mark off your
space. This width allows access from either side of the bed without ever having to
step onto the top surface of the bed either now in digging or later when it comes to
weeding, watering or harvesting.

16

Straddling the bed and moving forward with your hoe, loosen the topsoil as deep as
you can until you hit either a color change (subsoil) or the compacted layer within this
space. At first, you will need to pull out the first 20cm wide trench of soil along the
width of the bed leaving it outside the bed for now. While still straddling, move
forward, pulling the loosened topsoil back into the space you just opened up. If the
soil is very dry, add a few cups of water over the compacted subsoil letting it soak in
before moving forward. This will help considerably in the second phase of the
digging. When you reach the end you will be left with an open trench down to the
compacted layer along the width of the bed.

Rake the soil smooth but leave the final trench open. This is what is known as the
single dig and can be done the day before the double digging begins. It is best to
dig this first section either after the soil has been softened by the first rain or by
judicious and directed hand watering as mentioned above.

Gather your soil amendments (rotted manure, charcoal) in buckets and have them at
the ready. Standing to the side of the open trench, remove a small section of the hard
subsoil closest to your feet. Remove it temporarily to the path between your feet.
Continue to loosen the exposed subsoil at the bottom of the trench moving it back as
you go into the mini open space you just created. Go as deep as you can. Really break
it up. Move to the other side of the bed to ensure that the entire trench has been
evenly loosened.

To the loosened subsoil, add 3 large handfuls of manure and the same amount of
charcoal pieces and mix it in.

Straddling the bed as before, but now facing and moving in the opposite direction,
pull the next 20cm trench over the subsoil trench you just amended so that you expose
the next trench of compacted subsoil. Think of this as more like cleaning than digging
as the digging has been done already. Stand to the side on the path as before and
loosen and amend the compacted layer as done previously. Repeat this entire process
all the way to the end of the bed. Pause every meter to pull the loosened topsoil along
with you so as to save you this step later on.

When you come to the last trench, simply add the soil you set aside from that first
trench in the beginning. Rake the entire bed smooth, shaping it so it looks like a
comfortable bed. Which is exactly the imagery we are going for.

The digging is now complete but the amending has only just begun. Add one bucket
of old manure or finished compost per meter of garden bed. Smooth it evenly along
the entire surface. Next, add 1 bucket of charcoal dust and 1/2 bucket of wood ash
per 4 meters of garden bed (adding nutrients such as Ca, Mg and P as well as raising
the pH of acidic soils). With hoe or hands, mix all these amendments into the top 1015cm of the bed.

Rake the bed smooth again to prepare for planting. As the bed is on the contour of the
land as well as flat on the surface, any water that hits the surface will be absorbed and
not run off. If available, apply 2, 15-liter watering cans of water gently to the surface
to settle the amendments, moisten the seed/seedling zone and to check for possible
17

erosion points. Fix any sections where the water runs off. Later in the afternoon you
can be ready to plant your seeds and seedlings.

Use local tools to loosen compacted

topsoil in one meter wide beds. Water
applied to the hard, dry subsoil will help
soften the soil for easy double digging
the following day.

Subsoil is loosened and amended with

charcoal dust, manure, and small amounts
of wood ash. The next trench of topsoil
will be pulled over the top of these
amendments creating a deep soil profile.

Dealing with Problem Soils Heavy Clay or Loose Sand

The basic method of double digging as described above applies to all soil types with a few
notable exceptions. Sandy soils will often have a layer of darker organic matter which has
been trapped in the subsoil below a heavy top layer of what appears to be pure sand. It is best
to first remove this top layer (it can be used in brick construction) to allow easier access to
the richer soil below. Loosen, dig and amend as described. Aged manure or compost
applied to the lower layer especially will help to enhance soil water holding ability. Dry,
compacted subsoil found in clayey soils can be loosened by applying a small amount of water
over the exposed subsoil trench (see picture above) and allowing it to soak down and soften
the subsoil over night. The double dig can proceed with relative ease the next morning.
Heavy clay topsoil can be extremely sticky when wet so should be allowed to dry slightly
before attempting the double dig. Ample use of char, ash and compost or aged manure is
critical to loosen these dense soils which will continue to improve with each growing season.
Seed Spacing
You have taken great care in making a deep, nutrient-rich bed. Now you must take care
when choosing quality seeds to plant. Make sure they are large with smooth outer skins.
As a measuring tool, take a stick from your garden and measure the length of your forearm.
About 35cm will be the proper spacing between maize seeds. Maize and beans can be planted
on the same bed because they grow well together as they have different rooting and growth
patterns along with different nutrient and sunlight needs.

18

Next, choose another small stick and measure the spread of your fingers; thumb to pinkie.
This will be the proper seed spacing for bush beans. As each plant grows, its leaves will
come to cover the bed yet not compete with each other.
Next, place the long maize spacing stick along the end of the bed. Make marks for the seeds
at either end. Place the stick on an angle toward the middle of the bed. Seeds will always be
one sticks length apart. Continue down the length of the bed. Notice how the spacing is at
an angle. If your bed is a meter wide you will be able to make a 3-2-3 hole pattern along the
length of the bed. Once the initial pattern is established the sticks can be discarded.
Now make larger planting holes at each of the marks that you just made. Each hole, for
maize in this case, will hold two seeds placed on either side of the planting hole. It is
important to plant only two seeds in each hole. Do not cover the maize holes yet as it helps to
guide placement of companion crops. Use the smaller stick to mark where to plant the beans.
They can be planted along the sides of the bed in between the maize seeds.
Place a single bean in each of the holes. You will be using fewer seeds, but each plant will
become much stronger this way and you will get more food in the end.
Finally, cover each seed with soil and make the bed smooth and ready to receive the rain. A
smooth, flat bed will not erode during heavy rains. It will absorb more of the rainwater.
After the maize seeds germinate and grow for about two weeks, select the strongest of the
two. The one you remove is not tossed away but it should be eaten by something: goat,
rabbit, or bacteria in the compost pile. At the same time, lightly cultivate the soil around each
plant to remove small weeds before they remove important nutrients or water.
Permanent pathways not only capture
and direct water but they also allow
easy access for weeding the garden beds
from either side. Removing weeds at
this stage is fast and simple. Compost
added to the soil also aids in seed
germination and emerging plant vigor
as the soil remains moist longer. After
two weeks, only one maize plant is
allowed to remain in each space so that
it can achieve its maximum potential.

Starting Seedlings
Most of the commonly planted staple food crops found in both field and garden (maize,
wheat, sorghum, beans, pumpkins, amaranth, potatoes and sweet potatoes) are directly sown
in the soil. In fact, they must be direct seeded as they will not transplant well once they have
germinated and their root systems have developed. Vegetable plants, on the other hand, must
be planted out into the garden beds as fully developed young plants so that they have the best
chance for survival and productive life. The exception to this rule are the root vegetables
such as carrots and beets as they also do not transplant well. Much less water will be

19

required to develop these plants and you will be assured that when the time comes, you are
planting only the healthiest plants into your fully texturized, double-dug, garden beds.
By starting seeds in good soft soil in a nursery bed, or in small plastic bags, the gardener is
once again asserting control - control over moisture, sunlight and seed quality. Upon
development of sturdy stems and leaves, vegetables such as tomato, pepper, cabbage and
kale, can be outplanted into prepared garden beds at their rightful and proper spacing (see
chart on page 23). As they have been treated to a steadily increasing amount of sun, moisture
and quality soil they will continue to flourish with limited delay. Care should be taken so as
not to damage either stem nor root at transplanting. Growth will be continuous as a result.
Seed Starting Steps
1.
Prepare soft, light soil (compost mixed with topsoil and sand is a good mix) in a small
section of a garden bed. Crush any large clumps of soil or compost to make a fine seed bed.
Moisten the surface, allowing water to soak down at least 3 inches or about 8 centimeters.
1a.
You may choose to put seeds directly into small plastic bags (filled with the soil mix)
which will have the advantage of being moveable depending on sunlight needs. This will also
make it easier at transplanting time when you need only remove the bag rather than dig up the
small section of garden bed as in step 5.
2.
Sow your seeds 2cm deep and close together at offset (triangular) spacing according
to the Seed Spacing Chart at the end of this manual. Cover and firm the soil lightly and
gently water the entire surface. Water should be reapplied before the soil dries out this is
where the compost is helpful as it helps to retain moisture around the developing seedling.
4.
Cover this small area (less than a square meter) with a simple thatch structure to keep
intense sun and heavy rain off the fragile seedlings. As the seedlings develop (within 7-10
days), gradually increase the amount of sunlight they receive so that by the time they are fully
developed (in about 6 weeks) they will be prepared for transplanting into the harsher world of
the larger garden bed.
5.
Once seedlings have stems nearly as thick as a pencil and at least three sets of true
leaves, they are ready to be planted deeply and at their proper spacing. Simply loosen the soil
on all sides of the seedling bed so that tender plants can be easily removed one cluster at a
time. Before outplanting, remove a few lower leaves to allow the roots to develop quicker.
6.
Roots and stems of tomato, pepper and eggplant can be planted deeply, up to the first
set of true leaves. Roots will develop from that part of the stem which has been buried in soil
and a much stronger, healthier and productive plant will be the result.

Crop Rotation: Leaf Fruit Root- Legume

Crop rotation is arguably one of the most important organic cultural practices you can employ
to both enhance soil fertility and limit garden pests and diseases. Planting the same crop
(including from the same family) from season to season will cause nutrients to decline and
pest and disease cycles to flourish. The permagarden beds make crop rotation simple dont
change the location of the beds; rather, change what is planted in each from season to season.
20

Different crops have different primary fertility needs. Take note that before planting any new
crop, additional compost is needed to maintain micronutrient, organic matter and beneficial
microbe levels. An excellent cycle to use and educate others to maintain between your
double dug garden beds would be leaf, fruit, root, legume.
Leafy crops (spinach, amaranth, sorghum, maize) enjoy lots of nitrogen so should be planted
first in newly manured and fertilized garden beds. The following season, plant a fruit crop
(tomato, eggplant, pepper) which like some nitrogen but need more phosphorus for proper
flower development. Actually, too much nitrogen and your tomatoes will be all plant, no
fruit and could develop various imbalances causing blossom end rot or make them
susceptible to fungal diseases. Next comes a root crop (carrots , turnip, beets) as they require
even less nitrogen but need more potassium for proper root development Finally, follow it
all by planting a legume (peas, beans) which will use few nutrients while adding nitrogen
back into the soil through the process of atmospheric nitrogen fixation.
By following a good crop rotation plan, we are also breaking the pest and disease cycles
which will mean healthier, stronger plants and little to no need for costly and dangerous
pesticides.
Training of Trainers (the ripple effect)
When even the smallest stone is dropped in calm water the ripples go far and wide. Each of
those ripples will go on to create even more and before we know it, the once calm water is a
perfect storm of activity, learning, growth and empowerment. Perhaps that sounds too
optimistic? Dont ever think that a few people working together cant change the world - in
fact, that is the only way it ever has. Change will come and it can last if it starts with small
and doable actions. You can be that small stone that creates ripple after ripple after ripple.
Families or small groups can plan and create a complete Permagarden in a short amount of
time. It is important that this method be seen as doable. The best way for this to be done is to
teach it with an action-oriented training. This method will appear to require a large amount
of energy to start and that may be a barrier to acceptance. If you find that to be the case, then
do each step of the permagarden over the course of several mornings when the family has the
time available. Using only local tools, seeds and plants is critical but the method must be
seen as worth the extra effort by family members. Start small create one water swale
with a double dug garden bed below it. Then simply let the family decide if they want to
make it bigger. It has often been said that the hardest thing we can do is to make something
look easy. Proper planning, materials gathering, soil preparation and choosing to do the
heavy digging work during the early or later part of the day will go a long way towards
overcoming resistance to what has already been proven to be a highly successful method of
family food production. Finally, train your groups and individuals with a return visit in mind.
Key Permagarden Training Themes:

Small Changes - Big Differences (Small Doable Actions for Behavior Change)
The 3-legged stool of sustainability: the methods must be seen as environmentally
sound, economically viable and socially acceptable.
Water Control and Management with swales, holes and berms
Use of Only Locally Available Resources tools, seeds, plants, amendments
21

Perennial Food Production and Environmental Enhancement near the Home

Simple Compost for Water Retention and Soil and Plant Health
Double Digging to Increase Plant Health, Density and Water Holding
Plant and Seed Spacing to maximize yield from a small space
Bed Management and Sequential Planting (Crop Rotation)

Available Training Resources:

1. Permagarden Outreach and Extension Manual: The Dialogue Approach. This
manual guides you through a series of small group discussions and actions which
focus on various household assets which can be enhanced to create sustainable,
edible, home landscapes; including a full permagarden.
2. Creating the Edible Landscape: Permagarden Lesson Plans. A field manual
which outlines objectives, materials and time requirements for each critical step in the
creation of a small, family-based, permagarden.
3. Gardens for Better Living (25 minute DVD). This recently produced video
(2008) gives an inspirational view of subsistence farming families using
permagardens to gain a sense of:

Control (environment, soil and water, more food from a small space)
Accomplishment (sense of pride and well-being from greater food security)
Hope (for a better future and a reason to adopt other sustainable behaviors)

Conclusion
Permagardens have been shown to be excellent tools to have in our soil fertility and food
security toolbox as we look to build the resilience of the local environment and the people
living within it. Effectively and economically rebuilding depleted soils, human and plant
immune systems, will strengthen not only the people but their landscapes and watersheds for
future generations to enjoy and enhance.
It is important to remember however that the garden is still merely a tool. And, like any tool,
if it remains in the toolbox, no matter how useful initially, it is not doing anyone much good.
As this particular tool is used, people will slowly gain confidence with it, manage it, even
change it as it suits them. The family permagarden serves as a classroom for the family to
learn small scale techniques that, if they so choose, can be extended to the broader landscape
and farm field. Once people accept these gardens as a socially viable way to sustainably
enhance their food and economic security, their overall sense of empowerment and
subsequent resilience to local and global shocks will put them on the path to improving the
quality of their own lives. The work put in now will continue to yield benefit to those who
choose to accept it. And, perhaps most importantly, the efforts will be sustainable as it has
come about in a manner of their own choosing.
The cycle of better living healthy people growing healthy food from healthy soil and water
can truly lead to the creation of sustainable communities able to tackle any number of
development challenges. Without family food security in place there can be little further
development. We all need to eat. With a functioning permagarden, and farm field using
22

elements of Permaculture and Bio-Intensive Gardening, families can grow big, eat well, and
stay home to tend to their many other needs.
Control Accomplishment HopeBy using these small, doable actions which give
immediate visible results, real change and real empowerment can occurand the vision of
hope for tackling malnutrition can be achieved.

23

BIOINTENSIVE MINI-FARMING
Sustainable Diet Production
DEEP SOIL PREPARATION
allows
When added to
Plante

COMPOST

Provide
Material
for

d w ith

CLOSE, PRECISE
PLANT SPACINGS

SEEDS (acclimated to local

growing conditions)

produce

INSECTS &
DISEASE

resist

PEOPLE

creates

HEALTHY MICROCLIMATE

holds

feed

NUTRIENTS, WATER
& CO2

THRIVING
HEALTHY
PLANTS
s
uce
d
pro

stimulates

GROWTH

CIRCLE OF SUSTAINABILITY

24

Bio-Intensive Plant and Seed Spacing

Double dug beds should be one meter wide only with the seeds spaced hexagonally to
maximize efficient use of space. Proper bed width and planting technique will give the
gardener easy access from either side yet be wide enough to allow for the development of a
healthy microclimate under the growing leaf canopy. The more carbon dioxide and moisture
which is captured the better. Also, as little sunlight will reach the soil surface with the closed
canopy, there will little weeding, significantly reduced water needs, and overall healthier
plants which will yield more food on less land than you ever thought possible!
[For more information: How to Grow More Vegetables. John Jeavons. Ecology Action.]

Seed Spacing (in centimeters) for Direct Seeded Crops:

Crop
Maize
Wheat
Beans (dry/green) and cowpea (khunde)
Chickpea (garbanzo bean)
Radish
Carrot
Onion (may need to start plants)
Millet
Amaranth (mchicha)
Groundnut
Pumpkin
Zuchini
Garlic (cloves)
Irish Potato (sprouted tubers)
Sweet Potato (stem cuttings)

Spacing in Garden Bed

35 (plant 2 but remove 1 at 2 weeks)
5
15
15
5
Broadcast lightly, thin to 5 cm
6
15
Broadcast lightly, thin to 4 cm
14
100 (allow to spread within bed)
30 (can plant hill with 2 per hill)
8
18
18

Seed Spacing (in centimeters, in trays) for Transplanted Seedlings:

Crop
Tomato
Brocolli
Cabbage
Chinese Cabbage
Eggplant
Pepper (hot or not)
Cucumber
Leaf Lettuce
Basil
Swiss Chard
Onion

Spacing in Seed Tray/Bed Spacing in Garden Bed

8
35 (stake up with poles)
6
30
5
30
5
20
5
35
5
25
4
25 (train to grow up trellis)
BC then thin to 6
15
BC then thin to 6
12
5
15
5
8

Seed starting in small portions of garden beds or in separate flats drastically reduces water
needs and ensures better growth upon transplanting into the production bed.
25

The Bio-Intensive Home Garden

at the home of Gabriel Peter Mbena
Morogoro, Tanzania

26

Compost The Key to Soil Health

The many functions of compost in soil make it perhaps the most important ingredient that we
can add to garden soil so as to achieve sustainable yields of highly nutritious vegetables,
grains, legumes and fruits. It is easy to make but does require advanced planning and time.
1.
Improved Structure compost breaks up heavy clay clods and binds together sandy
soil. Proper aeration allows a sandy soil to hold water and a clay soil to drain water and
promotes proper root growth and health.
2.
Moisture Retention compost holds 6 times its own weight in water. A soil with
good organic matter content soaks up rain like a sponge and regulates the supply to the
plants. A soil stripped of organic matter resists water penetration, leading to crusting, erosion
and flooding.
3.
Aeration plants can obtain 96% of the nutrients they need from the air, sun and
water. A loose, healthy soil assists in the diffusion of air and moisture into the soil and in the
exchange of nutrients. Carbon dioxide released by organic matter decomposition diffuses out
of the soil and is absorbed by the canopy of leaves above in the raised bed microclimate
created by closely spaced plants.
4.
Fertilization compost contains some N, P, K Mg, and S but it is especially
important for trace elements such as molybdenum, zinc, and iodide.
5.
Nutrient Release related to the above, organic acids (carbonic and fulvic) from
decomposing organic matter dissolve soil minerals and make them available to plants. As
organic matter continues to break down it slowly releases key nutrients for plant uptake and
to ensure a healthy soil microbe population.
6.
Nitrogen Storage Nitrogen, one of the most important of plant nutrients, is also the
most volatile. If added to soils low in organic matter, this N is quickly converted to gas and
lost to the air. Organic compounds bond to the nitrogen and allow it to be released slowly
and steadily as the plant needs it, stopping its loss to leaching and volatilization.
7.
Soil Acidity and Toxin Buffer plants have specific tolerances in terms of soil
acidity and toxins. Organic matter allows plants to have a broader range of tolerances to
these elements common in the worlds poorest soils.
8.
Germination and Early Seedling Growth once seeds are placed in the growing
bed or seedling flat the soil is watered thoroughly so as to allow the seed coat to soften and
crack open to allow for proper seedling growth. Compost in the soil will act like a sponge
absorbing the water and keeping it moist around the seed for a much longer time which will
increase the speed of germination and the likelihood of the young seedling growing through
periods of dry weather that would otherwise destroy the tender stems, roots and leaves.

Home and Garden Compost

27

Simple Steps to Building a Healthy Soil

Why Make Compost: Compost has many benefits to the soil and the plants that we grow. It
is also very easy to make and requires only a small amount of labor and materials.
It helps the soil hold more water both from rain and from hand watering so that
plants get as much water as they need to grow throughout the growing season.
It holds beneficial nutrients (fertilizer) in small stable amounts that build up over time.
It helps soil release its own natural fertility because of many natural acids.
It holds huge numbers of beneficial bacteria and fungi which help keep diseases away.
Making Compost: There are two types of compost: one for leaves and grass and other
garden materials; and another for managing and using vegetable and fruit waste from the
kitchen. In both types, we make a pile 1m x 1m x 1m which is both easy to turn and manage.
Materials needed for making compost:
Brown leaves, straw, plant stems. These things contain a lot of Carbon.
Green grass clippings or leaves. These contain a lot of Nitrogen.
Old, finished compost or good garden top soil which has a lot of bacteria.
Water. Bacteria need moist conditions to live and do their work for us.
Follow these simple steps
Garden Waste Compost:
1. Select a large space in the shade. Bacteria need water so too much sun will dry out the
compost pile and slow down the decomposition process.
2. Gather brown materials such as dry leaves. Hold them till you have enough green
grass materials to make a compost pile. Large brown leaves should be chopped into
small pieces so they will break down quicker.
3. Gather green grass clippings or other green materials. You will need less than half as
much green as brown materials. A compost pile will contain 1/3 green and 2/3 brown
materials.
4. Begin to layer and mix the brown and green materials. Start with a 6 inches or 15
centimeters layer of brown.
5. Add a 2 inches or 5 centimeters layer of green.
6. Add 5 large handfuls of top soil or finished compost. Mix all this together by hand.
7. Add water to thoroughly moisten the materials.
8. Repeat steps 4 through 7 until the pile is 1m x 1m x 1m. Cover with 1 inch or 2.54
centimeters of topsoil or a sheet of plastic to help hold the moisture in the pile. After
2 days the pile will become very hot this means the bacteria are working to break
down the materials.
9. WAIT TWO WEEKS. But after one week, add more water over the top to keep moist.
10. Turn/flip the entire pile to a space just next to itself. Mix well and add water.
11. Make a new pile where the old one was.
12. WAIT TWO WEEKS. After one week, add more water over the top as needed.
13. Turn/flip both piles to the spaces nearby. Mix well and add water as needed.
14. WAIT TWO WEEKS. When the inside of the pile is brown, crumbly and cool to the
touch the compost is ready to be used in the garden.

28

Kitchen Waste Compost: Use a 20 liter Jerry can with the bottom cut off and turned upside
down. Poke a hole in the cap to allow liquid to drain out. The cut off bottom can be used as
the lid. Elevate the barrel and place a basin below to catch the tea.
In the bottom, add a 4cm layer of old manure or compost and a 2cm layer of dry grass.
Prepare a box of dry brown leaves or wood chips and leave nearby. This will be used every
time you add vegetable and fruit waste from the kitchen and will help to absorb odors.

Every night, add a small bucket of saved vegetable waste from the kitchen (no oil,
meat), cover with 2 cm of the dry brown materials that has been set aside.

Clean the kitchen bucket with liter water and add this to the Jerry can and cover.

The following morning, collect the tea in the basin below the barrel. Mix with 3
parts water before using to irrigate your garden vegetables.

Continue in this manner until the jerry can is full. This may take over a month
depending on how much vegetable waste you generate.

When can #1 is full, slide it over and start again with can #2. Continue to add liter
of water to can #1 to keep it moist and to collect the fertile tea from the bottom.

When can #2 is full (after another month) empty can #1 and use the cool compost in
the garden. Slide Can #2 over and continue to make tea. Can #1 can begin again.

A cubic meter compost pile will give

15 buckets of finished compost after
2-3 months of twice a month mixing.

Evening additions of kitchen waste,

brown leaves and water will give
morning compost tea which can
be used to irrigate garden

29

Summary of Nutrients
Nutrient

Description

Proteins

Bricks of our house

Protein builds all parts of the body from
Amino Acids
There are 8 Essential Amino Acids that must
come from our diet, plus another for
infants

Minerals

Vitamins

Water

PlantsDark leafy greens,

whole grains, legumes, nuts,
seeds
Animal Foods

mud of our house, they connect parts of our

body
2 common minerals: CalciumStrong teeth
& bones. Ironcarries oxygen in our
blood.
Other 12 minerals: Chloride, Copper,
Phosphorus, Potassium, Iodine,
Magnesium, Sodium, Chromium, Cobalt,
Fluorine, Manganese, Zinc

Small amounts found in many

foodsEat a variety from all
food groups!

Watchdog of our house

Fights disease, healthy eyes & skin,
communication
At least 13 known that our bodies need. Fat
Soluble: A, D, E & K. Water Soluble B (8
types) & C.

PlantsFruits, yellow and

orange Vegetables, Whole
grains, Legumes, Seeds (All
vitamins)
Some animal foods (A & B)

Firewood of our house

Carbohydrate Fuel for our body from calories

Fats

Foods

PlantsDark leafy greens,

legumes, colored vegetables
Animal Foods

PlantsGrains, starchy roots,

fruits, legumes
Milk

PlantsSeeds, nuts, soybean,

Paraffin of our house
Reserve energy, carries fat-soluble vitamins, margarine, whole grains
brain & cell walls, warmth
Milk, animal fat, butter, eggs
3 Essential Fatty Acids
Removes wastes with fiber
Carries nutrients, controls temperature

Water, fruits, vegetables, milk

Fiber -- Is not a nutrient, it works like the Broom of our house. Fiber removes wastes
with water. Fiber is only in plant foodsvegetables, fruits, legumes, seeds, roots, &
whole grains
Source: Permaculture Nutrition Manual. 2003. Kristof Nordin.

30

Permaculture Guild
A guild in Permaculture is a system of efficiently grouped plants so that each may grow to
its fullest potential. When planting a guild there are several things to keep in mind:
Nature plants in steps:
Nature always plants a
variety:
Nature stacks plants in
both time and space:

Large plants depend upon the smaller plants around them.

Observe the large diversity of plant life that occurs in an
undisturbed forest, each plant has a specific purpose.
A natural forest is comprised of many layers of plants that
grow and die according to the season and which extend
from high above the earth to deep below it.

The following is a list of seven different functions that a Permaculture guild tries to include:

6. Groundcovers
7. Protectors

Protector

Food

Food

Protector

Fertilizer

Supporter

Groundcover

5. Miners or diggers

Staples, legumes, fruits, vegetables, and fats

Legumes and organic matter that provide nutrients to the soil
Important for making the most of vertical space
Plants that provide support to climbers
Deep roots or tubers that open the soil and bring up nutrients from
deep
Protects soil, provides shade, holds moisture, and suppresses weeds
Protection for others in the system (Repellents, attractors, live
fencing, etc.)

Food

Food
Food for the soil
Climbers
Supporters

Climber

1.
2.
3.
4.

Permaculture Nutrition
Manual, 2003

Food

Source:

Digger

Digger

31

Current Meal

(Malawi example, but also worldwide)

Malnutrition focused on
energy alone

Monoculture
cropping leads to

High risk of
food insecurity

High risk of
crop failure

Detrimental to soil
/ environment

High inputs

Source: Permaculture Nutrition Manual, 2003. Kristof and Stacia Nordin.

Better Meal
Balanced Nutrition
- focused on all
nutrients

Diversified
Planting

Increased
chance of
yields

Increased
Food Security

Better for soil

/ environment

Fewer inputs

The Training and Visit System

32

One Master Gardener TOT creates 20 Master Garden Trainers

OUTPUT

Each Master Garden Trainer teaches 10 community based volunteers

OUTCOME

Each community based volunteer teaches 5 vulnerable households how

to grow nutritious home gardens from year to year

IMPACT

Each vulnerable household has the skills to grow

and teach their neighbors
through an established local Neighborhood Network

SUSTAINABILITY

Train at each level so that the next level has the knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary to
continue to learn and teach on their own. This requires not only proper hands-on training at
local gardens, but well-planned and carried out visits within a month of the initial training.
This builds the confidence and the neighborliness necessary to carry on for many years to
come.

Permagarden Teaching Check List

33

Reasons for Promoting Permagardens:

Food Security at the Family Level
Income Generation Opportunity
Nutrition Supplementation to Family Diet
Family Resilience and Empowerment
Climate Change Response
PLHIV Care and Prevention
Environmental Mgt Education

(Availability)
(Access)
(Utilization)
(Control Accomplishment Hope)
(max/min rainfall management)
(Behavior Change Communication)
(expansion to the farm field )

Why do we call it a Permagarden?

Permaculture (Permanent Agriculture) =
Permanent Protection
Bio-Intensive Annual Garden
=
Abundant Production
CLOSE = Close . Local . Organic . Sustainable . Easy
Key Messages:
Small and Close to the Home

(can expand once skills develop)

Everything is Local

(Plants, Seeds, Tools, Amendments)

No or little start- up cost

(reusing what is being wasted)

Simple Behavior Change serves as analogy for other prevention education

Family Food, Nutrition and Income Security OPPORTUNITY (no guarantee)
Climate Change Response and Adaptation leads to Resilience and Empowerment
Small Changes = Big Differences
Start Small, Grow Big, Stay Home, Eat Well
Local Waste Products for Soil Improvement
Wood Ash
Charcoal dust
Livestock Manure
Green/brown leaves

(Minerals and pH balancing Ca, Mg, P, K)

(carbon sequestration, water holding, microbe housing)
(Minerals N, P, K; water holding, better tilth)
(compost materials, green manure, nitrogen, tilth)

Local Perennial plants/shrubs useful in the Permagarden:

Papaya
Aloe Vera
Lemongrass
Banana
Passion

(food, shade, medicine, income, gift)

(medicine, income, immune system support, gift)
(palliative tea, income, gift)
(food, income)
(grow on fencing, food, income)

Local Multipurpose Trees/Shrubs and there uses/benefits

34

Neem
Leucaena
Moringa
Glyricidia
Lantana

(GManure, Medicine, Insecticide, Soap, Firewood, Shade

(GM, Fodder, Fencing, Medicine, Firewood)
(GM, Food, Medicine, Water Purification, Fencing)
(GM, Fencing, Shade, Firewood)
(Nutrient accumulator, hedges, insecticide)

Compost Making
Browns (carbon), Greens (nitrogen), Water, Soil/Manure (bacteria), Air and Time
Make in the shade to prevent excessive moisture loss; cover with plastic
One cubic meter, mix 2x/month, finished when brown/crumbly and cool
Water Management Pathways and Structures
STOP
Swale
SLOW
Berm
SINK
Hole
SPREAD
Shade (in the Bio-Intensive Garden Beds)
Save (in the Bio-Intensive Garden Beds)
Why plant Bio-Intensive triangles (double digging and amending first to increase soil
health and structure)
Increase Plant Density (deeper roots allow close space, able to grow more/unit area)
Increase Plant/Root Health (moisture and CO2 capture)
Decrease in Weed Pressure (canopy shading of bare soil)
Decrease in HandWater Requirement (canopy shading of bare soil)
Basic Nutrition Food Groups:
Go Foods
Grow Foods
Glow Foods

(Carbohydrates grains, tubers, fruits/vegetables)

(Proteins legumes, peanuts, animal products)
(Vitamins/Minerals DGLV, colored fruit and veg, meats)

Crop Rotation Cycle - Reasons and Plant Families

Break Plant Disease Cycles
Break Pest Insect Life Cycles
Balance Soil Fertility additions and losses
Leaf
Fruit
Root
Legume

(Higher Nitrogen need)

(Less N, More P for fruit)
(little N, More K, some P)
(returns N to soil)

maize, millet, sorghum, DGLV

tomato, pepper, eggplant
carrot, potato, beet,
beans, cowpea, peanut

Starting Seedlings
35

To ensure quality growth while limiting water need, most vegetable plants, with the
exception of legume and root crops, must be planted out into the garden beds as fully
developed young plants so that they have the best chance for survival and productive life.
Much less water will be required to develop these plants and you will be assured that when
the time comes, you are planting only the healthiest plants into your fully texturized, doubledug, garden beds.
Seed Starting Steps
Prepare soft, light soil (compost mixed with topsoil and sand is a good mix) in a small section
of a garden bed or directly into small boxes as in the photos below. Moisten the surface,
allowing water to soak down at least 5cm.
Sow your seeds 1-2cm deep and close together at offset (triangular) spacing according to the
Seed Spacing Chart. Cover and firm the soil lightly and gently water the entire surface.
Water should be reapplied before the soil dries out this is where the compost is helpful as it
helps to retain moisture around the developing seedling.
Cover this small area in the gardeb with a simple thatch structure to keep intense sun and
heavy rain off the fragile seedlings. If using the box method, simply move them in and out of
the sunlight. As the seedlings emerge (within 1-2 weeks), gradually increase the amount of
sunlight they receive so that by the time they are 4 weeks old they will be strong enough for
transplanting into individual boxes and then at 7-8 weeks, ready to be planted into the garden
bed itself.
When seedlings have stems nearly as thick as a pencil and at least three sets of true leaves,
they are ready to be planted deeply and at their proper spacing. Before planting, remove a
few of the lower leaves to allow the roots to recover from transplant shock and develop
quicker.

36

Zeer Pot Refrigerator

Clay pots are unglazed, kiln

dried once so that moisture can
move through the porous clay.

Vegetables placed inside the

inner pot will keep for up to
two weeks when they would
otherwise spoil within 2 days.
This system works best in a
dry climate where evaporation
will be high causing cooling of
the inner pot.

Steps:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Find two large unglazed clay pots. One must be larger than the other.
Plug any holes in the smaller pot.
Line the larger pot with wet sand so that it sticks to the sides.
Place the smaller pot within and fill the rest of the way up with wet sand.
Water must be added every day to keep the sand moist. As the water evaporates it
cools the inner pot and anything inside.
6. Place a damp towel over the entire unit to keep the cold air within.

37

Productive Behavior Checklist

Region
Name of Project
staff visiting

Woreda

Kebele

1.

Village
2.

Household name
3.

Date of visit

Household Production Behavior

Tick if Observed

1. Household production dialogue Participation

Active participation in regular household production dialogues within savings, health
or other self-help groups.
Active participation in household production dialogues with different neighbor and
peer networks.
2. Nutrition
Basic understanding that a balanced and diversified diet of protein, vitamins and
carbohydrates is important for a families nutritional security.
Presence of a household nutrition garden with at least three different nutrient-dense,
multi-colored vegetables (orange, yellow and dark-green).
3. Land
Effective utilization of a variety of different household assets, materials and resources
in households agriculture and gardening, including water, animals, manures, fruit,
timber, fuel wood, fodder, compost, etc.
Presence of a household garden with cash and food specific crops.
Presence of double dug garden beds.
Effective making and utilization of compost (to condition and fertilize soil) made with
green material, dry brown material, manure and water.
Effective mulching of plants (to hold moisture and provide nutrients), with Dried or
fresh leaves, dried grass, banana leaves, rice straw, coconut
Effective utilization of a variety of soil amendments, including wood ash from cooking
area, charred crop residues/remains such as rice husks, dry grasses or crop waste (rice
straw), fresh or dry animal manure, green leaves from leaucaena, glyricidia, or neem

38

trees, etc.
4. Water
Effective utilization of waste water (from bathing, cooking, and hand washing, etc.) for
garden irrigation.
Presence and effective utilization of a variety of different water storage and catchment
devises, including roof gutters, water pots, etc.
Presence and effective utilization of simple, permanent, water-holding berm and
swale. Is berm planted with local perennials?
5. Plants
Effective utilization of vertical space to grow different varieties of climbing plants (such
as passion fruit, cucumber, yard-long bean).
Effective growing of a diverse variety of crops:
Improve Soil Fertility: beans, climbing and bush
Improve drought Tolerance: orange sweet potato, chilli pepper
Use limited soil area: passion fruit, , cucumber, climbing bean
Attract beneficial insects: flowering plants and shrubs
Build nutrient density: colors: green, yellow, orange, red
Increase marketability: based on market survey of local needs
Effective utilization of triangular spacing in garden beds.
Effective utilization of staggered plant timing techniques.
Effective utilization of homemade, organic, liquid plant fertilizer.
Effective utilization of botanical pest control techniques.
Effective utilization of physical pest control techniques.
Effective utilization of cultural pest control techniques.
Effective knowledge and utilization of basic Leaf-Fruit-Root-Legume crop rotation plan.
Effective utilization of simple post-harvest handling techniques.

General Observations and Comments

39

Signature of Project Staff

Conducting Site Visit

40

Notes and Contacts:

41