CNC Programming Handbook Smid 195 - 293

FIXED CYCLES
Machining holes is probably the most common opera

tion, mainly done on CNC milling machines and machin
ing' centers. Even in the industries traditionally known for
their complex parts, such as aircraft and aerospace compo
nents manufacturing, electronics, instrumentation, optica!
or mold making industries, machining holes is a vital part
of the manufacturing process.
When we think of what machining holes means, we
probably think first of such operations as center drilling,
spot drilling and standard drilling, using common tools.
However, thjs category is much wider. Other related opera
tions also belong to the category of machining holes. The
standard center drilling, spot drilling and drilling are used
together with related operations such as reaming, tapping,
single point boring, boring with block tools, countersinkjng
and counterboring, spotfacing and even backboring.
Machining one simple hole may require only one tool but
a precise and complex hole may require severa! tools to be
completed. Number of ho Ies required for a given job is im
portant for selection of proper programming approach.
Even holes machined with the same tool may be dffer
ent. Holes having the same diameter may have a variable
depth, they may even be ac different depths of the part. If all
possible combinations are consdered, it is easy to realize
that makjng one hole may be a simple matter, but makjng a
series of many different hole operations in one program re
quires a well planned anu organizeLI apprh.
The method of point-to-point machining for holes is a

method of controlling the motions of a cutting tool in the X
and Y axes at a rapid machine rate, and n the Z axis at a
cutting feedrate. Some motions along Z axis may also in
clude rapid motions. Ali this means s that there is no cut
ting along XY axes for holes operations. When the cutting
tool completes all motions along the Z axis and returns
from the hole to the clearance position, motions along the
X and Y axes resume and proceed to a new location of the
part. There, the Z axis motions are repeated. Usually, this
sequence of motions occurs at many locations. The hole
shape and diameter s controlled by the cutting tool selec
tion, the cutting depth s controlled by the part program.
This method of machining is typical to fixed cycles for
drilling, reaming, tapping, boring and related operations.
The elementary programming structure for point-to
point machining can be summed up into four general steps
(typica'I drilling sequence shown in the example):
o Step 1 :
Rapid motion to the hale location

... along the X and/or Y axis
o Step 2:
Rapid motion to the starting point of the cut

... along the Z axis
o Step 3:
Feedrate motion to the specified depth

o Step 4:
Return to a clear position

POINT-TO-POINT MACHINING
These four steps also represent the minimum number of

blocks required to program a single hole, using manual
programming method, without using fixed cycles. If there
is only one or two holes in a part drawing and the machin
ing operation is nothing more than a simple center drilling
or drilling, the program length is of no significant impor
tance. That is not the common case - normally, there are
many holes in a part and severa] tools have to be used to
complete each hole to engineering specifications. Such a
program could be extremely long and very difficult to inter
pret and change. 1n fact, it may even be too long to fit into
the standard CNC memory.
Machining holes is generally not a very sophistcated

procedure. There is no contouring required and there is no
multiaxis cutting motion. The only motion when actual
cutting takes place s along a single axis - virtually always
the Z axis. This type of machining is commonly known as
point-to-point machining.
Possibly the most time consuming task in programming

point-to-point operations is the amount of repetitive infor
mation that has to be written into the CNC program. This
problem was solved by the introduction of fixed cycles.
These cycles are also known as canned cycles because a lot
of repetitive information is canned (or fitted) into a rela
tively small space of a computer chip.
1n the majQ!ity of programn:iig ppiations, hole pera

tions offer a great number of s1m1lar1t1es from one JOb to
another. Hote machining is a reasonably predictable opera
tion and any operation that is predictable is an ideal subject
to be handled very efficiently by a computer. For this rea
son, virtually all CNC control manufacturers have incorpo
rated severa) ingenious programming methods for machin
ing holes in their control systems. These methods use so the
called canned cycles or- more commonly - thefixed cycles.
177
178
Chapter 25
Single Tool Motions vs. Fixed Cycles

The following two examples compare the differences of
programming a hole pattern n individual blocks (02501),
where each step of the tool path must be programmed as a
single motion block, and the same pattern of holes using a
fixed cycle (02502). No explanations to the programs are
given at this stage and the comparison is only a visual illus
tration between two distinct programming methods. It
shows an application of a 03/16 standard drill that is used
to cut a full blind depth of .625 inches . Only three holes are
programmed in the example, iJJustrated in Figure 25-1.
,..._
C")
LO
CX)
O)
-EB-Ef:)--1---1- Y3.40
(jj-- Y1.89
Figure 25-1
Simple hole pattern - programs 02501 and 02502
02501 (EXAMPLE 1)
(PROORAM USES INDIVIDUAL BLOCKS)
N1 G20
N2 Gl7 G40 GSO
N3 G90 G54 GOO XS.9 Yl.89 S900 M03
N4 G43 Zl.O HOl MOS
NS Z0.1 MOS
N6 GOl Z-0.6813 F4.5
N7 G04 P200 "--...
NS GOO Z0.1
N9 X3.87 Y3.4
NlO GOl Z-0.6813
Nll G04 P200
N12 GOO Z0.1
N13 X2.047
N14 GOl Z-0.6813
NlS G04 P200
N16 GOO ZO.l M09
N17 G28 X2.047 Y3.4 Zl.O
N18 M30
%
The second example in program 02502 uses the same

hole pattern, but fixed cycles are used for efficiency.
02502 (EXAMPLE 2)
(PROORAM USES FIXED CYCLE)
N1 G20
N2 Gl7 G40 GSO
N3 G90 G54 GOO XS.9 Yl.89 S900 M03
N4 G43 Zl.O HOl MOS
NS
N6
N7
NS
N9
%
G99 G82 R0.1 Z-0.6813 P200 F4.5

X3.87 Y3.4
X2.047
G80 G28 X2.047 Y3.4 Zl.O M09
M30
Program 02501 required the total of 18 blocks, even for

three holes only. ln program 02502, using fixed cycles,
only nine blocks were needed. The shorter program 02502
is also easier to read, there are no repetitious blocks. The
program modifications, updates and other changes can be
done much easier, whenever required. Always use fixed cy
cles for machining holes, even if a single hole is machined.
FIXED CVCLE SELECTION

The fixed cycles have been designed by control manufac
turers to eliminate the repetition in manual programming
and allow an easy program data changes at the machine.
For example, a number of identica) holes may share the
same starting point, the same depth, the same feedrate, the
same dwell, etc. Only the X and Y axes locations are differ
ent for each hole of the pattern. The purpose of the fixed cy
cles s to allow for programming necessary values only
once - for thefirst hote of the pattern. The specified values
become modal for the duration of the cycle and do not have
to be repeated, unless and until one or more of them
change. This change is usually for the XY Iocation of a new
hole, but other values may be changed for any hole at any
time, particularly for more complex holes.
A fixed cycle is called in the program by a special prepa
ratory G command. Fanuc and similar control systems sup
port the following fixed cycles:
G73
G74
G76
G80
G81
G82
G83
G84
G85
G86
G87
G88
G89
High speed peck drilling cycle

Left-hand tapping cycle
Precision boring cycle
Fixed cycle cancellation (any cycle)
Drilling cycle
Drilling cycle with dwell
Peck drilling cycle
Right-hand tapping cycle
Boring cycle
Boring cycle
Back boring cycle
Boring cycle
Boring cycle
179
FI XED CYCLES
The list is only general and indicates the most common

use of each cycle, not always the only use. For example,
certain boring cycles may be quite suitable for reaming, al
though there s no reaming cycle directly specified. The
next section describes programming format and details of
each cycle and offers suggestions for their proper applica
tions. Think of fixed cycles in terms of their built-in capabi
lities, not their general description.
Z = Z axis end position = Z depth
The Z depth position can have an absolute value ot an in

cremental value.
P = Dwell time
PROGRAMMING FORMAT
General format for a fixed cycle s a series of parameter

values specified by a unique address (not all parameters are
available for every available cycle):
I N .. G G X.. Y R Z P Q I.. J F L.. (or K..)
Explanation of the addresses used in fixed cycles (in the
order of the usual block appearance):
G (first G command) = G98 or G99
o
o
G98 returns tool to the initial Z position
Programmed n milliseconds ( 1 second = 1 OOO ms)
The dwell time s practically applicable only to 076,

082, 088 and 089 fixed cycles. lt may also apply to 074,
084 and other fixed cycles, depending on the control pa
rameter setting.
o
I I
N = o c number
.....- -B_l _ _k_ _ _ _ _ _ .
Within the range of Nl to N9999 or Nl to N99999, de
pending on the control system
Position at which the feedrate ends
Dweff time can be n the range of O.OOlto 99999.999

seconds, programmed as Pl to P99999999
Q = Address Q has two meanings

----'
.....
o
When used with cycles G73 or G83,

it means a depth of each peck
When used with cycles G76 or G87,

it means the amount of shift for boring
The addresses I and J may be used instead of address Q,

depending on the control parameter setting.
I = Shift amount
G99 returns tool to the point specified by the address R
G (second G command) = Cycle number
Oyfy one of the following G commands can be selected:
The I shift may be used instead of Q - see above.
G73
G84
G74
G85
G76 G81
G86\ G87
G82
G88
J = Shift amount
G83
G89
X = H ale position in X axis
X value can be an absolute or incremental value
Must include the X axis shift direction for

boring cycles G76 or G87
Must include the Y axis shift direction for

boring cycles G76 or G87
The J shift may be used instead of the Q - see above.
= eedrate s pe c fi catio n
= o le p osition in axis
_ _ _ _ II -F- F _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ i_ _ _ _ _
.__-Y H_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Y
Y value can be an absolute or incremental value
R = Z axis start position = R level
This value is expressed in inlmin or mmlmin, depending

on the dimensional input selection.
L ( or K) = Number of cycle repetitions
Position at which the cutting feedrate is activated
The R levei position can have an absolute value or an in

cremental value.
Applies to the cutting motion only
Must be within the range of LO - L9999 (KO - K9999)

L 1 (Kl) s the default condition
180
Chapter 25
GENERAL RULES
Programming is a very controlled discipline - it means
there are rules, there are strict conditions, there are limita
tions, and there are restrictions. CNC programming is not a
language programming but shares a lot with it. We talk
about a Fanuc or Siemens programming, a Cincinnati pro
gramming, a Mitsubishi or Mazatrol programming, for
example. Fixed cycles are miniature prograrns.
Consider fixed cycles as a set of small condensed mod
ules - modules that contain a step-by-step series of prepro
grammed machining instructions. The cycles are called
'fixed', because their internai format cannot be changed.
These program instructions relate to the specific kind of
predictable tool motion that repeats from job to job. The ba
sic rules and restrictions relating to fixed cycles can be
summed up in the following items:
o Absolute or incremental mode of dimensioning can be
established before a fixed cycle is programmed or
anytime within the fixed cycle mode.
o G90 must be programmed to select the absolute mode, the
G91 command is required to select the incremental mode.
o Both G90 and G91 modes are modal !
o lf one of the X and Y axes is omitted in the fixed cycle
mode, the cycle will be executed at the specified location
of one axis and the current location of the other axis.
o lf both X and Y axes are omitted in the fixed cycle mode,

the cycle will be executed at the current tool position.
o lf neither G98 nor G99 command is programmed for a fixed
cycle, the control system will select the default command
as set by a system parameter (usually the G98 command).
o Address P for the dwell time designation cannot use a

decimal point (G04 is not used) - dwell is always
programmed in millisecont
o lf LO is programmed in a fixed cycle block, the control
system will store the data of the block for a later use, but
will not execute them at the current coordinate location.
o The command G80 will always cancel any active fixed
cycle and will cause a rapid motion for any subsequent
tool motion command. No fixed cycle will be processed
in a block containing G80.
Example:
G80 Zl.125
G80 GOO Zl.125
isthesameas
or
GOO Zl.125
Preparatory G codes of the Group O I, namely GOO, GO I,

G02, G03 and G32 commands, are the main motion com
mands and will also cancel any active fixed cycle.
Caution: In case of combining a fixed cycle command

and a motion command of Group 01 in the same block, the
orderof programming those commands is very important:
GOO G8l X.. Y.. R.. Z.. P.. Q. L. F ..
fixed cycle is processed, while in

G81 GOO X.. Y.. R.. Z.. P.. Q.. L. F
fixed cycle is not processed, but the X and Y motions will

be performed; other values will be ignored, with the excep
tion of the F feedrate value, which is stored. Avoid such sit
uations at all costs!
1n this chapter, the individual fixed cycles are described
in detail and each cycle has an illustration of its structure.
The illustrations use shorthand graphic symbols, each with
a specific meaning. In Figure 25-2, the meaning of all sym
bols used in the illustrations is described.
-----c>
....--
/V\J\f\./\J'-
I
I
d
CW/CCW
OSS
DWELL
Rapid motion and direction

Cutting motion and direction
Manual motion and direction
Boring bar shift and direction
Programmed coordinate
Shift value I depth of peck
Clearance value
Spindle rotation
Oriented spindle stop
Dwell function executed
Figure 25-2
Symbols and abbreviations used in fixed cycles illustrations
ABSOLUTE ANO INCREMENTAL VALUES

Like all machining processes, hole machining uses either
the absolute programming mode G90 or the incremental
mode G91 for programming fixed cycles. The selection will
mainly affect the XY position of the hole, the R levei and
the Z depth - Figure 25-3.
In the absolute method of programming, all values are re
lated to the point of origin - the program zero. In the incre
mental method, the XY position of one hole is the distance
from the XY position of the previous hole. The R levei is
the distance from the last Z value, one established before
calling the cycle, to the position where the feedrate is acti
vated. The Z depth value is the distance between the R levei
and the termination of feedrate motion. At the start of any
fixed cycle, tool morion to the R levei will always be in
rapid mode.
FIXED CYCLES
INITIAL
LEVEL
--
I
zo
---- - R LEVEL
t
".
I
II
-- -
zo
181
INITIAL
LEVEL
1
R
;-,
---- ---
_L
f Z DEPTH
Example of the initial level programming:
Figure25-3
Absolute and incremental input values for fixed cyc/es
INITIAL LEVEL SELECTION

There are two preparatory commands controlling the Z
axis tool return (retract) when a fixed cycle is completed.
G98
G99
... will cause the cutting tool to retract to

the initial position = Z address designation
... will cause the cutting tool to retract to
the R levei position = R address designation
G98 and G99 codes are used for fixed cycles only. Their
main function is to bypass obstacles between holes within a
machined pattern. Obstacles may include clamps, holding
fixtures, protruding sections of the part, unmachined areas,
accessories, etc. Without these commands, the cycle would
have to be canceled and the tool moved to a safe position.
The cycle could then be resumed. With the G98 and G99
commmds, such obstacles can bc bypassed without canccl
ing the'fixed cycle, for more efficient programming.
Initial levei is, by definitio e absolute value of the Last
Z axis coordinate in the program - before a fixed cycle is
called - Figure 25-4.
---,1,
INITIAL LEVEL
---- -- -- R LEVEL
I1
,
ZO
I
I
I
I
__LJ___
Figure 25-4
lnitial leve/ se/ection for fixed cycles
Z (Z DEPTH)
From the practicai point of view, always select this posi

tion as the safe levei - not just anywhere and not without
some prior thought<;. It is important that the levei to which
the tool retracts when G98 command is in effect is physi
cally above all obstacles. Use the initial levei with other
precautions, to prevent a collision of the cutting tool during
rapid motions. A collision occurs when the cutting tool is in
an undesirable contact with the part, the holding fixture, or
the machine itself.
The following program segment is a typical exarnple of

programming the initial levei position:
N11 G90 G54 GOO X10.0 Y4.S Sl200 M03
Nl2 G43 Z2.0 HOl MOS (INITIAL LEVEL AT Z2.0)
Nl3 G98 G81 XlO.O Y4.S RO.l Z-0.82 FS.O
Nl4
N20 G80
The fixed cycle (G81 in the example) is called in block
N 13. The last Z axis value preceding this block is pro
grammed in block NI 2 as Z2.0. This is setting of the initial

position - two inches above ZO levei of the part. The Z levei
can be selected at a standard general height, if the programs
are consistent, or it may be different from one program to
another. Safety is the determining issue here.
Once a fixed cycle is applied, the initial Z levei cannot be
changed, unless the cycle is canceled first with G80. Then,
the initial Z levei can be changed and the required cycle be
called. The initial Z levei is programmed as an absolute
value, in the G90 mode.
R LEVEL SELECTION
The cutting tool position from which the feedrate begins
is also specified along the Z axis. That means a fixed cycle
block requires two positions relating to the Z axis - one for
the start point at which the cutting begins, and another for
the end point indicating the hole depth. Basic programming
rules do not allow the same axis to be programmed more
than once in a single block. Therefore, some adjustment in
the control design must be made to accommodate both Z
values required for a fixed cycle. The obvious solution is
that one of them must be replaced with a dif!eren.t address.
Since the Z axis is closely associated with depth, it retains
this meaning in all cycles. The replacement address is used
for the tool Z position from which the cutting feedrate is
appljed. This address uses the letter R. A simplified term of
reference to this position is the R Levei. Think of the R levei
in terms of 'Rapid to start point', where the emphasis is on
the phrase 'Rapid to'and the letter 'R'- see Figure 25-5.
182
Chapt er 25
__
Z DEPTH CALCULATIONS
--RLEVEL
-----+-i---'--
I
:,
zo
I
I
__ tL __ z
(Z DEPTH)
Figure 25-5
R levei se/ection for fixed cycles
The R levei is not oniy the start point of cutting feedrate,

it is aiso the Z levei to which the cutting tool will retract
upon cycle completion, if preparatory command G99 was
programmed. If G98 was programrned, the retract will be
to the initial levei. Later, the G87 backboring cycle will be
described as an exception, due to its purpose. This cycle
does not use G99 retract mode, only G98! However, for all
cycles, the R levei vaiue must be selected carefully. The
most comrnon values are .04-.20 of an inch (1-5 mm) above
the part ZO. Part setup has to be considered as well, and ad
justments to the setting made, if necessary.
The R levei usually increases about three or four times for
tapping operations using cycles G74 and G84, to allow the
feedrate acceleration to reach its maximum.
Example of R leve! programming :
N29 G90 GOO G54 X6.7 Y8.0 saso M03

(INITIAL LEVEI.. IS 1. O)
N30 G43 Zl. O H04 MOS
N31 G99 G85 RO.l Z-1.6 F9.0 LEVEI.. IS 0.1)
N32
N45 G80
The initiai levei in the example is in block N30, set to

ZI .O. The R levei is set in block N3 l (cycle call block) as
.100 inches. 1n the same block, the G99 command is pro
grarnrned and never changed during the cycle. That means
the tool position will be .100 above part zero at the start and
end of the cycle. When the tool moves from one hole to the
next, it moves along the XY axes ohly at this Z height levei
of . i 00 above work.
The R levei position is normally lower than the initial
levei position. If these two Ieveis coincide, the start and end
points are equivalent to the initial position. The R levei is
commonly programmed as an absolute vaiue, in the G90
mode, but changed into an incremental mode G9 J, if the
application benefits from such a change.
Each fixed cycle must include a depth of cut. This is the

depth at which the cutting tool stops feeding into the mate
rial. Depth is programmed by the Z address in the cycle
block. The end point for the depth cut is programmed as a Z
value, normally lower than the R levei and the initial levei.
Again, the G87 cycle is an exception.
To achieve a program of a high quaiity, always make a
special effort to program the calculated Z depth accurately i.e., exactly, without guessing its value or even rounding it
off. lt may be tempting to round-off the calcuiated depth of
.6979 to .6980 or even to .70 - avoid it! It is not a question
of triviality or whether one can get away with it. It is a mat
ter of principie and prograrnming consistency. With this ap
proach and attitude, it will be so much easier to retrace the
cause of a problem, should one develop later.
Z depth calculation is based on the following criteria:
o Dimension of the hale in the drawing (diameter and depth)

o Absolute or incremental programming method
o Type of cutting tool used + Added tool point length

o Material thickness or full diameter depth of the hale
o Sele cted clearances - above and below material
(below material clearance for through holes)
On vertical machining centers, the ZO is typically pro
gramrned as the top of finished part face. In this case, the
absolute value of Z address will always be programmed as
a negative value. Recall that the absence of a sign in an axis
address means a positive value of that address. This method
has one strong advantage. In case the programrner forgets
to write the minus sign, the depth value wll automatically
become a positive value. In that case, the cutting tool will
move away from the part, generally into a safe area. The
part program will not be correct, but can be easily cor
rected, with only a loss of time.
Example of Z depth calculation :
To illustrate a practicai exarnple of Z depth calculation,

consider the hole detail in Figure 25-6. We will use a 0.75
inch drill to make a hole, with a full depth of 2.25 inches. If
a standard twist drill is used, the tool tip has to be taken into
consideration. lts design has a typical 118 to 120 point
angle and we have to add an additional .225 inches to the
specified depth:
.3 X .75 = .225
2.25 + .225 = 2.475
Based on the resuit, the total Z depth of 2.475 inches can

be written in the CNC program:
G99 G83 X9.0 Y-4.0 RO.l Z-2.475 Ql.125 Fl2.0
FIXED CYCLES
183
00.75-1
zo
---ci
-,-'-Y-,,4...,,,
ABSOLUTE
Figure 25-6
Z depth ca/culation for a drilling fixed cycle
A peck drilling cycle G83 is used in the example for best

machining, although the R and Z values would be the same
for G8 l , G82 or G73 cycles. The tool point length calcula
tion is described in detail in Chapter 26.
DESCRIPTION-OF FIXED CYCLES

In order to understand how each fixed cycle works, it is
important to understand the internai structure of each cycle
and details of its programming format. In the following
descriptions, each fixed cycle will be evaluated in detail.
The cycle heading indicates the basic programming format
of the cycle, followed by the explanation of the exact opera
tional sequences. Common applications of each cycle will
also be described.
Ali these details are important and should be a help in un
derstanding the nature of each cycle, as well as which cycle
to select for the best machining results. As a bonus, the
knowledge of the internai cycle structure will help in de
signing any unique cycles, particularly in the area of cus
tom macro programming.
G81 - Drilling Cycle

G98 (G99) G81 X Y R Z F..
Description of G81 Cycle
Step
1
Rapid motion to XY position
Rapid motion to R levei
Feedrate motion to Z depth

Rapid retract to initial levei (with G98)
or Rapid retract to R levei (with G99)
WHEN TO USE G81 CYCLE - Figure 25-7:

Mainly for drilling and center drilling, where a dwell at the
Z depth is not required. lf used for boring, the G81 cycle will
produce a scratch mark on the hole cylinder during retract.
G98
---- i - -f-9J
O.225 ...._---,,..,,_,,_r-1c-__,,/-.'"7'-7''7'-r-:.,,._ Z-2. 25

,4',/-,,4 Z-2.475
INCREMENTAL
J G81
"#.'
- - -R0.1
....,....,.....,.......,....,....,-+----1,...,...,.....,...,...., -
0.1
2.25
'--
I
I
I
11
ZO
Z DEPTH
Figure 25-7
G87 fixed cyc/e - typical/y used for drilling
G82 - Spot-Drilling Cycle

G98 (G99) G82 X.. Y.. R .. Z P F
Step
Description of G82 cycle
Dwell at the depth - i n milliseconds (P-)
Rapid retract to initial Leve[ (with G98)

WHEN TO USE G82 CYCLE - Figure 25-8 :

Drilling with a dwell - tool pauses at the hole bottom. Used for
center drilling, spot drilling, spotfacing, countersinking, etc. anytime a smooth finish is required at the bottom of hole. Often
used when slow spindle speed needs to be programmed.
lf used for boring, the G82 cycle will produce a scratch mark
on the hole cylinder during retract.
I G82
--4
l
G98
--iG99
--
:
I
I
:
I
zo
__
tJ___ Z DEPTH
DWELL
Figure 25-8
G82 fixed cycle - typical/y used for spot drilling
184
Chapter 25
G83 - Deep Hole Drilling Cycle - Standard

G98 (G99) G83 X.. Y.. R Z Q F..
Step
Rapid retract by a clearance value

(clearance value is set by a system parameter)
Feedrate motion in Z axis by

the Q amount plus clearance
Items 4, and 5 repeat until the

programmed Z depth is reached

or Rapid retract to R leve[ (with G99)

by the amount of Q value
Rapid retract to R levei
WHEN TO USE G73 CYCLE - Figure 25-1O :
Rapid motion to the previous depth less a clearance

(clearance is set by a system parameter)
ltems 3, 4, and 5 repeat until the

programmed Z depth is reached
For deep hole drilling, also known as peck drilling, where the
chip breaking is more important than the tuli retract of the dril!
from the hole. The G73 cycle is often used for a long series
drills, when a tuli retract is not very important.
Rapid retract to initial leve[ (with G98)

The G73 fixed cycle is slightly taster than the G83 cycle, hence
the name 'high speed', because of the time saved by nat
retracting to the A level after each peck. Compare this cycle
with the standard deep hote drilling cycle G83.

For deep hole drilling, also known as peck drilling, where the
dril! has to be retracted above the part (to a clearance position)
after drilling to a certain depth. Compare this cycle with the
high speed deep hole drilling cycle G73.
__
a 1-I
l
aI
a_J
G83
----- I
t .
G98
l1
G99
----1--- --'
I
zo
I
' I I I
d
: - 1
I
I . :-====== d
_____ =
L1_!_ Z'QEPTH
Figure 25-9
G83 fixed cycle - typical/y used for deep hale drilling
{this cyc/e retracts to R levei after each peck)
G73 - Deep Hole Drilling Cycle - HighSpeed

G98 (G99) G73 X Y R.. Z.. Q.. F
Step
Feedrate motion to Z deprh

by the amount of Q value
'?'
G73
IB -
G98
G99
.------------------zo
J
aI
alIal
-i=,::==d
---------L_ Z DEPTH
Figure 25-1 O
G73 fixed cycle - typical/y used for deep hote drifling
{this cycle does nat retract to R leve/ after each peck)
Number of pecks calculation
When using cycles 083 and 073 in the program, always

have at least a reasonable idea about how many pecks will
the tool make in each hole. Unnecessary peck drilling of
hundreds or thousands of holes will accumulate the total
lost time, which can be can very significant. Try to avoid
too many pecks for a single hole. For predictable results,
the number of pecks can be calculated.
The number of pecks calculation applies equally to both
G83 and 073 fixed cycles. CaJculation of the number of
pecks in cycles G83 and 073 is based on the value of the Q
address and the total distance between the R levei and Z
depth - not from the top of part! Dividing this distance by
the programmed Q value will produce a number of pecks
the toci will make at each hole location. The number of
pecks in a cycle must be an integer and fractional calcula
tions must always be rounded upwards:
FIXED CYCLES
C Example 1 - English data :

G90 G98 G83 X . Y.. R0.1 Z-1.4567 Q0.45 F..
In the example, the distance between the R level and Z

depth is 1.5567 inches, the Q value is .450, so the number
of pecks can be calculated:
1.5567
.45 = 3.4593333
The resuit has too many decimal places and cannot be

used as is, because most controls only acceptfour decimal
places for English units and three decimal places for metric
units. The resuit must be correctly rounded upwardsl
The nearest higher integer is four, so each hole will re
quire four pecks. The hole depth cannot be changed, so the
only other available method to change the number of pecks
is to change the R levei and/or the depth of each peck. The
R levei is usually as close to the top face of part as is practi
cai, so there is not much that can be done there. That leaves
the Q value, the depth of each peck. By increasing this
value, the total number of pecks will be fewer, by decreas
ing the Q value, the total number of pecks will be higher.
C Example 2 - Metric data :

G90 G99 G73 X .. Y .. R2.5 Z-42.5 Q15.0 F..
185
The resuit of the calculation must be rounded to either
18.667 or 18.666. Although it looks that only one micron
(0.001 mm) is at stake, it will make a big difference which
way the rounding is done. If only three pecks are required,
round off upwards, to Q l 8.667:
Cut 1
Cut 2
Cut 3
18.667
18.667
18.666
Total
56 mm
If the resuit is rounded downwards, to Q 18.666, the num

ber of pecks will be four and practically no cutting will take
place during the last peck:
Cut
Cut
Cut
Cut
1
2
3
4
Total
18.666
18.666
18.666
0.002
56 mm
C Example 4 - English data :

In this example, the distance between the R levei and Z
depth is 2.5 inches and four pecks are required:
o=
2.s
.625
In this example, the distance between the R levei and Z

depth is exactly 45 mm and the Q value is 15 mm. The
In this case, no rounding s necessary, and Q0.625 will re

suit in exactly four pecks, each of identica! depth.
ln order to increase the number of pecks,

change the current Q value to a smaller number.
The peck drilling value of Q setting cannot be changed

for a single hole - all pecks in a hole will have an equal
length, with the possible exception of the Jast peck. lf the
last peck amount is greater than the remaining distance to
the programmed Z depth. only that distance will be drilled.
number of pecks will be 45 divided by 15, which equals to

the exact value of 3. No rounding is necessary and the num
ber of pecks executed per hole will be three.
ln order to decrease the number of pecks,

change the current Q value to a /arger number.
The Q value setting is more acC1:1rate, if it is actually cal

culated rather than just guessed. To achieve a precise num
ber of pecks, divide the total distance between the R levei
and Z depth by the required number of pecks. The resuit
will be the Q value programmed for the selected number of
pecks. lf rounding is necessary, always round off upwards,
otherwise the number of pecks may increase by one, with
out receiving any cycle time benefits.
Example 3 - Metric data :
1n this example, the distance between the R levei and Z

depth is 56 mm, and exactly three pecks are required. The
calculation of each peck depth is simple:
56
3 = 18.666667
No peck depth will ever exceed the Z depth coordinate position.
The programmed Q value can be manipulated in any cre

ative way. By changing the Q value skillfully, particular re
sults can be achieved, such as an exact position of the tool
tip during material penetration. This method s described in
detail in Chapter 26.
To determine the 'best' depth of peck, consider the over
all operating conditions for the job. The setup rigidity, the
parl fixturing, the design of cutting tool, the machinability
of material and other factors contribute to what the cutting
tool can withstand.
The goal in peck drilling is to make an efiicient part pro
gram under safe conditions. That means programming the
deepest Q amount that is reasonable and practicai for the
particular job and its setup. Always jeep in mind that there
are two fixed cycles available, the standard G84 and the of
ten neglected G73 cycle.
186
Chapter 25
684 - Tapping Cycle - Standard
Step
Descripton of G74 cycle
G98 (G99) G84 X.. Y.. R.. Z.. F..
The sequence of G84 fixed cycle is based on the normal

initial spindle rotation - specified by M03.
Spindle rotation stop
Spindle no
l rotation (M03)
and feedrat e ack to R levei
The tap design must be of the right hand design for the
G84 cycle with M03 spindle rotation in effect.
Descrpton of G84 cycle
Step
1
Spindle reverse rotation (M04) and

feedrate back to R levei
Spindle rotation normal (M03) and

retract to initial levei (with G98)
or remain at the R levei (with G99)

7
WHEN TO USE Gl4 CYCLE - Figure 25-12 :

Only for tapping a left hand thread. At the start of cycle,
the reverse spindle rotation M04 must be n effect.
Chapter 26 describes various techniques ofhole machin

ing, including tapping.
The following notes cover only the most important tap
ping and programming issues and apply equally to both
G84 and G74 tapping cycles:
WHEN TO USE G84 CYCLE - Figure 25- 7 7

Only for tapping a rght hand thread. At the start of cycle,
the normal spndle rotaton M03 must be n effect.
I G84
._
oo---G98
.
I
1
G99
------1----- -- SPINDLECW
------+-
Spindle rotation reverse (M04)

and retract to initial levei (with G98)
or remain at the R levei (with G99)
zo
____
f_._._____ Z DEPTH
SPINDLECCW
Figure 25-11
G84 fixed cyc/e - exc/usively used for right hand tapping
R levei should be higher in the tapping cycle than in the

other cycles to allow for the stabilization of the feedrate,
due to acceleraton.
Feedrate selection for the tap is very important.

ln tapping, there is a direct relationship between the
spindle speed and the lead of the tap - this relatonship
must be maintained at all times.
o The override switches on the control panel used for

spindle speed and feedrate, are ineffective during
G84 or G74 cycle processing.
o Tappng moton (in or out of the part) will be completed
even if the feedhold key s pressed during tappng cycle
processing, for safety reasons.
w_
!I
I G74
G98
__ _, 1 D
J
r-- -- SPINDLECCW
----, ,:
674 - Tapping Cycle - Reverse

G98 (G99 ) G74 X.. Y.. R.. Z.. F..
The sequence of G74 fixed cycle is based on the reverse
initial spindle rotation - M04.
The tai, design must be ofthe lefi hand design for the G74
cycle with M04 spindle rotation in effect.
G99
. ______ _ JJ_______
zo
Z DEPTH
-- SPINDLECW
Figure 25-12
G74 fixed cycle - exclusively used for left hand tapping
FIXED CYCLES
187
+ G85 - Boring Cycle
WHEN TO USE G86 CYCLE- Figure 25-14:

For boring rough holes or holes that require additional
machining operations. This fixed cycle is very similar to the
cycle G81. The difference is the spindle stop at the hole bottom.
G98 (G99) G85 X.. Y.. R.. Z.. F..

Step
Rapid motion to XY positjon
Feedrate motion back to R levei

or remain at R levei (with G99)
NOTE - Although this cycle is somewhat similar to the G81

cycle, it has characteristics of its own. ln the standard drilling
cycle G81, the tool retracts while the spindle of the machine
tool is rotating, but the spindle is stationary in the G86 cycle.
Never use the G86 fixed cycle for drilling - for example, to save
time - since any deposits of the material on the drill flutes may
damage the drilled surface of the part or the drill itself.
I
I
I
WHEN TO USE GB5 CYCLE - Figure 25-13 :
,t --4 G98
l
The G85 boring cycle is typically used for boring and reaming
operations. This cycle is used in cases where the tool motion
into and out of holes should improve the hole surface finish, its
dimensional tolerances and/or its concentricity, roundness, etc.
lf using G85 cycle for boring, keep in mind that on some parts
a tiny amount of stock may be removed while the cutting tool
feeds backwards. This physical characteristics is due to the
released tool pressure during retract. lf the surface finish gets
worse rather than improves, try using another boring cycle.
I
I
I
I G85
G98
k --4
G99
1
---- r--1--
zo
+ GB& - Boring Cycle

G98 (G99) G86 X.. Y.. R.. Z.. F..
Step
. ---v -:
SPINDLE CW
-9
1t
zo
DEPTH
!_.J___ ZSPINDLE
__
STOP
Figure 25-14
G86 fixed cyc/e - typical/y used for rough and semifinish
boring operations
+ G87 - Backboring Cycle

There are two programming formats available for the
backboring fixed cycle G87 - the first one (using Q) is
much more common than the second one (using I and J):
------ Z DEPTH
Figure 25-13
GB5 fixeds't!:_le - typical/y used for boring and reaming
G86
G98 G87 X .. Y.. R.. Z.. Q.. F..

G98 G87 X.. Y.. R.. Z .. I.. J .. F..
Step
Spindle orientation
Shift out by the Q value

or shift by the amount and direction of I and J
Rapid motion to XY position with spindle on
Rapid motion to R level
Shift in by the Q value

or shift back in the opposite direction of I and J
Spindle rotation on (M03)

or Rapid retract to R level (with G99)
7
8
188
Chapter 25
Spindle rotation stop (feedhold condition is

generated and the CNC operator switches to
manual operation mode and performs a manual
task, then switches back to memory mode).
CYCLE START will return to normal cycle
Rapid retract to initial levei
13
Shift in by the Q value

or shift back n the opposite direction of I and J

Spindle rotation on
14
Spindle rotation on
10
Spindle orientation
11
Shift out by the Q value

12
WHEN TO USE G88 CYCLE -Figure 25-16:

This is a_ special cycle. lt can only be used for some (not all)
backbormg operations. lts practicai usage is limited, due to the
pecial tooling and setup requirements. Use the G87 cycle only
1f the total costs can be justified economically. ln most cases,
reversal of the part in a secondary operation is an option.
The G88 cycle is rare. lts use is limited to boring operations

with special tools that require manual interference at the
bottm of a hole. When such a operation is completed, the
tool 1s moved out of the hole for safety reasons. This cycle
may be used by some tool manufactures for certain operations.
SPINDLE ON - G98
NOTE - The boring bar must be set very carefully. lt must be

preset to match the diameter required for backboring. lts
cutting bit must be set in the spindle oriented mode, facing
the opposite direction than the shift direction.
___
G99 is never used with the G87 cycle

1
I G87
, 'Y
!u
r
- -Q...
OSS,
I
----,--ZO
OSS 1 1
1...,...--zDEPTH
'.
--- ! ... t ___ R LEVEL

SPINDLE START
Figure 25-15
G87 fixed cyc/e - exclusively used for backboring
688 - Boring Cycle

G98 (G99) G88 X.. Y R Z P F
Step
Dwell at the depth - n milliseconds (P ..)
}--
SlDLE ON - G99
za
DWELLlll
zDEPTH
SPINDLE STOP
[G980NLYI
l 1
G88
Figure 25-16
GBB fixed cyc/e - used when manual operation is required
G89 - Boring Cycle

G98 ( G99) G89 X .. Y R.. Z.. P F
Step
Rapid motion to R leve[
Dwell at the depth - in milliseconds (P-)
Feedrate motion to R levei

or remain at R level (with G99)

For boring operations, when the feedrate is required for the in
and the out directions of the machined hole, with a specified
dwell at the hole bottom. The dwell is the only value that
distinguishes the G89 cycle from the G85 cycle.
FIXED CYCLES
189
lj ____
__ i ___
r98
I
1
G_9
---+----
I G89
zo
v\'...--L_____ -- z DEPTH
Figure 25-17
689 fixed cyc/e - typically used for boring or reaming
676 - Precision Boring Cycle

This is a very useful cycle for high quality holes. There
are two programming forrnats available for the precision
boring fixed cycle G76 - the first one (using Q) is much
more corrnnon than the second one (using I and J):
G98 (G99) G76 X Y R.. Z.. P.. Q.. F..
G98 (G99) G76 X Y.. R.. Z.. P.. I.. J .. F..
Step
G76
1,
-JOr-
----.t. --!- ...
--
-+- G98
6
1
9-
ZQ
DWELLf
:
OSS ----- Z DEPTH

I
Figure 25-18
676 fixed cyc/e - typica//y used for high qua/ity boring
FIXED CYCLE CANCELLATION

Any fixed cycle that is active can be canceled with the
G80 comrnand. The control mode is automatically trans
ferred to a rapid motion mode GOO:
N34 GSO
N35 XS.OY-5.75
Block N35 does not specify the rapid motion, it only im
plies it. 'This is a normal programming practice, but speci

fied GOO as well may be a personal choice, although not
necessary:
Rapid motion to R leve[
Dwell at depth- in milliseconds (P-) (ifused)
Both of the examples will produce identica! results. The

second version ofthe example may even be a better choice.
A combination of the two exarnples is also a good choice:
Spindle orientation
N34 G80 GOO XS.OY-5.75
Shift oul by the Q value

8
9
10
or remain at R levei (with
G99)
N34 GSO
N35 GOO XS.OY-5.75
In all three cases, the differences appear rather small, but

they are very important to understanding the cycles. Al
though GOO without G80 would also cancel the cycle, it is a
poor programming practice that should be avoided.
Shift n by the Q value
FIXED CYCLE REPETITION
Spindle rotation resumes
When a selected fixed cycle is programmed for many

holes, this cycle is processed only once at each hole loca
tion within a part. This is the normal condition, based on
the assumption that most holes require only one cycle per
tool. In the CNC program, there is no seif-evident special
command that would indicate how many times to process
the fixed cycle. That is true, the command is not evident,
but it does exist. In fact, the assumption is that the fixed cy
cle is to be done just once - i.e., not repeated at all.
or shift back in the opposite direction of I and J

Boring operations, usually those for hole finishing, where the
quality of the completed hole is ve,y important. The quality
may be determined by the hole dimensional accuracy, its
high surface finish, or both.
The G76 cycle is also used to make holes cylindrical and
parallel to their axes.
190
Chapter 25
Normally, the control system will execute a fixed cycle

only once at a given location - it this case, there is no need
to program the number of executions, since the system de
faults to one automatically. To repeat the fixed cycle several
times (more than once), program a special command that
'tells'the CNC system how many times you want the fixed
cycle to be executed.
The L or K Address
The command that specifies the number of repetitions
(sometimes called Loops) is programmed wth the address
L or K for some controls. The L or K address for the fixed
cycle repetition is assumed to have a value of one, which is
equivalent to a program statement LI or K1.The LI or K1
address does not have to be specified in the program.
For example, the fixed cycle call of the following drilling
sequence,
N33
N34
N35
N36
N37
N38
G90 G99
G81 Xl7.0 Y20.0 R0.15 Z-2.4 Fl2.0
X22.0
X27 .o
X32.0
G80
is equivalent to:
N33
N34
N35
N36
N37
N38
G90 G99 ...

G81 Xl7.0 Y20.0 R0.15 Z-2.4 Fl2.0 Ll (Kl)
X22.O Ll (Kl)
X27.O L1 (Kl)
X32, O Ll (Kl)
G80 ..
Both examples will provide the control system with in

structions for drilling four hole.<; in a straight row - one al
the location of X 17. O Y20.0, the other ho Ies at locations
X22.0 Y20.0 and X27.0 Y20.0, and X32.0 Y20.0 respec
tively - all to the depth of 2.4 inches.
If the Lor Kvalue in the second example is ncreased (or
rather added to the first ex ample), for instance, from LI to
L5 (or KI to KS), the fixed cycle will be repeated five times
at each hole location ! There s no need for this type of ma

chi ning. By changing the format only a little, the fixed cy
cle repetition can be usecl as a benefit - to make the program
more powerful and efficient:
N33
N34
N35
N36
G90
G81
G91
G90
G99 .
Xl7.0 Y20.0 RO.l Z-2.4 Fl2.0
XS.O L3 (K3)
G80 GOO ..
With that change, the advantage of a feature 'hidden' in

the first example is emphasized - the equal increment be
tween holes being exactJy 5.0 inches. By using the incre
mental mode, on a temporary basis in block N3 5 and em
ploying the power of the repetitive count L or K, the CNC
program can be shortened dramatically. This method of
programming is very efficient for a large number of hole
patterns in a single program. A further enhancement is to
combine the L or K count with subprograms or macros.
LO or KO in a Cycle
1n previous discussions, the default for a fixed cycle repe
tition was specfied as L1 or K 1, that does not have to be
specified in the program. Any LorKvalue other than LI or
KI must always be specified, within the allowable range of
the LorK address. That range is between LOand L9999or
KO and K9999. The lowest L/Kword is LO or KO - not LI
or KI ! Why would we ever program a fixed cycle and then
say 'do not do it'. The address LO or KOmeans exactJy that
- 'do not execute this cycle '. The full benefit of the LO/KO
word will be apparent in the examples listed under the sec
tion for subprograms, in Chapter 39.
By programming the LO or KO in a fixed cycle, what we
are really saying is not 'do not execute this cycle', but 'do
not execute the cycle yet, just remember the cycle parame
ters for future use '.
For most machining, fixed cycles are quite simple to

learn. They do, however, have some complex features,
waiting to be discovered and used in an efficient manner even for a single hole.
. MACH/NING HOLES
There is a quite good chance that the majority of pro
grams for CNC machining centers include machining of at
least one hole, probably more. From a simple spot drill to
reaming, tapping and a complex backboring, the field of
hole machining is very Iarge. In this chapter, we look at
many available programming methods for holes machin
ing, and learn a number of techniques used. Varous drilling
and boring operations, as well as reamng, tapping and sn
gle point boring will be covered.
The most common type of hole machning on CNC ma
chning centers s n the area of drilling, tapping, reaming
and sngle point boring. A typical machining procedure
may be to center drill or spot drill a series of holes, then
drill them, then tap or bore them. Machining even a sngle
hole will benefit from using the fixed cycles - G81 to G89,
G73, G74 and G76, all described in Chapter 25.
SINGLE HOLE EVALUATION

Before machining even a single hole on a machine, all re
quired tool paths have to be programmed. Before that, cut
ting tools have to be selected, speeds and feeds applied, the
best setup determined and many other related issues must
be resolved. Regardless of the exact approach, always start
with a thorough evaluation of the given hale.
The first step relates to the drawing data. That will usu
ally define the material to be machined, the hole location
and its dimensional values. Holes are often described,
rather than dimensioned and the programmer has to supply
the missing details. Figure 26-1 shows a medium complex
ity hole that can be machined using a CNC machine.
-- 05/16 DRILL THRU
/
7/16-14 NC TAP
0.875 DEEP
ll1V/
1(
I
! -I
XY location: X3.5Y5.0
Material: 1020 STEEL
Figure 26-1
Evaluation of a single hale programming example 02601
Ali the relevant information is in the drawing, but some

searching for details and other requirements is needed. The
hole location X3.5Y5.0 was specified in the drawing, as
well as the material - mild steel. The Z axis program will be
assigned to the top face of part. Drilling and tapping opera
Lions are obvous, but s that all there is to know?
How many tools will be needed? What about center drill
ng to maintain exact locaton of the hole? Is the spot drill a
better choce? What about chamfering the drilled hole for
tapping? What about the hole tolerances and surface finish?
What about ... ?
Tooling Selection and Applications

Based on the drawing information alone, it may seem
only two tools will be needed to program this hole. In real
ty, the implied information must be interpreted - it is not
the purpose of the drawing to describe howto machine the
hole - only the hole requirements related to its functionalty
and purpose. A good CNC machinist will most likely select
faur tools for the best machnng results. If four tools are
selected, the first tool could be a 90 spot drill, followed up
by the tap drill, then the through-the-hole drill and finally,
the tap. A standard center drill may be used instead of the
spot drII, but an additional tool will be required to chamfer
the hole diameter at the top. Ali choices have to be sorted.
For this example, the following four tools are used:
o
o
o
Tool 1 - TOl - 90 spot drill ( + chamfer)
Tool 4 T04 - 7/16-14 UNC tap
Tool 2 - T02 Letter U tap drill (0.368)

Tool 3 - T03 - 0 5/16 drill (through the material)
Tool 1. 90 Spot Dril/
The first tool will be a 90 spot dril!. Its purpose s dual - it

will act as a centering drill and starts up the hole at a hghly
accurate XY location. A center drill or a spot drill are much
more rigid tools than a twist drill and either one will startup
the hole, so the drill that follows will not deviate from its
path (basic hole location and concentricity requirements
are guaranteed). The second purpose of the spot drill s its
chamfering capabilities. The design of this tool allows a
chamfer to be made at the top of the hole, providing the
spot drill diameter is larger than the chamfer diameter re
qured. In this case, a 05/8 spot drill wiJl be used, suitable
to chamfer the 07/16 hole.
191
192
Chapter 26
The drawing does not specify a chamfer or its size, but a

big difference for what purpose s the tap used. Not all
good machinist will always make a small chamfer, some- tapped holes canbe done the same way. Some jobs require
times called a broken corner, unless there is a different re
a loose fit, others a tight fit. The fit for the tap s determined
quirement. A suitable chamfer will be .015x45.
by the size of the tap drill. Most tapping applications fall
into the 72-77% ful) thread depth category. In this case, the
Once the spot drill is selected, its cutting depth has tobe
T02 (letter U drill) will yield approximately 75% full
calculated - yes, calculated, not guessed. In order to
thread depth. The percentage of the thread depth can be
achieve a .015x45 chamfer for a tap size 07/16 (0.4375),
found in catalogues of all tap manufacturers. For example,
the tap diameter has tobe enlargedby .015 per side (.03 on
these are the choces for the 7/16-14 tap:
diameter), to the .4675 chamfer diameter. Figure 26-2
shows the relationships of the hole to the tool used (diame
Drill 0
Decimal Value
Full Thread%
ters and depth).
T
.3580
86%
r
00.625 SPOT DRILL (90 )
23/64
.3594
84%
-r1
0.015x45
le-''
t
--'xc==:c=/
0.2338
------'Z-0.2338 j
l
I
00.4375 TAP
1
.--- - 00.4675 CHAMFER
1--!j-
Figure 26-2
Spot dril/ operation detail - TOT in program 02601
Note, that for a 90 drill, the depth of cut will be exactly

one half of the chamfer diameter (0 x 0.5):
or
or
.4675 I 2
.4675 x .5 = .23375
Z-0 .2338
Drill point length is discussed later in this chapter.
.3680
75%
3/8
.3750
67%
.3770
65%
In general terms, for thin material stock, 75 to 80% full

thread depth s recommended, for very thin stock even
I 00%. A thread that has 53% depth will, in most cases,
break the boit before t strips it. A full I 00% thread is
stronger by only 5% than a 75% thread, but the machine
power required for tapping s three tmes higher.
The programmed Z depth of the tap drill has to be deep
enough to guarantee the required full thread depth of .875.
That means theJuli diameter of the drill has to reach a little
deeper, for example, to .975 depth. That allows the end
chamfer length of the tap to be below the full tap depth of
.875, specified in the drawing. Figure 26-3 shows the tap
drill values graphically.
Tool 2 - Tap Dril/
00.368 TAP DRILL (U)
Logically, the second tool wll have tobe a dril I. In the ex

ample, two drills have to be used for the job - one for the
through hote (05/16 = 0.3125), the other one for the tap
(letter U drill = 0.368). The question is - which one first?
Does it really matter?
It certainly does matter which drll s programmed first.
The key here is the difference between the two drill dia
meters. It is a very small difference, only .0555 measured
on diameter, in fact. From a machining point of view, it
makes sense to use the Larger drill first, than the smaller
drilI. The tap drill is larger than the through hole drill, so the
T02 willbe the tap dril I. If the smaller drill is programmed
first, the larger drill that follows may produce an inaccurate
hote, due to a very small amount of material to remove.
Now comes the question of the first drill size. The drill n
question is called a tap drill. It is the dril! that will create a
round hole of proper size (diameter and depth) that can be
used for the tap that follows the sequence of operatons.
Since the machining operation calls for tapping, it makes a
1.5
P = 0.111
_i
---llZ-1.086j
Figure 26-3
Tap dril/ operation detail - T02 in program 02601
The actual programmed depth for the tap drill will have to
take into consideration one more factor - the drill point
length. The drill or - tool - point length is sometimes abbre
viated as TPL or justby the letter P. This chapter contains a
MACHINING HOLES
193
table showing various mathematical constants to calculate

drill point length - the most common constant uses the drill
diameter multiplied by .300, for a 118 dril! point angle:
p = .368
.300 = .1104 = .1110
Adding the two calculations (.975+. J l 1), will provide the

pro_grammed Z depth of Z-1.086.
Tool 3 Through Dril/
The next tool is a tool that drills the hole through the ma
terial. In the example, it is the T03 (tool 3), a 05/16 stan
dard dril!.
As for the cutting depth of the through dril!, some simple
calculations are needed. To do the calculations, the re
quired hole depth has be known, which is 1.5 inches in the
example. Then, the calculated drill point length can be
added to the required dril! depth, usually with an extra
clearance.
The calculations for this through drilling operation are il
lustrated in Figure 26-4 .
r-1- 05/16 DRILL THRU

--r7=+77"""T
1.5
0:
I
-im--.--.-
c/,, . ,
y
0 98610 6
8
R-LEVEL I
I
J___......_---+-'--'/- =
CLEARANCE = 0.050
rZ-1.644
1-..p = 0.094
Figure 26-4
Through dril/ operation detai/ - T03 in program 02601
First, evaluate the dril! point length P. It is calculated from

the relationship of two given values - the drill diameter and
the dril! point angle. For a standard 05/16 drill (0.3125)
that has 118 dril! point angle, the 0.300 constant is used
again, the length of the dril! point P is:
p
.3125 X .300
.09375
.0938
.094
For the through hole in the example, the drawing depth of

1.5 inches plus the calculated depth of .094 seems tobe suf
ficient to dril! the hole using the selected tap dril!.
In most through-hole applications, this value will not be

sufficient - some extra clearance has to be added, applied to
the tool penetration (breakthrough), say fifty thousands of
an inch (.050). The programmed value for the total drill
depth (absolute Z value in the program) is the sum of the
nominal hole length, plus the tool point angle length, plus
the selected clearance. In the program example, amount for
the through dril! depth will be:
Depth = 1.5 + .094 + .OS
1. 644 or Z-1. 644 in the program
One last calculation for this tool still has to be made. Re

member that the previous toci had been used to predrill an
opening? That means a smaller tool of 0.3125 is placed
into an existing 0.368 hole. The drilling can start from in
side of the hole, rather than from a clearance above the part.
In the program, the R value is used and selected at R-0.986,
which applies .100 clearance above the bottom of the exist
ing hole.
Tool 4 - Tap
There is one more tool left to complete this example. lt

will be used for tapping the 7I16-14 thread. The thread size
as specified in the drawing is 7I16 nominal diameter with
14 threads per inch (1/14 = .0714 = pitch). Anytime a tap
ping tool is used in the program, watch the programmed
depth along the Z axis, particularly in a blind or semi-blind
hole. The example shows a semi-blind hole, because the
through-hole is smaller than the tapped hole. If there were
no through-hole, we would have a blind hole (solid bot
tom), and if the through-hole were the same size as the tap
drill, we would have a I 00% through hole.
A through-hole is the most forgiving for the Z depth cal
culation, closely followed hy the semi-through hole. A
blind hole has very little latitude, if any, and has to be pro
grammed with a maximum care.
The example drawing for the hole calls for the tap depth
of .875 inches. This is the full depth of the thread. Full
depth of a thread is the actual distance a screw or a nut must
travel before stopping (before retract). The programmed
depth is, if fact, an extended depth, which must be greater
than the theoretical depth, in order to achieve this goal. To
calculate the length of the extended depth, evaluate the tap
end chamfer design (its type and length), described in more
detail in the tapping section of this chapter.
A reasonable Z depth is Z-0.95 (about one pitch over the
depth) and can be optimized after actual machining. This is
not really a calculation but an 'intelligent guess' - there is
not much else that can be done and extensive experience
helps. This completes the section on tooling application for
a typical hole and provides enough data to write the actual
program. Some of the procedures used in the example will
now be explained in more detail.
194
Program Data
1n the example, only one hole s machined. If more holes
are needed, they can be added by modifying the following
program. For one hole used in the example, the program in
cludes all considerations for the four tools selected earlier.
The spindle should be empty at the beginning of program:
02601 (SINGLE HOLE EXAMPLE)
(TOl - 5/8 DIA - 90 DEGREE SPOT DRILL)
N1 G20
N2 Gl7 G40 G80 TOl
N3 M06
N4 G90 G54 GOO X3.5 YS.O S900 M03 T02
NS G43 Z0.1 HOl MOS
N6 G99 G82 R0.1 Z-0.2338 P300 F4.0
N7 G80 Zl.O M09
NS G28 Zl.O MOS
N9 MOl
(T02 - LETl'ER U DRILL - 0.368 DIA DRILL)
NlO T02
Nll M06
N12 G90 G54 GOO X3.5 YS.O S1100 M03 T03
N13 G43 Z0.1 H02 MOS
N14 G99 G83 R0.1 Z-1.086 Q0.5 F8.0
NlS G80 Zl.O M09
N16 G28 Zl.O MOS
N17 MOl
(T03 - 5/16 DRILL THROUGH - 0.3125 DIA)
N18 T03
N19 M06
N20 G90 G54 GOD X3.5 YS.O S1150 M03
N21 G43 Z0.1 H03 MOS
N22 G98 G81 R-0.986 Z-1.644 F8.0
N23 G80 Zl.O M09
N24 G28 Zl.O MOS
N25 MOl
(T04 - 7/16-14 TAP)
N26 T04
N27 M06
N28 G90 G54 GOD X3.5 YS.O S750 M03 TOl
N29 G43 Z0.4 H04 MOS
N30 G99 G84 R0.4 Z-0.9 F53.57
(F = S x LEAD)
N31 G80 GOO Zl.O M09
N32 G28 Zl.O MOS
N33 GOO X-1. O YlO.O
(PART CHANGE POSITION)
N34 M30
Chapter 26
Drilling is one of the oldest operations n a typical ma. chine shop. By definition, drilling is a removal of solid ma
terial to form a circular hole of the same diameter as the
cutting tool (drill). The material removal is achieved by ei
ther rotating the drill (on milling systems) or by rotating the
part tself (on turning systems). In either case, a vertical or
horzontal machinng application is possble. In a rather
loose sense of the word, drilling operations also cover the
extended areas of reaming, tapping and single point boring.
Many programming principles that apply to drilling opera
tions, can be equally applied to all the related operations.
Types of Drilling Operations

The drilling operation is determned by either the type of
hole or the type of tool:
By the type of tool
By the type of hole
Center dril!
Through hale
Spot drill
C hamfered hale
Twist dril! (HSS, cobalt, etc.)

Spade dril!
Carbide indexable drill
Special dril!
li
Semi-blind hale
Blind hale
Premachined hale
li
...
+ Types of Drills
Drills are categorized by their design and by their size.
The oldest and the most common design is aJwist drill,
usually made of high speed steel. Twist drll can also be
made of cobalt, carbide and other materials. Other drill de
signs include spade drills; center drills, spot drills and in
dexable insert drills. The distinction in size s not only be

tween metric and English drills, but also a finer distinction
within the category using English units. Ali metric drills
are designated n millimeters. Since the English (imperial)
dimensioning s based on inches (which is rather a large di
mensional unit), finer distinctions are necessary. The inch
dimensions of standard drills in English units are divided
into three groups:
o FRACTIONAL SIZES :
1/64 minimum, in diameter increments of 1/64
This rather detailed example shows that even a simple

single hole requires a lot of thought and a great deal of pro
gramming and machining skills.
o NUMBER SIZES :
DRILLING OPERATIONS
o LETIER SIZES :
The example 02601 provides a good illustration of what

kind of programming and machining conditions are neces
sary for a typical hole. Next, let's look at the details of drill
ing operations in general, as they relate to various tools.
li
li
Dril! size number 80 to dril! size number 1

Dril! size letter A to dril! size letter Z
Metric sizes do not need any special distinctions. For
English sizes, a listing of the standard drills and their deci
mal equivalents is available from many sources.
195
MACHINING HOLES
+ Programming Considerations
A standard drill has, regardless of size, two important
features - the diameter and the point angle. The diameter is
selected according to the requirements of the drawing, the
tool point angle relates to the material hardness. They are
both closely connected; since the diameter determines the
size of the drilled hole, the tool point angle determines its
depth. A smaller consideration is the number of flutes,
which is normally two.
Nominal Drill Diameter

The major consideration for a drill is always its diameter.
Normally, the drill diameter is selected based on the infor
mation in the drawing. If the drawing calls for a hole that
needs only drilling and does not need any additional ma
chining, the drill is a standard dril!. Its diameter is equiva
lent to the size specified in the drawing. A drill size of this
kind is called a nominal or 'off-the-shelf' size.
Most applications involve holes that require other specifi
cations in addition to their diameter - they include toler
ances, surface finish, chamfer, concentricity, etc. In those
cases, a single regular drill cannot be used alone and still
satisfy all requirements. A nominal drill alone, even if the
size s available, will not guarantee a high quality hole, due
to machi ning conditions. Choosing a multitool technique to
machine such a hole is a better choice. The normal practice
in those cases is to use a drill size a bit smaller than the final
hole diameter, then use one or more additional tools, which
are capable of finishing the hole to the drawing specifica
tions. These tools cover boring bars, reamers, chamfering
tools, end mills and others. Using these tools does mean
more work is involved, but the quality of the finished part
should never be traded for personal conveniences.
+ Effective Drill Diameter

In many cases, a drill s used to penetrate itsfull diameter
through the part. In many other cases, only a small portion
of the drill end point is used - a portion of the angular drill
tip - Figure 26-5.
NOMINAL
DRILL DIAMETER
During the cut, the drill angular end will be gradually

entered into the part, creating an increasingly larger hole
diameter, yet still smaller than the drill diameter. At the
end, the largest machined diameter will be equivalent to the
ejfective diameter of the drill used. The ejfective drill diam
eter defines the actual hole diameter created within the zone
of the drill end point. Typical use of this kind of machining
is a spot drilling operation for chamfering. The spindle
speed and feed must be calculated according to the ejfective
drill diameter, not the full diameter. The rlmin for the effec
tive diameter will be higher and the feedrate lower than the
corresponding values for the nominal drill size. For this
kind of jobs, selection of a short drill for r.igidity is advised.
+ Drill Point Length

The second important consideration s the Length of the
drill point. This length is very important to establish the
cutter depth for the full diameter. With the exception of a
flat bottom drill, all twist drills have an angular point whose
angle and length must be known in programming. The an
gles are considerably standard and the length must be cal
culated rather than estimated, because of its importance to
the accurate hole depth - Figure 26-6.
--1
Figure 26-5
Nominal and effective dril/ diameters (twist dril/ shown)
r--
00 = Orill
diameter
A = Tool point
angle
p = Tool point
length
'-
Figure 26-6
Tool point length data for a standard twist dril/
On indexable insert drills this length is different, due to

the dril! construction. The indexable drill is not flat and its
drill point length must also be considered in programming.
A tooling catalogue shows the dimensions.
The drill point length can be found quite easily, providing
the diameter of the drill (nominal or effective) and the drill
point angle are known. From the following formula and the
table of constants, the required drill point Jength for stan
dard drills can be calculated. Basic formula is:
PROGRAM MED
DEPTH (P)
EFFECTIVE
DRILL DIAMETER
00
tan ( 90 :;::
A
2
where ...
p
A
D
:;::
:;::
Length of the drill point

lncluded angle of the drill point
Diameter of the drill
)
X
196
Chapter 26
The same formula can be simplified and used with a

mathematical constant (fixed for each drill point angle):
p ;:: D
where ...
K<F
P
O
K
=
=
Dril! point length

Drill diameter
Constant (see the following table)
The most cornmon constants are listed in this table:

T ool Point Angle
(degrees)
Exact
Constant
Practicai
Constant (K)
60
.866025404
. 866
82
.575184204
.575
90
.500000000
.500
118
.300430310
.300
120
.288675135
.289
125
.260283525
.260
130
.233153829
.230
135
.207106781
.207
140
.181985117
.180
145
.157649394
.158
150
.133974596
.134
The constant in the formula is rouncierl, hut its shorter

value is sufficient for all prograrnming applications. The
value of the constant K for 118 drill angle is .300, the real
value s .30043031O. The constant value has the advantage
of being easy to memorize and there is no formula to solve.
For most jobs, only three constants are needed. For 90
(spot drilling and soft materials), 118 (standard materials),
and 135 (hard materials). They are easy to memorize:
o
0.500 ... for a 90 drill angle
0.300 ... for a 118 - 120 drill angle
0.200 ... for a 135 drill angle
+ Center Drilling
Center drilling is a machining operation that provides a
small, concentric opening for a tailstock support or a pilot
hole for a larger dril!. Chamfering is not recommended
with a center drill, because of the 60 angle of the tool.
Never center a hole to be drilled with indexable insert drills !
The most common tool for center drilling is a standard

center drill (often called a combined dril! and countersink),
producing a 60 angle. Established North American indus
trial standards use a numbering system from #00 to #8
(plain type) or#11 to#18 (beli type) for center drills. In the
metric system, center drills are defined by the pilot diame
ter, for example, a 4 mm center drill will have the pilot dia
meter of 4 mm. In both cases, the higher the number, the
larger the center drill diameter. For some pre-drilling oper
ations, such as chamfering, a toci with a 90 point angle,
called a spot drill, s a better choice.
Many programmers only estimate the depth of a center
drill, rather than calculate it. Perhaps a calculation s not
necessary for a temporary operation. What is a reasonable
compromise between guessing and calculating is a data ta
ble, similar to that in Figure 26-7.
__
,I-
D2
-- ------ D
f-4-
Number
#1
#2
#3
#4
#5
#6
#7
#8
L_
01
0.125
0.188
0.250
0.312
0.438
0.500
0.625
0.750
_j
02
0.047
0.078
0.110
0.125
0.188
0.218
0.250
0.312
0.100
0.150
0.200
0.250
0.350
0.400
0.500
0.600
D1
'I
0.106
0.163
0.219
0.269
0.382
0.438
0.538
0.651
Figure 26-7
Standard center dril/ cutting depth table - # 1 to #8 p/ain type
L is the depth of cut for an arbitrary effective diameter D
In the table, there are all the necessary dimensions for

standard English size center drills. The most important of
them is the cutting depth L. Its calculation has been based
on an arbitrary selection of the chamfer diameter D.
For example, #5 center drill has the depth value L that is
listed as .382, based on an arbitrarily selected chamfer dia
meter D of .350 inches. These values can be modified as
desired or a different table can be made. A similar table can
be developed for metric center drilJs
+ Through Hole Drilling

Drilling a hole through the material is a very common op
eration. It requires the Z depth to include the material thick
ness, the drill point length and an extra clearance beyond
the drill penetration point, also known as the breakthrough
amount.
MACHINING HOLES
197
r--J-
f%1
j_
1.25 + (.750 X .300) = 1.4750
'--"-+-----,--+-......
/.....
-r
--p
In the part program, the block will be

N93 GOl Z-1.475 F6.0
or - n case of a fixed cycle,
N93 G99 GSS X5.75 YS.125 R0.1 Z-1.475 F6.0
1-
Metric holes are treated exactly the same way. For exam
ple, a 016 mm drill is used to machine the full diameter
depth of 40 mm. The calculation uses the same constant as
for the size in English units:
40 + (16 X .300) = 44.8
Figure 26-8
Dril/ depth calculation data
Through ho/e (top) and Blind hote (bottom)
The depth specified in the drawing will have to be ex

tended by the calculated drill point length. The pro
grammed block will have the Z axis value equal to the total
of the 40 mm specified depth, plus the 4.8 mm calculated
point length:
In Figure 26-8 is shown that the programmed depth for a

through hole is the sum of the material thickness T, that is
equivalent to the fu)) diameter depth F, plus the break
through clearance C, plus the tool point length P.
N56 GOl Z-44.8 Fl50.0
For example, if the material thickness is one inch and the

standard drill diameter D is 05/8 (0.625) of an inch, the
programmed depth, including a .050 clearance, will be:
N56 G99 G81 X215.0 Y175.0 R2.S Z-44.8 FlSO.O
1 + .050 + (5/8 X .300) = 1.2375

Pay anention to obstructions (machine table, vise, paral
lels, fixture, machine table, etc.), when programming the
tool breakthrough clearance. There is usually a very little
space below the bonom face of the parl.
+ Blind Hote Drilling

The major difference between drilling a blind hole and a
through hole is that the drill does not penetrate the material.
Blind hote drilling should not present any more problems
than a through hale drilling, but use a peck drilling method
for deep holes. Alsa a choice of a different drill geometry
may improve the machining and the hole cleanup may of
ten be necessary as well.
ln a typical shop drawing, the depth of a blind hale is
given as the Juli diameter depth. The dril I point length is not
normally considered to be part of the depth - it is in addi
tion to the specified depth. 1n Figure 26-8, the programmed
depth of a blind hole will be the sum of the ful) diameter
depth F, plus the tool point length P.
As an example, if a standard 03/4 drill (0.750) is used to
drill a ful) diameter hole depth of 1.25 of an inch, the pro
grammed depth will be:
lf the depth appears in a fixed cycle, the same depth value

will be used, although in a different format:
When machining blind holes, the cutting chips may dog
the hoIes. This may cause a problem, especially if there is a
subsequent operation on the hole, for example, reaming or
tapping. Make sure you include a program stop code MOO
or MO I before this operation. The MOO is a better choice, if
each hole will have to be cleaned every time the program is
'executed. Otherwise, the more efficient optional program
stop MO I is sufficient.
Fiat Bottom Drilling

Fiat bottom hole is a blind hale with a bottom at 90 to the
drill centerline. There are two common methods of pro
gramming such a hole. A good practice is to use a standard
drill to start the hole, then use a flat bottom drill of the same
diameter and finish the hole to its ful) depth. Also a good
choice is to use a slot drill (alsa known as the center cutting
end mill), without predrilling. This is the best method, but
some tool sizes may not be available.
To program a flat bottom hole using a slot drill s quite
simple. For example - a 010 mm hole should be 25 mm
deep (with a flat bottom). Using a 010 mm slot drill, the
program is quite short (tool in spindle is assumed):
02602 (FI.AT BOTTOM - 1)
Nl G21
N2 Gl7 G40 GSO
N3 G90 G54 GOO X. Y.. S850 M03
N4 G43 Z2.5 HOl MOS
198
NS
N6
N7
N8
N9
%
GOl
G04
GOO
G28
M30
Chapter 26
Z-2S.O F200.0
XO.S
Z2.S M09
Z3.0 MOS
A fixed cycle could be used instead and other improve

ments added as well, but the program is correct as is.
The next example shows a program for-two tools - a 01/2
inch standard drill and a 01 /2 inch tlat bottom dril I. The re
quired finished depth is Z-0.95 at the flat bottom:
02603 (FLAT BOTTOM - 2)
(TOl - Y. INCH STANDARD DRILL)
Nl G20
N2 Gl7 G40 G80 TOl
N3 M06
N4 G90 G54 GOO X . Y S700 M03 T02
NS G43 ZO.l HOl M08
N6 GOl Z-0.94 F9.0
N7 GOO ZO.l M09
N8 G28 Z0.1
N9 MOl
(T02 - Y. INCH FLAT BOTTOM DRILL / END MILL)
NlO T02
Nll M06
Nl2 G90 GS4 GOO X.. Y.. S700 M03 TOl
Nl3 G43 Z0.1 H02 M08
Nl4 GOl Z-0.74 FlS.O
NlS Z-0.9S F7.0
Nl6 G04 XO.S
Nl7 GOO ZO.l M09
Nl8 G28 ZO.l MOS
Nl9 M30
%
There are three blocks of special interest in program

02603. The first block is N6, indicating the depth of the
standard drill. The drill stops short of the full depth by .OJO
of an inch. Z-0.94 is programmed instead of the expected
Z-0.95. A little experiment as to how short may be worth it.
A reason for not drilling to the full depth with the standard
drill s to prevent possible dimple mark at the hole center.
The other two blocks appear in the second tool of the pro
gram - blocks N l4 and N15. In block N14, the flat bottom
drill feeds at a heavier feedrate to the depth of only .740
inches. That makes sense, as there is nothing to cut for the
flat bottom drill for almost 3/4 of an inch. Follow the calcu
lation of the O.7 40 intermediate depth from this procedure:
From the total depth of .94 cut by the standard drill (TO 1 ),
subtract the length of the tool point P. That is .15 for a 118
drill point angle and 0.5 dril!. The resuit is .79. From the
resuit, subtract .05 for clearance, and the resuit is the Z axis
value of Z-0.74. In the block NIS, the flat bottom drill re
moves the excessive material left by TOl , at a suitable cut
ting feedrate, usually programmed at a slower rate.
From the machining viewpoint, programming a center

drill or a spot drill first to open up the hole may be a better
choice. This extra operation will guarantee concentricity
for both the standard drill and the flat bottom dril!. Another
possible improvement would be to use a suitable end mill
instead of a flat bottom dril!. An end mill s usually more
rigid and can do the job much better.
lndexable Insert Drilling

One of the great productivity improvement tools in mod
ern machining is an indexable insert dril!. This drill uses
carbide inserts, just like many other tools for milling or
turning. It is designed to drill holes in a solid material. It
does not require center drilling or spot drilling, it is used
with high spindle speeds and relatively slow feedrates and
is available in a variety of sizes (English and metric). In
most cases, it is used for through holes, although blind
holes can be drilled as well. This type of a drill can even be
used for some light to medium boring or facing.
The design of the indexable insert drill is very precise,
assuring constant tool length, as well as elimination of
regrinding dull tools. Figure 26-9 shows the cutting portion
of a typical indexable dril!.
'----4
I
'-
D = DRILL DIAMETER
H = DRILL POINT LENGTH
Figure 26-9
Cutting end of a typica/ indexable insert dril/
1n the illustration, the diameter O of the drill is the hole

size produced by the dril!. The tip point length H is defined
by the drill manufacturer and its amount is listed in the tool
ing catalogue. For example, an indexable drill with the D
diameter of 1.25, may have the H tip length .055. The
indexable drill can be used for rotary and stationary appli
cations, vertically or horizontally, on machining centers or
lathes. For best performance, the coolant should be pres
sure fed through the drill, particularly for tough materials,
Iong holes, and horizontal operations. The coolant not only
disperses the generated heat, it also helps tlush out the
chips. When using an indexable insert drill, make sure there
is enough power at the machine spindle. The power re
quirements at the spindle increase proportionally with in
creased drill diameters.
On a machining center, the indexable drill is mounted n
the machi ne spindle, therefore it becomes a rotating tool. In
this setup, the drill should be used in a rigid spindle that
199
MACHINING HOLES
runs true - no more than .010 inch (0.25 mm) ofT.I.R. (To
tal Indicator Reading). On spindles that have a quill, try to
work with the quill inside the spindle, or extend it as little as
possible. Coolant provisions may include an internai cool

ant, and special adapters are available for through the hole
cooling, when the drill is used on machining centers.
On a CNC lathe, the indexable drilling tool is always sta
tionary. The correct setup requires that the drill is posi
tioned on the center and be concentric with the spindle cen
terline. The concentricity should not exceed .005 inch
(0.127 mm) ofT.I.R.
Always exercise care when the drilling operation starts

on a surface that is not flat. For best results, use indexable
drills on surfaces that are 90 to the drill axis (tlat surfaces).
Within limits, the drill can also be used to enter or exit an
inclined, uneven, concave, or convex surface quite success
fully.The feedrate may need to be reduced for the duration
of any interrupted cut. The Figure 26-/ O shows the areas
where the feedrate should be slower.
PECK DRILLING
Peck drilling is also called interrupted cut drilling. It s a
drilling operation, using the fixed cycles 083 (standard
peck drilling cycle) or 073 (high speed peck drilling cy
cle). The difference between the two cycles is the tool re
tract method. 1n 083, the retract after each peck will be to
the R levei (usually above the hole), n 073, there will only
be a small retract (between .02 and .04 inches).
Peck drilling is often used for holes that are too deep to be
drilled with a single tool motion. Peck drilling methods
also offer severa! opportunities to improve the standard
drilling techniques as weU. Here are some possible uses of
the peck drilling methods for machining .holes:
o Deep hole drilling
o Chip breaking - also used for short holes in tough materials
o Cleanup of chips accumulated on the flutes of the drill
o Frequent cooling and lubricating of the drill cutting edge
o Controlling the drill penetration through the material
---iI
F/2
F/2
I
F/2
In all cases, the drilling motions of the 083 or 073 cycle

produce an interrupted cut that can be programmed very
simply by specifying the Q address value in the cycle. This
value specifies the actual depth of each peck. The smaller
tbe Q value, the more pecks will be generated and vice
versa. For most deep hole drilling jobs, the exact number of
pecks is not important, but there are cases when the peck
ing cycle needs to be controlled.
Typical Peck Drilling Application

b
F/2
F/2
Figure 26-1 O
Uneven entry or exit surface for indexab/e drills feedrate:
F = normal feedrate, F/2 = reduced feedrate (one half of FJ
1n the illustration, the letter F identifies the area that is cut

wth the normal feedrate (normal entry/exit), and the F/2
indicates the area that requires a reduced feedrate. For the
reduced feedrate, programming one half of the normal
feedrate is sufficient.
1n the illustration, the frame a shows a tilted surface entry
(inclined surface), the b frame shows an uneven surface,
and the frames c and d show convex and concave surfaces
respectiveiy.
An indexable drill should always be used
in a fully protected machining area.
For the majority of peck drillng applications, the peck

drilling depth Q needs to be only a reasonable depth. For
example, a deep hole (with the depth at Z-2.125 inches at
the tool tip) is drilled with a .250 diameter dril! and .600
peck depth. The 083 cycle may be programmed like this:
Nl37 G99 G83 X.. Y R0.1 Z-2.125 Q0.6 F8.0
These programming values are reasonable for the job at

hand - and that is all that matters. For most jobs, the number
of pecks is usually not too important.
+ Calculating the Number of Pecks

If the number of pecks the 083/073 cycle will generate is
important, it has to be calculated. The knowledge of how
many pecks will resuit with a certain Q value for a gven to
tal depth s usually not important. lf the program is running
efficiently, there is no need for a modification. To find out
how many pecks the 083/073 cycle will generate, it s
important to know the total distance the drill travels be
tween the R levei and the Zdepth (as an incremental value).
It is equally important to know the peck depth Q value.The
Q divided into the travel distance is the number of pecks:
200
Chapter 26
The resuit of l .339/3 is .446333333 - a number that has to

be rounded to the maximum of four decimal places (Eng
lish units). Mathematically correct rounding to four deci
mal places will be .4463. Follow individual peck depths to
see what will happen:
where ...
P"
Number of pecks
=
tool travel distance
Total
Td
Q = Programmed peck depth
For example, n the following G83 cycle,

N73 G99 G83 X.. Y.. R0.125 Z-1.225 Q0.5 F12.0
the total drill travel distance is 1.350, divided by .500,

which yields 2.7. Since the number of pecks can only be
positive, the nearest higher integer will be the actual
number of pecks, in this case 3.
Selecting the Number of Pecks

Much more common is the programming of a .desired
number of pecks. If only a certain number of pecks will do
the job in the most efficient way, the Q value has to be cal
culated accordingly. Since the Q value specifiesthe depth
of each peck and not the number of pecks, some simple
math will be needed to select the depth Q, so it corresponds
to the desired number of pecks.
For example - we require 3 pecks in the following cycle what will the Q depth be?
N14 G99 G83 X. Y.. R0.1 Z-1.238 Q. F12.0
The total drill travel from the R levei to the Z depth is

1.338. To calculate the peck depth Q value, the new for
mula is similar to the previous one:
Peck 1
Peck 2
Peck 3
Peck 4
.4463
.4463
.4463
. 0001
Using the above formula, the resuit of 1.338/3 is .446.

Therefore, G83 block Q depth will be Q0.446:
N14 G99 G83 X . Y.. R0.1 Z-1.238 Q0.446 F12.0
No rounding is necessary in this case. Now, let's have a

clase look at another situation, where the travel distance
has changed very slightly:
N14 G99 G83 X Y. R0.1 Z-1.239 Q.. F12.0
.4463
.8926
1.3389
1.3390
There will be faur pecks and the last one will only cut
.0001 - or practically nothing at all. In those cases, where
the last cut is very small and inefficient, always round the
calculated Q value upwards, in this case to the minimum of
.4464 or even to .447:
N14 G99 G83 X. Y.. R0.1 Z-1.239 Q0.447 F12.0
Always remember, the cutting tool will never go past the

programmed Z depth, but it could reach this depth in a very
inefficient way that should be corrected.
Controlling Breakthrough Depth

Less frequent programming method, also very powerful,
is to use the peck drilling cycle to control the breakthrough
of the drilJ through the material, regardless of the drill size
or material thickness. Here is some background. In many
tough materials, when the drill starts penetrating the bot
tom of the part (for a through hole), it creates potentially
difficult machining conditions. The drill has the tendency
to push the material out rather than cut it. This is most com
mon when the drill is a little dull, the material is tough, or
the feedrate is fairly high. These adverse conditions are also
the resuit of heat generated at the drill edge, the lack of lu
brication reaching the drill cutting edge, worn-off flutes
and severa( other factors.
The possible solution to this problem is to relieve the drill
pressure when it is about halfway through the hole, but nat
completely through - Figure 26-1 I.
--i
where ...
Programmed peck depth
Q
=
T otal tool travel distance
Td
P" = Number of required pecks
accumulated depth
accumulated depth
accumulated depth ...
accumulated depth ...
.-
00.5
_,,,,,- R0.1
----
I 1-
---@J
ao.925 o.75
I
1 0.05 CLEAR
I
J
i
i _---=:=--=
fZ-0.825
Z-0.95
Figure 26-11
Control/ed breakthrough of a hale using G83 peck drilling cycle
MACHINING HOLES
Peck drilling cycle G83 is great for it, but the Q depth cal
culation is extremely important. The total number of pecks
is not important, only the last two are criticai for this pur
pose. To control the problem associated with the drill pene
tration, only two peck motions are needed. The illustration
shows the two positions for a 01/2 dril! drill through a 3/4
thick plate.
For most jobs, such a hole requires no special treatment.
Just one cut through (using G81 cycle) and no peck drill
ing. Let'Stevaluate the solution to this situation. The 0.5
drill has the point length of .300 x .500 = .150. Take one
half (.075) of the drill point Jength as the first penetration
amount, which will bring the dril! .075 below the 3/4 plate
thickness, to the Z depth of Z-0.825. This depth has to be
reached with the value ofthe Q depth. Keep in mind that the
Q depth is an incremental value, measured from the R
levei, n this case RO. I. That specifies the Q depth as
Q0.925 (. l 00 above and .825 below ZO). The programmed
Z depth is the final drill depth. lf the .05 clearance is added
below the plate, the Z depth will be the sum of the plate
thickness (. 75), the clearance ( .05) and the drill point length
(.150), for the program value of Z-0.95:
G99 G83 X. Y.. R0.1 Z-0.95 Q0.925 F ..
This technique does not only solve a particular job re

lated problem, it also shows how creativity and program
ming are complementary terms.
REAMING
The reaming operations are very clase to the drilling op
erations, at least as far as the programmjng method is con
cerned. While a drill is used to make a hole (to open up the
hole), a reamer is used to enlarge an existing hole.
Reamers are either cylindrical or tapered, usually de
signed with more than two flutes of different configura
tions. Reamers made of high speed steel, cobalt, carbide
and with brazed carbide tips. Each reamer design has its ad
vantages and disadvantages. Carbide reamer, for example,
has a very high resistance to wear, but may be not economi
cally justified for every hole. A high speed steel reamer s
economical, but wears out much faster that a carbide
reamer. Many jobs do not accept any compromise in the
tooling selection and the cutting tool has to be selected cor
rectly for a given job. Sizing and finishing tools, such as a
reamer, have to be selected even more carefully.
Reamer is a sizing tool and s not designed for removal of
heavy stock. During a reaming operation, an existing hole
will be sized - reamer will size an existing hole to close tol
erances and add a high quality surface finish. Reaming will
not gl.iarantee concentricity of a hole. For holes requiring
both high concentricity and tight tolerances, center drill or
spot drill the hole first, then drill it the normal way, then
rough bore it and onJy then finish it with a reamer.
201
A reaming operation will require a coolant to help make a
better quality surface finish and to remove chips during cut
ting. Standard coolants are quite suitable, since there is not
very much heat generated during reaming. The coolant also
serves in an additional role, to tlush away the chips from
the part and to maintain the surface finish quality.
+ Reamer Design
1n terms of design, there are two features of a reamer that
have a direct relationship to the CNC machining and pro
gramming. The first consideration is the flute design.
Most reamers are designed with a left-hand flute orienta
tion. This design is suitable to ream through holes. During
the cut, the left-hand tlute design 'forces' the chips to the
bottom of the hole, into an empty space. For blind holes
that have to be reamed, the left-hand type of a reamer may
not be suitable.
The other factor of the reamer design is the end chamfer.
ln order to enter an existing hole that is still without a
chamfer, a lead-in allowance s required. The reamer end
provides that allowance. Some reamers also have a short
taper at their tip, for the same purpose. The chamfered lead
is sometimes called a 'bevel Lead'and its chamfer an 'attack
angle'. Both have to be considered in programming.
+ Spindle Speeds for Reaming

Just like for standard drilling and other operations, the
spindle speed selected for reaming must be closely related
to the type of material being machined. Other factors, such
as the part setup, its rigidity, its size and surface finish of the
completed hole, etc., each contributes to the spindle speed
selection.
As a general programming rulc, thc spindle speed for
reaming will be reasonable if you use a modifying factor of
.660 (2/3), based on the speed used for drilling of the same
material. For example, if a speed of 500 r/min produced
good drilling conditions, the two thirds (.660) of that speed
will be reasonable for reaming:
500 x .660 = 330 r/min
Do not program a reaming motion n the reversed spindle

rotation - the cutting edges may break or become dull.
+ Feedrates for Reaming

The reaming fee-drates are programmed higher than those
used for drilling. Double or triple increases are not unusual.
The purpose of the high feedrates is to force the reamer to
cut, rather than to rub the material. If the feedrate is too
slow, the reamer wears out rapidly. The slow feedrates
cause heavy pressures as the reamer actually tries to en
large the hole, rather than remove the stock.
202
Chapter 26
Stock Allowance
Stock is the amount of material left for finishing opera
tions. A hoJe to be reamed must be smaller (undersize) than
the pre-drilled or pre-bored hole - a logical requirement.
Programmer decides how much smaller. A stock too small
for reaming causes the premature reamer wear. Too much
stock for reaming increases the cutting pressures and the
reamer may break.
A good general rute is to leave about 3% of the reamer
diameter as the stock allowance. This applies to the hole
diameter - not per side. For example, a 3/8 reamer (0.375),
will work well in most conditions if the hote to be reamed
has a diameter close to .364 inches:
.375 - (.375 x 3 / 100)
.36375
.364
Most often, a drill that can machine the required hote di

ameter exactly will not be available. That means using a
boring bar to presize the hole before reaming. It also mean
an extra cutting tool, more setup time, longer program and
other disadvantages, but the hote quality will be worth the
effort. 1n these cases, for tough materials and some of the
'space age' materials, the stock allowance left n the hote
for reaming, is usually decreased.
Other Reaming Considerations

The general approach for reaming is no different than for
other operations. When drilling a blind hole, then reaming
it, it is inevitable that some chips from the drilling remain in
the hote and may prevent a smooth reaming operation.
Using the program stop function MOO before the reaming
operation allows the operator to remove alt the chips first,
for a clear entry of the reamer.
The reamer size is always important. Rcamers are often
made to produce either a press fit or a slip fit. These terms
are nothing more than machine shop expressions for cer
tain tolerance ranges applied to the reamed hote.
Programming a reamer requires a fixed cycle. Which cy
cle will be the most suitable? There is no reaming cycle de
fined directly. Thinking about the traditional machining ap
plications, the most accepted reaming method is thefeed-in
and feed-out method. This method requires a feedrate mo
tion to remove the material from the hote, but it also re
quires a feedrate morion back to the starting position, to
maintain the hote quality - its size and surface finish. It may
be tempting to program a rapid motion out of a reamed hole
to save cycle time, but often at the cost of quality. For the
best machining, the feed-out of the reamed hole is neces
sary. Suitable fixed cycle available for the Fanuc controls s
G85, which permitsfeed-in andfeed-out motions. The cut
ting feedrate of the cycle will be the same for both motions.
Any feedrate change will affect both motions - in and out.
SINGLE POINT BORING

Another sizing operation on holes is called boring. Bor
ing, in the sense of machining holes, is a point-to-point op
eration along the Z axis only, typical to CNC milling ma
chines and machining centers. It is also known as a 'single
point boring ', because the most common tool is a boring
bar that has only one cutting edge. Boring on CNC Jathes is
considered a contouring operation and is not covered n this
chapter (see Ch apters 34-35).
Many jobs requiring precision holes that have previously
been done on a special jig boring machine can now be done
on a CNC machining center, using a single point boring
tool. The modern CNC machine tools are manufactured to
very high accuracy, particularly for the positioning and re
peatability - a proper boring tool and its application can
produce very high quality holes.
Single Point Boring Tool

As for its practicai purpose, a single point boring is afin
ishing, or at least a semifinishing, operation. Its main job is
to enlarge - or to size - a hote that has been drilled, punched
or otherwise cored. The boring tool works on the diameter
of the hote and its purpose is to produce the desired hote di
ameter, within specified tolerances, often with a quality
surface finish as well.
Although there s a variety of designs of boring tools on
the market, the single point boring tool is usually designed
for the cartridge type inserts. These inserts are mounted at
the end of the holder (i.e., a boring bar) and usually have a
built-in micro adjustment for fine tuning of the effective
boring diameter - Figure 26-12.
ili
I
,,
"'*"
[__ o-
D = EFFECTIVE
BORE DIAMETER
Figure 26- 72
Effective diameter of a single point boring too/
The same programming techniques are applied to the

boring bars of other designs, for example, a block tool. A
block tool is a boring bar with two cutting edges, J 80
apart. If the adjusting mechanism for the diameter s not
available on the tool holder, the effective boring diameter
must be preset, using either a special equipment, or the
slow but true and tried trial-and-error method. This trial
and error setup is not that unusual, considering the setup
methods that are available for a single point boring bar.
MACHINING HOLES
203
Just like any other cutting tool, a single point boring bar
achieves the best cutting results if it is short, rigid and runs
concentric with spindle centerline. One of the main causes
of poorly bored holes is the boring bar deflection, applying
equally to milling and turning. The tool tip (usually a car
bide bit), should be properly ground, with suitable cutting
geometry and overall clearances. The position of the boring
bar in the spindle - or its orientation - is very important for
many boring operations on machining centers.
+ Spindle Orientation
Any round tool, such as a drill or an end mill, can enter or
exit a hole along the Z axis, with little programming con
siderations for the hole quality. Neither of the tools is used
for holes that demand high quality surface finish and close
tolerances. With boring, the hole surface integrity is very
important. Many boring operations require that the cutting
tool does not damage the hole surface during retract. Since
retracting from a hole almost always leaves some marks in
the hole, special methods of retract must be used. There is
one such method - it uses cycle G76 or G87 with the spin
dle orientation feature of the machine and a shift of the bor
ing tool away from the finished surface. This feature was
already described in Chapter 12, so just a reminder now.
The sole purpose of spindle orientation is to replace the
tool holder in exactly the same position after each tool
change. Without spindle orientation, the tool tip will stop at
a random position of its circumference. Orienting the spin
dle for boring purposes is only one half of the solution. The
other is the setting position of the boring bit. This is usually
a responsibility of the operator, since it has to be done dur
ing setup at the machine. The boring bar cutting bit must be
set in such a way that when the shift takes place in fixed cy
cle G76 or G87, it will be into the direction away from the
finished hole wall, itleally by Lhe XY vector relative to the
angle of the spindle orientation - Figure 26-13.
CUTTING
BIT
I 10EAL TOOL SHIFT DIRECTION
Programming a bored hole that will be reamed Jater

requires the boring bar only to assure the concentricity and
straightness of the finished hole. The surface finish of the
bored hole is not too important. If the boring is the fast ma
chining operation in the hole, the chances are that the sur
face finish will be very important. It is difficult to retract the
boring tool without leaving drag marks on the hole cylin
drical surface. In that case, select a suitable fixed cycle,
probably the precision boring cycle G76 is the best choice.
+ Block Tools
When using a single point boring bar for roughing or
semifinishing operations, there is an option that is more ef
ficient. This option also uses a boring tool, but one that has
two cutting edges (180 opposite) instead of one - it is
called a block tool. Block tools cannot be used for fine fin
ishing operations, because they cannot be shifted. The only
way of programming a block tool is within the 'in-and-out'
tool motion. Severa! fixed cycles support this kind of mo
rion. Ali motions 'in 'are at a specified feedrate. On the way
'out', some motions are feedrates, others are rapid, depend
ing on the cycle selection. The cycles that can be used with
block tools are G81 and G82 (feed-in-rapid-out), as well as
G85 and G89 that feeds in and feeds out while the machine
spindle is rotating and another one, G86, when the tool re
tracts while the spindle is not rotating.
The greatest advantage of a block tool s the increased
feedrate that can be programmed for this tool. For example,
if the feedrate for a single point tool is .007 per flute, for a
block tool it will be at least double, .014 inches per flute or
more. Block tools are generally available in diameters from
about 0.750 inch and up.
BORING WITH A TOOL SHIFT
A I SPINDLE ORIENTATION ANGLE I
I fliJr
When the machine spindle is oriented, it must be in a

stopped mode. The spindle cannot rotate during any ma
chining operation that requires a spindle shift. Review de
scriptions of the fine boring fixed cycle G76 and the back
boring cycle G87 in Chapter 25. Machine.operator must
always know which way the spindle orients and into which
direction the tool shift actually moves.
Figure 26-13
Sing/e point boring bar and the spindle orientation angle
Spindle orientation is factory designed and ftxed. Pro

grammer considers its length and, usually, its direction.
There are two fixed cycles that require the tool shift away
from the centerline of current hole. These cycles are boring
cycles G76 and G87. G76 is by far the most useful and both
are illustrated together in program example 02604.
+ Precision Boring Cycle G76

The G76 cycle is used for holes requiring a high quality
of the size and surface finish. The boring itself is normal,
however, the retract from the hole is special. The boring bar
stops at the bottom of the hole in an oriented position, shifts
away by the Q value in the cycle and retracts back to the
starting position, where it shifts back to its normal position.
Chapter 26
The G76 cycle has been described in detail in the previ
ous chapter. In this chapter is an actual programming ex
ample, shown as a single hole in Figure 26-14 - 025 mm.
027
-025
CUTTING DIAMETER
-,,-- BODY DIAMETER
BACK CLEARANCE
I --1
i---1 -'---i
----;----.,,---,--.,.--, --zo
----lnitial level
r--- - - -1-i-;
Figure 26-14
Drawing for G76 and G87 programming example - program 02604
From the drawing, only the 25 mm bole is considered,

and the program input will be quite simple:
N.. G99 G76 XO YO R2.0 Z-31.0 Q0-3 F125.0
A hole bored with G76 cycle will have a high quality.
+ Backboring Cycle 687

Although the backboring cycle has some applications, it
is not a common fixed cycle. As the name suggests, it is a
boring cycle that works in the reverse direction than other
cydes - from rhe back of the part. Typically, the backboring
operation starts at the bottom of the hole, which is the 'back
of the part', and the boring proceeds from the bottom up
wards, in the Z positive direction.
The G87 cycle has been described in the previous chap
ter. The Figure 26-14 also shows a diameter of 27 mm,
which will be bored during the same setup as the 25 mm
hole. This larger diameter is at the 'back side of the part',
and it will be backbored, using the G87 cycle.
Figure 26-15 shows the setup of the tool that will bore
the 27 mm hole, from the bottom of the hole, upwards. Pay
a close attention to the descriptions.
In the illustration, the DI represents the diameter of the
smaller hole, and D2 represents the diameter of the hole to
be backbored. D2 is always Jarger than DI . Always make
sure there is enough clearance for the body of the boring
bar within the hole and at the hole bottom.
Figure 26-15
Setup considerations for a backboring too/
+ Programming Example
In order to show a complete program, four tools will be
used - spot drill (TOJ ), drill (T02), standard boring bar
(T03) and a back boring bar (T04). Program is 02604.
02604 (G76 AND GS7 BORING)
(TOl - 15 MM DIA SPOT DRILL - 90 DEG)
N1 G21
N2 Gl7 G40 GSO TOl
N3 M06
N4 G90 G54 GOO XO YO Sl200 M03 T02
NS G43 ZlO.O HOl MOS
N6 G99 G82 R2.0 Z-S.O P100 FlOO.O
N7 GSO ZlO.O M09
NS G2S ZlO.O MOS
N9 MOl
(T02 - 24 MM DIA DRILL)
NlO T02
Nll M06
N12 G90 G54 GOO XO YO S650 M03 T03
N13 G43 ZlO.O H02 MOS
N14 G99 GSl R2.0 Z-39.2 F200.0
NlS GSO ZlO.O M09
N16 G2S ZlO.O MOS
N17 MOl
(T03 - 25 MM DIA STANDARD BORING BAR)
NlS T03
N19 M06
N20 G90 G54 GOO XO YO S900 M03 T04
(25 DIA)
N22 G99 G76 R2.0 Z-31.0 Q0.3 F125.0
N23 GSO ZlO.O M09
N24 G2S ZlO.O MOS
N25 MOl
MACHINING HOLES
205
(T04 - 27 MM DIA BACI< BORING BAR)

N26 T04
N27 M06
N28 G90 G54 GOO XO YO S900 M03 TOl
N30 G98 G87 R-32.0 Z-14.0 Ql.3 Fl25.0 (27 DIA)
N31 G80 ZlO.O M09
N32 G28 ZlO.O MOS
N33 G28 XO YO
N34 M30
%
Make sure to follow all rules and precautions when pro

gramming or setting up a job with G76 or G87 fixed cycles
in the program.'Many of them are safety oriented.
Precautions in Programming and Setup
The precautions for boring with a tool shift relate to a few
special considerations that are necessary for successful re
alization of the two cycles G76 and G87. The following I ist
sums up the most important precautions:
o The through boring must be done before the backboring
o The first boring cycle (G76) must be programmed
all the way through the hole , never partially
o For the G76 cycle, only a minimum Q value is required
(ex., 0.3 mm or .0 12 inches)
o
For the G87 cycle, the Q value must be greater than one
half of the difference betwe en the two diameters:
(02-01 )/2 = (27-25)/2 = 1,
plus the standard minimum Q value (0.3 mm)
part to be accurately seated in the hole by creating a clean

surface. For example, a boit head that has to be seated on a
tlat surface will require countersinking or spotfacing op
eration. Ali three operations require a perfect alignment
with the existing hole (concentricity). Programming tech
nique is basically the sarne for all three operations, except
for the tool used. Speeds and feeds for these tools are usu
ally lower thart for drills of equivalent size. Any hole to be
enlarged must exist prior to these operations.
Countersinking
Countersinking is an operation that enlarges an existing
hole in a conica! shape, to a required depth. Countersinking
is used for holes that have to accommodate a conica! boit
head. Frorn all three similar operations, countersinking re
quires the most calculations for precision depth. Typical
countersinks have three angles:
o
60 degrees
o 82 degrees - the most common angle

a 90 degrees
Other angles are also possible, but less frequent.
To illustrate the programming technique and the required
calculations, the cutting tool used must be known first. Fig
ure 26-16 shows a typical countersinking tool.
o Always watch for the body of the boring bar, so it does

not hit the hole surface during the shift. This can happen
with large boring bars, small holes, or a large shift amo unt.
a Always watch the body of the boring bar, so it does not

hit an obstacle below the part. Remember that the tool
length offset is measured to the cutting edge, not to the
actual bottom of the boring tool.
o G87 is always programmed in G98 mode,

never in G99 mode !!!
o Always know the shift direction and set the tool properly
ENLARGING HOLES
An existing hole can also be enlarged from the top. To
enlarge an existing hole at the top, we can use one of three
methods that will enlarge an existing hole. These methods
are common in every machine shop. They are:
a Countersinking
C'SINK or CSINK on drawings
o Counterboring
C'BORE or CBORE on drawings
o Spotfacing
SF, S.F., or S/F on drawings
Ali three machining methods will enlarge an existing

hole, with one common purpose - they will allow the fitting
Figure 26-16
Typica/ nomenc/ature of a countersinking tao/
In the illustration, dis the countersink body diameter, A is

the countersink angle, F is the diameter of the tool tlat
(equal to zero for a sharp end), l is the body length.
Programming of a countersink requires certain data in the
drawing. This information is often provided through a de
scription (leader/text) in the drawing, for example:
.78 DIA CSINK - 82 DEG
13/32 DRILL THRU
206
Chapter 26
There is one challenge for prograrnming a countersink.

The specified countersink diameter must be accurate. That
is the 0.78 in the description. The countersink angle is
82 . The precise diameter can be created by carefully cal
culating the Z depth. That should nat be tao difficult, be
cause we can use the constant values K for the tool point
length (described earlier in this chapter), then calculate the
cutting depth, similar to drills. The problem here is that the
constant K for a drill point always assumes a sharp point at
the tool tip. Countersinking tools do not always have a
sharp point (except for some small sizes). Instead, they
have a diameter of the flat F, normally specified in tooling
catalogues.
The process of calculation is simple enough. First, deter

mine the height e, for a given flat diameter F. Use the stan
dard constants as applied to a drill point length:
Figure 26-17 illustrates an example of a countersink re

quirement, shown in a typical drawing.
= .1875 X .575
e = .1078
@-
--0.625
O.OOO
ci
ci
-.00.78CS1NK-82
13/32 DRILL THRU
'// ' /j: -
-O.OOO
0.750
Figure 26-17
Programming example of a countersinking operation
Figu.re 26-18 shows the known and unknown counter

sinking dimensions required for depth programming of a
countersink.ing tool.
-1
---+- ! Z-DEPTH I
f_
,----'
_j
In the illustration, D is the required countersink diameter,

A is the countersink angle, F is the tlat diameter, e is the
height of the sharp end, and the Z-DEPTH is the pro
grammed tool depth. In this case, the angle A is 82 , the flat
diameter F as per catalogue is 3/16 (.1875). The height of
the sharp end e can be calculated:
(K for 82
= .575)
Z depth
.78
.575
.4485
Since that depth inelu.des the height of sharp end, all that
has to be done to find out the Z depth, is to subtract the e
value from the theoretical Z depth:
Z depth
.4485 - .1078
.3407
This is the programmed Z depth and the program block

for the countersink in the drawing may look something like
this:
N35 G99 G82 X0.75 Y0.625 RO.l Z-0.3407 P200 F8.0
Incidentally, the R levei could be lowered, since there is a

through hote already machined in the previous operation.
Be careful here, the R levei will most likely be negative. Al
way.s program the 098 command and a small initial levei,
for example, ZO. I:
N34 G43 ZO.l H03 MOS
(0.1 IS INITIAL LEVEL)
N35 G98 G82 X0.75 Y0.625 R-0.2 Z-0.3407 P200 F8.0
-----A
i___
.866
.575
.500
The Z depth for a tool with a sharp end will be:
"-
o
o
o
60 =
82 =
90 =
F--
Figure 26-18
Data required for ca/cu/ating the Z depth of a countersink,
for given diameters O and F and the angle A
DO NOT make the R value tao deep !
+ Counterboring
Counterboring is an operation that enlarges an existing
hole in a cylindrical shape to the required depth. Counter
boring s used for holes that have to accommodate a round
boit head. It s often used on uneven or rough surfaces, or
surfaces that are not at 90 to the boit assembly. As for the
proper tool selection, use a counterboring tool specially de
signed for this type of machining, or a suitable end mill
instead. 1n either case, the program uses 082 fixed cycle.
Since the depth of the counterbore s always given, there
are no extra calculations required. Figure 26-19 shows a
typical counterboring description.
MACHINING HOLES
207
01/2 DRILL THRU

00.72 CBORE - 0.25 DEEP
Handling this programming problem s not difficult, once

the available options are evaluated. The options are two
preparatory commands - 098 and 099, used with fixed cy
cles exclusively. Recall that the 098 command will cause
the cutting tool to return to the initial leve[, the 099 com
mand will cause the cutting tool to return to the R levei. In
practicai programming, the 098 command is used only in
cases where an obstacle between hoIes has to be bypassed.
Figure 26-19
Programming examp/e of a counterboring operation
For the example, the 01/2 inch hole had been machined
earlier. The program block will be quite simple:
N41 G99 G82 X.. Y . R0.1 Z-0.25 P300 FS.O
In counterboring, if a relatively slow spindle speed and

fairly heavy feedrates are used, make sure the dwell time P
in 082 cycle is sufficient. The rule of thumb s to program
the double value or higher of the calculated minimum
dwell. Minimum dweJI D,,, is:
60
r I min
For example, if the spindle speed is programmed as 600
r/min, the minimum dwell will be 60/600=0.1, and doubled
to 0.2 in the program, as P200. Doubling the minimum
dwell value guarantees that even at 50% spindle speed
override, there will be at least one full revolution of the
spindle that cleans up bottom of the counterbored hole.
Many programmers choose to use a slightly longer dwell
time, for more than one or two revolutions at the bottom.
G98
MULTILEVEL DRILLING
On many occasions, the same cutting tool will have to be
programmed to move up and down between different
heights (steps on a part). For example, a drill will cut holes
that have the same depth, but start at different heights.
This kind of programming requires two major conditions

- the tool should be programmed efficiently (no time loss)
and must be programmed safely (no collision).
NOT REQUIRED
Figure 26-20
Too/ morion direction between holes at ditferent heights
Figure 26-20 illustrates two programming possibilities,

in a symbolic representation. The front view of a stepped
part shows the direction of tool motion between holes. On
the left, the motion from one hole to the next could cause a
collision with the wall and 098 is required for safety. On
the right, with no obstacles, 098 is not required, and 099
can be used. The setting for the initial levei is usually done
n the 043 block, where the Z value must represent a clear
tool location above al! obstacles.
A practicai example of this technique is illustrated in Fig
ure 26-21 and program 02605.
Spotfacing
Spotfacing is virtually identica! to counterboring, except

that the depth of cut s very minimal. Often, spotfacing s
called shallow counterboring. Its purpose s to remove just
enough material to provide a flat surface for a head of a
boit, a washer, or a nut. Programming technique is exactly
the same as that for counterboring.
G98
REQUIRED
00
OLO
ON
ci ci
I
I
03/16
DRILL THRU
,....
ex:,
I.O
,....
o::>
lO
<D
.....
lO
C\i
I
I
- 1.625
- ' -9- --,---t--j- - - -cp-- - 1.125
-Ep - i - -E;)---- - 0.750
--e- -(9
-e--
,
$--- - o.375
---+! ---+! --'--+----'-----+--'
-- O. OOO
........... ---- 0.00

0.15--- ,...,....,.....,....,.,
-0.40
0.501.00 - .,,_,_..................'-'-''+"-""-'-..r...;..L-"'
Figure 26-21
Muftifeve/ drilling - programming examp/e 02605
208
Chapter 26
Two tools are used - TO I is a 90 spot drill, cutting to the

depth of .108 below each step face. T02 s a 03/16 drill
through, programmed to the absolute depth of Z-1.106:
02605 (MULTILEVEL EXAMPLE)
(TOl - 0.375 SPOT DRILL - 90 DEG)
N1 G20
N2 Gl7 G40 GSO T01
N3 M06
N4 G90 G54 GOO X0.25 Y0.375 S900 M03 T02
NS G43 Zl.O HOl MOS
N6 G99 GS2 R-0.4 Z-0.60S P200 FS.O
N7 YO.75
NS Yl.125
N9 G9S Yl.625
NlO G99 XO.S75 R-0.05 Z-0.2SS
Nll Yl.125
Nl2 G9S Y0.375
N13 G99 Xl.6S75 RO.l Z-0.lOS
Nl4 Y0.75
NlS Yl.625
Nl6 X2.4375 Yl.125 R-0.3 Z-0.50S
N17 Y0.375
NlS GSO Zl.O M09
Nl9 G2S Z1.0 MOS
N20 MOl
(T02 - 3/16 DRILL THRU)
N21 T02
N22 M06
N23 G90 G54 GOO X2.4375 Y0.375 SlOOO M03 TOl
N24 G43 Zl.O H02 MOS
N25 G99 GS3 R-0.3 Z-1.106 Q0.35 FlO.O
N26 G9S Yl.125
N27 G99 Xl.6S75 Yl.625 RO.l
N2S YO.75
N29 Y0.375
N30 X0.875 R-0.05
N31 Yl.125
N32 Yl.625
N33 X0.25 R-0.4
N34 Yl.125
N35 Y0.75
N36 Y0.375
N37 G80 Zl.O M09
N3S G2S Zl.O MOS
N39 GOO X-2.0 YlO.O
N40 M30
%
Study the program in detail. Watch the drection of tools TO1 starts at the lower left hole and ends at the lower right
hole, in a zigzag motion. T02 starts at the lower right hote
and ends at the lower left hote, also in a zigzag motion.
Note there are more G98 or G99 changes for the first tool
than the second tool. In multilevel hole machining under
stand three areas of program control, used in 02605:
o G98 and G99 control

o R levei control
o
Z depth control
WEB DRILLING
Web drilling is a term for a drillng operation taking place
between two or more parts, separated by an empty space.
The programming challenge is to make such holes effi
ciently. It would be easy to program one motion tbrough all
the separate parts as well as the empty spaces. For many
holes, this approach would prove to be very inefficient.
Evaluate the front view of a web drilling example shown n
Figure 26-22.
Tool point length = 0.075
Clearance = O.OS
Figure 26-22
Web dri/fing exampfe (front view) - program 02606
1n the program, Xl.OYl.5 is used as the hole position.

Drawng will not show the R levels or Z depths, they have
to be calculated. 1n the example, clearances above and be
low each plate are .05, except the first R levei (R0.1). The
length of the 01/4 drill point is .3 x .25 = .075.
02606 (WEB DRILLING)

(TOl - 90-DEG SPOT DRILL - 0.5 DIA)
N1 G20
N2 Gl7 G40 G80 T01
N3 M06
N4 G90 G54 GOO Xl.O Yl.5 S900 M03 T02
NS G43 Zl.O HOl M08
N6 G99 G82 RO.l Z-0.14 P250 F7.0
N7 G80 Zl.O M09
N8 G28 Zl.O MOS
N9 MOl
(T02 - 1/4 DIA DRILL)
N10 T02
Nll M06
N12 G90 GS4 GOO Xl.O Yl.S Sl100 M03 T01
Nl3 G43 Zl.O H02 MOS
N14 G99 G81 RO.l Z-0.375 F6.O
(TOP PLATE)
(MIDDLE PLATE)
Nl5 R-0.7 Z-1.25
N16 G98 R-1.575 Z-2.0
(BOTTOM PLATE)
N17 G80 Zl.O M09
NlS G28 Zl.O MOS
N19 M30
%
MACHINING HOLES
Note that a single'1e has required three blocks of the

program, rather than the usual one. Each block represents
only one plate n the part. Also note the G98 in block Nl6.
Only one hole s done n the example, so the G98 is not re
ally needed. The cycle cancellation command G80 with a
return motion n block NJ7 would take care of the tool re
tract from the hole. However, if more holes are machined,
move the tool to the new XY position before the G80 s pro
grammed. In this case, the G98 s needed when the drills
penetrates the last plate of the part. This example is not a
perfect solution to web drilling cuts, as there s still some
wasted motion. The only efficient programming method s
to use the optional custom macro technique and develop a
unique and efficient web drilling cycle.
TAPPING
Tapping s second only to drilling as the most common
hole making operation on CNC machining centers. As it s
very common to tap on a CNC mill or a machining center,
two tapping fixed cycles are available for programming ap
plications on most control systems. They are the G84 cycle
for normal tapping (RIH), and the G74 cycle for reverse
tapping (UH):
G84
Normal tapping - for righr hand threads

with M03 spindle rotation
G74
Reverse tapping - for lefr hand threads

with M04 spindle rotation
The following example shows that programming a tap

ping for one hole s similar to other fixed cycles. Ali the
tool motions, including spindle stop and reversal at the hole
bottom are included in the fixed cycle:
N64
N65
N66
N67
G90 G54 GOO X3.5 Y7.125 S600 M03 T06

G43 Zl.O HOS M08
G99 G84 R0.4 Z-0.84 F30.0
G80
Is it possible to teii the tap size used? It should be. 1n the

example, the tap size s a standard, 20 TPI (twenty threads
per inch), plug tap. The XY coordinates are missing from
the G84 cycle, because the current tool position has been
established n block N64. The usual R levei s the thread
starting position and the Z depth is the absolute depth of
thread. The last address in the block is feedrate n inches
per minute (in/min), programmed with the F address.
Note that the R levei of R0.4 has a value that is somewhat
higher than might be used for drilling, reaming, single
point boring and similar operations. Also, the programmed

feedrate appears to be unreasonably high. There is a good
reason for these values - they are both correct and selected
intentionally.
209
The higher clearance for the R levei allows acceleration
of the feedrate from O to 30 inches per minute to take place
in the air: When the tap contacts the part, cutting feedrate
should be at its programmed value, not less. A good rule of
thumb is to program the tapping clearance about two to
four times the normal clearance. This clearance will guar
antee the feedrate to be fully effective when the actual tap
ping begins. Try to experiment with a slightly smaller num
ber, to make the program more efficient. Another good
method is to double, triple, or quadruple the pitch of the tap
and use that value as the clearance above the tap. Which
ever method s used, its purpose is to eliminate the feedrate
problems associated with motion acceleration.
Another question was the feedrate amount. The relatively

high value of 30 in/min (F30.0) has also been carefully cal
culated. Any cutting feedrate for tapping must be synchro
nized with the spindle speed - the rlmin programmed as the
S address. Keep n mind that the tap is basically aform tool
and the thread size and shape are built into it. Later in this
chapter, the relationship between the spindle speed and the
feedrate is explained in more detail. The cutting feedrate F
in the program example was calculated by multiplying the
thread lead by the spindle speed given as r/min:
F
20 TPI x 600 r/min
30.0 in/min
Another way to calculate feedrate is to divide the spindle

speed (r/min) by the number of threads per inch (TPI):
F = 600 r/min
20 TPI = 30.0 in/min
The quality of the tapped hole is alsQ important, but it is

not influenced solely by the correct selection of speeds and
feeds, but by several other factors as well. The material of
the tap, its coating, its geometry, the flute clearances, the
helix configuration, the type of the start-up chamfer, the

material being cut - and the tap holder itself - all have a very
profound effect on the final quality of the tapped hole. For
best results n tapping, a floating tap holder s mandatory,
unless the CNC machine supports rigid tapping. The tloat
ing tap holder design gives the tap a 'feel', similar to the
fee! that s needed for manual tapping. A floating tap holder
has is often called the tension-compression holder and ts
applications are the same for both milling and turning op
erations. This type of holder allows the tap to be puiied out
of it or pushed into it, within certain range. The only notice
able difference s the mounting method of the tool (tool ori
entation) n the machine (either vertical or horizontal).
High end floating tap holders also have an adjustable
torque, which can change the fee) of the tap and even the
range of the tension and compression.
Tappng applications on CNC lathes are similar to those
on machining centers. A special tapping cycle for a lathe
control is not needed, as only one tap size can be used per
part. Each tapping motion is programmed with the G32
command and block-by-block method.
210
Chapter 26
CNC lathe tapping is different but not monidifficult than

tapping for CNC machining centers. Be6u-se it does not
use fixed cycles, programmers make some common errors.
This chapter uses examples for tapping on CNC lathes in a
sufficient depth.
Tap Geometry
There are literally dozens of tap designs used in various
CNC programming applications. A whole book would eas
ily be filied just on the topic of tapping tools and their appli
cations. For CNC programming, only the core bas ies of tap
geometry are important.
There are two considerations in tap design that directly
influence the programming and the data input values:
o Tap flute geometry
o Tap chamfer geometry
Tap Flute Geometry
The flute geometry of a tap is described in tooling cata

logues in terms such as 'low helix', 'high helix', 'spiral
flute', and others. These terms basically describe how the
tap cutting edges are ground into the body of the tap. When
programming a tapping operation, the effectiveness of the
flute geometry is tied to the spindle speed. Experimenting
with the tapping feedrate is limited by the tap lead (pitch),
but there is a greater latitude with the spindle speed selec
tion. The part material and the flute geometry of the tap
both influence the machine spindle speed. Since almost all
tooling designs (not limited to taps only) are the results of
corporate policies, engineering decisions and philosophies,
various trade names and marketing strategies, there is not a
one way of saying 'use this tool' or 'use that tool' for a CNC
program. The tooling catalogue of a tool supplier s the best
source of technical data, but a catalogue from another sup
plier may provide a better solution to a particular problem.
Information gathered from a catalogue is a very good start
ing base for the data in the CNC program. Keep in mind
that the all taps share some common characteristics.
Tap Chamfer Geometry
Tap chamfer geometry relates to the end con:figuration of

the tap. For CNC programming, the most important part of
the tap end point geometry is the tap chamfer.
In order to program a desired hole correctly, the tap must
be selected according to the specifications of the hole being
tapped. If tapping a blind hole, a different tap is required
than for tapping a through hole. There are three types of
taps, divided by their end geometry configuration:
a
Bottoming tap
Plug tap
o Taper tap
r,----,-1
C
TAPERED
PLUG
1C
BOTTOMING
Figure 26-23
Typical tap end - chamfer geometry configuration
The major difference between the taps is the length of the

tap chamfer. Figure 26-23 shows how the characteristics of
the drilled hole will influence programmed depth of the se
lected tap.
The tap chamfer length c is measured as the number of
threads. A typical number of threads for a tapered chamfer
is 8 to 10, for a plug tap 3 to 5, and for a bottoming tap I to
1.5. The angle of the chamfer a also varies for each type;
typically 4-5 for the tapered tap, 8-13 for the plug tap and
25-35 for the bottoming tap.
A blind hole will almost always require a bottoming tap,
a through hole will require a plug tap in most cases and a ta
per tap in some rarer cases. Described in different words,
the larger the tap chamfer, the greater depth allowance must
be added to each drilled hole.
Tapping Speed and Feedrate

The relationship of the machine spindle speed (r/min)
and the programmed cutting feedrate is extremely impor
tant when programming the cutting motion in feedrate per
time mode. Per time mode is programmed as inlmin (inches
per minute) in programs using English units, and mmlmin
(millimeters per minute) for the metric units programming.
This per minute mode is typical to CNC milling machines
and machining centers, where virtually all work is done ei
ther in inlmin or mmlmin. For tapping operations, regard
less of the machine tool, always program the cutting feed
rate as the linear distance the tap must travel during one
spindle revolution. This distance is always equiva]ent to the
lead of the tap, which is the same as the tap pitch (for tap
ping only), because taps are normally used to cut a single
start thread only.
When using thefeedrate per revolution mode, mode that
is typical to CNC lathes, the tap lead is always equivalent to
the feedrate. For example, the lead of .050 results in .050
in/rev feedrate, or F0.05 in the program.
211
MACHINING HOLES
On CNC machining centers, the typical feedrate mode is

always per time, measured in per minute mode, and the
feedrate is calculated by one of the following formulas:
r I min
TPI
' where ...

F,
r/min
TPI
==
Feedrate pertime (per minute)

Spindle speed
Number ofthreads per inch
A similar formula will produce an identica) resuit:
' where ...

F1
r/min
F,
==
Feedrate per time (per minute)

Spindle speed
Feedrate per revolution
For example, a 20 TPI thread lead for a mill will be:

1
I 20 = .0500 inches
and the programmed feedrate has to take into considera

tion the machine spindle speed, for example, 450 r/min:
F
450 x .05
22.5
F22.5 (in/min)
A metric tap on a lathe uses the same logic. For example,

a tap of 1.5 mm Jead (pitch) using 500 r/min is programmed
with the feedrate of 750 mm/min:
F = 500 x 1.5
750.00
F750.0 (iran/min)
The key to successful tapping is to maintain the relation

ship of the tap lead and the spindle speed. If the spindle
speed is changed, the feedrate per time (inlmin or mmlmin)
must be changed as well. For many tension-compression
type tap holders, adjustment of the feedrate downwards (so
called underfeed) by about five percent may yield better
results. This is because the tension of the tapping holder is
more flexible than the compression of the same holder.
1f the spindle speed in the above example is changed from

S450 to S550 (tap size is unchanged at 20 TPI), the spindle
speed change must be ref1ected in a new tapping feedrate:
F = 550 x
.os =
27.50 = F27.5 (in/min)
In the program, the new tapping feedrate will be:

F
27.5 - 5%
26.125
The actual feedrate value would be F26. l or even F26.0.

It is easy to change the spindle speed of the tool in the pro
gram, or even directly on the CNC machine, then forget to
modify the feedrate for the tapping tool itself. This mistake
can happen during program preparation in the office or dur
ing program optimization at the machine. 1f the change is
small, there may be no damage, more due to luck than in
tent. 1f the change of spindle speed s major, the tap will
most likely break in the part.
Pipe Taps
Pipe taps are similar in design to standard taps. They be
long to two groups:
a
a
Taper taps
NPT and API
Straight taps (parallel)
NPS
Their size designation (nominal size), is not the size of

the tap, but the size of the pipe fitting. American National
Standard pipe taper (NPT) has a taper ratio of 1 to 16, or
3/4 inch per foot ( 1.78991061 per side) and the tap cham
fer is 2 to 3-1/2 threads.
Prograrnming for pipe taps follows the usual considera
tions for standard threads. The only common difficulty is
how to calculate the Z depth position at least as a reason
able one, if not exactly. The final depth may be a subject of
some experimentation with a particular tap holder and typi
cal materials.
A proper tap drill size is very important. It will be differ
ent for tap holes that are only drilled and for tap holes that
are drilled and reamed (using a 3/4 per foot taper reamer).
The following is a table of taper pipe thread sizes for NPT
group and recommended tap drills, data that is useful for
CNC programming:
NPT Group
Pipe
Size
TPI
1/16
27
1/8
27
1/4
18
3/8
18
V2
14
3/4
14
1.0
11-1/2
1-1/4
11-1/2
1-1/2
11-1/2
2.0
11-1/2
I
I
li
I
I
Drilled Only
Tap
Driii
Dec.
Size
Taper Reamed
Tap
Drill
Dec.
Size
.2460
15/64
.2344
.3320
21/64
.3281
7/16
.4375
27/64
.4219
37/64
.5781
9/16
.5625
45/64
.7031
11/16
.6875
29/32
.9062
57/64
.8906
1-9/64
1.1406
1-1/8
1.1250
1-31/64
1.4844
1-15/32
1.4688
1-47/64
1.7344
1-23/32
1.7188
2-13/64
2.2031
2-3/16
2.1875
212
Chapter 26
For the straight pipe thread sizes (NPS), the following

tap drills are recommended:
Tap Drill
Decimal Size
1/4
.2500
27
11/32
.3438
1/4
18
7/16
.4375
3/8
18
37/64
.5781
V2
14
23/32
.7188
3/4
14
59/64
.9219
1.0
11-1/2
1-5/32
1.1563
1-1/4
11-1/2
1-1/2
1.5000
1-1/2
11-1/2
1-3/4
1.7500
2.0
11-1 /2
2-7/32
2.2188
Pipe Size
TPI
1/16
27
1/8
The tapping feedrate maintains the same relationships for

pipe taps as for standard taps.
Tapping Check List

When programming a tapping operation, make sure the
program data reflect the true machining conditions. They
may vary between setups, but the majority of them are typi
cal to any tapping operations on any type of CNC machine.
Here is a short !ist of items that relate directly to the tapping
operations in CNC programming.
o
o
o
Tap cutting edges (have to be sharp and properly ground)
CJ
Tap spindle speed

(has to be reasonable for the cutting conditions)
Tap feedrate (has to be related to the tap lead and

the machine spindle speed)
Part setup
(rigidity of the machine setup and the tool is important)
Drilled hole must be premachined correctly

(tap drill size is important)
Clearance for the tap start position

(allow clearance for acceleration)
Cutting fluid selection
Clearance at the hole bottom

(the depth of thread must be guaranteed)
Tap holder torque adjustment (ease of cutting)
Program integrity (no errors)
Tap design (has to match the hole being tapped)

Tap alignment (has to be aligned with tapped hole)
Many designs of tap holders have their own special re

quirements, which may or may not have any effect on the
programming approach. If in doubt, always check with the
tap holder manufacturer for the suggested operation.
With modern CNC machines, the method of rigid tap

ping has become quite popular. There is no need for special
tapping holders, such as the tensian campressian type - reg
ular end mill holders or strong collet chucks can be used,
saving the cost of tool holders. However, the CNC machine
and its control system must support the rigid tapping fea
ture. To program rigid tapping, there is a special M code
available - check the machine documentation .
The rigid tapping mode must be supported by
the CNC machine before it can be used in a program
HOLE OPERATIONS ON A LATHE

Single point hole operations on a CNC lathe are much
more limited than those on a CNC machining center. First,
the number of holes that can be drilled or tapped in a single
operation on a lathe is only one per part operation (two are
rare), while the number of holes for a milling application
may be in tens, hundreds and even thousands. Seconcl the
boring (internai turning) on a lathe is a cantauring opera
tion, unlike boring on a milling machine, which is a paint
ta-pain.t operation.
Ali the point-to-point machining operations on a CNC
lathe are limited to those that can be machined with the cut
ting tool positioned at the spindle centerline. Typically,
these operations include center drilling, standard drilling,
reaming and tapping. A variety of other cutting tools may
also be used, for example, a center cutting end mill (slot
drill) to open up a hole or to make a flat bottom hole. An in
terna] burnishing tool may also be used for operations such
as precise sizing of a hole, etc. To a lesser degree, other op
erations, such as counterboring and countersinking may be
programmed at the lathe spindle centerline, with a special
point-to-point tool - nat a cantauring taal. Ali operations n

ths group will have one common denominator - they are all
used at the spindle centerline and programmed with the X
position as XO n the program block.
The spndle speed for all centerlne operatons on a CNC
lathe must be programmed n actual revolutions per minute
(rlmin), nat in the constant surface speed mode (CSS). For
that reason, G97 s used - for example,
G97 $575 M03
will assure the requred 575 r/min at the normal spindle

rotation (at I 00% spindle speed override).
What will happen f CSS mode is used with 096 com
mand, rather than the proper 097 command? The CNC
system wll use the gven nformation, the spndle speed
address S, n the program (gven n peripheral - or surface speed per minute, asftlmin). The system will then calculate
the required spindle speed in rlmin for the use by the ma
chine tool.
213
MACHINING HOLES
The calculation is based on the standard mathematical

formula that relates to the part diameter. If the diameter is
zero - which is e.xactly what it s at the spindle centerline the spindle revolutions will always be the highest r/min that
is available in the currently selected spindle gear range.
This calculation is an exception to the standard r/min calcu
lation formula, where the spindle speed at the centerline
(diameter zero) would be zero - yes, O r!mytr
For example, if the peripheral (surface) speed for a given
material is 450 ft/min, the r/min at a 03 inch (X3.0) for the
same material will be approximately:
S = (450 x 3.82) / 3 = 573 rpm
If the same speed of 450 ft/min is applied to the diameter

zero (XO n the program), the formula does not change, but
the resulting action does:
S = (450 x 3.82)
O = O r/min
(ERROR)
Although the spindle might be expected to stop (because

of the mathematical laws), it will do the exact opposite (be
cause of the control design). Spindle speed will reach the
maximum r/min that the current gear range will allow. Be
very careful here - make sure that the centerline operations
on a CNC lathe are always done n the G97 (r/min) mode
and not in the G96 mode (CSS) mode.
Tool Approach Motion

A typical geometry offset configuration setup (or the G50
values) on a CNC lathe often have a relatively large X value
and relatively small Z value. For example, the geometry
offset for a tool may be X-1 l .8Z- I .O ( or G50X 1 l .8Z1.0).
This location indicates a suitable toci change position ap
plicable to a dril I. What does it mean to the tool motion for
a drilling operation?
It means that the rapid motion will complete the Z axis
motion long before completing the X axis motion (with the
infamous hockey-stick motion of the rapid command). The
resuit s a toci motion ve,y close to the part face:
N36 T0200 M42
N37 G97 S700 M03
N38 GOO XO Z0.1 T0202 MOS
N39
To avoid a potential collision during the toci approach to

wards the part, use one of the following methods:
Move the X axis first to the spindle centerline,

then the Z axis, directly to the start location
for the drilling
Move the Z axis first to a clear position,
then the X axis to the spindle centerline,
then complete the Z axis motion into
the drilling start position
The first method may be practicai only in those cases

when the tool motion area is absolutely clear and has no ob
stacJes in the way (do not count on such a situation). The
second method, and probably the most common in pro
gramming, will first move the Z axis close (but not too
close) to the part, say .50 inch in the front (Z0.5). The mo
tion that follows is the X axis motion only - directly to the
centerline (XO). At this point, the cutting toci (such as a
drill) s far from the Z axis face. The last approach motion
will be to the Z axis start position, closer to the part face,
where the actual drilling cut begins. This method elimi
nates (or al least minimizes) the possibility of a collision
with obstacles along the way. The obstacles are - or at least
could be - the tailstock, the parts catcher, the steadyrest, the
fixture, the face plate, etc. The example of this program
ming tool path method is the previous example, modified:
N36
N37
N38
N39
N40
T0200 M42
G97 S700 M03
GOO XO Z0.5 T0202 MOS
Z0.1
This programming method splits the tool approach along

the Z axis into two tool positions - one is the safe clearance
for approach, the other one is the safe clearance position for
the drill start. There is a minor alternative to this motion the last Z axis approach will be at a cutting feedrate, rather
than at a rapid motion rate:
N36
N37
N38
N39
N40
T0200 M42
G97 S700 M03
GOO XO Z0.5 T0202 MOS
GOl Z0.1 F0.05
For the Jast approach motion, the Z axis motion has been
changed to a linear motion, with a relatively high feedrate
of .05 in/rev (J .25 mm/rev). Feedrate override can be used
for setup, to control the rate of the feed. During actual pro
duction, there will be no significant loss in the cycle time.
Tool Return Motion

The same logica] rules of motion n space that apply to
the tool approach, apply also to the tool return motion. Re
member that the first motion from a hole must always be
along the Z axis:
N40 GOl Z-0.8563 FO.007
N41 GOO Z0.1
In block N40, the actual drill cutting motion takes place.

When the cut is completed, block N4 I is executed. The
drill will rapid out of the hole to the same position it started
from (ZO. l ) . It s not necessary to return to the same posi
tion, but it makes the programming style more consistent.
214
Chapter 26
Once the cutting tool is safely out of the hole, it has to re

turn to the tool changing position. There are two methods:
o Simultaneous motion of both axes
o Single axis at a time

Simultaneous motion of the X and Z axes does not pres
ent the same problem as it did on the approach - on the con
trary. The Z axis will complete the motion first, moving
away from the part face. Also, there is no reason to fear a
collision during a return motion if the approach motion was
successful and the programming style was consistent:
N70 GOl Z-0. 8563 FO.007
N71 GOO ZO.l
N72 Xll.O Z2.O T0200 M09
If in doubt, or i f an obstacle is expected to be in the way of

a tool motion, for example a tailstock, program a single
axis at a time. 1n most cases, that will move the positive X
axis first, as most obstacles would be to the right of the part:
+ Peck Drilling Cycle - 674

On Fanuc and compatible controls, there is a multiple re
petitive cycle G74 available, that can be used for two differ
ent machining operations:
o Simple roughing with chip brea king
o Peck drilling (deep hole drilling)

In this section, the peck drilling usage of the G74 cycle is
described. The roughing application of the G74 cycle is a
contouring operation and is very seldom used.
1n peck drilling, just like in any ordinary drilling, select
the spindle speeds and cutting feedrates first, then deter
mine the hole starting position and finally, its depth posi
tion. In addition, establish (or even calculate) the depth of
each peck. The lathe cycle G74 is rather limited n what it
can do, but it has its uses. lts format for peck-drilling is:
G74 XO Z.. K..
where ...
G74
N70
N71
N72
N73
GOl Z-0. 8563 FO.007

GOO ZO.l
Xl2.0
Z2. O T0200 M09
The programming example illustrates the return motion

with the X axis programmed first. The fact that the tool is
. I 00 off the front face is irrelevant - after all, the tool started
cutting from that distance without a problem.
Other, less traditional, methods for the tool motion to
wards and away from the part are also possible.
Drilling and Reaming on Lathes
xo =
z =
K
Peck drilling cycle selection

lndicates cutting on centerline
Specifies the end point for drilling
Depth of each peck (always positive)
The following program uses illustration n Figure 26-24,

and shows an exampb of drilling a 3/16 hole (0.1875)
with a peck drill depth of .300 inches:
N85 T0400 M42
N86 G97 Sl200 M03
N87 GOO XO Z0.2 T0404 MOS
N88 G74 XO Z-0.8563 K0.3 F0.007
N89 GOO X12.0 Z2.0 T0400 M09

N90 MOl
-0.8-1
Drilling on a CNC lathe is also quite common operation,

mainly as means for a hole opening to be used with other
tools, such as boring bars. There are three basic kinds of
drilling, typical to a CNC lathe machining:
o Center drilling and spotfacing

o Drilling with a twist drill
03/16
o lndexable insert drilling

Each method follows the same programming techniques
as those described in the milling section earlier, except that
there are no fixed cycles of the milling type used for the
lathe work. Keep in mind that on a CNC lathe, the part is
rotating, whereby the cutting tool remains stationary. Also
keep in mind that most lathe operations take place in a hori
zontal orientation, causing concerns about coolant direc
tion and chip removal.
Z-0.8563
Figure 26-24
Sample hole for the peck drilling lathe example
The peck drilling motion will start from the Z0.2 position
in block N87 and continue to the Z-0.8563 position in
block N88. That results in a 1.0563 long cut. Calculation of
the number of pecks is the same as in milling.
215
MACHINING HOLES
With the .300 length of each peck, there will be the total
of three full length pecks and one partial length peck, at the
following Z axis locations:
Z-0.1
Z-0.4
Z-0.7
Z-0.8563
Alhough the first three pecks are .300 deep each, the first
one starts at Z0.2 and ends at Z-0.1. That will resuit in two
thirds of the cut being in the air. Programmer has to decide
when this approach is an advantage and when another
method would be more suitable. At the end of each peck
motion using the G74 cycle, the drill will make a small re
tract by afixed distance. This distance is set by a parameter
of the control system and is typically about .020 inches (0.5
mm). A foii retraction after each peck out of the hole (simi
lar to the G83 cycle for milling controls) is not supported
by the G74 cycle.
Note that there is no programmed motion out of the hole
when the peck drilling cycle is completed. This return mo
tion is built-in within the G74 cycle. If a tool motion such as
GOOZ0.2M05 follows block N88, no harm is done. It may
give the operator extra confidence when running the job.
Tapping on Lathes
Tapping on CNC lathes is a common operation that fol
lows the same machining principles as tapping on machin
ing centers. The major difference for lathes is the absence
of a tapping cycle. There is no real need for a tapping cycle
on a lathe, since most of lathe tapping operations machine
only one hole of the same type. The absence of a tapping
cycle may present some unexpected difficulties. Unfortu
nately, they are more common among programmers with
limited experience. Before evaluating these difticulties
closer, it is important to know the tool that holds the tap (the
tap holder) and the tapping process on lathes in general.
The selected tap should always be mounte-d in a special
tapping holder; the best type is one with tension and com
pression features, known as the tap floating holder. Never
use a drill chuck or a similar solid device - it will break the
tap quickly and possibly damage the part as well.
Since there is no fixed cycle for tapping on a typical CNC
lathe, each tool motion is programmed as a separate block.
To do that, and to find out how to tap properly, let's first
evaluate the process for a typical right hand tap in general,
applied to a lathe operation:
Step 01
Step 02
Step 03
Step 04
Step 05
Step 06
Step 07
Step 08
Step 09
Step 1O
Step 11
Set coordinate position XZ

Select tool and gear range
Select spindle speed and rqtation
Rapid to the center line and clearance with offset
Feed-in to the desired depth
Stop the spindle
Reverse the spindle rotation
Feed-out to clear of the part depth
Stop the spindle
Rapid to the starting position
Resume normal spindle rotation or end program
Translated into a CNC program carefully, this step by

step procedure can be used in everyday programming as a
general guide to tapping on CNC lathes.
Figure 26-25 shows the layout of the part and the tool
setup, used for programming example 02607. The exam
ple program 02607 follows the eleven steps described
above literally and is based on a very solid foundation.
Technically, the program 02607 is correct - but only tech
nically, not practically. Are there possible problem situa
tions in the example 02607?
------ 2.0 _____ ,
012.0
9/16-12 TAP
Figure 26-25
Typical setup of a tapping tool on a CNC lathe program examples 02607 and 02608
TOOL
HOLDER
/ FLOATING TAP HOLDER
216
02607 (TAPPING ON LATHES)
(ONLY THEORETICALLY CORRECT VERSION)
(T02 - TAP DRILL 31/64)
N42 MOl
(T03 - 9/16-12 PLUG TAP)
N43 T0300 M42
N44 G97 S450 M03
N45 GOO XO ZO. 5 MOS T0303
N46 GOl Z-0.875 F0.0833
N47 MOS
N48 M04
N49 Z0.5
NSO MOS
NSl GOO X12.O Z2.O T0300 M09
N52 M30
%
A brief Jook at the program 02607 does not show that

anything is wrong. After all, the program covers all the nec
essary motions and is, therefore, correct. Yet, this program
contains major fiaws !
AII earlier tapping steps have been carefully followed.
Conducting a more in-depth study of the program will re
veal two areas of potential difftculty or even danger. The
first problem may arise if the feedrate override setting
switch is nat set to I 00%. Remember, the tapping feedrate
is always equal to the thread lead (F0.0833 is the feedrate
for 12 TPI). If the override switch is set to any other value
but I 00%, the thread will be stripped at best and the tap
broken at worst with related part damage.
The other problem will become evident only in a single
block mode run, during setup or machining. Look at blocks
N46 and N47. In the N46 block, tap reaches the Z axis end
position - while the spindle is still rotating! True, the spin
dle wiU be stopped in block N47, but in the single block
mode it will be too late. A similar situation will happen dur
ing the feed-out morion. The spindle reverses in block N48,
but does not move until the N49 block is processed. There
fore, the program 02607 is a very poor example of tapping
on CNC lathes.
These are some details usually not considered for a fixed
cycle application (such as the G84 tapping cycle), when
used for milling programs. For milling, all tool motions are
built-in, so they are contained within the fixed cycle. To
eliminate the first potential problem of the feedrate over
ride, programming the M48/M49 functions will tempo
rarily disable the feedrate override switch. Even better way
is to replace the feed-in and feed-out tap motion command
from the current GO I mode to G32 mode (G33 on some
Chapter 26
controls). The G32 command is normally used for single

point threading. Two major results will be achieved with
the G32 command - the spindle will be synchronized, and
the feedrate override will be inejfective by default (auto
matically). The second problem will be solved if the spin
dle M functions are programmed in the same block as the
tool morion. That means joining the block N46 with N47,
and block N48 with N49. This much improved version of
the tapping example is in the new program 02608.
02608 (TAPPING ON LATHES)
(PRACTICALLY CORRECT VERSION)
(T02 - TAP DRILL 31/64)
N42 MOl
(T03 - 9/16-12 PLUG TAP)
N43 T0300 M42
N44 G97 S450 M03
N45 GOO XO ZO.5 MOS T0303
N46 G32 Z-0. 875 FO.0833 MOS
N47 Z0.5 M04
N48 MOS
N49 GOO X12.0 Z2.0 T0300 M09
NSO M30
%
The block (N48 in the example) containing the spindle

stop function MOS, is not required if the tap is the last tool
in the program, although it does no harm in any other pro
gram. Compare this program 02608 with program 02607.
Program 02608 is a great deal more stable and the possibil
ity of any significant problem is virtually eliminated.
+ Other Operations
There are many other programming variations relating to
machining holes on CNC machining centers and lathes.
This chapter has covered some of the most important and
the most common possibilities.
Some less common applications, such as machining op
erations using tools for backboring, or block boring tools,
tools with multiple cutting edges and other special tools for
machining holes may be quite infrequent n programming.
However, programming these unusual operations is no
more difficult then programming the ordinary everyday
tool motions, using ordinary everyday tools.
The real ability of a CNC programmer is measured in
terms of applying the past knowledge and experience to a
new problem. It requires a thinking process and it required
a degree of ingenuity and hard work.
PATTERN OF HOLES
1n the point-to-point machining operations, consisting of
drilling, reaming, tapping, boring, etc., we are often re
quirep to machine either a single hole or a series of holes
with the same tool, usually followed by other tools. In prac
tice, severa! holes are much more common than a single
hole. Machining severa! holes with the same tool means
machinino a pattem of holes or a hole pattem. An English
dictionar; defines the word 'pattern' as a 'characteristic or
consistent arrangement or design'. Translated to the hole
machinino
o terms, any two or more holes machined with the
.
same tool establish a pattern. The desired hole pattern 1s
laid out in the part drawing either randomly (characteristic
arrangement or design) or in a certain order (consistent ?-r
rangement or design). Dimensioning of a hole pattern fol
lows standard dimensioning practices.
This chapter describes some typical hole patterns laid out
on a flat part and the various methods of their program
ming. To make matters simple, all programming examples
related to the hole patterns will assume a center drilling op
eration, using a #2 center drill, with chamfer diameter .150,
to the depth of .163 (programmed as Z-0.163). The pro
oram zero (program reference point ZO) is the top face of
art and the tool is assumed to be already in the spindle. For
the purposes of clarity, no hole diameters or material size
and thickness are specified in the examples.
From the dictionary definition above, we have to estab
lish what makes a hote pattern characteristic or consistent.
Simply, any series of holes that are machined with the same
tool, one hole after another, usually in the order of conven
ience. That means all holes within a single pattern have the
same nominal diameter. It also means that all machining
must start at the same R levei and end at the same Z depth.
Overall, it means that all holes within a pattern are ma
chined the same way for any single toci.
Grid pattern
Arc pattern
o Boit circle pattern

Some groups may be divided further into smaller sub
groups. A thorough understanding of each pattern group
should help you to program any similar hole pattern.
There are severa) control systems available that have a
built-in hole pattern programming, for example for a boit
circle pattern. These programming routines simplify the
hole pattern programming quite substantially, but the pro
gram structure is usually unique to that particular brand of
control and cannot be applied to other controls.
RANDOM HOLE PATTERN

The most common pattern used in programming holes s
a random pattern. Random pattern of holes is a pattern
where all holes share the same machining characteristics,
but the X and Y distances between them are inconsistent. In
other words, holes within a random pattern share the same
tool, the same nominal diameter, usually the same depth,
but a variable distance from each other - Figure 27-1.
---5.2
44
.
- 14
._-3 -.
-
TYPICAL HOLE PATTERNS

Hole patterns can be categorized into severa! typical
groups, each group having the same charcter. Every ole
pattern encountered in CNC programmmg belongs mto
one of the following pattern groups:
Random pattern
Straight row pattern
o Angular row pattern

o
Corner pattern
-1-'1
I Ci)- ----0-
---
CD
u
r ..;...' ----------
.,
- - -,
--,
'
2.0 2.4
i_ 1.6
9,'- _L J
Figure 27-7
Random pattern of holes - program example 02707
There are no special time saving techniques used in pro

a random pattern - only a selected fixed cycle
used at individual hole locations. Ali XY coordmates
within the hole pattern have to be programmed manually;
the control system features will be no help here al all:
oramminoo
o
217
218
Chapter 27
02701 (RANDOM HOLE PATI'ERN)

Nl G20
N2 Gl7 G40 GSO
N3 G90 GS4 GOO Xl.4 YO.S S900 M03
N4 G43 Zl.O HOl MOS
NS G99 GSl R0.1 Z-0.163 F3.0
N6 X3.0 Y2.0
N7 X4.4 Yl.6
NS XS.2 Y2.4
N9 GSO M09
NlO G2S Z0.1 MOS
Nll G2S XS.2 Y2.4
Nl2 M30
Two features of program 02702 should be emphasized.

- 1n block N6, the dimensioning mode was changed from the
absolute G90 to the incremental G9 I, to take advantaoe of
the equal pitch distance. When all ten holes have beenc,ma
chined, the program has to include return to the machine
zero position motion, in the example, along all three axes.
However, without a calculation, we do not know the abso
lute position at the tenth hole for the X axis (the Y axis re
mains unchanged at the position of .60 inches = Y0.6). To
solve this 'problem', cancel the cycle with G80, leave the
G9 I mode in effect and move to the machine zero position
in the Z axis first (for safety reasons). Then - still in the in
cremental mode G9 l - return both X and Y axes to the ma
chine zero simultaneously.
STRAIGHT ROW HOLE PATTERN

Hole patterns parallel to the X or Y axis with an equal
pitch :s a straight row pattern. Figure 27-2 shows a I O hole
pattern along the X axis, with a pitch of .950 inch.
-,
ANGULAR ROW HOLE PATTERN
-- 0.95 TYP
'
- 8 8 0-0 O O O O 8 G
--1.18
0.6
Figure 27-2
Straight row hale pattern - program example 02702
The programming approach takes advantage of a fixed

cycle repetition feature, using the L or K address. It would
be inefficient to program each hole individually. As always,
the tool will be positioned at the first hole in G90 mode,
then the cycle will machine the first hole in block NS.
For the remaining holes, G90 mode must be changed to
incremental mode G9 I, which instructs the control to ma
chine the other nine holes incrementally, along the X axis
only. The same logic would also apply for a vertical pattern
along the Y axis. In that case, the pitch increment would be
programmed along the Y axis only. Note that the repetition
count is always equal to the number ofspaces, not the num
ber of holes. The reason? The first hole has already been
machined in the cycle call block.
02702 (STRAIGHT ROW HOLE PATI'ERN)
Nl G20
N2 Gl7 G40 GSO
N3 G90 GS4 GOO Xl.lS Y0.6 S900 M03
N4 G43 Zl.O HOl MOS
NS G99 GSl R0.1 Z-0.163 F3.0
N6 G91 X0.9S L9
N7 GSO M09
NS G2S ZO MOS
N9 G2S XO YO
NlO M30
%
Normally, this first tool of the example would be fol

lowed by other tools to complete the hote machining. To
protect the program and machining from possible prob
lems, make sure that the G90 absolute command is rein
stated for every tool that follows.
Pattern of holes in a row at an angle is a variation of a

straight line pattern. The difference between the two is that
the incremental pitch applies to both X and Y axes. A hote
pattern of this type will be established on the part drawing
as one of the two possible dimensioning methods:
o X and Y coordinates are given for the first and the last hole
1n this met od, the pattern angular position is not speci
hed and no p1tch between holes is given.
o X and Y coordinates are given for the first hole only

1n this method, pattern angular position is specified and
the pitch between the holes is given.
In either case, all the necessary X and Y dimensions are
available to write the program. However, the programming
approach will be different for each method of drawinet
b
dimensioning.
Pattern Defined by Coordinates

This method of programming is similar to the straight
row pattern. Since the pitch between holes is not given, the
increment between holes along each of the two axes must
be calculated. This axial distance is commonly known as
the delta distance (delta X is measured along the X axis,
delta Y s measured along the Y axis). Such a calculation
can be done n two equally accurate ways.
The first calculation method can use a trigonometric
method, but it is much easier to use the ratio of sides in
stead. 1n the Figure 27-3, the pattern lenetth atonoc, the X
axis is 10.82 and along the Y axis it s 2.0
(2.625 - .625 = 2.0)
219
PATTERN OF HOLES
o.j
o
4- o o
I
L
- 1.0
-4--,I
2.625
I
_J_
Note that the program structure is identica! to the exam

ple of the straight row pattern, except the incremental move
with L5 (KS) address is along two axes instead of one.
10.82-----
Figure 27-3
Angular hote pattern with two sets of coordinates - program 02703
Pattern of this kind has all the holes spaced by equal dis
tances along X and Y axes. As all holes are equally spaced,
the ratio of the sides for individual holes is identica! to the
ratio of the whole pattern. When expressed mathematically,
the increment between holes along the X axis is equal to the
overall distance of 10.82 divided by the number of X axis
spaces; the increment along the Y axis is equal to the over
all distance of 2.0 divided by the number of Y axis spaces.
The number of spaces for a six hole pattern is five, so the X
axis increment (the delta X) is:
10.s2
N7 G80 M09
NS G28 ZO MOS
N9 G28 XO YO
NlO M30
+ Pattern Defined by Angle

An angular line patten aJso be defined in the drawing
by the X and Y coordinates"of the first hole, the number of
equally spaced holes, the distance between holes and the
angle of pattern inclination - Figure 27-4.
4.0 \'{?
-\ - C-e--0115
-Ci-'---+--I _.e-0I
I s = 2.1640
_J
I s = .4
The other calculation method uses trigonometric func

tions, which may also be used as a confirmation of the first
method, and vice versa. Both results must be identica/, or
there is a mistake somewhere in the calculation. First, es
tablish some temporary values:
A = tan-1 (2. O
c = 2.0
Cl
= CI
I 10.82) = 10.47251349
I sinA = 11.00329063
5 = 2.20065813
Now, the actual increment aJong the two axes can be cal
culated, using C 1 dimension as the distance between holes:
X increment = Cl x cosA = 2.1640
Y increment
Cl x sinA = .4000
The calculated increments match in both methods, calcu

lation is correct, and can now be used to write the program
(02703) - block N6 contains the values:
02703 (ANGULAR ROW 1)
N1 G20
N2 Gl7 G40 G80
N3 G90 G54 GOO Xl.O Y0.625 S900 M03
N4 G43 Zl.O HOl MOS
NS G99 G81 RO.l Z-0.163 F3.0
N6 G91 X2.164 Y0.4 L5 (K5)
2.0
and the Y axis increment (the delta Y) is:

2.0
2.0
Figure 27-4
Angular hale pattern with coordinates, pitch and angle - 02704
In order to calculate the X and Y coordinate values, use

trigonometric functions in this case:
X = 4.0 x coslS = 3.863703305
Y = 4.0 X Sin15 = 1.03527618
Program can be written after you round off the calculated

values - program 02704:
02704 (ANGULAR ROW 2)
N1 G20
N2 Gl7 G40 G80
N3 G90 G54 GOO X2.0 Y2.0 S900 M03
N4 G43 Zl.O HOl MOS
NS G99 G81 RO.l Z-0.163 F3.0
N6 G91 X3.8637 Yl.0353 L6 (K6)
N7 G80 M09
NS G28 ZO MOS
N9 G28 XO YO
NlO M30
%
Since the calculated increments are rounded values, a certain

accumulative error is inevitable. ln mast cases, any error will
be well contained within the required drawing tolerances.
However, for the projects requiring the highest precision, this
error may be important and must be taken into consideration.
220
Chapter 27
To make sure all calculations are correct, a simple check

ing method can be used to compare the calculated values: -
Step 1
Find the absolute coordinates XY of the last hote:

X
Y
2.0 + (4.0 x 6 x coslS)

25.18221983 = X25.1822
=
=
2.0 + (4.0 x 6 x sinlS)

8.211657082 = YS.2117
Step 2
Compare these new XY coordinates with the previously

calculated increments as they relate to the last hole of the
pattern (using rounded values):
X
Y
2.0 + 3.8637 X 6
2.Q + 1.0353 X 6
25.1822
8.2118
Note that both X and Y vaJues are accurate. When round

ing, particularly when a Jarge number of holes is involved,
the accumulative error may cause the hote pattern oul of
tolerance. In that case, the only correct way to handle the
programming is to calculate the coordinates of each hole as
absolute dimensions (that means from a common point
rather than a previous point). The programming process
will take a little longer, but it will be much more accurate.
CORNER PATTERN
Pattern of holes can be arranged as a corner - which is
nothing more than a pattern combining the straight and/or
angular hole patterns - Figure 27-5.
1.5--
- --EB
1.s
n
I/
- 2.2
CB,
--
1.8
eo o o o $-e-1
corner hote will be machined twice. Visualize the whole

process - the last hole of one row pattern s also the first
hole of the next pattern, duplicated. Creating a special cus
tom macro is worth the time for many corner patterns. The
normal solution is to move the tool to the first position, call
the required cycle and remain within that cycle:
02705 (CORNER PATl'ERN)
N1 G20
N2 Gl7 G40 G80
N3 G90 G54 GOO X2.2 Yl.9 S900 M03
N4 G43 Zl.O HOl MOS
NS G99 G81 R0.1 Z-0.163 F3.0
N6 G91 Xl.5 Yl.8 L2 (K2)
N7 XL 8 L6 (K6)
NS Y-1.8 L2 (K2)
N9 G80 M09
NlO G28 ZO MOS
Nll G28 XO YO
N12 M30
%
The program offers no special challenges. 1n block N6,

the angular row of holes is machined, starting from the
lower Ieft hote, in N7 it is the horizontaJ row of holes, and
in N8 the vertical row of holes is machined. The order is
continuous. Just like in the earlier examples, keep in mind
that the repetition count L or K is for the number of moves
(spaces), not the number of holes.
GRIO PATIERN
Basic straight grid pattern can also be defined as a set of
equaJly spaced vertical and horizontaJ holes, each row hav
ing equally spaced holes. If the spacing of all vertical holes
is the same as the spacing of all horizontal rows, the final
grd pattern will be a square. If the spacing of all vertical
holes is not the same as the spacing of all horizontal rows,
the resulting grid pattern is a rectangle. A grid pattern is
sometimes called a rectangular hote pattern - Figure 27-6.
'
_1_
EB-/
O
Eh-$000
I
-'0000
2.1
0000$
00000
00000
00000
L_
Figure 27-5
Corner pattern of ho/es - program example 02705
Ali rules mentioned for the straight and angular hole pat
terns apply for a corner pattern as well. The most important
difference is the corner hote, which is common to two rows.
A corner pattern can be programmed by calling a fixed cy
cle for each row. Soon, it will become apparent that each
, 1.8
CBOOOEB-
--l
L-1.1
-.I
2.4
Figure 27-6
Rectangular grid hote pattern - program example 02706
221
PATTERN OF HOLES
A grid pattern is very similar to a series of corner patterns,

using similar programming methods. The major considera
tion for a grid pattem programming is in its efficiency. Each
row can be programmed as a single row1 pattern, starting,
for example, from the left side of each row. Technically,
that s correct, although not very efficient due to the loss of
time, when the tool has to travel from the last hole of one
row, to the first hole of the next row.
O O O O O
ooooo .
Two features of the program are worth noting - one is the

jump from one row of the pattern to another - it has no repe
tition address L or K, because only one hole s being ma
chined at that location. The second feature may not be so
obvious right away. To make the program shorter, start
along the axis that contains the larger number of holes (the
Y axis in the program example 02706). This example s a
variation on the previous examples and also adheres to all
the rules established so far. A special subprogram made for
a grid pattern s also a common programming approach and
can be used as well.
Angular Grid Pattern

Although the straight grid pattern is the most common
pattem for square and rectangular hole arrangement, a grid
pattern may also be in the shape of a parallelogram, called
an angular grid pattern - Figure 27-7.
Again, the programming approach remains the same as
for the rectangular grid pattern, the only extra work re
quired is the calculation of the angular increments, similar
to previous methods:
4.6
----.-
000000
More efficient method will look like a zigzag motion. To

program a zigzag motion, program the first row or column
starting at any corner hole. Complete that row (column),
then jump to the nearest hole of the next row (column) and
repeat the process until all rows and columns are done. The
wasted time of the rapid motion is kept to the minimum.
02706 (STRAIGHT GRID PATl'ERN)
N1 G20
N2 G17 G40 GSO
N3 G90 GS4 GOO Xl.7 Y2.4 S900 M03
N4 G43 Zl.O HOl MOS
NS G99 G81 R0.1 Z-0.163 F3.0
N6 G91 Y2.1 L6 (K6)
N7 Xl.8
N9 Y-2.1 L6 (K6)
NlO Xl.8
Nll Y2.1 L6 (K6)
N12 Xl.8
N13 Y-2.1 L6 (K6)
N14 Xl.8
NlS Y2.1 L6 (K6)
N16 GSO M09
N17 G28 ZO MOS
N18 G28 XO YO
N19 M30
%
fl --i-
-oo o-t
3.5
3.2
4.0
Figure 27-7
Angular grid hote pattern - program example 02707
The unknown increment n the drawing s the distance

measured along the X axis, from a hole in one horizontal
row to the next hole in following horizontal row:
X = 4.6 x tan16
1.319028774 (Xl.319)
The program can be written n a similar way as for the

straight row grid, except the extra 'jump' between rows will
take place along both axes:
02707 (ANGULAR GRID)
N1 G20
N2 Gl 7 G40 GSO
N3 G90 G54 GOO X4.0 Y3.S S900 M03
N4 G43 Zl.O HOl MOS
NS G99 G81 R0.1 Z-0.163 F3.0
N6 G91 X3.2 LS (KS)
N7 Xl.319 Y4.6
NS X-3.2 LS (KS)
N9 Xl.319 Y4.6
NlO X3.2 LS (KS)
Nll Xl.319 Y4.6
N12 X-3.2 LS (KS)
N13 GSO M09
N14 G28 ZO MOS
NlS G28 XO YO
N16 M30
%
Many experienced programmers will consider even more

efficient way of approaching the programs for grid patterns
by using subprograms or even User Macros. Subprograms
are especially useful for grid pattems consisting of a large
number of rows or a large number of columns. The subject
of subprograms, including a practicai example of a really
Jarge grid pattern, s covered n Chapter 39. The subject of
user macros is not covered in this handbook.
222
Chapter 27
C STEP 1
ARC HOLE PATTERN

Another quite common hote pattern is a set of equally
spaced holes arranged along an arc (not a circle). Such an
equally spaced set of holes along any portion of a ci rele cir
cumference creates an arc hale pattern.
The approach to programming an l,lrC hole pattern should
be the same as if programming any other hole pattem. Se
lect the first hole as the one that is most convenient. Is it the
first hole or the last hole on the arc that is easier to find the
coordinates for? Perhaps starting at 0 (3 o' clock or East
position) would be better? The illustration in Figure 27-8
shows a typical layout of an arc hole pattern.
le
-'--- -r
r1 l_
R2.5 )
20 TYP
I/
4 EQSP HOLES
Figure 27-8
Arc ho/e pattern - program 02708
In the pattern, the arc center locations are known, so is the

arc radius, angular spacing between holes and the number
of equally spaced holes along the circumference.
A number of calculations s needed to find the X and Y

coordinates for each hote center Jocation within the boit
hole pattern. The procedure is similar to that of an angular
line in a grid pattern, but with severa! more calculations.
The calculation uses trigonometric functions applied to
each hole separately - all necessary data and other info rma
tion are listed n the drawing.
For any number of holes, exactly the double number of
calculations will be required to get the coordinates for both
axes. In the example, there are four holes, therefore eight
calculations will be necessary. lnitially, it may seem as a lot
of work. In terms of calculations, it is a lot of work, but
keep in mind that only two trigonometric formulas are .in
volved for any number of holes, so the calculations will be
come a lot more manageable. Incidentally, this observation
can be applied to just about any other similar programming
application.
The best way to illustrate the arc pattern programming, is
to use the drawing example. First, the programming task
will be split into four individual steps:
Start with the calculation of a hole that is nearest to 0 Io

cation (3 o'clock position or East direction), then continue
for other holes in the counterclockwise direction of the arc.
C STEP 2
Use trigonometric functions to calculate the X and Y co
ordinates of the first hole:
Hole #1
X = 1.5 + 2.5 x cos20 = 3.849231552 (X3.8492)
1.855050358 (Yl.8551)
Y = 1.0 + 2,5 X sin20
C STEP 3
Use the same trigonometric formulas as n Step 2 and cal

culate XY coordinates for the 3 remaining holes. For each
hole in the pattem, increase the included angle by 20, so
the second hole angle will be 40 , the third 60 , and so on:
Hole #2
X = 1.5 + 2.5 x cos40 = 3.415111108 (X3 .4151)
y = 1.0 + 2.5 X sin40 = 2.606969024 (Y2. 607)
Hole #3
2.750000000 (X2. 75)
X = 1.5 + 2.5 x cos60
=
+
2.5
3.165063509
1.0
(Y3 .1651)
y =
x sin60
Hole #4
X = 1.5 + 2.5 X cosSO = 1.934120444 (Xl. 9341)
y = 1.0 + 2.5 x sin80 = 3.462019383 (Y3.462)
C STEP 4
If the XY coordinates are calculated in the same order as

they will appear in the CNC program, the listing of all hole
locations can be used in that order:
Role
Role
Role
Role
#1:
#2:
#3:
#4:
X3.8492
X3.4151
X2.7500
Xl.9341
Yl.8551
Y2.6070
Y3.1651
Y3.4620
Now, the program for the hole arc pattem can be written,
using the XY coordinates for each hole location from the
established calculations - program 02708:
02708 (ARC PATl'ERN)
N1 G20
N2 Gl7 G40 GSO
N3 G90 G54 GOO X3.8492 Yl.8551 S900 M03
N4 G43 Zl.O ROl MOS
NS G99 G81 R0.1 Z-0.163 F3.0
N6 X3.4151 Y2.607
N7 X2.75 Y3.1651
NS Xl.9341 Y3.462
223
PATIERN OF HOLES
N9 G80 M09
NlO G28 ZO,l MOS
Nll G28 Xl.9341 Y3.462
Nl2 M30
%
There are two other methods (perhaps more efficient) to

program an arc hole pattern. The first method will take an
advantage of the local coordinate system 052, described n
Chapter 40. The second method will use the polar coordi
nate system (optional on most controls), described later in
this chapter - in program 0271O.
BOLT HOLE CIRCLE PATTERN

A pattern of equally spaced holes along the circumfer
ence of a circle is called a boit circle pattern or a boit hote
pattern. Since the circle diameter is actually pitch diameter
of the pattern, another name for the boit circle pattern of
holes is a pitch circle pattern. The programming approach
is very similar to any other pattern, particularly to the arc
hole pattern and mainly depends on the way the boit circle
pattern is oriented and how the drawing is dimensioned.
A typical boit circle in a drawing is defined by XY coor
dinates of the circle center, its radius or diameter, the num
ber of equally spaced holes along the circumference, and
the angular orientation of holes, usually in relation to the X
axis (that is to the zero degrees).
A boit circle can be made up of any number of equally
spaced holes, although some numbers are much more com
mon than others, for example,
4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 18, 20, 24
In later examples, the 6-hole and the 8-hole patterns (and

their multiples) have two standard angular relationship to
the X axis at zero degrees.
Figure 27-9 is a typical boit circle drawing. The program

ming approach for a boit circle s similar to arc pattern.
-.1
6.0
1
L-fi
0
"" - Cr-J
(
I
(S)'
, -----
' >,,
0
123
7.5
Figure 27-9
Boit circ/e ho/e pattern - program 02709
01 . o
0
First, select the machining location to start from, usually

at program zero. Then find the absolute XY coordinates for
the center of the given circle. In the illustration, the boit pat
tern center coordinates are X7.5Y6.0. There will be no ma
chining at this location, but the center of the circle will be
the starting point for calculations of all holes on the boit cir
cle. When the circle center coordinates are known, write
them down. Each hole coordinate on the circumference
must be adjusted by one of these values. When all calcula
tions for the first hole are done (based on the circle center),
continue to calculate the X and Y coordinates for the other
holes on the circle circumference, in an orderly manner.
In example 02709 are 6 equally spaced holes on the boit
circle diameter of 1 O.O inches. That means there is a 60 in
crement between holes (360/6=60). The most common
starting position for machining s at the boundary between
quadrants. That means the most likely start will be at a po
sition that corresponds to the 3, 12, 9 or 6 o'clock on the
face of an analog watch. In this example, the start will be at
the 3 o' clock position. There is no hole at the selected loca
tion, the nearest one will be at 30 in the counterclockwise
direction. A good idea is to identify this hole as a hole num
ber I. Other holes may be identified in a similar way, pref
erably in the order of machining, relative to the first hole.
Note that each calculation uses exactly the same format.
Any other mathematical approach can be used as well, but
watch the consistency of all calculations:
Hole #1
X = 7.5 + 5.0 x cos30 = 11.830127
(Xll.8301)
Y = 6.0 + s.o x sin30 = 8.500000 (Y8.5)
Hole #2
X = 7.5 + s.o x cos90 = 7.5000000
Y = 6.0 + 5.0 x sin90 = 11.0000000
(X7.5)
(Yll.O)
Hole #3
X = 7.5 + s.o x coslSO = 3.16987298 (X3 .1699)
Y = 6.0 + 5.0 x sinlSO = 8.50000000 (Y8.5)
Hole #4
X = 7.5 + 5.0 x cos210
Y = 6.0 + 5.0 X sin210
3.16987298 (X3.1699)
3.50000000 (Y3. 5)
Hole #5
X = 7,5 + 5.0 x cos270 = 7,50000000 (X7.5)
Y = 6.0 + s.o X sin27Q = 1.00000000 (Yl.O)
Hole #6
X = 7.5 + 5.0 x cos330 = 11.830127 (Xll.8301)
y = 6.0 + 5.0 x sin330 = 3.500000 (Y3. 5)
224
Chapter 27
Once all coordinates are calculated, the program is writ

ten in the same way as for the previous patterns:
02709 (BOLT CIRCLE PATTERN)
N1 G20
N2 Gl7 G40 G80
N3 G90 GS4 GOO Xll.8301 Y8.S S900 M03
N4 G43 Zl.O HOl M08
NS G99 G81 RO.l Z-0.163 F3.0
N6 X7 S Yll. O
N7 X3.1699 Y8.S
N8 Y3.S
N9 X7 .S Yl. O
NlO Xll.8301 Y3.S
Nll G80 M09
N12 G28 ZO.l MOS
N13 G91 G28 XO YO
N14 M30
Using the following explanation and the formula, coordi

nates for any hole in any boit circle pattern can be calcu
lated easily. The formula is similar for both axes:
X = cos ((n -1) x B + A) x R + X,

Y == sin ((n -1)
B + A)
R + Y,
where ...
It would be more logica! to select the boit circle center as

program zero, rather than the lower left corner of the part.
This method would eliminate modifications of the boit cir
ele center position for each coordinate value and perhaps
reduce a possibility of an error. At the same time, it would
make it more difficult to set the work offset G54 on the ma
chine. The best solution is to use G52 local coordinate
offset method. This method is especially useful for those
jobs that require translation of the boit circle pattern (or any
other pattern) to other locations of the same part setup. For
details on the G52 command, see Chapter 40.
Boit Circle Formula

ln the previous calculations, there are many repetitious
data. The methods are the same, only the angle changes.
This type of calculation offers an excellent opportunity for
creating a common formula that can be used, for example,
as the basis of a computer program, calculator data input,
etc. Figure 27-10 shows the basis for such a formula.
X
Y
n
H
B
A
R
Xc
Yc
=
=
=
=
Hole X coordinate
Hole Y coordinate
Hole number counter - CCW from 0
Number of equally spaced holes
Angle between holes = 360 I H
First hole angle from 0
Boit circle radius or boit circle diameter/2
Boit circle center from the X origin
Boit circle center from the Y origin
Pattern Orientation
The boit circle pattern orientation is specified by the an
gle of the first hote from the 0 of the boit circle.
In daily applications, boit circle patterns will have not
only different number of holes, but different orientations as
well. The boit circles most commonly affected are those
whose number of equally spaced holes is based on the mul
tiples of six (6, 12, 18, 24, ...) and multiples of eight ( 4, 8,
16, 24, 32, ...). This relationship s important, since the ori
entation of the first hole will influence the position of al! the
other holes in the boit circle pattern.
/
Figure 27-11 shows relationship of the first hol<\_Position
to the 0 Jocation of the boit circle. 0 location is equivalent
to the 3 o'clock position or the East direction.
oo
-'
Figure 27-1O
Basis for a formula to calculate boit ho/e pattern coordinates
Figure 27-11
Typica/ orientations of a six and eight hole boit circles
225
PATTERN OF HOLES
POLAR COORDINATE SYSTEM

So far, all mathematical calculations relating to the arc or
bolt circle pattern of holes have been using lengthy trigono
metric formulas to calculate each coordinate. This seems to
be a slow practice for a modern CNC system with a very
advanced computer. Indeed, there is a special program
ming method available (usually as a control option) that
takes away all the tedious calculations from an arc or bolt
circle pattem - it is called the polar coordinate system.
There are two polar coordinate functions available, always
recommended to be written as a separate block:
G15
Polar coordinate system cancel
OFF
G16
Polar coordinate system
ON
Program input values for bolt hole or arc patterns may be

programmed with the polar coordinate system commands.
Check first the options of the control before using this
method. The programming format is similar to that of pro
gramming fix.ed cycles. The format is, in fact, identica!- for
example:
N. G9 GS X. Y. R. Z. F
Two factors distinguish a standard fix.ed cycle from the

same cycle used in the polar coordinate mode.
The first factor is the initial command G that precedes the
cycle - no special G code is required for a standard cycle.
For any cycle programmed in the polar coordinate system
mode, the prepara tory command G 16 must be issued to ac
tivate the polar mode (ON mode). When the polar coordi
nate mode is completed and no longer required in the pro
gram, the command G15 must be used to terminate it (OFF
mode). Both commands must be in a separate block:
(POLAR COORDINATES ON)
N. G16
N G9 GS X Y . R Z F
N .
(MAcxmING HOLES)
N
N
(POLAR COORDINATES OFF)
N GlS
--L
I
/
Xi
-
'
\_,
. . . .,(- ,_,. . ,_ -..-v-/('

-. -- . . ,_ -1
/,
CENTER POINT
;NGLE
- --, /
Figure 27-12
Three basic characteristics of polar coordinates
1n addition to the X and Y data, polar coordinates also re

quire the center of rotation. This is the fast point pro
grammed before G 16 command. Earlier, data in program
02708 and Figure 27-8 were calculated using trigonomet
ric functions. With the polar coordinates control option, the
program can be much simplified - 02710:
02710 (ARC PATl'ERN - POLAR)
N1 G20
N2 Gl7 G40 GSO
(Pl.\UI' roINl')
N3 G90 GS4 GOO Xl.5 Y1.O S900 M03
N4 G43 Zl.O HOl MOS
NS Gl6
N6 G99 GSl X2.S Y20.0 RO.l Z-0.163 F3.0
N7 X2.S Y40.0
NS X2.5 Y60.0
N9 X2.5 YSO.O
NlO GlS
Nll GSO M09
N12 G91 G28 ZO MS

N13 G28 XO YO
N14 M30
%
In the next program 02711, holes are equally spaced on

the bolt circle circumference. Dimensions in Figure 27-13
are applied to the polar coordinate programming method.
The second factor is the meaning of the X and Y words.
1n the standard fix.ed cycle, the XY words define the posi
tion of a hole in rectangular coordinates, typically as an ab

solute location. In the polar mode and G 17 in effect (XY
plane), both words take on a totally different meaning specifying a radius and an angle:
The X word becomes radius of the boit circle
The Y word becomes angle of the hote, measured from 0
Figure 27-12 illustrates the three basic input requirements for a polar coordinate system.
Figure 27-13
Polar coordinate system applied to boit hale circ/e - program 02711
226
Chapter 27
02711 (G15-G16 EXAMPLE)

N1 G20
N2 Gl7 G40 G80
N3 G90 G54 GOO XO YO S900 M03
(PIVOT POINT)
N4 G43 Zl.O HOl MOS
NS G16
N6 G99 G81 X6.8 YO R0.1 Z-0.163 F3.0
N7 X6.8 Y60.0
N8 X6.8 Y120.0
N9 X6.8 Y180.0
NlO X6.8 Y240.0
Nll X6.a Y300.0
N12 GlS
N13 G80 M09
N14 G91 G28 ZO MOS
NlS G28 XO YO
N16 M30
%
Note that the center of polar coordinates (also called pivot

point) is defined in block N3 - it is the last X and Y location
programmed before the polar command O16 is called In
the program example 02711, the center is at XOYO loca
tion (block N3) - compare it with program 02710.
Both, the radius and angle values, may be programmed in
either absolute mode 090 or incremental mode 091.
If a particular job requires many arc or bolt hole patterns,
polar coordinate system option will be worthy of purchase,
even at the cost of adding it later. If the Fanuc User Macro
option is installed, macro prograrns can be created without
having polar coordinates on the control and offer even
more programming flexibility.
+ Plane Selection
Chapter 29, and particularly Chapter 31, escribe the
subject of planes. There are three mathemattcal planes,
used for variety of applications, such as polar coordinates.
G17
XY plane selection
G18
ZX plane selection
G19
YZ plane selection
Selection of a correct plane is extremely criticai to the

proper use of polar coordinates. Always make it a habit to
program the necessary plane, even the default 017 plane.
O17 plane is known as the XY plane. If work:ing in another

plane, make double sure to adhere to the following rules:
The first axis of the selected plane
is programmed with the arc radius value.
The second axis of the selected plane
is programmed as the angular position of the hole.
In a table format, all three possibilities are illustrated.

Note, that if no plane is selected in the program, the control
system defaults to O17 - the XY plane.
G-code
Selected plane
First axis
G17
xv
X= radius
G18
lX
Z = radius
X= angle
G19
YZ
= radius
Z = angle
Second axis
= angle
Most polar coordinate applications take place in the de

fault XY plane, programmed with the O17 command.
+ Order of Machining
The order in which the holes are machined can be con
trolled by changing the sign of the angular value, while the
polar coordinate command is in effect. If the angular value
is programmed as a positive number, the order of machin
ing will be counterclockwise, based on the 0 position. By
changing the value to a negative number, the order of ma
chining will be clockwise.
This feature is quite significant for efficient program
ming approach, particularly for a large number of various
bolt hole pattems. For example, a center drilling or spot
drilling operation can be programmed very efficiently with
positive angular values (counterclockwise order). The s
will be at the first hole and, after the tool change, the drill
ing can continue in the reverse order, starting with the last
hole. AU angular values will now be negative, for the
clockwise order of a subsequent tool. This approach
requires a lot more work in standard programming, hen
the polar coordinates are not used. The polar coordmate
application using the O16 command elirninates all unnec
essary rapid motions, therefore shortening the cycle time.
FACE MILLING
Face milling s a machining operation that controls the
height of the machined part. For most applications, face
miUing is a relatively simple operation, at least in the sense
that it usually does not include any difficult contouring
motions. The cutting tool used for face milling is typically a
multi tooth cutter, called a face mill, although end mills
may also be used for certain face milling operations, usu
ally within small areas. The top surfaces machined with a
face mill are generally perpendicular to the axis of the fac
ing cutter. In CNC programming, the face milling opera
tions are fairly simple, although two important consider
ations are criticai:
a Selection of the cutter diameter

a
lnitial starting position of the tool n relation to the part
lt helps to have some experience and knowledge of face

milling principles, such as the right cutter and insert selec
tion, distribution of cuts, machine power consumption, and
severa) other technical considerations. Some of the basic
ones are covered in this chapter, but manufacturers' tooling
catalogues and various technical references will be a more
in-depth source.
CUTTER SELECTION
Like all milling operations, face milling employs a cut
ting tool that rotates while the part remains stationary. Face
milling requires that a specific amount of material be re
moved from the top of part, at one or severa! depth Jevels, in
a single cut or multiple cuts. The programming for face
milling is so effortless that, in fact, many programrners do
not pay sufficient attention to proper selection of the face
milling cutter, proper inserts, do not even consider the ma
chine requirements and capabilities.
r"
A typical face mill is a multi tooth cutter with interchangeable carbide inserts. High speed steel face mills are
not recommended for CNC work, although an HSS end
mill can be a suitable choice to face mill small areas or ar
eas hard to get to in any other way. Typical to a face milling
operation is the fact that not all inserts of the milling cutter
are actually working at the same time. Each insert works
only within a part of one complete revo]ution. This obser
vation may be an important consideration when trying to
establish an optimum tool life for a face milling cutter. Face
milling does require significant power resources from the
machine tool. For the insert setup n the cutter body, it is
very important to have all inserts properly mounted.
Basic Selection Criteria

Based on the job to be machined, selection of a face mill
cutter has to take into account severa! situations:
a Condition of the CNC machine

a Material of the part
a Setup method and work holding integrity
a Method of mounting
o Overall construction of the cutter
o Face mill diameter
a Insert geometry
The last two items, cutter diameter and insert geometry,
will influence the actual program development the most,
although other items are important as well.
'
Face Mill Diameter

One of the most important considerations for face milling
operations is the selection of cutter size. For a single face
cut, the ideal width of the face mill cutter should be about
1.3 to 1.6 times larger than the material width. For example,
a single 2.5 inches wide cut will benefit from a 04.0 face
mill as a suitable size. This 1.3 to 1.6 times ratio will assure
a good formation of chips and their clearout from the part.
For multiple cuts, always select the largest diameter cutter
that can be used for the job, always considering the ma
chine power rating, the cutter and insert geometry, the setup
rigidity, depth and width of each cut, and other machining
related factors.
The basic purpose of face milling s to machine off the
top of a part to the specified height. For this type of machin
ing, select a reasonable face mill diameter size, which often
means to use relatively large diameter face mills. Sizes n
the range of 2 t<h 12 inches (50 to 300 mm) are not unusual,
depending on the machine and the job.
One important consideration in face milling is the diame
ter of the tool versus the full width of the cut. Take, for in
stance, a 05.0 inch face mill. Ali tooling catalogues list the
nominal size of the face mill (5 inches in the example), al
though the body diameter can be found in the catalogue as
well. The nominal diameter always refers to the full width
of the cut. There is no way to tel1 the actual diameter of a
tool holder body from the nominal size alone, it has to be
looked up in the tooling catalogue. Normally, the actual
size of the cutter body is not needed, except n those cases
227
228
Chapter 28
where the face mil)ing takes place clase to walls or other

obstacles. The size of the cutter body may prevent access to
some areas of the part and may interfere elsewhere as well.
The Figure 28-1 shows some typical configurations.
o
-05.0_J
05.0
L-0s.o-J
Insert Geometry
Learn and become familiar with the basic terminology of
milling cutters in order to understand the terms used in pro
gramming. Most of the tooling companies have available
catalogues and technical booklets for the cutters and inserts
they manufacture that explain the cutter usage as well as all
related terms. Keep in mind that cutting tool technology
does change quite rapidly and constant improvements are
being made. For the programming purposes in this chapter,
we look only at the very basic items of insert geometry for
face milling cutters.
Insert geometry and insert rnounting into the cutter body
is determined by a design LhaL controls the position of the
insert in the material during a cut. These factors strongly in
fluence quality of the cutting. There are typically three gen
eral categories, based on the cutting rake angle of the face
mill (known as the rake angle):
ol
Negative geometry
o Combination of both
Negative geometry face mills offer very high strength of

the insert edge and usually require a heavy duty machine
and a robust setup. The side effects are poor formation of
the chips for steel but not for some kinds of cast irons,
where there is hardly any curling effect during chip for
mation. Their main benefit is the insert economy, since
negative inserts are generally double sided, offering up to
eight cutting edges for a single square insert, inserted in
pockets of the face mill.
Double Negative Geometry
Figure 28-1
Nominal diameter of various face mii/ cutters
o (Posrtive geometry
Negative Geometry
... single or double

... single or double
... positive I negative
Any detailed variations are too numerous to !ist, but a

short overview offers at least some basis for further studies.
Positive Geometry
Positive geometry cutters require less machining power

than negative cutters, so they may be more suitable on CNC
machines with limited power rating, usually small ma
chines. They offer a good chip breaking characteristics and
are a good choice for machining steel materials when the
cutting load is nat too heavy. Positive inserts are generally
single sided, therefore less economica!.
Double negative geometry can be used only if the ma

chine has sufficient power rating and both the cutting tool
and the machined part are firmly mounted within a rigid
setup. Cast iron or certain hard materials will usuaily bene
fit from using double negative geometry. The chips do have
the tendency to concentrate towards the machined part and
do not fly away from the part with ease, possibly causing a
chip jamming against the insert or wedging themselves in
confined areas. Positive/negative inserts should eliminate
this clogging problem.
Positive I Negative Geometry
Positive I Negative geomet,y s the most beneficiai to face

milling operations where chip clogging could become pro
blematic. This dual geometry design offers strength of the
negative insert with the capability of 'curling' the chip into
a spiral shape. This design is usually most suitable for foii
width face milling.
Always consult supplied technical specifications of the
cutting tool manufacturers and compare severa! products
before deciding on the most suitable choice for a particular
work. Face mills and thcir inserts come literally in hun
dreds of varieties and each manufacturer claims superiority
over the competition.
CUTTING CONSIDERATIONS
To program a cutting motion for a face mill, it is impor
tant to understand how a face mill works best under differ
ent conditions. For example, unless a specially designed
face milling cutter and proper insert geometry, sr.ape and
grade are used, try to avoid face milling a part width that is
equal to, or only a slightly larger than, the cutter diameter.
Full width face milling cut may cause the insert edge to
wear out prematurely and the chip to 'weld' itself to the in
sert. Not only the insert suffers in form of a wear out, the
part surface finish suffers as well. In some more severe
cases, the insert may have to be discarded prematurely, in
creasing the machining cost.
Figure 28-2 shows desirable and undesirable relationship

of the cutter diameter to the part width during face milling.
229
FACE MILLING
Undesirable
Desirable
Undesirable
I
IC1
Figure 28-2
Schematic relationship of the cutter diameter and_ the pa_rt_ width.
Only the cutter size (a) is desirable, although not 1ts pos1t1on.
The illustration shows only relationship of the cutter dia

meter to the part width - it does not suggest the actual
method of cutter entry into the material. The most impor
tant consideration for CNC programming of a face mill is
the angle the milling cutter enters into the material.
Angle of Entry
The face mill entry angle is determined by position of the
cutter center line relative to the part edge. If a part can be
milled with a single cut, avoid situations where the cutter
center line position matches the part center line. This neu
tral position causes a chatter and poor finish. Offset the cut
ter away from part center line, either for a negative cutter
entry angle, or a positive cutter entry angle. Figure 28-3
shows both types of entry angles and their effects.
A neutral angle of entry (not shown) has the cutter center

line coincident with the part edge. Needless to say, when
the cutting insert enters material, a certain force is required.
During positive entry angle, the weak cutting edge has to
absorb most of the forces. Since insert edge it is the weak
est part of the insert, a positive entry angle may cause a
breakage or at least some insert chipping. Normally, this
entry method is not recommended.
Negative entry angle of an insert absorbs the entry force
at the middle, at the strongest point of the insert. This is the
preferred method, as it increases the insert life. It is always
a good idea to keep the face mill center within the part area,
rather than away from it. That way, the insert will always
enter at the preferred negative angle.
Ali these examples assume a solid part material being
machined. lf the face mill has to travel over some empty
spaces, the cut will be interrupted. The entry into and the
exit/rom the part during interrupted cut will cause the cutter
entry angle to be variable, not constant. As many other fac
tors have to be considered n face milling, take these rec
ommendations and suggested preferences only as guide1 ines. Always consult a tooling representative on the best
method of handling a particular face milling job, particu
larly for materials that are difficult to machine.
Milling Mode
In milling, the programmed cutting direction, relative to
the table motion direction is always very important. In fact,
this factor so important that it is discussed in severa! sec
tions of this handbook and covers a subject called the mill
ing mode.
Traditionally, there are three milling mode possibilities
available in rnilling operations:
_L ......_____.
/
NEGATIVE
ENTRY ANGLE
<
Figure 28-3
Insert entry angle into the part. W = width of cut
(a) at the strongest insert point - negative entry angle
(b) at the weakest insert point - positive entry angle
o Neutral milling mode

o Conventional milling mode
o Climb milling mode
A neutral milling mode is a situation where the cutter fol
lows the center line of a slot or a face, climb milling on one
side and conventionally milling on the other side of center
line. The conventional milling mode s also called the 'up'
mode and the climb milling mode is also called the 'down'
mode. These are all correct terms, although the terminol
ogy may be a little confusing. The terms climb milling and
conventional milling are more often used with peripheral
milling than with face milling, although exactly the same
principles do apply for all milling. For most face milling
cuts, the climb milling mode is the best overall choice.
In Figure 28-4, example (a) illustrates the neutral cutting
mode, example (b) shows the so called down cutting mode
(or climb milling mode) and example (c) shows the so
called up cutting mode (or conventional milling mode).
230
Chapter 28
.,.._ Programmed
direction
As an overall general type, a coarse density cutter is usu. ally a suitable choice. The more cutting inserts are engaged
in material simultaneously, the more machining power will
be required. Regardless of the insert density, it is important
to have sufficient cutting clearances - the chips must not
clog the cutter, but tly out freely.
Table
direction _,..
.,.._ Programmed
direction
PROGRAMMING TECHNIQUES
Table
direction _,..
.,.._ P_rogr!3mmed
d1rect1on
At all times, at Jeast one cutting insert must be in contact

with the material, which will prevent heavy interrupted cut,
with the possible damage to the cutter and to the machine.
This situation may occur if a large face miJI diameter is
used for a very narrow part width.
(,--4_
i------t t1J
Table
direction _,..
I \
Although defined earlier as a relatively simple operation,

face milling can be programmed much better if some com
mon sense points are observed. Since face milling often
covers a large cutting area, it is important to consider care
fully the actual tool path from the start position to the end
position. Here is a !ist of some points that should be evalu
ated for any face milling operation:
o Always plunge-in to the required depth
away from the part (n the air)
o
lf surface finish s important, change the cutter

direction away frorn the part (n the air)
Keep the cutter center within the part area

for better cutting conditions
o Typically, select a cutter diarneter that s about

1.5 tirnes larger than the intended width of cut
Figure 28-5 shows a simple plate used for examples.
Figure 28-4
Face mi/ling modes:
(a) Neutral mi/ling mode
(b) Climb or 'down' mi/ling mode
(c) Conventional or 'up' mi/ling mode
Width of cut
Number of Cutting lnserts
L I nsufficient overlap
Depending on the face mill size, the common tool is a

multi tooth cutter. A traditional tool called fly-cutter has
usually only a single cutting insert and is not a normal tool
of choice in CNC. The relationship of the number of inserts
in the cutter to the effective cutter diameter is often called
the cutter density or cutter pitch.
Typical face mills will belong into one of these three cate
gories, based on the cutter density:
o Coarse density
... coarse pitch of inserts
o Medium density
... mediurn pitch of inserts
... fine pitch of inserts
Fine density
Width of cut
-,
'-- 25-30% of cutter diameter
Figure 28-5
Width of cut in face mi/ling - (b) is the recommended method
FACE MILLING
231
Figure 28-Sa illustrates the incorrect and Figure 28-Sb

the correct width of a face mill cut. In the example (a), the
cutter is engaged in the part with its fu)) diameter, causing
friction at the cutting edge and decreasing tool life. The ex
ample (b) keeps only about 2/3 of the cutter diameter in the
work, which causes a suitable chip thickness, as well as fa
vorable angle of insert entry into the material.
Single Face Mill Cut

For the first face milling programming example, we will
use a 5x3 plate (1 inch thick) that has to be face milled
along the whole top surface to the final thickness of .800.
Figure 28-6 shows this simple drawing.
5.0 -
The part XOYO is at the lower Jeft corner. To establish the

starting X position, consider the part length of 5.0 inches,
the cutter radius (5/2=2.5) and the clearance (.25). The start
X axis position will be the sum of these values, X7.75. For
the Y axis start position calculation, consider the overhangs
on both edges and select climb milling mode at the same
time. Actually, the climb milling will be combined with a
little of conventional milling, which is quite normal for face
milling operations. Figure 28-7 shows the cutter start posi
tion at X7.75Yl.O, and the end position at X-2.75Yl.O, as
well as the details of calculations.
10.8
13.0
5 x 3 PLATE
5 x 3 x 1 STEEL PLATE
Figure 28-6
Example of a single face mii/ cut- program 02801
From the drawing is apparent that the face milling will

take place along the part, so the X axis horizontal direction
will be selected. Before the program can be started, there
are two major decisions to be made:
o
Face mill diameter
o Start and end position of the cut
There are other important decisions to make, but these

two are the most critical.
The part is only 3 inches wide, so a face mill that is wider
than 3 inches should be selected. Although a 04.0 inch
( face mill seems like a natural choice, let's see if it conforms
to the conditions that have been established earlier. The
'\cutter diameter should be 1.3 to 1.6 Jarger than the width of
cut. In this case, 3 x 1.3 = 3.90 and 3 x 1.6 = 4.80. With a
04.0 face mill, that means only 1.33 times larger. Con
sidering the need for the cutter to overlap both edges of the
part, selection of afive inch face mill diameter is better.
Once the face mill diameter has been finalized, concen
trate on the start and e,uJ positions. For safety reasons,
plunging to the depth has to start away from the part, in the
air. The decision to cut along the X axis (horizontally) has
been made, so the question is whether from the Jeft to the
right or from the right to the left. It really does not matter,
except for the direction of chip tlow, so selection from the
right to the left is arbitrary.
Figure 28-7
Face mii/ positions for a single face mii/ cut example
The position Y1.0 was based on the desire to have about

one quarter to one third of the cutter diameter overhang at
the part edge, for best insert entry angle. As 1.5 inch over
hang is 30% of the cutter diameter, the programmed abso
lute Y position was established at a convenient Y l .O.
Now, part program for the single face milling cut can be
written, with the top of part as program zero (ZO). Only one
face cut is used - program example 02801.
02801
(SINGLE FACE MILLING CUT)
N1 G20
N2 Gl7 G40 GSO
N3 G90 G54 GOO X7. 75 Yl.O S344 M03
N4 G43 Zl. O HOl
NS GOl Z-0.2 F50.0 MOS
N6 X-2. 75 F21.O
N7 GOO Zl.0 M09
NS G28 X-2.75 Yl.O Zl.O
N9 M30
%
Spindle speed and feedrate are based on 450 ft/min sur

face speed, .006" per tooth and 8 cutting inserts, used only
as reasonable values. Note the Z axis approach in block N4.
Although the tool is well above an empty area, the rapid
motion is split between blocks N4 and NS, for safety rea
sons. With increased confidence, rapid to the Z-0.2 directly
may be an option, if desired. This example shows the pro
gram ZO at the top of the unmachined part, not the more
customary finished face.
232
Chapter 28
+ Multiple Face Mill Cuts

The general principlesapplying to a single face cut do ap
ply equally to multiple face cuts. Since the face mill dia
meter is often too small to remove all material in a single
pass on a large material area, severa! passes must be pro
gramrned at the same depth.
There are severa! cutting methods for a large area to be
face milled and each may produce good machining condi
tions under certain circumstances. The mast typical meth
ods are multiple unidirectional cutting and multiple bi
directional cutting (called zigzag) - at the same Z depth.
Multiple unidirectional cuts start from the same position
in one axis, but changes the position in the other axis, above
the part. This is a common method of face rnilling, but it
lacks efficiency, because of frequent rapid return motions.
Multiple bidirectional cuts, often called zigzag cutting,
are also used frequently; they are more efficient then the
unidirectional method, but cause the face mill to change the
climb milling method to the conventional method and vice
versa. This method may work for some jobs, but is not gen
erally recommended.
ROUGHING
FINISHING
Figure28-9
Bidirectional approach to a multiple face cut
for rough and finish face milling
There s another fairly efficient method that cuts only in

one mode, normally n climb milling mode. This method
may remind of a circular or a spiral motion (along the XY
axes) and is the most recommended method. It combines
the two previous methods and is illustrated n Figure 28-10.
In the next two illustrations, Figure 28-8 shows schemati

cally a unidirectional face milling. Figure 28-9 shows a
bidirectional face milling.
I\
I
I
I
I
I
ROUGHING
\
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
FINISHING
Figure28
Unidirectif
nai approach to a multiple face cut
for rough d finish face milling
Figure28-1O
Schematic tool path representation for the climb face mi/ling mode,
app/ied to a unidirectional cutting
The illustration shows the order and direction of all indi

vidual tool motions. The idea is to make each cut approxi
mately the same width, with only about 2/3 of the diameter
cutting at any time, and always in climb milling mode.
Compare the XY motions of these two methods. In addi

tion, a tool path difference (cutter position) between rough
ing and finishing is also shown. The cutting direction may
be either along the X or along the Y axis, but the principles
of the cutting motion will remain the same.
Note the start position (S) and the end position (E) in the
two illustrations. They are indicated by the heavy dat at the
center of cutter. Regardless of the cutting method, the face
milling cutter s always in a clear position at the start and
end of cutting, mainly for safety reasons.
13 x 6 PLATE
Figure28-11
Example of a multiple face mii! cut program 02802
FACE MILLING
233
The programming example for multiple face milling cu s

is based on the drawing shown n Figure 28-1 I. The prev1ously discussed basics are applied and should present no
difficulty n understanding the program.
Some of the examples could have been done in a shorter

way along the X axis, resulting in a smaller program. How
ever, for the purpose of example illustrations, using the Y
axis was more convenient.
02802
(MULTIPLE FACE MILLING CUTS)
N1 G20
N2 Gl7 G40 G80
N3 G90 G54 GOO X0.75 Y-2.75 S344 M03
(POS 1)
N4 G43 Zl.O HOl
NS GOl Z-0.2 FS0.0 MOS
(POS 2)
N6 Y8 7 5 F2 l. O
(POS 3)
N7 GOO Xl2. 25
(POS 4)
NS GOl Y-2.75
(POS 5)
N9 GOO X4.0
(POS 6)
NlO GOl YS.75
(POS 7 - 0.1 OVERLAP)
Nll GOO X8.9
(POS 8 - END)
N12 GOl Y-2.75
N13 GOO Zl.O M09
N14 G28 XS.75 Y-2.75 Zl.O
NlS M30
USING POSITION COMPENSATION
In program 02802, al! relevant blocks are identified with

tool positions corresponding to the numbers n an earlier
Figure 28-1 O.
The 13 inch part width was separated into four equal cut
ting widths of 3.25 each, which is a little less than 2/3 of a
05.0 cutter, its usable width of cut. Clearances of .25 off
the part are the same as for the single face cu example._he
major deviation from the norm was the mot1on to pos1tton
number 7 n Figure 28-10 and block NI 1 in the program.
The Jast cutting motion is from position 7 to position 8. In
order to make the surface finish better, the expected cut was
overlapped at X9.0 by .100 to the programmed value of
X8.9. In Figure 28-12, the schematics for 02802 program
are shown, incluuing block number references.
In both previous examples, the starting XY position of

the face mill has been calculated, considering its diameter
and a suitable clearance. To use 02801 program as an ex
ample, the starting position was X7.75 Yl.O. The part was
5.0 inches, plus a clearance of .25, plus the 2.5 inches cutter
radius - total of X7.75 absolute value of the cutter center.
The big disadvantage of this method is apparent when
using a face mill that has a different diameter than the one
expected by the program. A last minute change of the face
mill at the machine may cause problems. Either there will
be too much clearance (if the new tool s smaller)- or worse
- there will be not enough clearance (if the tool is larger).
There s another way to solve this problem.
As the title of this section suggests, the solution s to use
the 'obsolete' Position Compensation feature of the control
system, already described in Chapter 17. It is probably the
only practicai application of the position compensation on
modern CNC machining centers.
Revisit the example 02801 and refer to earlier Figures
28-6 and 28-7. Illustrations show that we have to face (with
a single cut) a 5x3 plate, using a 05 inch face mii!. In order
to adhere to the safety rules n machining, the face mill has
to be positioned n an open area, away from the part. In or
der to keep the face mill cutting edges away from the part
by one quarter of an inch, the clearance of .25 inches has to
be incorporated with the radius of the face mill, which is 2.5
inches, to achieve the actual tool starting position for the
face milling cutter.
In a face milling program, this situation will take on one
of the following forms:
i----'--l---'--,-1---i--i
13.0 WIDTH,
4 S EGM ENTS,
3.25 EACH
05.0 CUTTER
Figure 28-12
Multiple face mi/ling details for program example 02802
The face mill radius is programmed using the actual values
Position compensation method is used
In the first case, the program 02801 may be the resuit,

with the following content:
02801
(SINGLE FACE MILLING CUT - NO COMPENSATION)
N1 G20
N2 Gl7 G40 G80
N3 G90 GS4 GOO X7.75 Yl.O S344 M03
N4 G43 Zl.O HOl
NS GOl Z-0.2 FSO.O MOS
N6 X-2.75 F21.O
N7 GOO Zl. O M09
NS G28 X-2.75 Yl.O Zl.O
N9 M30
%
234
Chapter 28
Block N3 moves the face mill to the actual, calculated

start position of the cut. In block N6, the cut is completed again, at the actual previously calculated position. The pro
gram 02803 using position compensation s similar, but it
does have some notable differences.
Compare the original program 02801 with the new pro
gram 02803, program that uses the position compensation
feature - Figure 28-13:
//-1-, '
--I-- \
\
'
,,
5x3PLATE
Figure 28-13
Examp/e of the position compensation as app/ied to face mi/ling program 02803
02803
(SINGLE FACE MILLING CUT)
(USING POSITION COMPENSATION)
Nl G20
N2 Gl7 G40 G80
N3 G90 G54 GOO X8.0 Yl.O S344 M03
N4 G43 Zl.O HOl
NS G46 XS.25 DOl
N6 GOl Z-0.2 FSO.O MOS
N7 G47 X-0.25 F21.0
NS GOO Zl. O M09
N9 G91 G28 XO YO ZO
NlO M30
%
When comparing, note the major differences in block N3

- (new X value), in block N5 (compensation 046), and also
in block N7 (compensation 047). The situation will benefit
from some more detailed evaluation.
The N3 block contains the X position with value of X8.0.
That is the initial position. Since the plan is to apply the
compensation 046 (single contraction), the tool has to be at
a position of a larger value than the one expected when the
compensation is completed. Therefore, X8.0 is an arbitrary
value. Note that if the 045 compensation command were
planned, the initial position would have to be a smaller
value than the one expected when the compensation is
completed. This is because the position compensation is al
ways relative to the programmed direction.
The N5 block is added to program 02803. It contains the
position compensation 046, which is a single contraction
in the programmed direction by the compensation amount
contained in the register of DOI offset. Note that the pro
grammed coordinate value is X5.25, which is the total of
the part length (5.0) and the selected clearance (.250). The
face mill radius is totally disregarded in the program. The
main benefit of this method is that, within reason, the pro
grammed coordinates will not change, even if the face mill
diameter is changed. For example, if a 03.5 inch face mill
is used, the job can be done very nicely, but the starting po
sition may have to be changed. In this case, the stored value
of the DO1 offset will be 1.75, but block N5 will still con
tain X5.25. The CNC system will do its work.
The last block worth a further look s N7. It contains 047
position compensation command. The X value is equiva
lent to the selected clearance of X-0.25. The 047 command
means a double elongation'Of the offset value along the
programmed direction. This is necessary, because of the
need to compensate at the start of cut, as well as at the end
of cut. Also note the initial position and the compensated
start position cannot be the same, otherwise no compensa
tion will take place. With some ingenuity, the face milling
can be programmed very creatively, using a rather obsolete
programrning feature.
CIRCULAR INTERPOLAT/DN
In the majority ofCNC programming applications, there
are only two types of tool motions related to contouring.
One is the Linear lnterpolation, discussed earlier, the other
one is the Circular Interpolation, discussed in this chapter.
The programming method of controlling a tool path along
an arc is similar to the method of programming a tool path
along a line. The method of circular contouring is called
circular interpolation. It is commonly used n profiling on
CNC vertical and horizontal machining centers, as well as
on lathes and many other CNC machines, such as simple
milling machines, routers, burners, water jet and laser pro
filers, wire EDM, and others.
Circular interpolation is used for programming arcs or
complete circles in such applications as outside and inside
radii (blend and partial), circular pockets, spherical or coni
ca! shapes, radial recesses, grooves, corner breaks, helical
cutting, even large counterbores, etc. TheCNC unit will in
terpolate a defined arc with a very high precision, if the
necessary information is given in the program.
ELEMENTS OF A CIRCLE
To understand the principles of programming various cir
cular motions, it helps to know something about the basic
geometrica! entity known as the circle. As an entity that s
quite common in everyday life, a circle has various proper
ties that are strictly mathematical, only considered in spe
cialized disciplines, such asComputerized NumericalCon
trol, motion control and automation.
The following definition of a circle and severa! other defi
nilions that are related to a circle are based on some com
mon dictionary definitions - Figure 29-1.
A circle is defined as a closed curve on a plane,
where all points have the same distance from an
internai point called the circle center point.
There are other similar definitions of a circle that can be

found in dictionaries and mathematical books. The general
understanding of a circle and its various properties as de
scrbed in this handbook, provides a sufficient knowledge
for generalCNC prograrnming. Additional knowledge will
be needed for some specialized or complex programming
applications. At this time, become at least reasonably fa
miliar with the geometrica! and trigonometric relationships
for arcs and circles.
CENTER
QUADRANT
;OINT
QUAD. li
QUAD. III
QUAD. IV
'
CIRCLE
DIAM ETER
Figure 29-7
Basic elements of a circle
Radius and Diameter

In the simplest mathematical terms, a circle is defined by
its center point and its radius. Two of the most important
elements of a circle used in part programming are the circle
radius and the circle diameter.
The radius of a circle is the line segment
from the center point to any point on the circle
The diameter of a circle is the line segment
through the center point of the circle and
having both end points on the circle
The center point location of the circle is also important

forCNC prograrnming. The plural form of the word radius
is radii, although the word 'radiuses'has been accepted as
a colloquial term. In CNC programming, radii and dia
meters are used all the time, on a daily basis for almost all
contouring machines. Drawings used in rnachine shops use
radius and diameter dimensions a lot, with an almost un
limited nurnber of possible applications.
Radii and diameters are a Iso used in relation to the cutting
tool insert designation, they are used for measuring and
gauging (inspections), as well as in trigonometric calcula
tions and various auxiliary sketches. In programming, the
actual application of an arc or circle is not important, only
its mathematical characteristics.
235
236
Chapter 29
Circle Area and Circumference

The area of a circle is defined by this formula:
A =
7t X
R2
i& where ...

A
R
7t
= Area of the ci rele

= The circle radius
= Constant (3.1415927)
The circumference of a circle s the length of a circle if it

were a straight line:
i& where ...

C
O
7t
Circumference of the circle
= The circle diameter
= Constant (3.1415927)
Il is important to note that both the area and circumfer

ence of a circle (its actual length) are seldom used in CNC
programming, although understanding their concepts pres
ents a rather useful knowledge.
OUADRANTS
A quadrant is a major property of a cirele and can be de
fined mathematically:
A quadrant is any one of the four parts of the plane
formed by the system of rectangular coordinates.
It is to every programmer's benefit to understand the con

cept of quadrants and their applications for circular mo
tions in milling and turning programs.
A circle is programmed in all four quadrants, due to its
nature, while most arcs are programmed within one or two
quadrants. When programming the arc vectors I, J and K
(described later), the angular difference between the arc
start and end points is irrelevant. The only purpose of arc
vectors is to define a unique arc radius between two points.
For many arc programming projects, the direct radius can
be used with the R address, available for majority of control
systems. 1n this case, the angular difference between the
start and end points is very important, because the com
puter will do its own calculations to find the arc center. The
arc with the angular difference of 180 or less, measured
between the start and end points, uses an R positive value.
The arc in which the angular difference is more than 180 ,
uses an R negative value. There are two possible choices
and the radius value alone cannot define a unique arc.
Also worth mentioning is a mirrored tool path and its re

lationship to the quadrants. Although it is not a subject of
the CUITent chapter, mirroring and quadrants must be con
sidered together. What happens to the tool path when it is
mirrored is determined by the quadrant where the mirrored
tool path is positioned. 1n the Chapter 41 are more details
about mirror image as a programming subject. For now, it
should be adequate to cover a very brief overview only.
For example, if a programmed tool path in Quadrant I is
mirrored to Quadrants ll or IV, the cutting method will be
reversed. That means a climb milling will become conven
tional milling and vice versa. The same rule applies to a
programmed tool path in Quadrant II as it relates to Quad
rants I and lll. This is a very important consideration for
many materials used in CNC machining, because climb
milling in Quadrant I will turn into conventional milling in
Quadrants ll and N - a situation that is not always desir
able. Similar changes will occur for other quadrants.
Ouadrant Points
From the earlier definition should be clear that quadrants
consist of two perpendicular lines that converge at the arc
center point and an arc that is exactly one quarter of a circle
circumference. In order to understand the subject deeper,
draw a line from the center of an arc that is parallel to one of
the axes and is Jonger than the arc radius. The line created
an intersection point between the line and the arc. This
point has a special significance in programming. It is often
known as the Quadrant Point - or the Cardinal Point - al
though the latter term is not used too often, except in math
ematical terminology. There are four quadrant points on a
given circle, or four intersections of the circle with its axes.
The quadrant points locations can be remembered easier by
associating thern with the dial of a compass or a standard
watch with an anaJog dial:
Oegrees
Compass
direction
Watch
direction
Located
between quadrants
EAST
3 o'clock
IVand I
90
NORTH
12 o'clock
I and li
180
WEST
9 o'clock
li and III
270
SOUTH
6 o'clock
III and IV
At this point of learning, it may be a good idea to refresh

some terms of the angle direction definition. The estab
lished industry standard (mathematics, as well as CAD,
CAM and CNC) defines an absolute angular value as being
positive in the counterclockwise direction and always start
ing from zero degrees. From the above table, zero degrees
correspond to the East direction or three o' clock position of
an analog clock - Figure 29-2.
CIRCULAR INTERPOLATION
237
POSITIVE DIRECTION
(I "'
90
1ao_J
270
ccw
POSITIVE ANGLE
oo
NEGATIVE ANGLE
cw
NEGATIVE DIRECTION
Figure 29-2
Mathematical definition of the arc direction
There is anolher reason why the quadrant points are im

portant in CNC programming. In some cases, the quadrant
points will be used as the arc end points, even if the circular
cut covers more than one quadrant. This s particularly true
for many older control systems, where crossing the quad
rants n a single block is not allowed. The modern controls
can generate arc of any length n a single block, with virtu
ally no restrictions.
PROGRAMMING FORMAT
The programming format for a circular interpolation tool
path must include severa! parameters, without which the
task of cutting an arc would be impossible. The important
parameters are defined as:
o
o
o
Arc cutting direction (CW or CCW)

Arc start and end points
Arc center and radius value
The cutting feedrate must aJso be n effect, discussed n

more detail later in this chapter. Special modal G codes are
used for circular motion programming and additional pa
rameters related to the circle radius are also required.
Arc Cutting Direction

A cutting tool may move along an arc in two directions -
clockwise (CW) or counterclockwise (CCW). These two
terms are assigned by convention. On most machines, the

motion direction is determined by looking perpendicularly
at the plane in which the circular motion s programmed.
The motion from the plane vertical axis towa,ds the plane
horizontal axis s clockwise, reverse motion is counter
clockwise. This convention has mathem.atical origins and
does not always match the machine axes orientation. Chap
ter 3 J describes machining n planes, this chapter will only
take a brief look.
In a typical program format, the first statement of a circu

lar cutting motion block is the cutting direction. This direc
tion defines the cutting tool motion along the programmed
arc, which is either clockwise or counterclockwise. The
motion direction along an arc s programmed using pre
paratory commands in the block.
Circular lnterpolation Block

There are two preparatory commands associated with
programming an arc direction:
G02
Circular motion clockwise
G03
Circular motion counterclockwise
cw
ccw
Both the G02 and G03 commands are modal, therefore

they remain n effect until the end of program or until can
celed by another command from the same G code group,
usually by another motion command.
The preparatory commands G02 and G03 are the key
words used in programming to establish circular interpola
tion mode. The coordinate words following the G02 or G03
command are always designated within a selected plane.
The plane is normally based on the available axes combina
tions of XY, ZX and YZ for mii ling or similar applications.
Normally, there s no plane selection on a lathe, although
some conlrol indicate it as G 18, the ZX plane.
The plane selection and the combination of circular mo
tion parameters and the arc cutting direction determine the
arc end point, and the R value specifies the arc radius. Spe
cial arc center modifiers (known as vectors) are also avail
able, if the programmer requires them.
When the G02 or G03 cornmand is activated by a CNC
program, any currently active tool motion command is au
lomatically canceled. This canceling motion is typically
GOO, GOl or a cycle command. Ali circular tool path mo
tions must be programmed with a cutting feedrate in effect,
applying the same basic rules as for linear interpolation.
That means the feedrate F must be programmed before or
within the cutting motion block. If the feedrate is not speci
fied in the circular motion block, the control system will
automatically look for the last programmed feedrate. If
there is no feedrate in effect at all, many controls usually re
turn an error message (an alarm) to that effect. The feedrate
may be specified in one of two ways. Either directly, within
the arc cutting block only or indirectly, by assumjng the last
active feedrate. Circular morion in a rapid mode is not pos
sible. Also not possible is a simultaneous three axes circu
lar motion. For more details on this subject, look up Chap
ter 45 describing helical milling.
On the majority of older controls, direct radius address R
cannol be specified and the arc center vectors I, J and K
must used instead:
238
G02
G02
G03
G03
Chapter 29
x.. Y. I.. J ..
z.. I..
K ..
x .. Y I.. J ..
X. z .. I.. K
X
Milling
Turning
Milling
Turning
program
program
program
program
cw
cw
ccw
ccw
Control systems
supporting lhe arc rdius designation by
_
address Rw1ll alsa accepl the UK mod1fiers, but the reverse
is not true. If both the arc modifiers IJK and the radius Rare
programmed in the same block, the radius value takes pri
ority, regardless of the 01der:
G02 (G03) X Y. R . I.. J..
G02 (G03) X Y . I.. J.. R
The controls that accept only the modifiers IJK will re

turn an error message in case the circular interpolation
block contains the R address (an unknown address).
Arc Start and End Points
The start point of an arc is the point where circular inter

polation begins, as determined by the cutting direction.
This point must be located on the arc and it can be a lan
gency point or an intersection, resulting in a blend radius or
a partial radius respectively. The instruclion contained in
the start point block is sometimes called the departure
command - Figure 29-3.
CENTER
POINT
START CENTER
POINT POINT
- '
/
- CCW=+
',_l
R
'1 J----
--
I-
CCW=+
f'
R
-
I
USED IN MILLING
START
POINT
_),, J
'I
K-
I1
--
USED IN TURNING
Figure 29-3
Center point and start point of an arc
The arc start point is always relative to the cutting motion

direction and is represented in the program by coordinates
in lhe block preceding the circular motion. In terms of a
definition,
The start point of an arc is the last position of the cutting
tool before the circular interpolation command.
Here is an example:
N66 GOl XS.75 Y7.5
N67 G03 X4.625 Y8. 625 Rl.125
N68 GOl X Y
In the example, block N66 represents the end of a con

tour, such as a linear motion. It also represents the start of
the c that follows next. In the following block N67, the
arc 1s machined, so the coordinates represent the end of arc
and start point of the next element. The last block of the ex
ample is N68 and represents the end point of the element
that started from the arc. The end point of the arc is the co
ordinate point of any two axes, where the circular motion
ends. This point is sometimes called the target position.
Arc Center and Radius
The radius of an arc can be designated with the address R

or with arc center vectors I, J and K. The R address allows
programming the arc radius directly, the IJK arc center
vectors are used to actually define the physical (actual) arc
center position. Most modern control systems support the
R address input, older controls require the arc center vec
to:s only. The basic programming format will vary only
shghtly between the milling and turning systems, particu
larly for the R address version:
G02 X Y..
G02 X . z ..
G03 X Y
G03 X z..
R
R..
R
R.
Milling
Turning
Milling
Turning
program
program
program
program
- cw
- cw
- ccw
- ccw
Why s the arc center location or the arc radius needed at

all? It would seem that the end point of an arc programmed
111 combination with a circular interpolation mode should
be sufficient. This is never true. Always keep in mind that
numerica! control means control of the tool path by num
bers. ln this case, there is an infinite number of mathemati
cal possibilities and all are corresponding to this incom
plete definition. There s virtually an unlimited number of
arc radii that will fit between the programmed start and end
points ancl still maintain the cutting direction.
Another important concept to understand is that the cut
ting direction CW or CCW has nothing to do with the arc
center or the radius. The control system needs more infor
mation than direction and target point in order to cut the de
sired arc. This additional information must contain a defi
nition that defines a programmed arc with a unique radius.
This unique radius is achieved by programming the Rad
dress for the direct radius input, or using the IJK arc center
vectors. Address Ris the actual radius of the tool path, usu
ally the radius taken from the part drawing.
Arc Center Vectors

Figure 29-4 shows the signs of arc vectors I and J n al!
possible orientations. In different planes, different pairs of
vectors are used, but the logic of their usage remains ex
actly the same.
Arc vectors I, J and K are used according to the followingdefinitions (only I and J are shown in the illustration):
I
Quadrant
I
Quadrant
li
239
G02
D D D
u
10 J-
I+ JO
Quadrant
111
Quadrant
IV
I
I
I- JO
I- J-
_sJ
I+ J-
s-I+ J+
10 J+
[7
I- J+
G03
u
I- JO
j?_
I- J-
LJ
\] -zJ
D I f7
10 J-
I+ J-
I+ JO
I+ J+
I
I
10 J+
I- J+
Figure29-4
Arc vectors I and J (a/so known as arc modifiers) and their sign designation in different quadrants (XY plane)
Arc center vector I is the distance, with specified direction,

measured from the start point of the arc,
to the center of the arc, parallel to the X axis.
Arc center vector J is the distance, with specified direction,
to the center of the arc, parallel to the Y axis.
Arc center vector K is the distance, with specified direction,
to the center of the arc, parallel to the Z axis.
The distance between the start point of the arc and the
center point of the arc (as specified by the UK vectors) s al
most always measured as an incremental distance between
the two points. Some control systems, for example many
Cincinnati designs, use the absolute designation to define
an arc center. In those cases, the arc center s programmed
as an absolute value from the program zero, not from the
arc center. Always make sure how each of the control sys
tems n the machne shop handles these stuations.
The lack of a standard in this respect creates a major dif
ference n the programming format, so be careful to avoid a
possible error. An error can be particularly likely in those
cases where both cypes of concrols are installed n the shop.

There is no compatibility between programs using absolute
and incremental designation of the arc center.
The specified direction applies only to the incremental

designation of arc center. It is the definition of relative posi
tion of the arc center from the start point, programmed with
a directional sign - absence of the sign always assumes a
positive drection, minus sign ndcates a negative drection
and must always be written. Arcs using absolute center de
fintion follow standard rules of absolute dimensioning.
+ Arc in Planes
For machining centers, programming an arc n any one of
the three geometrica] planes is allowed - Figure 29-5. The
correct arc vectors must be used for each plane:
Gl7 G02 (G03) x.. Y.. R
G18 G02 (G03) X z.. R
Gl9 G02 (G03) Y z .. R
(or
(or
(or
I.. J.. )
I.. K . )
J .. K )
240
Chapter 29
G17 - XY PLANE
G18 - ZX PLANE
G19 - YZ PLANE
z
Figure 29-5
Arc cutting direction in three planes - the orientation of the axes is based on mathematica/, nat machine, p/anes
If the programmed plane is not aligned with the machine

axes, or if the axes used in the program are selected without
a plane designation, the circular motion will take place ac
cording to the axis selection in the program. Always watch
when the modal axis motion is omitted. The safest method
of avoiding this potentially harmful problem is to follow a
simple precaution - never count on modal values.
In nonstandard planes, the circular program block should
always contain specifications for both axes, as well as both
arc vectors or the R value. Such a block s complete and
will always be executed on the basis of axes designation
priority. This method is preferable to the selection of a pre
viously defined plane. Even if the plane designation is in
correct, the resulting tool motion will always be con-ect.
RADIUS PROGRAMMING
Programming arc is vcry common. By definition, an arc
s only a portion of a circle and there are many ways to pro
gram an arc. If the arc is 360, it must be programmed with
the cutting start position being the same as its end position.
1n this case, a foii circle s the resuit. If only a portion of the
circle is programmed, only a radius is programmed. Two
kinds of radii are used in CNC programrning:
o Blend radius
o Partial radius
Each radius may be programmed in the CW or CCW di
rection and each may be externai or internai, as well as in
any orientation that the cutting tool can handle.
Blend Radius
A point of tangency between an arc and its adjacent ele
rnerlt creates a blend radius. Blend radius is defined as a ra
dius tangent between a line and an arc, an arc and a line, or
between two arcs. A blend arc creates a smooth transition
between one contour element and another. The point of tan
gency is the only contact point between the two elements.
The sirnplest forrn of a blend radius is between two per

pendicular lines that are parallel to the machine axes. Cal
culation of the start and end points requires only a few addi
tions or subtractions. More complex calculation is required
when even one line is at an angle. In this case, trigonomet
ric functions are used to calculate the start or the end point,
or both. Similar calculations are required for blends be
tween other entities as well. A blend arc is also known as a
fillet arc or afi.llet radius.
Partial Radius
The opposite of a blend arc is a partial arc - there is no
smooth blend between two contour elements, instead, there
s an intersection. Mathematically, there are always two
possible selections, however, the part drawing should be
quite clear as to the shape of any partial radius. Partial ra
dius can also exist between two lines, one line and an arc,
or between two arcs. Partial radius can be defined as a ra
dius where either the start point or the end point is not tan
gent to the adjacent element, but intersects it in two places.
The actual calculation of point coordinates for the arc start
or end point is about the same as that for a blend arc, de
pending which rnethod of dimensioning had been used in
the part drawing.
FULL CIRCLE PROGRAMMING

Ali Fanuc systems and many other controls support a ful I
circle programming. Full circle is an arc rnachined along
360. Full circle cutting is possible on the Jathes in theory
only, since the type of work does not allow it. For the rnill
ing work, ful) circle prograrnming is fairly routine and is re
quired for common operations, such as:
o Circular pocket milling
o Spotface milling
o Helical milling (with linear axis)

o Milling a cylinder, sphere or cone
241
A full cirele cutting s defined as a circular tool motion

that completes 360 between the start and end points, re
sulting in identica! coordinates for the start and end tool po
sitions. This a typical application of one block program
ming of a full circle - Figure 29-6.
2.00
- R1 .25
-2.00 -
Figure 29-6
Ful/ circle programming using one b/ock of program entry
G90
GOl
G02
GOO
G54 GOO X3.25 Y2.0 S800 M03

Z-0.25 FlO.O
X3.25 Y2.0 I-1.25 JO F12.0
ZO.l
GOl
G02
G02
G02
G02
GOO
Z-0.25 Flo.o
X2.0 Y0.75 I-1.25 JO Fl2.0
X0.75 Y2.0 IO Jl.25
X2.0 Y3.25 Il.25 JO
X3.25 Y2.0 IO J-1.25
Z0.1
2.00
I
J_
----j
(FULL CIRCLE)
GJ.
- R1.25
f---2.00
Figure 29-7
Ful/ circle programming using faur b/ocks of program entry
G90 G54 GOO X3.25 Y2.0 S800 M03
4)
4)
4)
4)
START
POINT
ys
R1.25
Figure 29-8
Ful/ circle programming using five blocks of program cade
'\4:>'
j
.
OF
OF
OF
OF
Try not to make the job more difficult by establishing the

starting position of the cut away from any of the four quad
rant points, which are at 0 , 90 , 180 and 270 . For exam
ple, if the cutting starts at 33 , there will be five circular
blocks, notfou,; and the XY coordinates of the start point of
the arc (shown as xs and ys distances ), will have to be calcu
Iated using trigonometric functions - Figure 29-8:
Older controls do not allow a circular interpolation n

more than one quadrant per block. In this case, the circular
motion has to be divided among four or even five blocks,
depending on the starting tool position. Using the previous
drawing example, the resulting program will be a little Ion
ger, but with the same results - Figure 29-7:
-.---1---i,
1
2
3
4
This is an example of a four block programming that cov

ers a full circle cutting. The arc start and end points are both
located at a quadrant point of the axis line, which s an im
portant programming consideration. The quadrant point in
the example s equivalent to 3 o'clock position (0 ). Note
that the G02 is repeated in each block only for the example
emphasis and does not need to be repeated n a production
program. The same applies to the occurrences of IOand JO
they do not have to be written unless they change.
xs
,,,,.-0i-,,
/
,,.'\
/
' \
(BLOCK
(BLOCK
(BLOCK
(BLOCK
G90
GOl
G02
G02
G02
G02
G02
GOO
G54 GOO X3.0483 Y2.6808 S800 M03

Z-0.25 FlO.O
X3.25 Y2.0 I-1.0483 J-0.6808(BLOCK
X2.0 Y0.75 I-1.25 JO
(BLOCK
X0.75 Y2.0 IO Jl.25
(BLOCK
X2.0 Y3.25 Il.25 JO
(BLOCK
X3.0483 Y2.6808 IO J-1.25
(BLOCK
ZO.l
1
2
3
4
5
OF
OF
OF
OF
OF
5)
5)
5)
5)
5)
Values Xs and y., were calculated by the following trigono

metric functions:
Xs
Ys
=
=
1.25 x cos33
1.25 x sin33
1.0483382
6807988
242
Chapter 29
Boss Milling
From the results, the start point of the cut can be found:
X = 2 + x5 = 3.0483382 = X3.0483
Y = 2 + Ys = 2.6807988 = Y2.6808
As an example of a full circle cutting, a simple boss will

be used, as illustrated in Figure 29-10.
If the control sy stem supports a full circle program input

in on.e block, the output program will be shorter, but will re
quire the I and J arc center vectors only - the R radius value
cannot be used in this case. The reason is that I and J
vectors are always unique in their meaning, the radius R
designation can be ambiguous. The following example is
correct, using the I and J arc vectors:
G90
GOl
G02
GOO
01.812---
G54 GOO X3.0483 Y2.6808 S800 M03

Z-0.25 F9.0
X3.0483 Y2.6808 I-1.0483 J-0.6808
ZO.l
--'7-- -
The I and J modifiers cannot be arbitrarily replaced with

the address R. The next example is nat correct:
G90
GOl
G02
GOO
Common
radius and
motion direction
Common
start and
end point
- TOP
,__ ----"-"'..._ ---
,-
0.375
G54 GOO X3.0483 Y2.6808 S800 M03

Z-0.25 F9.0
(* WRONG *)
X3.0483 Y2.6808 Rl.25 Fl2.O
ZO.l
The reason? Mathematically, there are many options for a

full circle programming. If an R va!ue is programmed for a
360 arc, no circular motion will take place and such a
block will be ignored by the control. This is a precaution
built into the control software, to prevent from cutting an
incorrect arc because of the many existing possibilities. In
Figure 29-9, only a handful of the possible arcs is shown.
The circles share the same cutting direction, start point, end
point, and radius. They do nat share center points.
02.0-----
FRONT
Figure 29-1 O
Boss mi/ling example drawing for program 02901
Boss or spigot milling are terms used for externai milling

of a full circle. The opposite is an internai milling of a full
drele, such as a circular pocker. The cutter used will be
0.75 inch end mill programmed at .375 depth:
02901
(O.75 DIA END MILL)
Nl G20
N2 Gl7 G40 G80
N3 G90 G54 GOO X-1.0 Yl.5 S750 M03
N4 G43 ZO.l H01
N6 G41 Y0.906 DOl F20.0
N7 XO Fl4.0
NS G02 J-0.906
N9 G01 Xl.O F20.0 M09
NlO G40 Yl.5 F40.0 MOS
Nll G91 G28 XO YO Z2.0
Nl2 M30
%
Different
center points
Figure 29-9
Many mathematical possibi/ities exist for a ful/ circle cutting with R
In program 02901, the tool moves first to the XY posi

tion and depth, then the cutter radius offset was started.
When reaching the cutting depth, the tool made a straight
climb milling motion to the top of boss. Then it swept
around the circle to the same point, moved away straight,
and by reversing the initial motions, it returned to its Y axis
start point - Figure 29-11 shows the block numbers.
N2
N6
243
N9
N8
N5
+
N?
Figure 29-11
Boss mi/ling example- tool motions for program 02901
Alternate applications may include multiple roughing

passes, a semifinishing pass, two cutting tools and other se
lections related to machining.
Internai Circle Cutting - Linear Start

Internai full circle cutting is common and has many ap
plications, such as circular pockets or counterbores. In an
example, a 01.25 circular cavity is to be machined to the
depth of .250 inch, in program 02902. A simple linear mo
tion will be used for the startup, where the entry point blend
is not too important. The cutting tool is a center cutting end
mill (also known as a slot drill) -Figure 29-12:
NS GOl G40 XO F20.0 M09

N9 G91 G28 XO YO Z2.0 MOS
NlO M30
%
Program 02902 shows both the arc start point and end
point at 90 , programmed at 12 o' clock position. The cutter
radius offset started during the motion from the arc center.
A cutter radius offset cannot start or end in a circular mode.
This is true for almost any circular application, except the

very few that use a special cycle.
Internai Circle Cutting - Circular Start

The simple linear approach programming method in the
last example will not be practica! when smooth blend be
tween the approach and the circular cut is required. To im
prove the surface finish, the start position of circular mo
tion can be reached on an arc. The usual startup is from the
center, first at a 45 linear motion, to apply the cutter radius
offset, then on an arc that blends with the full circle. The
Figure 29-13 illustrates the principie and program 02303
shows the complete program.
' ......
...-,.----01_.2_5_
... 1.,,...,
_L
.. --0.25
-r
Figure 29-12
Internai circle cutting - linear approach only
02902
( O S DIA CENTER END MILL)
Nl G20
N2 Gl7 G40 GSO
N3 G90 GS4 GOO XO YO S900 M03
N4 G43 Z0.1 HOl
NS GOl Z-0.2S FlO.O MOS
N6 G41 Y0.625 DOl F12.0
N7 G03 J-0.62S
o. s
Pdiiir r
-01.25--j
Figure 29-13
Internai circle cutting - linear and circular approach
02903
( O 5 DIA CENTER END MILL)
Nl G20
N2 Gl7 G40 GSO
N4 G43 Z0.1 HOl
NS GOl Z-0.25 FlO.O MOS
N6 G41 X0.312S Y0-3125 DOl F12.0
N7 G03 XO Y0.62S R0.3125
NS J-0.62S
N9 X-0.3125 Y0.3125 R0.3125
NlO GOl G40 XO YO F20.0 M09
Nll G91 G2S XO YO Z2.0 MOS
Nl2 M30
%
)l
,/
\ o.:
_______
!
_
...... /
244
Chapter 29
This programrning method is slightly longer, but the sur

face finish quality with a circular approach is much better
than with the linear approach.
lf a control systems has the User Macro option and many

circular pockets are required, the 02903 example could
also be adapred to a macro. Some controls do have a circu
lar pocket milling cycle built-in.
Circle Cutting Cycle

Severa] controls, for example some Yasnac or Mitsubishi,
but not Fanuc, have a built-in routine (cycle) to cut a full in
terna! circle using special preparatory commands, typically
G12 and G13. These cycles are very convenient program
ming aid and to the surprise of many programmers, Fanuc
dropped this feature many years ago.
What is not true in any other circular application, is true

in this situation. In normal programrning of arcs and cir
cles, a cutter radius offset cannot start in an arc tool motion.
In G12/G13 programming mode, the start motion from the
uncompensated circle center position is circular to the
compensated start point on the arc circumference. This is
all built into the control and there no choice is offered. Con
sider this situation as a special case, de:finitely nat as a rule.
On some Yasnac CNC models, there is an additional pa
rameter in the G12/G 13 format - the radius parameter, or
the R parameter. This indicates special rapid motion por
tion, designed to reduce air cutting time.
As an example of G12/G13 programming, the earlier cir
cular pocket, illustrated in Figure 29-14, will be used.
There is a logica! relationship between G02 and G12, as

well as between G03 and G13:
G12
Full ci rele cutting cycle
cw
G13
Full circle cutting cycle
ccw
Programmed D address is the control register number for

the cutter radius offset and F is the feedrate address. There
are alternate versions of this cycle on sorne controls, but all
very similar in nature.
Other conditions must also be accepted for successful us
age of this programming shortcut. The cutting tool must al
ways start at the center of a circular pocket, the cutting
plane must be set to the XY plane and the arc starting posi
tion is usually built-in, generally at 0 or 180 (Y axis start
is not possible). There is also a built-in cutter radius offset
(G 12 to the right, G13 to the left). Never program the com
mands G41 and G42 when using G12 or G13 comrnand. If
the cutter radius is in effect, it will be overridden by the se
lection of G 12 or G 13. The safest approach is to program
these two cycles in G40 mode (cutter radius offset can
celed) at all times.
----..... "
.,..__\
'11
...._..,I
', -- /
G12
1 01.25-1
Full circ/e CW
Full circ/e CCW
In this format description, the I address is the radius of

finished circle and is programmed as an incremental value
with a sign. If the sign is positive (plus sign s assumed), the
start point of the cut will be at 0, which is equivalent to the
3 o'clock position or East direction. If the sign is negative,
the start point of the cut will be at 180 position, which is
equivalent to the 9 o'clock position or West direction. The
command cannot be forced to a start in the Y axis direction.
I O 0-t
A typical programming format for using these two spe

cial commands is quite simple:
Gl2 I.. D.. F..
Gl3 I.. D.. F..
Figure 29-14
Ful/ circ/e cutting using G12/G13 cyc/es program 02904
02904
(O S DIA CENTER CUTTING END MILL)
N1 G20
N2 G17 G40 GSO
N4 G43 ZO.l HOl
NS GOl Z-0.2S Flo.o MOS
N6 G13 I0.62S D01 F12.0 M09
(IF AVAILABLE)
N7 G91 G28 XO YO Z2.0 MOS
NS M30
The program is only two blocks shorter, but it is much

simpler to develop. The cutter radius offset is automatic
(built-in) and the editing at the machine is much easier.
There is also an additionaJ bonus - since the start point on
the circle is not a resuit of a straight line, but a Jead-in arc,
lhe surface finish quality will be better than using other
types of tool approach. This is a preferable method when
the machined surface quality is important. There is also a
built-in lead-out arc in the cycle, similar to the lead-in arc.
that is effective when the circle cutting is completed.
245
ARC PROGRAMMING
With a full arc cutting, which means the complete 360

motion, the R address cannot be used at all. The arc center
vectors I and J have to be applied, even on !atest controls.
What if the circle is 359.999 ? Well, at first, circle must

have 360 , therefore the word 'circle' is incorrect. Even a
small difference of 0.001 does make a difference between
a circle and an arc. Although this difference is much more
important mathematically than for practicai programming,
Lhe distinction is very impo11ant. In circular interpolation
terms, an incomplete circle is nothing more than an arc.
Look at this arc a little differently. If a 90 arc is made, the
R address can be programmed, for example:
GOl X2.0 YS.25 Fl2.0
G02 X3.75 Y7.0 Rl.75
If an arc that covers exactly 180 is prograrnmed, the pro

gram will nat be much different:
Start po _:nt
I
//
-,
1/
:
'
'D.L
/,"I
\' /l
/,.
'- - ,../
,,,,//
End point
-- CONTOUR
---,
R-
Start point
I
/,..
'
\ '-
'-
\
I
End point
', __ ,,/
CONTOUR
Figure 29-15
Sign of R address for circular cutting - only the center is different
GOl X2.0 YS.25 Fl2.0

G02 XS.5 YS.25 Rl.75
The following example is identica! to the previous one,

except for the R address sign.
Note that the Y coordinate is the same for the arc start and
end position. The Y value n the circular motion block does
nat have to be repeated, it s used here only for illustration.
GOl Xl0.5 YS.625 F17.0

G02 X13.125 Y6.0 R-2.625
Another example shows programmng an arc of 270 ,

still using the R address. Are the following blocks correct?
GOl Xl0.5 YS.625 F17.0
G02 X13.125 Y6.0 R2.625
The blocks appear to be correct. The calculations, the for

mat, individual words, they al! appear to be right. Yet, the
program is wron.g! lts resuit will be a 90 arc, not 270.
Study the illustration in Figure 29-15. It shows that there
is notjust one, but two mathematical possibilities when the
R address is used for arcs. The solid contour is the tool path,
the dashes identify the two possible radii.
Program mers do not norrnally think of these mathernati
cal alternatives, until they program arcs larger than 180
(or scrap a part). This is a similar situation to that of a foii
circle, described earlier. Although the I and J vectors can be
used to rernedy the problem, a different remedy may be a
preferred choice. The R address can still be used in the pro
gram, but with a negative sign for any arc that is greater
than 180 . For arcs smaller than 180 , the usual positive R
radius remains in effect. Recall from some earlier explana
tions that if there is no sign with the R word (or any other
word), the word assumes a positive value. Compare the two
programrning examples:
GOl Xl0.5 YS.625 Fl7.0
G02 X13.125 Y6.0 R2.625
( 9 O DEGREES)
(270 DEGREES)
If frequently programrning arcs that cover more than

180, establish a particular programming style. If the style
is well thought out, it will avoid the costly mistakes associ
ated with the R address sign error.
FEEDRATE FOR CIRCULAR MOTION

ln most programs, the feedrate for circular interpolation
is determined the same way as feedrate for linear interpola
tion. The cutting feedrate for arcs is based on established
machining conventions. They include the work setup, ma
terial machinability, tool diameter and its rigidity, program
mer's experience and other factors.
Many programmers do not consider the machined radius
when selecting the cutting feedrate for the tool. Yet, if the
machined surface finish quality is really important, always
consider the size of every radius specified in the pa1t draw
ing. Perhaps the same feedrate for linear and circular mo
tions programmed so far may have to be adjusted - either
upward or downward.
In lathe prograrnming, there is no reason to distinguish
between linear and circular tool motions, regardless of the
radius size. The tool nose radius is usually small, only aver
aging .0313 inches (or 0.8 mm) and the equidistant tool
path is clase to the programmed tool path, taken from a
drawing. This is not the case for milling contour program
ming, where large tool radii are normal and common.
246
Chapter 29
The adjusted arc feedrate is not required n every pro

gram. If the cutter center tool path is close to the part draw
ing contour, no adjustment is needed. On the other hand,
when a large diameter cutter is used to contour a small out
side radius, a problem that affects the surface finish may
occur. In this case, the tool center path generates a much
longer arc than one in the drawing. In a similar situation, if
a large cutter diameter is used for an inside arc, the equidis
tant path will be much shorter than the original arc length.
Two formulas provide the tools to find the adjusted arc

feedrate, mathematically equivalent to the linear feedrate.
Both formulas are recornmended for externai or internai
contouring only, nat for rough machining of solid material.
Feedrate for Outside Arcs
For outside arcs, the djusted feedrate will be higher than
the linear feedrate, calculated from this formula:
In normal programming, the linear feedrate is used for

arcs as well, as determined by the machinability rating for
the given material. The formula for linear feedrate is:
F1 = r / min
Ft
where ...
F1
r/min =
F1
n
=
Linear feedrate (in/min or mm/min)

Spindle speed
Feedrate per tooth
Number of cutting edges
A linear feedrate for 1000 r/min, .0045 in/tooth load and

two cutting edges, the feedrate is 9 in/min. Using a rela
tively large cutter diameter, such as 0.625 (15.875 mm) or
larger, the linear feedrate adjustment up or down for circu
lar motion may be necessary to maintain good finish.
The elemen tary rule of feedrate ad justment for arcs s that
the normally programmed linear feedrate s increasedfor
outside arcs and decreasedfor inside arcs - Figure 29-16.
CUTTER
\
/
L.
- INCREASED
FEEDRATE
-'-10UTS1DE ARC
- / _J JNSIDE ARC I
-
f1
(R + r)
R
where ...
F0
F1 =
R
Feedrate for outside arc

Linear feedrate
Outside radius on the part
Cutter radius
Based on the linear feedrate of 14 in/min, an outside .375

arc radius requires an upward adjustment for a 0.50 cutter:
Fa =
14 X (.375 + .25) / .375 = 23.333333
The resuit is a major increase, to F23.3 in the program.

Consider the same example with .75 cutter radius (01.5):
Fa =
14 X (0.375 + 0.75) / 0.375 = 42.0
The feedrate changed from 14 in/min to 42 in/min - a 3

times increase. Here, use previous experience to determine
whether the adjustment is justified or not.
Feedrate for lnside Arcs
For inside arcs, the adjusted feedrate will be lower than
the linear feedrate, calculated from this formula:
l-- I
F1
(R - r)
R
where ...
DECREASED --- FEEDRATE
NORMAL
FEEDRATE
Figure 29-16
Feedrate adjustments for circular tao/ motion
An outside arc of a toci path is longer than the drawing arc

An inside arc of a toci path is shorter than the drawing arc
Fi
F,
R
Feedrate for inside arc

Linear feedrate
lnside radius on the part
Cutter radius
Based on the linear feedrate of 14 in/min, the feedrate for

.8243 inch inside radius with 01.25 cutter, must be ad
justed downward:
Fi = 14 x (.8243 - .625) / .8243 = 3.384932
The resuit is a feedrate of 3.38 in/rnin. In the program,

this will be the applied feedrate for the F address.
CUTTER RADIUS OFFSET

The contour of a part - alsa known as a profite - is nor
mally programmed for milling appliations by etablishing
.
the depth in the Z axis first, then movmg the cuttrng tool rn
dividually along the X axis, Y axis, or both axes simulta
neously. For turning applications, either the X axis or the Z
axis, or both axes can be used to face, turn or bare a con
tour. For both types of machining, each contour element
contour requires one block of cutting motion. These mo
tions between contour change points can be programmed
in inches or millimeters and they can use an absolute value
position or an incremental distance. In either case, keep in
mind that this type of programming uses the center line of
the spindle as the X and Y or X and Z tool movements. Al
though the center line programming is a very convenient
method for program development, it is also a method unac
ceptable for machining. During contact with the material,
the edge of the cutting tool must touch the programmed
part contour, not its center line.
The tool path for all contouring operations is always
equivalent to the cutting tool motion. Whether used on a
CNC machining center or on a CNC lathe, the cutting tool
edge must always be tangent to the contou,; which mens
the tool motion has to create a path where the center pornt
of the cutter is always at the same distance from the con
tour of the part. This is called the equidistant tool path.
The illustration in Figure 30-1 shows two types of a tool
path. One is nul compensated, the other is comensated.
Both are applied to a particular contour, with the cutter dia
meter shown as well, including its positions.
'
2), _. Tool path with

'
' OFFSET USED
---------,-<: )
6- ----- - -- --
Cutter center
Figure 30-1
Too/ path not compensated (above) and compensated (below},
by the cutter radius
MANUAL CALCULATIONS
Some reatities should become apparent from the Figure
30-1. The most noticeable observation is that the machined
contour must always take place with the tool path compen
sated by its radius, which means its center point must be lo
cated in positions shown in the Jower example. This ma
chining requirement is not matched by the reality of the
engineering drawing. In a drawing, all dimensions refer to
the part contour, not the contour of the tool center. ln fact,
the drawing is dimensioned to the tool positions illustrated
in the upper example of the illustration. The question is how do the tool center positions get from a drawing to the
part contour?
The answer is - they have to be calculated. Actually, they
do not have to be, if the CNC system is equipped with an
advanced built-in feature called the cutter radius compen
sation or cittter radius offset. On the CNC turning systems,
this feature is called the tool nose radius compensation or
the tool nose radius offset. This advanced and common
control feature enables the programmer to apply the offset
command, program the part contour as per drawing dimen
sions and let the control do all the necessary calculations
and adjustments automatically.
At this point, the current chapter could continue and
strictly concentrate on the automatic method of program
ming, using this exceptional feature. After all, all modern
CNC machines do have a cutter radius o ffset built-in. Once
severa! basic rules are followed, the feature is easy to use.
In order to automate something, we have to first under

stand how it works. If something is automated already, the
knowledge of how it works makes the job so much easier,
particularly when encountering a difficulty that has to .be
resolved very quickly. To really understand cutter radius
offset - many programrners and machine operators do not it is important to understand the principles built n the sys
tem, principles that are very much based on basic mahe
matical calculations, including the often unpopular tngo
nometry calculations. A very simple drawing is shown in
Figure 30-2 for that purpose.
The program zero will be selected at the lower left corner
of the part. Since the cutting will be externai, in a climb
miiling mode, the tool will strut along the Y direction first.
At the moment, the start and end tool position is nat impor
tant, only calculations of the individual contour points at
intersections and tangency points.
247
248
Chapter 30
Ali five points can be summed up in a smaJJ table:
'
,_._______
1.125
I
---2.25
18
P1
P2
P3
R0.625
Sample drawing for manual calcu/ations (examples)
Note that there are five points on the drawing, one at each
contour change. These points are either intersections or
points of tangen.cy. As each point has two coordinates, total
of ten values will be required.
The drawing always offers some points that need no cal
culations. It is a good idea to get well organized and mark
the points from the drawing first. Then, make a hart in the
order of tool path. Study Figure 30-3 carefully - 1t shows all
five points and all the values that need no calculation, per
haps some addition or subtraction only.
P1
P4
P5
XOYO
Pt X-AXIS Y-AXIS
P11 X0.0000 j Y0.0000,
P2 X0.0000 Y1.1250
P3, X2.2500 I
?
P4 X2.2500 I Y0.6250
P5 1 X1.6250 Y0.0000
Figure 30-3
Contau, change points required by the cutter path
Out of the ten values required, nine of them are given.

The missina Y value for P3 is not expected on the drawing.
Reaardless f whether the cutter radius offset is used or not,
so1e calculations will aJways be necessary and this is one
of them. After all, manual programming is done by hand.
Figure 30-4 shows the trigonometry method used.
---2.25
a
_J_
L!)
N
......
___/
P4
P5
Figure 30-2
P2
a= 2.25 x tan18
a=0.7311
P3(Y)
P3(Y)
=
=
X coordinate
Point No.
1. 125 + a
1.8561
Figure 30-4
Trigonometric ca/culations to find unknown Y coordinate
li
I
xo
xo
Y coordinate
YO
Y1. 125
X2.25
Y1 .8561
X2.25
Y0.625
X1.625
YO
Once all the coordinates are completed, there is enough

data to start the tool path, but only if the cutter radius offset
feature is used. However, that is not the intention at the mo
ment. To illustrate, a whole new set of points has to be
found - coordinates for the center of the cutter!
+ Tool Path Center Points

The cutting tool for milling is always round. An end mill,
for example, has a diameter of a certain size. Even tools
used for turning and boring have a round end (called the
tool nose radius), even if it is relatively small. Of course,
we al I know that any round object has a center. Mi Uing cut
ter or a lalhe tool tip are round objects, so they have a cen
ler. This evaluation may sound a bit too elementary and it
is, but it is also the basis, the key element, the whole co
cept, of cutter radius offset. Every control system takes 1t
into consideration.
Take, for example, an electric router tool to cut a shape
out of wood - how is it used? Using a penei! outline of the
desired shape, the router bit is placed into the tool and starts
cutting. Where? lt starts cutting outside of the outlined
shape, othen,vise the piece cut will he either too large or too
small! The same procedure s used when cutting a board
with a saw - the saw width has to be compensated.
This activity is so simple, it might have been even done
automatically, witbout ser1ous thinking. The radius of the
router bit (or the widtb of the saw) was compensated for be
fore and during the cut. Just like the outline of the shape in
wood is followed, the outline of the machined part, outline
that is offset by the cutter radius is followed as well.
The tool path generated by the cutting tool center a/ways

keeps the same distance from th part contour (outlie!'
There is even a special name for th1s type of tool path - tt 1s
called the equidistant tool path, which means 'distant by
the sarne amount'. Figure 30-5 shows the sample drawing
with the applied equidistant tool path.
The question now is - what to do about the point coordi
nates that have just been calculated and stored in the above
table. Are they useful? Can they be used in a program? Yes
to the first question, but not yet to the second. A few addi
tional conditions have to be taken into consideration.
CUTIER RADIUS OFFSET
249
Y
----
,,/p3\'
(P2',
Yi
n
i
------
---- -y
(""''\
rPJ\
--
:2
---
("' '"\
"--;j'
P4
_._.Y
_/
/
/
\f>v
Figure 30-5
Equidistant tao/ path - cutter center coordinates required
In the program, the old set of points will be used to calcu

late a new set of points. Again, try to see which points are
easy to calculate and establish them first.
For examp!e, what are the XY coordinates of point PI? Il
is easy to see that the new Pl has the value of cutter radius
n the X minus and also the value of cutter radius in the Y
minus direction, from the old Pl . The actual value for an.y
points cannot be calculated at all, without knowing the cut
ter radius first.
+ Cutter Radius
The nominal radius of the cutter is always known on new
tools, or tools that have been physically measured. For high
precision work, the radius of the cutter must be known al
most 100%, say within .0001" (0.0025 mm= 2.5 micron).
That is not always possible for reground tools, tools previ
ously used, or tools that are undersize or oversize for some
reason. Ali this means that programming the centerline of
the cutter requires the exact tool radius to be known at the
time of programming, in all cases.
+ Center Points Calculation

Coordinate points illustrated in Figure 30-5 above, repre
sent the center of the cutter radius at each contour change
point. Now, another requirement can be brought into the
picture, the cutter radius size. A new coordinate set of five
points can be developed. For the example, a brand new cut
ter of 0.750 will have .375 radius.
Which points can be 'read' from the illustration directly,
without any trigonomeuic calculations? Look at and evalu
ate Figure 30-6. Out of ten values required, only eight have
been identified, but also realize that the previous ten calcu
Jations had to be done earlier as well, adding to the overall
programming effort.
In order to finish the discussion on programming of the
cutter center, the t wo Y values for P2 and P3 have to be cal
culated. Lct's sta11 with poinl P2.
. -
\EY
\E
-00 .75 TOOL

Pt
X axis
Y axis
P1
- X-0.3750Y-0.3750
- - -------P2,X-0.3750
?
--- P3 X2.6250
?
P4 X2.6250 Y0.6250
P5 X1 .6250Y-0.3750
R0.375
Figure 30-6
Contour change points for the cutter center path
Figure 30-7 shows the details of point P2 calculation. The

trigonometry method itself is a subject programmers have
to know how to work with - it is part of mathematics, ex
tended to CNC programming. A similar calculation is re
quired for P3, shown in Figure 30-8.
0.375
= 1sin18
x 0_375
'.y
cos18
tY = 0.2725
P2(Y) = 1.125 +t.Y
'
P2
1
P2(Y) = 1.3975
I
>7. -
,',
Y1.125
Figure 30-7
--
Ca!culation of P2 for the cutter center point
1_+ sin18
iY= cos18
tY = 0.5161
0.375
0.375
Figure 30-8
Calculation of P3 for the cutter center point
Now, all XY coordinates are known, for all the center

points around the part contour. These points are in the order
of machining and they will appear n that sarne order in the
program. Not just the point locations but also various G
codcs, M codes, feedrates. and other data.
\.
250
At the moment, it is still too soon to write the program.

This section can be closed with the table of the new points,
representing lhe center of 0.750 cutter but none other!
X coordinate
Y coordinate
X-0.375
Y-0.375
X-0.375
Y1 .3975
X2.625
Y2.3722
P4
X2.625
Y0.625
P5
X1 .625
Y-0.375
Point No.
P1
P2
P3
==
There is a singlc digit 1 used in the calculations. It may

raise a question where il came into the equation. It rcpre
sents the value of sin.90 , which is 1. And that littlc triangle
in front of the Y - il is a symbol for the Greek word 'delta',
often used in mathematics to represent an increment, a vec
tor, or a distance.
COMPENSATED CUTTER PATH

The previous examples are typical to the programming
methods used on the early numerica! controls. These con
trols (normally of the NC type, not CNC), had no cutter ra
dius offset feature at all. The tool path was developed in
such a way that the contour change points had to be calcu
lated with the cutter radius in ejfect. This method of pro
gramming added a great amount of time to the part devel
opment process, greatly increased the possibility of
programming errors and disallowed any flexibility during
machining. Even a small difference between the pro
grammed cutter radius and the actual cutter radius required
recalculation, a correction of thc program and the creation
of a new punched tape (there was no CNC memory in those
days). With the development of numerica! control technol
ogy, and the addition of a computer to the control system
(the modern CNC systems), the cutter compensation meth
ods have been made not only possible but also greally sim
plified for the programmcr.
Types of Cutter Radius Offset

As the CNC technology developed, so did the cutter ra
dius offset methods. This development has taken three
stagcs. Today, they are known as the three types of a cutter
radius offset - the Type A, the Type B, and the Type C:
o
Type A offset - oldest - uses special vectors in the program

to establish the cutting direction ( G39, G40, G41, G42).
Type 8 offset. old - uses only G40, G41 and G42

in the program, but it does nat look ahead.
Overcutting is possible for Type B offset.
Type C offset - current - uses only G40, G41 and G42

in the program, but with the look ahead feature.
Overcutting is prevented for Type C offset.
Chapter 30
The Type C cutter radius offset - the look ahead type (also
called the intersectional type) - is the one that is used on all
modern CNC systems today. There s no need to call it Type
C anymore, as there are no other types available.
Definition and Applications

Cutter radius offset s a feature of the control system that
allows programming a contour without knowing the exact
diameter (radius) of the cutter. This very sophisticated fea
ture performs all necessary calculations of contour change
points, based on three items:
o
Points of the drawing contour
o
o
Specified direction of the cutter motion

Radius of the cutter stored in the control system
In practicai programming - and machining - this feature

allows the CNC programmer to develop a program without
knowing the exact cutter diameter at the time of program
ming. It also allows the CNC operator to adjust, to fine
tune, the cutter size in the control system (nominal, over
size or undersize), during actual machjning. In practicai
tcrms, using cutter radius offset (and tool nose radius offset
on lathes) should be considered for a number of reasons:
o
Unknown exact size of the cutter radius
Adjusting for the cutter wear
Adjusting for the cutter deflection
Roughing and finishing operations
Maintaining machining tolerances
... and many others
Every contouring requires the consideration of a cutter radius.
Some applications may not be too clear at the moment,

but with increased knowledge of this topic, it will be easier
to understand the subject. The suggestions are only some of
the possibilities the automatic cutter radius offset offers.
Now let's look at its actual use in programming.
PROGRAMMING TECHNIOUES
In order to program the cutter radius in a compensated
mode, the three items mentioned earlier must be known:
o
Points of the drawing contour
Specified direction of the cutter motion
Radius of the cutter stored in the control system
Thcse items are the actual data sources. Computers only

work with data and the data has to be provided by the user.
For the purposes of this chapter, we assume that all data for
the contour change points are based on the drawing - the
XY drawing coordinates.
251
Direction of Cutting Motion

Whenever an externai or an internai tool path is pro
grammed, there will always be a choice of two directions.
For now only, the directions can be called the clockwise and
the counterclockwise direction around the part contour.
This general motion direction is compounded by the fact
that there is a specific motion of the table (n milling), or the
motion of the tool (in turning). These are two very separate
groups that need to be clarified - which one to consider motion of the table or motion of the tool? Keep in mind,
that regardless of the CNC machine type, it is imperative to
follow one basic rule of CNC programming:
ln CNC programming, always consider the cutting tool
moving around the part, never the other way around.
This statement s true for CNC lathes, where it is obvious,

but it is also true for CNC machining centers, where it is
not so obvious. It is also true for other types of CNC ma
chines, such as wire EDM, laser cutting machines, waterjet
cutters, flame cutters, etc. When it comes to the so called
direction clockwise versus counterclockwise, a closer look
1s necessary.
Left or Right - not CW or CCW
The fust thing to take care of is to eliminate the mislead
ing terms clockwise and counterclockwise. These terms are
reserved exclusively for circular interpolation and have no
place in discussion of the cutter radius offset. Instead, the
more accurate terms Lefi and Right are used for clarity.
Just like in everyday situations, when faced with the di
rectional terms lefi and right, we determine the correct po
sition of an object with respect to a certain previously es
tablishcd viewing direction. A moving object is said to be to
the left or to the right of a stationary object, depending on
the direction of its movement.
In CNC programming, there is no difference. The com
pensated cutter tool path is positioned to the lefi or to the
right of the stationary contour, when looking into the cutter
path direction, as illustrated in Figure 30-9.
The illustration shows all three options - a cutter without
a direction, a cuuer with direction specified and positioned
to the left of the contour, and a cutter with direction speci
fied and positioned to the right of the contoi.a:
Out of the two compensation options, which one is bet
ter? Compensation to rhe lefi is preferred on CNC machin
ing centers, because it produces a climb milling mode of
cutting, assuming that a standard right-hand tool is used
with M03 rotation. There might be a case for the compen
sation to the right, causing so called conventional milling
mode of cutting. This mode should be used only n special
cases, after consultation with a tooling specialist. This only
applies to milling systems, not to turning.
ra=
ej_
Externai tool motion
'l
Internai tool motion
Figure 30-9
Cutter path direction as it relates to a stationary part contour:
(a - b) No motion direction shown - left and right is unknown
(c - d) Cutter positioned to the LEFT of the contour
{e - f) Cutter positioned to the R!GHT of the contour
Offset Commands
In order to program one or the other mode of cutting (cut
ting direction), there are two preparatory commands avail
able to select the cutter radius offset direction:
Offset (cornpensation) of the cutter radius
to the LEFf of the contouring direction
Offset (compensation) of the cutter radius
to the RIGHT of the contouring direclion
G41
G42
G4 l or G42 mode is canceled by the G40 command:

G40
I Cutter radius offset mode CANCEL
Figure 30-10 shows all three radius offset commands:
li
\____,J
ci
0
Figure 30-1 O
G41
LEFT
G42
RIGHT
G42
RIGHT
G41
LEFT
I
G40
G40
t
f'
-NONE- -NONE-
App/ication of G41, G42 and 640, to the cutter path
;:; --
'-._:_
" _,)
252
Chapter 30
In terms of the miiling method, G41 command is applied

to the climb milling mode, G42 command is applied to the
conventional miliing mode. This is true only if the spindle
rotates with M03 function active (spindle CW) and the cut
ter is right hand. If the cutter is left hand, the spindle must
rotate with MQ4 function active (spindle CCW) and all
rules applying to cutter radius offset are the exact opposite
of those discussed here. There is no cutter radius offset ap
plied when G40 command is in effect.
Figure 30-1 J shows the G41 command as a climb milling

mode and the G42 command as a conventional milling
mode. Climb milling mode is the most common in CNC
milling, particularly in contour milling.
/J
\M
J PART/
V'/.(/
Conventional Milling
G42
Climb Milling
G41
_,. Tool motion direction
+ Radius of the Cutter

The benefit of the cutter radius offset that allows to pro
gram the tool path as if the part contour were the required
cutter path, does not mean the cutter radius should be either
forgotten or ignored during programming. The logica!
question at this stage is - if the actual cutter radius is not
specified in the program, where is it specified?
First, look at Figure 30-12 - it illustrates the effect of dif
ferent cutter radii applied to the same part contour.
r:_ -
-.....---:-
,/:
---:- - ----- ---'
0f::
_..---:
\ \._\.))
>;
Figure 30-12
Effect of the cutter radius on the actual tao/ path
the control offsets n more depth and emphasize their rela

tionship to the compensation of the cutter radius. Although
this topic may appear to be aimed at the interest of the CNC
operator, the programmer has to understand the same prin
ciples equally well, if not in even more depth.
+ History of Offset Types

Fanuc controls have developed over the years, and be
cause of their reliability and popularity, many of the older
models are still in use by machine shops. To understand the
offsets and their application, it is important to know what
type of offset the Fanuc control has. The rule of thumb is as expected - the lower levei or the older the control is, the
lower the flexibility, and vice versa. Notice the wordflexi
bility - it s not the quality that is lower or higher - just the
flexibility. Differences are categorized as Offset Memory
Types. There are three memory types on Fanuc systems:
o Type A - lowest levei of flexibility
o Type B - medium levei of flexibility
o
Figure 30-17
C/imb mifling and conventional mi/ling mode for
a right hand cutter and the spindle rotation mode M03
SMALL DIAMETER
MEDIUM DIAMETER LARGE DIAMETER -
The answer to the last question is - in the control system

area cal/ed offset settings. We are already famiJiar with the
offset areas (offset screens on the control unit). These terms
have been used for the Position Compensation, the Work
Ojfsets and the Tool Length Offset (discussed in earlier
Chapters 17 to 19 respectively). Now is the time to look at
Type C - highest levei of flexibility
Do not confuse these tool offset memory types with the

cutter radius offset types! These offset types determine how
the tool length offset and the cutter radius offset will be en
tered into the control system and nothing else. Work offsets
G54 to G59 are not affected.
Too/ Offset Memory Type A
The Type A tool offset is the lowest levei available. Its

flexibility is very limited, because this offset type shares the
tool lenglh values with the cutter radius values in a single
column. Because of the data sharing for two different off
sets, it is often called the shared offset. In practice it means
that the tool length offset value is stored in the same control
registry area as the tool radius value. Addresses H andlor D
can be used, with details covered later. Controls equipped
with this type of tool offset memory are the most economi
ca! type in their class.
Tool Offset Memory Type 8
While the Type A offset has only a single screen column.

Type B has two columns. Now - do n.ot assume! The two
columns are not separate columns for tool length values
and tool radius values at al!. They are separated for the Ge
ometry Offset in one column and the Wear Offset in the sec
ond column. Apart of this distinction, the Type B is still a
shared type of offset for both, tool length and tool radius
values. Again, the program uses addresses H an.dlor D.
253
+ Address H or D?
Tool Offset Memory Type C
The Type C offset group offers the mast tlexibility. It is

the only offset type avajlable that separates the tool length
values from those of the tool radius. It still keeps the dis
tinction of the Geometry Offset and the Wear Offset, as the
Type B does. That means the control display will now 2+2
columns - yes,four columns in total. In this type, normally
addresses H and D will be used for their unique purposes.
It is relatively easy to teii which offset type is available just Iook at the control display. Figure 30-13 shows the typ
ical appearance of each Offset Memory Type (all shown
with zero values). The actual appearance may be slightly
different, depending on the control model.
Offset
No.
01
02
03
...
Offset
No.
01
02
03
...
Offset
No.
01
02
03
...
Offset
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
...
Geometry
Wear
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
...
...
H-offset
O-offset
Geometry Wear Geometry Wear
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
...
...
...
...
Figure 30-13
Fanuc tao/ offset memory types A, 8, C from the top down
With the lhree types of Tool Memory Offset, it is reason

able to expect somewhat different programming methods
for each type. Up to a point, this is true.
Both the Type A and the Type B are shared type offsets,
with only a single register, where the tool length offset val
ues are stored along with the cutter radius offset amounts.
Normally, the Type A and Type Bare associated with the ad
dress H only. That means the H address is used with the
G43 command, as well as with the G4 I or G42 commands.
Many cutting tools do not require the cutter radius offset in
the program, but all cutting tools require the tool length off
set in the program. If a particular cutter requires both tool
length offset number and cutter radius offset number, two
different ojjset numbers from the same offset range must be
used in the program and stored in the control register. That
is the reason these offsets are called shared offsets.
For example, programmed tool T05 requires both offsets,
which obviously cannot have the same offset number. The
solution is to use the tool number as the tool length offset
number and increase that number by 20, 30, 40, or so, for
the cutter radius offset. The entry for the Type A in the off
set screen could be similar to the one in Figure 30-14:
or
or
or
The inclusion or exclusion of the tool motion and how

many axes can be used at a time will bc discussed in this
chapter as well. First, let's resolve the question of which
address to use and when. The H address or the D address?
05
-8.6640
35
0.3750
Shared offset register screen for tool offset memory Type A
For the offset Type B, there are two columns available, but
it is still a shared offset. The entry in the offset screen will
be similar to the Type A, shown in Figure 30-15:
Offset
No.
...
05
...
35
The minimum information supplied to the control system

in the CNC program is the offset command G41 or G42, al
ways combined with the H or D address in effect, usually
applied during a single axis motion (multi-axis motion is
alsa allowed, if programmed carefully):
X D
x.. D
Y D
Y D
Offset
Figure 30-14
+ Programming Format
G41
G42
G41
G42
Offset
No.
--
Geometry
Wear
...
...
-8.6640
...
0.3750
0.0000
...
0.0000 I
Figure 30-15
Shared offset register screen for tao/ offset memory Type 8
The Type C offset will have two pairs of columns. Since

the tool length and the tool radius have each their own col
umns, the same offset number can be used for both - there is
no need for the 20, 30, 40 or so, increment. In this case, the
H address is reserved for the tool length offset number and
the D address is reserved for the cutter radius offset num
ber. Figure 30-16 shows an input logically corresponding
to the Type A and the Type B:
254
Chapter 30
H-offset
O-offset
' Offset
_ o_ m
_ e
_ _ try
Wea_r--._G_ e_ o_ m_etr_ y_W_ ea_ r_ --1
,__N_o_. -G e
05
-8.6640
The cardinal rule number two s also simple and is based

on the adherence to the first rule:
Always apply the cutter radius offset
together with a tool motion
0.0000
Figure 30- 7 6
Unique offset register screen for too/ offset memory Type C
+ Geometry and Wear Offsets

Similar to the application of geometry and wear offsets
for tool length offset, described in Chapter 19, the identica!
general rules can be used for the cutter radius offset.
Offsets entered in the Geomet,y offset column should
only contain the nominal cutter radius. In the examples, we
have used a 0.750 cutter, with the radius of 0.375. That is
the nominal vaJue and that would also be the typical value
entered into the Geometry offset column. The Wear offset
column should only be used for adjustments, orfine tuning,
relative to the nominal size, as required during setup and/or
machining. There is no separate column for adjustment or
fine tuning for the Type A offset. Adjustments can still be
made, the only difference is that the value in the single col
umn will always change with each adjustment, even if it
represents the cutter radius.
APPLYING CUTTER RADIUS OFFSET

Ali programming aids required to apply the cutter radius
offset in an actual CNC program are now known. The ac
tual application, the way to use the offset in a CNC pro
gram, as well as the methods of proper usage, will be dis
cussed next. There are four major keys to a successful use
of the cutter radius offset feature:
These two rules are not arbitrary - rules can be broken.

The suggestion here is to follow the rules until a better way
is found. When selecting a startup tool position, a few ques
tions are worth asking:
o
o
What clearances are required?
Which direction will the tool take?
o
o
o
ls there no danger of collision?
What is the intended cutter diameter?
Can other diameter cutter be used if needed?

How much stock is to be removed?
The same drawing used already will be used for this ex

ample as well and the cutter radius offset will be applied to
the contour. To turn the offset on, to make it effective, the
cutter will be away from the actual cutting area, in the clear.
The intended cutter is 0.750, the climb milling mode s de
sired, and .250 clearance s away from the contour. With
these numbers, the start position s calculated at X-0.625
Y-0.625. Figure 30-17 shows the start position that satisfies
all rules and answers the questions established earlier.
lyo
1. To know how to start the offset
2. To know how to change the offset

3. To know how to end the offset
4. To know what to watch between the start and end
Each item is important and will be discussed in order.
Startup Methods
Sta.ning up the cutter radius offset is much more than us
ing the G41X D in the program (or something similar).
Starting up the offset means adherence to two cardinal rules
and severa! important considerations and decisions. The
cardinal rule number one is simple - it relates to the start po
sition of the cutter:
Always select the start position of the cutter
away from the contour, in the clear area
1:
r 0.25
R0.375
L--
xo
f-- 0.25
00. 75 CUTTER
0.25 CLEARANCE
Figure 30-17
Start position of the cutter before radius offset is applied
Of course, the suggested location is not the only one suit

able, but it is just as good as other possibilities. Note that
the cutter located at the position X-0.625Y-0.625 is nor
compensated, the coordinates are to the center of the cutter.
Once the start location s established, the first few blocks of
the program can be written:
03001 (DRAWING FIGURE 30-2)
N1 G20
N2 Gl7 G40 G80
N3 G90 G54 GOO X-0.625 Y-0.625 S920 M03
255
N4 G43 Zl.O HOl

N6
(FOR 0.5 PLATE THICK)
For extra safety, the approach to the depth of Z-0.55

(based on a V2 inch plate thickness) was split into two mo
tions, although the cutter is safely above the clear area.
Once the depth has been reached, the first motion can be
programmed. The cutting direction is to the left of the part
(climb milling) and the G4J command is used. Moving the
tool around the part on the left side, means the first target
point on the part has to be the XOYI .125 location. How
ever, this position cannot be reached directly, because the
left side of the part has to be machined as well. That means
the tool has to reach the XO position first. Next decision s
selecting the Y position, to get the target point. Normally,
this is done by programming a so caJJed lead-in motion, or
a cutter entry motion.
Figure 30-18 shows seme possibilities, all of them cor

rect and all reaching the XOYl.125 Iocation eventually.
Which one is the best? Here are some possible options:
:v1.12sf I
YO
y
YO
YO
(-\
Yo
(P2)
In all three versions, the cutter radius offset is started to

gether with the first morion, while still away from the actual
part contour. Because the option (c) actually ends on the
part, selecting the option (a) is the preferred programming

method of the lead-in. A combination of (a) and (c) is a!so a
good choice, with the Y axis target in the negative area.
Once the offset has been turned on, the contour change
points can be programmed along the part and the control
computer will do its work by constantly keeping the cutter
properly offset at all times. The program 0300 l can now
be extended up to point PS in the original illustration:
Nl G20
N2 Gl7 G40 GSO
N3 G90 G54 GOO X-0.625 Y-0.625 S920 M03
N4 G43 Zl.O HOl
NS GOl Z-0.55 F25.0 MOS (FOR O.5 PLATE THICK)
N6 G41 XO D01 FlS.O
(START OFFSET)
N7 Yl.125
(P2)
NS X2.25 Yl.S561
(P3)
(P4)
N9 Y0.625
(PS)
NlO G02 Xl.625 YO R0.625
Nll GOl X .
This is the last cut on the part, so it has to be machined
The (a) option is simple - the tool moves towards the XO

first and the cutter radius offset is turned on du ring that mo
tion. Then, the tool continues towards the first target point
(Yl .125), already in the compensated mode.
These two motions will appear in the program as:
(P2)
The option (b) is technically correct, but requires three

motions, whereas two motions are quite sufficient. This
version will not be selected for the final program, although
the program would still be correct:
N. GOl G41 YO D01 FlS.O
N . . XO
N.. Yl.125
N .
N.. GOl G41 XO YO D01 FlS.O

N .. Yl.125
N .
At block N lO, the tool has reached the end of the 0.625
radius. The contouring is not yet finished, the bottom side
has to be cut. along the X axis. The question is - how far to
cut and when to cancel the cutter radius offset?
el
al
'6
Figure 30-18
Possible Jead-in morions to apply rhe cutter radius offset
N.. GOl G41 XO D01 FlS.O

N.. Yl.125
N
The last possibility - option (c) - is also simple and re

quires only two motions:
(P2)
while the offset is still in ejfect! The cutter can end at XO,
but that is not a practicai position - the tool should move a

bit farther, still along the X axis only. How far is further?
Why not to the same X-0.625, the original start position?
This is not the only clearance position available, but is the
safest, most reliable and consistent. The block N l 1 will be:
Nll GOl X-0.625
Now the cutter has left the part contour area and the cutter
radius offset is not required anymore. It will be canceled
shortly, but a little review of the startup may help.
The cutter radius was known for this job, which is not al
ways the case. The programmer needs a suitable tool, be
cause the cutting values depend on it. Within reason, a
0.750 or 0.875 cutter are not far apart - exceptfor clear
ances. The clearance of .250 was selected for .375 cutter
radius. That means the program is still good for cutters up
to and including 01.25. CNC operator has this freedom,
because the only change is to the DO I offset amount in the
256
Chapter 30
control system offset registry. The speeds and feeds may

have to be adjusted, if necessary. We will look later at what
exactly happens when the cutter radius offset is applied.
The general rule to establish the start position is that it
should always be selected wilh a clearance that is greater
than the radius of the largest cutter that may be used. This
clearance may be increased for a large stock left on the ma
terial or for a tool that is above average diameter. In order to
complete the program, let's look at methods of canceling
the cutter radius offset, when it is no longer needed.
Offset Cancellation
A lead-in motion has been used at the startup of the cutter
radius offset. To cancel the offset, a lead-out motion will be
used. The length of the lead-out (just as the length of the
Iead-in) has to be somewhat greater than or at least equal to
the cutter radius. The lead-in and the lead-out motions are
also called ramp-in and ramp-out motions.
The safest place to canceJ cutter radius offset, for any ma
chine, is away from the contour just finished. This should
always be a clear area position. The start position can also
be the end position. Figure 30-19 shows the offset cancella
tion in the example. Program 03001 can be now be written.
I!)
N
CD
0.25
T YO
i
R0.375
oc----x
C.9
T
C!i,
\ -
.
f
_/ xo
I
G41
Finally, the program 03001 is completed. There was no

need for any change of the tool direction - such an change is
rather a rare occurrence, at least for contouring operations
using milling controls. Since the directional change may be
needed in the future, some comments may be useful.
Cutter Direction Change

During a normal milling cut, there will seldom be a need
to change the cutter offset direction from left to right or
from right to left. If it does become necessary, the normal
practice is to change from one mode to the other without
canceling the G40 command. This practice is seldom used
in milling, because change from G41 to G42 would also be
a change from the preferred climb milling to the less pre
ferred conventional milling. However, it s quite common
in CNC lathe programming, with examples shown later.
HOW THE RADIUS OFFSET WORKS

Being able to program from given examples is certainly a
good way to learn. Learning by a recipe or a sample does
help in many cases, but it will not help much in cases where
there is no sample, no recipe, and no example. In those
cases, it is critica! to really understand all principles behind
f
the subject, such as principles of the cutter radius of set.
The startup method is a good beginning. Next question is what does happen during the tool motion n block N6?
N6 G41 XO D01 FlS.O
0tx"
-Y-0.625
- ..... 0_25
Figure 30-19
It is not as simple as it looks. We cannot evaluate just one

block, such as N6, and know exactly what happens. The
programmer bas to understand what the control will do.
Computers do not think, they only execute the programmed
instructions and follow these instructions very diligently.
Block N6 is an instruction: Move to XO, apply the radius
value stored in DOI to the lefi, during a linear motion at 15
inlmin. This is the program instruction to the control
system. W here does the tool stop? Look at Figure 30-20:
---
Cutter radius offset cancellation program 03001

Nl G20
N2 Gl7 G40 G80
N3 G90 G54 GOO X-0.625 Y-0.625 S920 M03
N4 G43 Zl.O HOl
NS GOl Z-0.55 F25.0 M08 (FOR 0.5 PLATE THICK)
(START OFFSET)
N6 G41 XO D01 FlS.O
(P2)
N7 Yl.125
(P3)
N8 X2.25 Yl.8561
(P4)
N9 Y0.625
(PS)
NlO G02 Xl.625 YO R0.625
Nll GOl X-0.625
(CANCEL OFFSET)
N12 GOO G40 Y-0.625
Nl3 Zl. O M09
Nl4 G28 X-0.625 Y-0.625 Zl.O
NlS M30
%
Per program
Per tool
1--
o:::!::
cn
ct
<!.
-{ J
""- .../
001
\__ . ./
><
o
---
Per tool
Per
program
o
>< I
1-o::::1-
<!. CI)
1-0
CI) o..
)
- ---
G41
001
a_
""- __)
'-._)
Figure 30-20
Ambiguous startup for a cutter motion in radius offset mode
257
Yes, there are two possibilities and they are both correct!
Both versions compensate the cutter to the left of XO target
position. The conditions specified in block N6 have been
fully satisfied - the cutting tool moves to XO as expected,
the offset is turned on to the lefi of the part contour,
during
f
the motion, using the radius value stored in the of set regis
ter DOJ. So what is the problem?
The situation is ambiguous. There are two possible out
comes, while onJy one is required. Which one? For this job,
the one n the left part of the ili ustration, one where the tool
moves along the Y + direction next, when the radius offset
has been applied. This is the key! The motion direction that
follows G41 or G42 block must be known to the control.
Look at two different ways the program can be written:
Example 1 - Figure 30-21 left :
The next target position after N6 is Y positive direction:

N3 G90 G54 GOO X-0.625 Y-0.625 S920 M03
How does the control handle such requirement? Controls

using the cutter radius offset Type C have a built-in feature
called the 'look-ahead' type of cutter radius offset
The look-ahead feature s based on the principie known
as buffering or reading-ahead. Normally, the control pro
cessor executes one block at a time. There will never be a
motion caused by any buffered block (next block).
In a short overview, this s the sequence of events:
The control will first read the block containing the

startup of the cutter radius offset (that is the block N6)
The control detects an ambiguous situation,

and does not process the block as yet
The control advances the processing to the next block

(that is N7), to find out into which direction
the tool will be programmed next
Ouring the 'next block reading', there is no motion at all the control will only register the direction towards the
target point and applies the radius offset an the correct
side of the part contour, during the startup block
(N6 in the example)
(START OFFSET)
N6 G41 XO DOl FlS.O
(POSITIVE Y-MOTION FOLLOWS)
N7 Yl.125
Example 2 - Figure 30-21 right :
The next target position after N6 is Y negative direction:

N3 G90 G54 GOO X-0.625 Y-0.625 S920 M03
N6 G41 XO DOl FlS.O
(START OFFSET)
(NEGATIVE Y-MOTION FOLLOWS)
N7 Y-1.125
In both cases, the content of block N6 is the same, but the

motion that follows the N6 s not - Figure 30-2 J.
:v112sl
( ""'
'(__:,,
--- --
\_
001
G41
\____)
001
-- -- \
Y-1.125,_J
\
"'-- _}
/;,\
\___ _)
Figure 30-21
lmportance of the next tool motion for cutter radius offset.
Y+ next direction on the left, Y- next direction on the right
Look-Ahead Offset Type

The block N6 alone does not contain sufficient amount of
data to successfully apply the radius offset. The next morion
- in fact, the direct ion of the ne.xt motion - must be known to
the control system at all times!
This look-ahead type of the cutter radius offset is very

advanced internally in the software, but makes the contour
programming so much easier on a daily basis. As maybe
expected, there are some situations to be aware of.
Rules for Look-Ahead Cutter Radius Offset

Look at the fo llowing sample program selection, not re
lated to any previous examples:
Example - single NO MOTION block :
Nl7 G90 G54 GOO X-0.75 Y-0.75 S800 M03

N20 GOl XO D01 F17.0
N21 MOS
N22 Y2.5
(START OFFSET)
(NO MOTION BLOCK)
(MOTION BLOCK)
What is the difference n the program structure? Ignore

the reason for the coolant ON function n block N21. If it
can be justified, there is nothing wrong with it. The fact re
mains - there is no axis motion n block N21, which s the
same block the control system will look ahead to for the di
rection of the next tool motion. Look at one more program
selection - again, as a new example:
Example - two NO MOTION blocks :
N17 G90 G54 GOO X-0.75 Y-0.75 SSOO M03

N20 GOl XO D01 F17.0
N21 MOS
N22 G04 PlOOO
N23 Y2.S
(START OFFSET)
(NO MOTION BLOCK)
(NO MOTION BLOCK)
(MOTION BLOCK)
258
Chapter 30
Uncomfortable, perhaps - but not wrong - this time there

are rwo consecutive blocks following the cutter radius off
set - two consecutive blocks that do not include any motion.
Both examples present a program that might be tine if the
radius offset were not applied. With an offset in effect, such
a program structure can create problems. Controls with the
'look-ahead' feature can look ahead only so many blocks.
If the control bas the feature, one block look-ahead is al
ways there. There are two or more look-ahead blocks avail
able. It all depends on the control features, and not all con
trols are the same. Here are some basic suggestions:
o lf the control has a look-ahead type cutter radius
offset feature, but the number of blocks that can be
processed ahead is not known, assume it is only one block
o Make a test program to find out how many blocks
the control can read ahead
o
Once the cutter radius offset is started in the program,

try hard not to include any non-motion blocks - restructure
the program, if necessary
Keep in mind that the control subjects the program input

to the rules embedded in the software. The correct input
must be provided first, n the form of an accurate program.
What kind of a response can be expected if the cutter ra
dius offset s programrned wrong? Probably a scrap of the
part. If the control system cannot calculate the offset cutter
position, it will act as if the offset were not programrned at
all. That means, the initial tool motion will be towards the
XO with the cutter center. When the necessary information
is passed on to the control, the offset will be applied, usu
ally too late, after the cutter has entered the part. Scrap is
the most likely resuit in this case. Such an incorrect pro
gram is shown n Fi gure 30-22:
ovE2I
.
--
/Pi' -- - - h._
'
----+---\b
lL
, , Y2.5,
.
-
r "'
. li
,
Z
t
I
(\K-\J;----_;d}-YO-
,START
v ---
c
f-/
Figure 30-22
Tool path error due to wrong program structure program 03002
There are two no-morion blocks in the program example

03002 that cause this error. They are after the cutter radius
offset had been applied - in blocks N7 and N8. If the control
system can look ahead only a single block, the program is
wrong and the corrupted tool path shown in the above illus
tration will be the resuit.
03002 (PROGRAM WITH RADIUS OFFSET ERROR)

Nl G20
N2 Gl7 G40 G80
N3 G90 G54 GOO X-0.5 Y-0.5 S1100 M03
N4 G43 Zl. O HOl
NS GOl Z-0.55 F20.0
(FOR 0.5 PLATE THICK)
N6 G41 XO DOl Fl2.0
(START OFFSET)
N7 MOS
(NO MOTION BLOCK)
N8 G04 PlOOO
(NO MOTION BLOCK)
N9 Y2.5
(MOTION BLOCK)
NlO X3.5
(MOTION BLOCK)
Nll YO
(MOTION BLOCK)
Nl2 GOl X-0.5
(MOTION BLOCK)
Nl3 GOO G40 Y-0.5
(CANCEL OFFSET)
Nl4 Zl.O M09
Nl5 G28 X-0.5 Y-0.5 Zl.O
Nl6 M30
%
A control that can read only one or two blocks ahead will
nor process program 03002 correclly - the next motion is n
the third block when the offset is in effect. In order to avoid
an incorrect tool motion, avoid any program structure that
contains more than one no-motion block.
Radius of the Cutter

Every rnilling cutter bas a diameter and one half of that
diameter is the cutter radius. With new tools, the radius is
always known and is sufficiently accurate. The accuracy of
the radius depends on the cutter quality as well as on the
way it is mounted n the machi ne spindle. A run-off of .00 I
or .002 inches may not be a problem for roughing opera
tions, but for a precision finish, much higher accuracy is
needed. Also needed is a way to correct for a tool wear, or
even a slight tool detlection. AlJ this is done through the D
offset number, used as a pointer to the actual radius amount
stored n the control register.
One simple - but very basic - rule should help to make
sure the cutter radius offset will not fail:
The radius of the cutter should be smaller
than the programmed length of the tool travel.
For example, n the program 03001, the tool sta1ting po
sition is at X-0.625, the target position is XO. That rneans
the programmed length of the tool travel is .625. The radius
selected was .375, which is smaller and adheres to the rule.
There are two other possibilities - one, where the cutter
radius is the sam.e as the programmed length of the tool
travel, and two, where the cutter radius is larger than the
program med length of the tool travel.
Figure 30-23 shows a start position of a cutter that has the

sanie programmed length of travel as the cutter radius. This
s certainly allowed, but definitely not recommended. The
reason is it limits the range of adjustments that can be made
to the actual cutter radius during machining.
259
N3 G90 G54 GOO X-0.25 Y-0.625 S920 M03
N6 G41 XO D01 Fl5.0
N7 Yl.125
o
><
Figure 30-23
Cutter start position is equal to the cutter radius
The following example res?lts in a .375 travel lenth as

programmed along the X axis. If the DO I amount 1s less
than .375, there will be a motion toward XO. If the DOl
amount is equal to .375, the difference between the pro
grammed length and the actual Jength is zero and there will
not be any motion along the X axis. In that case, the offset
of the radius takes place without a movement and the mo
tion to the target position Y 1.125 will continue.
N3 G90 GOO G54 X-0.375 Y-0.625 S920 M03
(START OFFSET)
(P2)
What will happen bere? As usually, the control calculates

the difference between the programmed travel length of .25
and the cutter radius .375. It will check the direction of the
next travel as Y positive and determines that because the
cutter is positioned to the left of the intended motion, it has
to move .125 in the X minus direction ! That does not seem
to be a problem, because there is a plenty of free space. But
there is a problem - the control does not recognize the fact
that there is a free space! Program.mer knows it, but the
control does not. The engineers who designed the software
could have taken a number of actions; yet, they wisely de
cided to play it safe. They have decided to let the control
system to reject this possibility and issue an alarm. De
pending on the control system, the alarm 'Overcutting will
occur in cutter radius compen.sation C' or 'CRC interfer
ence' or a similar message will appear - the common alarm
number for this error is No. 041 on Fanuc control systems.
Many programmers, even with a long experience, have ex
perienced this alarm. If not, they were either very fortunate
or have never used cutter radius offset in the program.
(START OFFSET)
Anytime the cutter radius interference alarm occurs, al

ways look at the surrounding blocks as well, not just at the
one where the control stops processing.
Try to avoid situations like this one - although logically

correct, they do not provide any flexibility and can cause
serious difficulties at some tune in the future.
In the next section, we Jook at the cutter radius interfer

ence that occurs during a tool motion, not just at the startup
or termination of the cutter radius offset.
N6 G41 XO D01 Fl5.0

N7 Yl.125
(P2)
Figure 30-24 shows a start position where the cutter is

partially on the other side of the target position. This is defi
nitely not allowed and the control system will respond with
an alarm warning - the infamous 'Cutter radius inte,fer
ence' alarm or 'CRC interference' message, A/arm #041.
Radius Offset lnterference

The last example illustrated only one of severa) possi
bilities, when the cutter radius offset alarm may occur. An
other cause for this al arm is when a cutter radius is trying to
enter an area that is smaller than the cutter radius, stored as
the D offset amount. To illustrate, evaluate the next pro
gram 03003, for a simple part shown in Figure 30-25.
R0.20
R0.375
'-
Y-O
o
X
DISALLOWED
OVERLAP
Figure 30-24
Cutter start position is smaller then the cutter radius
The following program sample is very similar to the pre

vious examples, except the X axis start position is too close
to the target position, if the cutter is stored in the DO1 regis
ter in the amount of .3750:
Scale 1 :1
,-1.00-1
R0.25
1.125
o.o
I_'------------ _t
,---- 1.75 ----Figure 30-25
Simple drawing for program 03003
260
Chapter 30

N1 G20
N2 Gl7 G40 GSO
N3 G90 G54 GOO X-0.625 Y-0.625 S920 M03
N4 G43 Zl.O HOl
NS GOl Z-0.55 F25.0 MOS (FOR 0.5 PLATE THICK)
(START OFFSET)
N6 G41 XO DOl FlS.O
N7 Y0.925
NS G02 X0.2 Yl.125 R0.2
N9 GOl Xl.O
N10 Y0.75
N11 G03 Xl.25 Y0.5 R0.25
Nl2 GOl Xl.75
Nl3 YO
Nl4 X-0.625
(CANCEL OFFSET)
NlS GOO G40 Y-0.625
N16 Zl.0 M09
N17 G2S X-0.625 Y-0.625 Zl.O
NlS M30
%
The program is quite simple, it is correct and it follows all

rules discussed so far. The key to success is the selection of
the cutter diameter and the entry amount of the D address
into the control system. Let's see what will happen - the
same cutter is used as before, a 0.750 inch end mii!. The
amount of DOI stored n the control will be .3750.
The control unit will process the information from the
program combined with the offset amounts to determine
the tool motion. Then, it executes the blocks as it moves the
tool along the part. Suddenly, at block N7 aJarm No. 041
occurs - cutter radius inte,ference problem.
What has happened? There is nothing wrong with the
program at al!. Most CNC operators would look at the pro
gram and check it. After careful study, if they find it correct,
the cause of the problem must be somewhere else, outside
of the program. Try not to blame the computer and don't
waste any more time once you are satisfied that the pro
gram is OK. Check the offset input n DOI. The amount of
.375 is stored there. That is also OK for the tool in the spin
dle. Check the drawing next. That is OK too. So while ev
erything seems OK and there is still a radius offset alarm on
the screen, do the next logicaJ step.
Always evaluate the relationships between:
o
Drawing dimensions ... and ... Program input
Program input
... and ... Offset amounts
Offset amounts
... and... Drawing dimensions
Since the drawing dimension cannot be changed, the size

of the cutter diameter must be changed, to a cutter diameter
that is less than .500 inches. The other drawing radius of
.200 is no problem, as externai radii can have any size.
The Fanuc controls will not aJlow gouging in cutter ra
dius offset Type C. This feature is built-in and there is no
opportunity to see what would actually happen, if the pro
tection were not there. Nobody wants to see the gouging on
the part, but the Figure 30-26 shows the same effect graphi
cally. In fact, this was a real error in the earlier forms of cut
ter radius offsets Type A and Type B.
--+001
'
IGOUGE AREA
Figure 30-26
Effect of overcutting (gouging) in cutter radius offset mode.
Type C radius offset (look ahead type) does not a/low overcutting
Single vs. Multiaxis Startup

There is another possible problem during cutter radius
offset startup, particularly if programming the startup rno
tion along two axes, rather than the suggested single axis.
We had look at this possibility for an externai cutting, with
no problems. Now we look at internai cutting.
Evaluate the two approach methods in Figure 30-27, us
ing a cutter radius offset startup towards an internai profile,
for example, a wall of a pocket or other internai contour.
f--1.5--j
This circular advice may take a while getting used to. It

also requires a fair amount of experience as well. In the pro
gram example 03003, the problem is in the relationship of
the stored offset amount and the drawing dimension.
Study the drawing caref ully - there s an intern al corner
radius of .250 while the offset s set to the cutter radius of
.375. This larger stored radius is expected to fit into the .250
part radius. Obviously, it cannot - hence the alarm.
SCALE= 1:1
001 = 0.375
o
X
Correct approach
lncorrect approach
Figure 30-27
Possible problem in cutter radius offset mode during a startup
with two axes simultaneously (internai cutting shown)
261
Here are the first few correct blocks of each method:
Correct approach - single axis motion :
The correct programming approach shown on the left

side of the illustration contains the following blocks - only
the starting program blocks are listed:
Nl
N2
N3
N4
NS
N6
N7
NS
G20 (CORRECT APPROACH WITH A SINGLE AXIS)

Gl7 G40 GSO
G90 G54 GOO XO YO S1200 M03
G43 Z0.1 HOl MOS
GOl Z-0.25 F6.0
(FOR 0.25 POCKET DEPTH)
G41 Y-0.75 D01 FlO.O
(START OFFSET)
xo. 75
YO.75
There is no internaJ radius in the program to wony about,

so the amount stored in the offset register D01 does not
have to consider it and will represents the cutter radius as is.
lncorrect approach - multiaxis motion :
The incorrect motion approach shown on the right side of

the illustration contains the following initial blocks:
Nl
N2
N3
N4
NS
N6
N7
G2O (INCORRECT APPROACH WITH 'IWO AXES)

Gl7 G40 GSO
G90 G54 GOO XO YO Sl200 M03
G43 Z0.1 HOl MOS
GOl Z-0.25 F6.0
(FOR 0.25 POCKET DEPTH)
G41 X0.75 Y-0.75 D01 FlO.O
(START OFFSE'T)
YO.75
There is no way the control system can detect the bottom

wall of the pocket at Y-0.75. The startup for the offset is ex
actly the same as for externai cutting, but more damaging.
Compare the two possible startups for the drawing shown
in Figure 30-2, earlier in the chapter. If the radius offset is
started with a single axis motion, the resuit is shown at the
lefi side illustration in Figure 30-28. If the offset is started
with a two-axis motion, the resuit is shown at the right side
illustration n Figure 30-28.
1 ---001
YO
m'///a
e)-,Y-0.6251
G41
o
X
Correct approach n X
YO
- -iL-:"'"
!JJ
001
Correct approach - single axis motion :
Nl G20 (CORRECT APPROACH WITH ONE AXIS)

N2 G17 G40 GSO
N3 G90 G54 GOO X-0.625 Y-0.625 S920 M03
N6 G41 XO D01 FlS.O
N7 Yl.125
(START OFFSE'T)
(P2)
Correct approach - multiaxis motion :
Nl G20 (CORRECT APPROACH WITH 'IWO AXES)

N2 G17 G40 GSO
N3 G90 G54 GOO X-0.625 Y-0.625 S920 M03
N6 G41 XO YO D01 F15.0
N7 Yl.125
(START OFFSE'T)
(P2)
Note that in cases of the cutter radius offset for an exter

nai contour, both programs listed are correct, because there
appears to be no interference with any section of the part. In
fact, there is the same interference as in the internaJ milling
example - the only difference is that this type of 'interfer
ence' is of no consequence - it takes place while n the air.
There will always be a problem that cannot be solved in
any handbook, regardless of how comprehensive that book
may be. The subjects and examples included n this hand
book present common basis for a better understanding of
the subject. With growing experience, the understanding
becomes much deeper. Before going any further, let's re
view some general rules of the cutter radius offset feature.
OVERVIEW OF GENERAL RULES

Reminders and rules are only important until a particular
subject is ful!y understood. Until then, a general overview
and some additional points of interest do come handy. Pro
gramming the cutter radius offset s no different. The fol
lowing items are marked [M] for milling, [T] for turning,
and [M-T] for both types of control systems:
o [ M-T J Never start or cancel the radius offset n an
arc cutting mode (with G02 or G03 n effect). Between

the startup block and the cancel block, arc commands
are allowed and normal, if the job requires them.
0,
Y-OfilS
o
X
Correct approach in XY
Figure 30-28
Startup of the cutter radius offset for externai cutting:
Single axis approach shown on the left
Two axis approach - shown an the right
o [ M-T) Make sure the cutter radius is always smaller

than the smallest inside radius of the part contour.
o [ M-T ] ln the canceled mode G40, move the cutter to a
clear area. Always consider the cutter radius, as well as

all reasonable clearances.
[ M-T J Apply the cutter radius offset with the G41 or

G42 command, along with a rapid or a linear motion
to the first contour element (GOO or G01 in effect).
262
o [ M J Reach the Z axis milling depth in the G40 mode
(cutter radius offset cancel mode).
o [ M-T] Give the preference to a single axis approach
from the startup position.
o [ M J Do not forget the offset number O for in the
program - it is a small error that can cost you a lot.
o [ M-T ] Make sure to know exactly where tbe tool
command point will be when the radius offset is applied
along two axis.
o [ M-T ] ln the compensated mode (G41 or G42 in effect),
watch for blocks that do not contain an axis motion.
Avoid non-motion blocks if possible (missing X, Y and Z).
o [ M-T J Cancel cutter radius offset with the G40 command,
along with a rapid or a linear motion (GOO/G01) only,
preferably as a single axis motion only.
o [ M J Retract from the depth (along the Z axis only)
after the radius offset has been canceled.
o [ M J Make sure the cutter radius offset corresp onds
to the work plane selected (see Chapter 31).
o [ M-T J G28 or G30 machine zero return commands will
not cancel the radius offset (but either one will cancel
the tool length offset).
o [ M-T J G40 command can be input through the MOI to
cancel the cutter radius offset (usually as a temporary
or an emergency measure).
PRACTICAL EXAMPLE - MILLING

The following in-depth example attempts to present a
practica! application of the cutter radius offset to both the
CNC programmer and the CNC operator. It covers virtu
ally aJI situations that can happen during the machining
process and presents solutions to maintaining the required
dimensions of the part. The first subject that has to be well
understood s the difference between the programmed and
the measured part size.
Part Tolerances
When the machining is completed on a CNC machine
(sometimes even before that), the part has to pass through
some inspection process. That means all drawing require
ments have to be met for the part to pass the inspection.
One of the requirements s to maintain dimensional toler
ances, either as specitied in the drawing, or as implied n
the drawing. Implied tolerances are often company estab
lished standard that are based on the number of decimal
places used for the dimensions (a method on the decline).
The next example focuses strictly on the effect of cutter
radius offset on the part size in the XYplane (top view). For
that reason, only a simple application is presented, with the
simplest tool path, but not necessarily the best machining
method. Figure 30-29 shows the drawing.
Chapter 30
02 0+0.002
-O.OOO \
3 x 3 x 3/4 AL PLATE
1-7/8 CORE DIAMETER
0.375
Figure 30-29
Drawing to il/ustrate practicai application of a cutter radius offset
The focus will be on the specified tolerance in the draw

ing as being +.002/-.000, for the dimensions of the two dia
meters - the 02.5 externai and 02.0 internai. Note that the
range of all dimensional tolerances is the same for both dia
meters. This statement will be very important later.
Measured Part Size

Every experienced machinist knows that the actual mea
sured size of the part depends on many factors, such as the
rigidity of setup, cutting depth, material being used, cutting
direction, the selection of tool, its exact size, and so on.
When a part is inspected, the measured size can have only
one of the three possible outcomes:
o Right an size
o Oversize
o Undersize
... within specified tolerances

... will be scrap for internai cutting
... will be scrap for externai cutting
The first outcome is always ideal, regardless of whether

the externai or internal cutting takes place. If the measured
dimension ison size - that is within the specified tolerances
- there is no need to do anything, the part s good. The sec
ond outcome (oversize) and the third outcome (undersize)
have to be considered together.
ln both cases, the measured dimension is outside of the
specified tolerance range. This situation requires a look at
additional two items that also have to be considered:
o Externai cutting method
... known as Outside or 00
o Internai cutting method
... known as lnside or ID
Because the cutting tool approaches the machined contour from different directions, the terms oversize and un
dersize are always relative to the type of cutting. The fol
lowing table shows the most Jikely results:

Condition
I
I
Oversize
On Size
Undersize
263
Externai
Internai
Recut Possible
Scrap Likely
No Action Required
No Action Required
Scrap Likely
Recut Possible
rt
Start
position () \ : ;
Offset
position
Looking at the table, it is clear that no action is necessary

if the measured part size is within tolerances, regardless of
whether the externai or the internai cutting took place. For
the oversize or undersize results, a recut may be possible or
a scrap will be the likely resuit.
A part machined externally (02.500 inch OD in the ex
ample) that is measured as larger than the allowed toler
ance can likely be recul, but a size that s smaller than the
allowed tolerance range will resuit in a scrap.
A part machined internally (02.000 inch ID in the exam
ple) that is measured as smaller than the allowed tolerance
can likely be recut, but a size that is larger then the allowed
tolerance range will resuit in a scrap.
Q
-
03004
(TOl - 0.75 DIA END FINISHING MILL)
(**** PART 1 - 2.5 DIA EXTERNAI, CU'ITING **** )

N1 G20
N2 Gl7 G40 GSO
(START POS.)
N3 G90 G54 GOO XO Y2.5 S600 M03
(CLEAR+TOOL LG.)
N4 G43 Z0.1 HOl MOS
(DEPTH FOR 2.5 DIA)
NS GOl Z-0.375 F20.0
(APPROACH MOTION)
N6 G41 Yl.25 DOl Flo.o
(EXT. CIRCLE CU'ITING)
N7 G02 J-1.25
(RETURN MOTION)
NS GOl G40 Y2.5
(CLEAR ABOVE)
N9 GOO Z0.1
(**** PART 2 - 2.0 DIA INTERNAI, CU'ITING **** )
(START POS. AT XOYO)
NlO YO
(DEPTH FOR 2 . O DIA)
Nll GOl Z-0.8 F20.0
(APPROACH MOTION)
N12 G41 Yl.O Dll FS.O
(INT. CIRCLE CU'ITING)
Nl3 G03 J-1.O
(RETURN MOTION)
Nl4 GOl G40 YO
(CLEAR ABOVE)
NlS GOO Z0.1 M09
(Z AXIS MACHINE ZERO)
Nl6 G2S Z0.1 MOS
(OPTIONAL STOP)
Nl7 MOl
Figure 30-30 shows the tool path for the first half of the
program - the externai diameter of 2.500 inches. Figure
30-3 I shows the tool path for the second half of the pro
gram - the internai diameter of 2.000 inches.
Y1 .25
'\ Q Toolpath
,
mot1on
-----@]
_J
z
o::
w
<(
--02.5---;
Figure 30-30
Detail for externai tool path shown in example 03004
Programmed Offsets
The most attractive feature of the cutter radius offset is
that it allows to change the actual tool size right on the ma
chine, by means ofthe offset registerfunction D. In the pro
gram example, only one toci is used - . 750 inch diameter
end mill - and one single cut for each contour (externa! and
internai). The program XOYOZO is at the center of the cir
cles and the top of the part:
Y2.5
G41 on approach
G40 on return
Toolpath
motion
-L_-
,__,,.....,-,
1
Y1 .O
G41 on approach
G40 on return
-- - -- -----@]
o::
w
I
Offset
position
-02.0-
Start position
Figure 30-31
Detail for internai tool path shown in example 03004
As s customary in CNC programming and is also used in

program 03004, the tool path uses the drawin.g dimensions
and the other positions defined by the programmer. This is
not only the standard but also the most convenient method
to develop a CNC program. Such a program is easy to un
derstand by the machine operator, drawing dimensions are
easy to trace (if necessary) and changes can be made, if
required. In plain language, the programmer ign.ores the
cutter radius and writes the program as if the cutter were a
poin.t - in effect, a cutting tool with a zero diameter.
D Offset Amount - General Setting

The reality of machining is that a zero diameter cutter is
not usually used, except for some engraving work. The ma
jority of cutting tools do have specified diameters and the
actual diameters have to be always considered - if not in the
program, then on the machine.
264
Chapter 30
One criticai fact to be established first s that the CNC

system always calculates a specified offset by its cutter ra
dius, not by its diameter. lt means the programmer provides
the cutter radius offset n the form of a D address. On the
machine, the programmed offset DO I will apply to the cut
ter radius registered in offset 1, 002 to the radius registered
n offset 2, etc. What actual amounts are in these registers?
Since no radius of thc cutter is included anywhere in the
program, the offset register O must normally contain the
cutter radius actual value. Be careful - some machine pa
rameters may actually be set to accept the cutter diamete1;
although al! internai calculations are still set by the radius.
Evaluate program 03004; what will be the stored amount
of 001? A 0.750 inch end mill is used, so the DOI should
be set to .375. This is correct in theory, but factors such as
tool pressures, material resistance, tool deflection, actual
tool size, tool tolerances and other factors do influence the
finished part size. The conclusion is that the DOI registered
amount can be .375, but only under ideal conditions.
Ideal conditions are rare. The same factors that influence
machining will also have a significant effect on part dimen
sions. It is easy to see that any measured size that is not
within tolerances can be only oversize or undersize and ex
ternal and internai
cutting method does make a difference
f
as to how the of set can be adjusted.
Regardless of the cutting method, there is one major rule
applied to the cutter radius offset adjustment in any control
sy stem - the rule has two equal parts:
POSITIVE increment to the cutter radius offset will cause
the cutting tool to move AWAY from the machined contour.
NEGATIVE increment to the cutter radius offset will cause
the cutting tool to move CLOSER to the machined contour.
Note the word 'increment' - it means that the current ra

dius offset amount will be changed or updated- but not re
placed - with a new amount. The concept of 'moving away'
and 'moving closer to' the part refers to the tool motion as
the CNC operator will see. The measured size of the part
can be controlled by adjusting the cutter radius offset value
in the control, programmed as the O address, according to
these two rules. The most useful rule that applies equally to
the externai and internai adjustments has two alternatives:
To ADO more material TO the measured size,
use LARGER setting amount of the O offset
To REMOVE material FROM the measured size,
use SMALLER setting amount of the O offset
Experienced CNC operators can change offset settings at

Lhe machine, providing the program contains the cutter ra-
dius offset commands G4 J or G42 as well as the D address

offset number - with the appropriate cancellation by G40.
Evaluating what exactly happens during the tool motion
for each cutting method (externai or internai) offers certain
options. In both cases, the cutting tool moves from the
sta.rting position, within the clear area, to the target posi
tion of the machining contour. This is the motion where the
cutter radius offset is applied, so this morion is critica!. In
fact, this is the motion that determines the final measured
size of the part. Each method can be considered separateiy.
+ Offset Adjustment
Before any special details can be even considered, think
about how the offset amount can be changed. In those cases
where the size of the part S to be adjusted, the incremental
change of the offset value is a good choice. Incremental
offset change means adding to or subtracting from the cur
rent offset amount (using the +INPUT key on a Fanuc
screen) or storing the adjustment in the Wear offset screen
column. Changes to the program data s never the option.
+ Offset for Externai Cutting

Evaluate the tolerance range for the outside circle 02.5.
The tolerance for this diameter is +.002/-0.0, so all sizes
between 2.500 and 2.502 are correct. Any size smaller than
2.5 is undersize and a size greater than 2.502 is oversize.
There are three possible results of the measured size for
externai cutting. Ali examples are based on the expected
middle size of 2.501 and on 001 holding the amount of
.375, which is the radius of a 0.750 milling cutter.
e Externai measured dimension - Example 1
2. 5010 with
DOl
O. 3750
This is the ideal resuit - no offset adjustment is necessary.

The tool cutting edge touches the intended machining sur
face exactly. Ali is working well and the offset setting is ac
curate. Only standard monitoring is required. This is not
such a rare situation as it seems - in fact, it is quite common
with a new cutter, rigid setup and common tolerances.
e Externai measured dimension - Example 2 :
2. 5060 with DOl = O. 3750
The measured diameter is .005 oversize. The tool edge

has not reached the contour and has to move closer to it.
The radius offset amount has to decrease by one half of the
oversize amount, which is on the diameter or width but the
offset amount is entered as a radius, per one side. Offset
DOI is adjusted incrementally by .0025, to DOl=0.3725.
e Externai measured dimension - Example 3:
2.4930 with
DOl = 0.3750
The measured diameter is .008 undersize. The cutting

tool edge has reached beyond the programmed machining
surface and has to move away from it. The radius offset
amount has to be increased by one half of tbe undersize
amount. The undersize is measured
on the diameter (or
f
width) of the part, but the of set amount is entered as a ra
dius, per side only. The DOI offset is adjusted incre
mentally by .004, to DOl=0.3790.
+ Offset for Internai Cutting
Now is the time to look at tolerance range for the inside
diameter of 2.0 inches. The tolerance range for this diame
ter is +.002/-0.000, so al! part sizes between 2.000 and
2.002 will be correct. A size smaller than 2.000 will be un
dersize and a size greater than 2.002 will be oversize.
There are three possible results of the measured size for
intern.al cutting. Ali examples are based on the expected
middle size of 2.001 and on D11 holding the amount of
.375, the radius of a 0.750 cutter.
Internai measured dimension - Example 4 :
2.2010wilh
Dll = 0.3750
This is the ideal resuit - no offset adjustment is necessary.

The tool cutting edge touches the intended macbining sur
face exactly. Ali is working well and the offset setting s ac
curate. Only normal monitoring is required.
2,0060
wilh Dll
= 0,3750
The measured diameter is .005 oversize. The tool edge

has reached beyond the intended machining surface and
has to move away from it. The radius offset value has to be
increased by one haJf of the oversize amount. The oversize
is on the diameter (or width), but the offset amount
is en
f
tered as a radius, per side onJy. The D11 of set must be
incremented by .0025, to DI 1=0.3775.
1. 9930 with
Dll = O.3750
The measured diameter is .008 undersize. The tool edge

has not reached the intended machining surface and has to
move closer to it. The radius offset value has to be de
creased by one half of the undersize amount. The undersize
is on the diameter (or width), but the offset amount is en
tered as a radius, per sidc only. The Dl 1 offset must be in
cremented by .004, to D1 I =0.371 O.
265
+ One Offset or Multiple Offsets?
The program 03004 used DOJ for the externai diameter
and D11 for the internai diameter. Only one tool was used
and the goal was the middle tolerance of 2.501 for the ex
ternai diameter and 2.001 for the internai diameter. Are two
offsets in the program needed or a will a single offset do?
Keep in mind that the last few examples evaluated only
possibilities that were independent from each other, with
no common connection. Program 03004 presents a com
mon connection between the two diameters. It is one 0.750
end mill, used for cutting both diameters.
Assume for a moment, that only one offset is used, for ex
ample DOI, with the stored amount of .375. When mea
sured, the externai diameter is 2.00 I. After continuing cut
ting the internai diameter of 2.000 inches, when measured
again, its size is not 2.001 as expected, but only 1.999. This
measurement is .002 undersize then the expected diameter.
The reason is lhat both diameters have a +.002/-0.000 toler
ance. The results are different - for the externai diameter,
+.002 means oversize that can be recul, for the internai dia
meter, +.002 means oversize that is a scrap. Since one off
set alone cannot be adjusted to meet the middle tolerance
on both diameters, two offsets have to be used. It follows,
that if DOl =.3750 and makes a perfect externa! diameter,
D11 should have a smaJJer setting amount of only .3730.
The CNC operator should always be aware of the offsets

used in the program and understand about the stored offset
amounts, especially if more than one offset s used for one tool.
ln the setup or tooling sheet, the programmer should al
ways !ist the offsets used in the program and suggest the
starting values for each offset as a professional courtesy.
+ Preventing a Scrap
When it comes to initial offset amounts, some creative
tcchniques can be used here. The goal s to use offset set
tings in such a way that the part will not likely be a scrap,
even with an unproven tool. A good operator can prevent
scraps caused by wrong offsets, at least to some degree.
The key is to create seme temporar), offset settings. The
goal s to force a cut that is oversize externally or undersize
internally, measure it, adjust it, then recut to the right size.
Whether machining an externai or internai tooJ path, evcn
the best setup will not guarantee that the part dimensions
will be within tolerances. When machining an externat
contour, the diameter can be cut intentionally larger than
required - in a controlled way. In this case, the risk that the
diameter will be too small is present.
In internai contour machining, the diameter can be cut in
tentionally smaller than required, in a controlled way. ln
this case, the risk that the diameter will be too la,ge is pres
ent. Either case offers benefits but some drawbacks, too.
266
-- ---------
Chapter 30
In the last few examples, the soluuon is to move the tool

away from the intended externai machined surface by a
positive offset increment. The increment amount must be
greater than the expected error of the tool radius, as well as
being suitable for a recut.
In both cases, when the test cut is made, measure the dia
meter and adjust Lhe offset by one half of the difference be
tween measured and intended diameters. If only one side is
cut, the difference is not halved.
+ Program Data - Nominal or Middle?

Many coordinate locations in the program reflect actual
dimensions that are taken from the drawing. The question
is - what happens if the drawing dimension specities a tol
erance range? There are two opinions among CNC pro
grammers. One opinion favors the use of the middle value
of tolerance range, the other prefers to use the nominal size
and ignore the tolerances. Both opinions have some credi
bility and should not be discarded. In this handbook, the
preference is to use Lhe nominal dimensional sizes and Jet
the tolerances be handled by proper use of offsets - at the
machine. Two reasons prevail. One is that a program using
nominal dimensions is easier to read. Two, in case of draw
ing changes, they will affect the tolerances more often than
nominal sizes.
o
X
.9
a
toZO
lbl
Figure 30-32
Tao/ reference point for turning and boring - (a) turning, (b) boring
+ Radius Offset Commands

The same preparatory commands used in milling opera
tions are used for contouring on CNC lathes - Figure 30-33:
G42- RIGHT
G41-LEFT
TOOL NOSE RADIUS OFFSET

Ali the principles and rules described so far also apply to
the radius offset for a Jathe contouring tool. There are few
differences, mainly caused by the shape of the tool.
1n milling, the cutting tool is always round. The cutter pe

riphery is the cutting edge and its radius value is the offset.
Turning tools have a different design. The most common is
a multi-sided carbide insert. An insert may have one or
more cutting edges. For strength and longer insert life, the
cutting edge has a relatively small corner radius. Typical ra
dii for turning and boring tools are:
1/64 = .0156 (English) or 0.40 mm (metric)
Because the tool cutting edge is often called a tool nose,

the term tool n.ose radius offset became common.
+ Tool Nose Tip
The tool nose is usually the corner of the tool, where two
cutting edges blend into a nose radius. Figure 30-32 shows
typical corners of a turning tool and a boring tool.
The tool nose reference point n turning is often called the
command point, the imaginary poin.t and, lately, even the
virtual point. It s the point that is moved along the contour,
because it is directly related to XOZO of the part.
Figure 30-33
lathe application of the tao/ nose radius offset
G41
Offset of the tool nose radius

to the LEFI' of the contouring direction
G42
Offset of the tool nose radius

to the RIGHT of the contouring direction
G40
Offset of the tool nose radius CANCEL
For lathes, G codes do not use the D address - offset value

is stored in the Geometry!Wear offset. Lathe tools have dif
ferent cutting edges, otherwise they are similar to milling.
Tool Tip Orientation

The center of a circle symbolizing an end mill must be
equidistant to the contour by its radius. In milling, cutting
edges are part of the tool radius, on lathes, they are not.
Lathe tools do have a radius but separate cutting edges. The
nose radius center is also equidistant from the contour, and
the edges change their orientation, even for the same insert.
Additional definitions are needed in a form of a vector
pointing towards the radius center. This vector is called the
rool tip orien.tation, numbered arbitrarily. Control uses this
number to establish the nose radius center and its orienta
tion. Figure 30-34 shows two tools and their tip orientation.
267
Reference point
o
X
o
tozo-j
X-Z+
single axis motions are part of a contour that alsa includes

radii, chamfers and tapers. In this case, the tool nose radius
f
of set is needed, otherwise all radii, chamfers and tapers
will nat be correct. The illustration in Figure 30-37 shows
what areas of the part would be undercut or overcut, if the
tool nose radius offset were not used during machining.
r
1 \, __
D1
Figure 30-34
Re/ationship of the too/ reference point and the nose radius center
The tip orientation is entered during the setup, according

to arbitrary rules. Fanuc controls require a fixed number for
each possible tool tip. This number has to be entered into
the offset screen at the control, under the T heading. The
value of the tool radius R must alsa be entered. If the tool
tip is O or 9, the control will compensate to the center. Fig
ures 30-35 and 30-36 show the standard tool tip numbering
for CNC lathes with X+ up and Z+ to the right of origin.
T2
,
p-
yS
1
I'- - ,,/
T7
M-/ -.
TO
T6
\ ._,_ /
E)
PROGRAMMED CONTOUR
---OL
/ /-:-/-:-----R:
L TOOL NOSE
INSUFFICIENT
CUTTING
a1
PROGRAMMED CONTOUR
T1
\, - /
6
>7rs
T3LVT4
Figure 30-35
Arbitrary tool tip numbers for nose radius offset - rear Jathe shown
Figure 30-37
Effect of too/ nose radius offset - {a) offset not used {b) offset used
Sample Program
The following program example 03005 shows a simple

application of the tool nose radius offset on an externai and
interna! contour, based on the drawing in Figure 30-38.
Only the finishing cuts are shown - roughing is alsa neces
sary, but would mast Iikely use the special G71 multiple
repetitive cycle, described in Chapter 35.
00
r,... L()
C'?N
o
N
.....
9o
'-----l--1----11-+1-'' !:g
NN
NN
L ,...,....,.... -i---++--- --X3.250
___r X2.650
--X2.410
'/.fa'-"-"-:.,,1--,_ X1 .990
X1 . 50
7
_____....,__ X0.950
. 50
7
-g
00
o
00
N
....-o
NN
/7'7'":'"7"7':""-
TLR = Tool radius
Figure 30-36
Schematic illustration of the too/ tip numbering {Fanuc controls)
Effect of Tool Nose Radius Offset
Some programmers do nat bother using the tool nose ra

dius offset. That is wrong! Theoretically, there is no need
for the offset if only a single axis is programmed. However,
-1 --j----i
L()
r,...
co
N
N
Figure 30-38
Simplified sample drawing for program example 03005
268
Chapter 30
03005
N31
N32
N33
N34
N35
N36
N37
N38
N39
N40
N41
N42
N43
(EXTERNAL FINISHING)
T0300
G96 S450 M03
GOO G42 X2.21 Z0.1 T0303 MOS
GOl X2.65 Z-0.12 F0.007
Z-0.825 F0.01
X3.25 Z-1.125
Z-1.85
G02 X4.05 Z-2.25 R0.4
GOl X4.51
X4.8 Z-2.395
U0.2
GOO G40 X8.0 Z5.0 T0300
MOl
N44
N45
N46
N47
N48
N49
N50
N51
N52
N53
N54
(INTERNAL FINISHING)
T0400
G96 S400 M03
GOO G41 X2.19 Z0.1 T0404 MOS
GOl Xl.75 Z-0.12 F0.006
Z-1.6 F0.009
G03 X0.95 Z-2.0 R0.4
GOl X0.75 Z-2.1
Z-2.925
U-0.2
GOO G40 X8.0 Z2.0 T0400
MOl
Note that the contour start and end positions are n the
clear area - away from the part. Make sure there is enough
clearance. Cutter radius compensation in.te,ference a/arm
(alarm #41) s always caused by insufficient clearance.
+ Minimum Clearance Required

As a rule, each clearance in program should be large
enough to accommodate the double tool nose radius.
>TLR x 2
_, >TLR x 2
' >TLR x 4 l
on 0
>TLR x 4
on 0
.
"O
(/)
>TLR x 2 - r--
o
o
t11
a:::
In tool nose radius offset, programming the minimum

clearance of at least .100 inches per side (2.5 mm), provides
a sufficient clearance for all three standard tool nose radii 1/64, 1/32 and 3/64 (0.40, 0.80 and 1.20 mm respectively).
+ Change of Motion Direction
On CNC lathes, a change in cutting direction is used
much more often than on machining centers. The following
example shows a facing cut on a solid face with 041 in ef
fect, changing to a turning cut(-s) with 042 in effect - see
Figure 30-40. Possible problem is discussed as well.
o
o
I
..- ..900
l.C)
CD
//
?--X1.70
NNN
G4J
X1.40
X1.00
..(9
CLEARANCE
-,
Correct
approach
/
(9
xo
,_
X-0.07 lncorrect
approach
Figure 30-40
Tao/ nose radius offset change tor the same tao/
N21
N22
N23
N24
N25
N26
N27
N28
N29
TOlOO
(CORRECT APPROACH)
G96 S400 M03
GOO G41 Xl.7 ZO T0101 MOS
(START)
GOl X-0.07 F0.007
(FACE OFF)
GOO Z0.1
(ONE AXIS ONLY)
G42 Xl.O
(THEN COMPENSATION)
GOl Xl.4 Z-0.1 F0.012
( CONTOURING)
Z-0.65
X...
Face cutting is a single axis motion and the offset is used

for consistency. For solid parts, the face cut must end below
the ce.nter line, X-0.07 n block N24, at a diameter margin
ally larger than double tool radius. If the cut finishes at XO,
the tool leaves a small unfinished tip at the center line and
the face will not be flat. Also compare the correct and in
correct tool motions on the right side of the last illustration.
If the above program is modified to the following version,
_J
Figure 30-39
Minimum clearance for tao/ nose radius offset
Figure 30-39 shows minimum clearances when set at the

start and end of cut. Make sure the nose radius fits into the
clearance two or more times. Symbols > TLR x 2 and x 4
mean the clearance should be greater than twice or four
Umes the nose radius. Doubl.e radius per side becomes a
quadruple radius on a diameter.
N21
N22
N23
N24
N25
N26
N27
N28
(INCORRECT VERSION)
TOlOO
G96 S400 M03
GOO G41 Xl.7 ZO T0101 MOS
(START)
GOl X-0.07 F0.007
(FACE OFF)
GOO G42 Xl.O Z0.1
(*** WRONG ***)
GOl Xl.4 Z-0.1 F0.012
(CONTOURING)
Z-0.65
X..
... theface will never be completed! Think about it.
PLANE SELECT/DN
From all available machining operations, conrouring or
pro.fi.ling s the single most common CNC application, per
haps along with hole making. During contouring, the tool
motion is programmed in at least three different ways:
o Tool motion along a single axis only
o Tool motion along two axes simultaneously
o Tool motion along three axes simultaneously
There are additional axis motions that can also be applied

(thefourth andfifth axis, for example), but on a CNC ma
chining center, we always work with at least three axes, al
though not always simultaneously. This reflects the three
dimensional reality of our world.
This chapter applies only to CNC milling systems, since
turning systems normally usc only two axes, and planes are
therefore not required or used. Live tooling on CNC lathes
does not enter this subject.
Any absolute point in the program is defined by Lhree co
ordinates, specified along the X, Y and Z axes. A pro
grammed rapid motion GOO or a linear motion GO I can use
any n.umber of axes simultaneously, as long as the resulting
tool motion is safe within the work area. No special consid
erations are required, no special programming is needed.
That is not the case for the following Lhree programming
procedures, where the various considerations change quite
significantJy:
o
Circular motion using the G02 or G03 command
Cutter radius offset using the G41 or G42 command
Fixed cycles using the G81 to G89 commands,

or G73, G74 and G76 commands
ln all three cases - and only i11 rhese rhree cases - pro
grammer has to consider a special setting of the control sys
tem - it is called a selection of the machining plane.
WHAT ISA PLANE?

To look up a definition of a plane, research a standard
tex tbook of mathematics or even a dictionary. From various
definitions, plane can be described in one sentence:
A plane is a surface in which a straight line joining any
two of its points will completely lie on that surface.
Planes in the mathematical sense have their own proper

ties. Thcre is no need to know them all, but there are impor
tant properties relating to planes that are useful in CNC
programming and in various phases of CAD/CAM work:
o Any three points that do not lie on a single line define
a plane (these points are called non-collinear points)
o A plane s defined by two lines that intersect each other
o A plane is defined by two lines that are
parallel to each other
o A plane is defined by a single line
and a point that does not lie on that line
o A plane can be defined by an arc or a circle
o Two intersecting planes define a straight line
o
A straight line that intersect a plane

on which it does not lie, defines a point
These mathematical definitions are only included for ref

erence and as a source of additional information. They are
not required for everyday CNC programming.
MACHINING IN PLANES
The path of a cutting toci is a combination of straight
lines and arcs. A tool motion in one or two axes always
takes place in a plane designated by two axes. This type of
morion is two-dimensional. 1n contrast, any tool motion
that takes place in three axes at the same time is a three
dimensional motion.
Mathematical Planes
In CNC machining, the only planes that can be defined
and used are planes consisting of a combination of any two
primary axes XYZ. Therefore, the circular cuttin.g morion,
cutter radius offset and jixed cycles can take place only in
any one of the three available planes:
XY plane
ZX plane
YZ plane
The actual order ofax.is designation for a plane definition

is very important. For example, the XY plane and the YX
plane are physically the same plane. However, for the pur
poses of defining a relative tool motion direction (clock
wise vs. counterclockwise or lefi vs. right), a clear standard
must be established.
269
270
Chapter 31
This international standard is based on the mathematical

rule that specifies thefirst letter of the plane designation al
ways refers to the horizantal axis and the second letter re
fers to the vertical axis when the plane is viewed. Both axes
are always orthogonal (horizontal and vertical) and per
pendicular (at 90) to cach other. In CAD/CAM, this stan
dard defines the difference between the_ top and bottom.
front and back, etc.
A simple way to remember mathematical designation of

axes for all three planes is to write the alphabetical order of
all three axes twice and isolate each pair with a space:
XYZXYZ
... becomes . . . XY ZX YZ
In mathematical terms, the planes are defined as:

Plane
Horizontal Axis
XY
l)(
YZ
= Vertical Axis
y
Note the emphasis on the word 'mathematical'. The em

phasis is intentional, and for a vcry good reason. As will
soon be apparent, there is a great difference between the
mathematical planes and the machine planes, as defined by
the viewing direction of the machine.
Machine Tool Planes
A typical CNC machjning center has three axes. Any two
axes form a plane. A machine plane may be defined by
looking at the machine from standar d op erating position.
For a vertical machining center, lhere are three standard
views, viewed perpendicularly (straight on):
o
o
o
The top view
... XY plane
The front view
... XZ plane
The right side view
... YZ plane
The illustration in Figure 31-1 shows the difference be

tween the two definitions, caused by a viewpoints that are
not compatble.
3
0
TOP-XY
X -
X
0
LEFT -ZX
3
0
y-
I RIGHT - YZ
STANDARD DEFINITION OF PLANES
3
0
02
X I
-0
TOP-XY
FRONT -XZ
RIGHT- YZ
PLANES ON A VERTICAL MACHINING CENTER
Figure31-1
Comparison of standard mathematical planes (above),
and planes on a CNC machining center (below)
In programming, the selection of planes is extremely im

portant, yet often neglected and even misunderstood by
programmers and operators alike. The main reason is that
the majority of tool motions (particularly for contouring)
are programmed and machined in the standard XY plane.
On all CNC machining centers, the spindle is always per
pendicular to the XY plane. Vertical and horizontal appli
cations are the same in this respect.
Program Commands for Planes Definition
The selection of a plane for Fanuc and related controls
adheres to the mathematical designation of planes, nat the
actual CNC machine tool planes. Ina part pro gram, each of
the three mathematical planes can be selected by a special
preparatory command - a unique G cocie:
G17
XY plane selecrion
G18
ZX plane selection
G19
YZ plane selection
It s clear that the XY plane and top view are the sarne in
both definitions. and so is the YZ plane and the right side
view. The ZX mathematical plane is different from the front
plane on the machine, which is XZ, as shown n the middle
illustration.
For all rapid motions (programmed with GOO) and all lin
ear motions (programmed with GO]), the plane selection
command is totally rrelevant and even redundant. That is
not the case for other motion modes, where the plane selec
tion in a program is extremely important and must be con
sidered carefulJy.
The mathematical plane defined as the ZX plane, where

Z is the horizontal axis, is reversed on the machine plane
for CNC machining centers. On the machine, this plane be
comes the XZ plane, where theX axis is the horizontal axis
- a very important distinction.
For machining applications using the circular nterpola

tion mode, with G02 or G03 commands, cutter radius offset
mode with G41 or G42 commands and fixed cycles mode
with G8 I to G89 commands, as well as G73, G74, G76, the
plane selection s very criticai.
271
PLANE SELECTION
Default Control Status

If the plane s not selected by the program, the control de
faults automatically to G 17 XY plane in milling and G 18
ZX plane in turning. If the plane selection G code s pro
gram.med, it should be included at the program beginning.
Since the three plane commands only have affect on circu
lar motions, cutter radius offsets andfixed cycles, the plane
selection command G 17, G 18 or G19 can be programmed
before any of these machining motions take place.
Always program the appropriate plane selection command.
Never rely on the control settings !
Any plane selection change s program.med as desired,

prior to actual tool path change. Plane can be changed as
often as necessary n a program, but only one plane can be
active at any time. Selection of one plane cancels any other
plane, so the G 17 /G 1 8/G 19 commands cancel each other.
Although true n an informative sense, it is most likely that
the opportunities to mix all three plane commands in a sin
gle program are remote. From all three available motions,
only the circular motion is affected by plane selection, but
let's have look at the programming of a rapid and linear
motions as well, at least for comparison purposes.
STRAIGHT MOTION IN PLANES

Both rapid motions GOO and linear motions GOI are con
sidered straight motions when compared with circular mo
tions. Straight motions can be programmed for a single axis
or as a simultaneous motion along two or three axes. The
following examples only show typical unrelated blocks:
Q Example - Rapid positioning - GOO :
GOO
GOO
GOO
GOO
XS.O Y3.0
X7.5 Z-1.5
YlO.O Z-0.25
X2.0 Y4.0 Z-0.75
XY plane - 2D rapid morion

XZ plane - 2D rapiLJ morion
iZ plane - 2D rapid morion
XYZ - 3D rapid morion
Q Example - Linear interpolation - G01 :

GOl
GOl
GO1
GOl
XY plane - 2D linear motion

X-1.5 Y4.46 F15.0
X8. 875 Z-0. 84 FlO. O ZX plane - 2D linearmotion
iZ plane - 2D linearmotion
Y12 . 34 ZO 1 F12 5
X6. O Y13.O Z-1.24 F12.O XYZ - JD linear motion
The examples refer to tool motion along the program med

axes. Plane selection command does not need to be used for
any straight motion (along a single axis), unless the cutter
radius offset or a fixed cycle is in effect. Ali tool motions
wifi be interpreted correctly by the control, regardless of
any plane in effect. The rules that apply to linear motions
are not the same for circular motions.
CIRCULAR INTERPOLATION IN PLANES

In order to complete a circular motion correctly, the con
trol system has to receive sufficient information from the
part program. Unlike rapid positioning with GOO in effect
or linear interpolation with GO l in effect, the circular inter
polation requires a programmed direction of motion. 002
is the command for CW direction and 003 s the command
for CCW direction. According to general mathematical
rules, the clockwise direction is always viewed from the
vertical axis towards the horizontal axis in any selected
plane. Counterclockwise direction is always viewed from
the horizontal axis towards the vertical axis.
When we compare the mathematical axes designation
and the actual orientation of the machine axes (based on a
vertical machining center), the XY plane (G 17) and the YZ
plane (G 19) correspond to each other. These two planes
normally present no problems to CNC programmers. The
ZX plane (018) rnay cause a serious problem if not prop
erly understood. Mathematically, the horizontal axis in
G 18 plane s the Z axis and the X axis is the vertical axis.
On a vertical machining center, the order of machine axes
orientation is reversed. It is important to understand that the
clockwise and counterclockwise directions only appear to
be reversed, but in reality, they are the same. If the mathe
matical axes orientation is aligned with the machine axes,
they will indeed match. Figure 31-2 shows the steps of
aligning thc mathematical planes with the machine planes:
X
E
68
v1
(")
bJ
STANDARD
ZX PLANE
MIRRORED
PLANE ROTATED
AFTER MIRRORING
IS THE G18 PLANE
ON THE MACHINE
STANDARD
MATHEMATICAL
ZX plane
Figure 37-2
Progressive steps in aligning the mathematical ZX plane
with the machine XZ plane, using G 7 8 plane selection
272
Note that the G code direction for arcs does not change
either within the mathematical plane (a), or the mathemati
cal plane mirrored (b), or even the mirrored plane rotated
by negative 90 (c), even if the plane itself is changed.
What occurred here is not a creation of any new plane
(mathematical or otherwise). The view still represents a
three dimensional object, viewed from a different direc
tional point (viewpoint).
On horizontaJ machining centers, the situation is similar.
The XY plane (G17) and the ZX plane (G18) match be
tween mathematical designation and the actual axes orien
tation. It is the G19 plane (YZ) that appears to be reversed
and may cause some problems before the logica) structure
ol' the planes is well understood.
The proper selection of a machining plane will enable
programming various contouring operations using circular
and helical interpolation, cutter radius offset and fixed cy
cles. The most common applications of this type of ma
chining are filleted (blend) radii, intersecting radii, circular
pockets, profiled counterbores, cylinders, simple spheres
and cones, and other similar shapes.
In order to understand the CNC applications of G02 and
G03 commands in planes, the illustration in Figure 31-3
should be helpful.
Chapter 31
The following format examples show some typical pro

gramming applications for circular interpolation:
G17 G02 X14.4 Y6.8 Rl.4
G18 G03 Xll.575 Z-1.22 Rl.O
G19 G02 Y4.5 ZO R0.85
Some older control systems do not accept the direct ra

dius designation specitied by the R address. Instead, the arc
vectors I, J and K must be used. For programming circular
motion within a selected plane, correct pair of arc vectors
must be selected:
G17 G02 (G03) X.. Y.. I.. J..
Gl8 G02 (G03) X.. Z .. I.. K..
G19 G02 (G03) Y.. Z .. J .. K .
From the previous topics, remember that:

o XY axes - G17 plane - I and J arc center modifiers
o XZ axes - G18 plane - I and K arc center modifiers
o YZ axes - G19 plane - J and K arc center modifiers
Absence of Axis Data in a Block

The programming format described here contains com
plete data for the end point of a circular motion. In practice,
however, an experienced programmer does not repeat the
modal values from one block to another. The major reason
for this approach is saving programming tune, shortenjng
the program length and increasing the available memory
space in the control system.
The portion of the following program example shows a
typical application in a program where modal axcs values
are not repeated in subsequent blocks:
Figure 31-3
Actual circular tool path direction in al/ three machine planes.
Note the apparent inconsistency for the G 18 plane
G17-G18-G19 as Modal Commands

The preparatory commands for a plane selection G17,
G I 8 and G19 are al! modal commands - programming any
one of them will activate the selected plane only. The plane
selection in the program will bc in effect until canceled by
another plane selection. The three plane related G codcs
belong to the G code group number 02 exclusiveJy.
N .. G20
English wii1s
N40
N41
N42
N43
N44
XYplane selected
G17
GOO
GOl
G18
Gl7
X20.0 Y7.S Z-3.0

X13.0 FlO.O
G02 X7.0 R3.0
GOl XO
Stmt position of the tool
Plane selection irrelevcuu

Za:s is asswned as absent
Plane selection irrelevcu11
Block N43 represents a contour of a 180 arc in the ZX

plane. Because of the G18 command in N43, the control
will correctly interpret the 'missing' axis as the Z axis, and
its value will be equaJ to the last Z axis value programmed
(Z-3.0). Also examine the G17 comrnand in block N44. It
is always a good practice to transfer the control status to its
original plane selection as soon as the plane changes, al
though this is not absolutely necessary in the example.
PLANE SELECTION
273
Omitting the G 18 command in block N43 will cause a se

rious program error. If G18 is omitted, the originally se
Iected command GJ7 will still be in effecl and circular in
terpolation will take place in the XY plane, instead of the
intended ZX plane.
In this case, the axis assumed as 'missing' in the G l 7
plane will be the Y axis and its programmed value of Y7.5.
The control system will process such a block as if it were
specified in a complete block:
N43 G17 G02 X7.0 Y7.5 R3.0
An interesting situation will develop if the plane selection

command G 18 in block N43 is absent, but the circular in
terpolation block contains two axes coordinates for the end
point of the circular motion:
N43 G02 X7.0 Z-3.0 R3.0
GJ7 is sti/1 in effect
Although G17 is still the active plane, the arc will be ma

chined correctly in the G18 plane, even if G 18 had not been
programmed. This is because of the special control feature
called complete instruction or complete data priority, pro
vided in block N43 of the last example. The inclusion of
two axes for the end point of circular motion has a higher
priority rating than a plane selection command itself. A
complete block is one that includes all necessary addresses
without taking on modal values.
Two axes programmed in a single block
override the active plane selection command.
Cutter Radius Offset in Planes

The plane selection for rapid or linear motion is irrele
vant, providing that no cutter radius offset G41 or G42 is in
effect. In theory, it means that regardless of the plane selec
tion, all GOO and GOl motions will be correct. That is true,
but seldom practicai, since most CNC prograrns do use a
contouring motion and they also use the cutter radius offset
feature. As an example, evaluate the following blocks:
N1 G21
N120 G90 GOO XS0.0 YlOO.O Z20.0
N121 GOl X90.0 Y140.0 ZO F180.0
When the rapid motion programmed in block Nl 20 is

completed, the cutter will be positioned at the absolute Io
cation of X50.0 Yl 00.0 Z20.0. The absolute location of the
cutting motion will be X90.0 Y140.0 ZO, after the block
N121 is completed.
f
Adding a cutter radius of set command G41 or G42 to the

rapid motion block, the plane selection will become ex
tremely important. The radius offset will be effective only
for those two axes selected by a plane selection command.
There will not be a 3-axis cutter radius offset taking place!

In the next example, compare the absolute tool posilions
for each plane when the rapid motion is completed and the
cutter radius offset is activated in the program. Tool abso
lute position when the cutting motion is completed depends
on the motion following block NI 21.
The radius offset value of D25=100.000 mm, stored in
the control offset registry, is used for the next ex.ample:
Q Example:
N120 G90 GOO G41 XSO.O YlOO.O Z20.0 D25
N121 G01 X90.0 Y140.0 ZO F180.0
The compensated tool position when block NJ 20 is com

pleted, will depend on the plane G17, G 18 or G19 currently
in effect:
lf G17 command is programmed with three axes :

G17 X Y Z
lf G 18 command is programmed with three axes :

G18X Y Z
XY motion will be compensated
lX motion will be compensated
lf G19 command is programmed with three axes :

G19 X Y Z
YZ motion will be compensated
The following practicai prograrnming example illustrates

both circular interpolation and cutter radius offset as they
are applied in different planes.
PRACTICAL EXAMPLE
The example illustrated in Figure 31-4 is a simple job that
requires cutting the R0.75 arc in the XZ plane. Typically, a
ball nose end mill (also known as a spherical end mill) will
be used for a job like this.
In the simplified example, only two main tool passes are
programmed. One pass is the Jeft-to-right motion - across
the left plane, over the cylinder, and over the right plane.
The other pass is from right to left - across the right plane,
over the cylinder, and across the left plane. A stepover for
the tool is also programmed, between the passes. The pro
gram of this type for the whole part could be done in the in
cremental mode and would greatly benefit from the use of
subprograms.
Figure 31-5 demonstrates tool motion for tbe two passes

included in the program exarnple. To interpret the program
data correctly, note that program zero is at the bottom left
corner of the pa1t. Both clearances off the part are . I 00 and
the stepover is .050:
274
Chapter 31
3.5
----r
2.5
---'
R-0-.7-50
l?\'--
0.
Figure 31-4
Drawing for the programming example 03101
03101
Nl G20
(ZX PLANE SELECTED)
N2 G18
N3 G90 G54 GOO X-0.1 YO S600 M03
N4 G43 Z2.0 H01 MOS
NS GOl G42 Z0.5 DOl F8.0
N6 Xl.0
N7 G03 X2.5 I0.75
(= G03 X2.5 ZO.S I0.75 KO)
NS GOl X3.6
N9 G91 G41 Y0.05
NlO G90 X2.5
Nll G02 Xl.O I-0.75(= G02 Xl.O Z0.5 I-0.75 KO)
N12 GOl X-0.1
Nl3 G91 G42 Y0.05
N14 G90 ...
When working with lhis type of CNC program the first

time, it may be a good idea to test lhe tool path in the air, a
little above the job. Errors can happen quite easily.
Three axes cutting motion is programmed manually onJy
for parts where calculations are not too time consuming.
For parts requiring complex motions calculations, a com
puter programming software is a better choice .
Figure 31-5
Too/ path for programming example 03101
FIXED CYCLES IN PLANES

The last programming item relating to plane selection s
the application of planes n fixed cycles. For cycles in the
Gl7 plane (XY hole locations), Gl 7 is only important if a
switch from one plane to another s contained in the same
program. With special rnachine attachments, such as right
angle heads, the drill or other tool is positioned perpendic
ular to the normal spindle axis, being in G18 or G19 plane.
Although the right angle heads are not very common, n
rnany industries they are gainng n popularity. When pro
grarnming these attachments, always consider the tool di
rection into the work (the depth drection). In the common
applications of fix.ed cycles, Gl7 plane uses XY axes for
the hole center Jocation and the Z axis for the depth direc
tion. If the angle head is set to use the Y axis as the depth di
rection, use G18 plane and the XZ axes will be the hole
center positions. If the angle head s set to use the X axis as
the depth direction, use G19 plane and the YZ axes will be
the hole center positions. ln al! cases, the R level always ap
plies to the axis that moves along the depth direction.
The difference between the tool tip and the center line of
spindle s the actual overhang. This extra overhang length
must be known and incorporated into al! motions of the
affected axis not only for correct depths, but also for safety.

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What are some common hole machining operations mentioned?

What are some common hole machining operations mentioned?

What are fixed cycles and how do they simplify programming?

What are fixed cycles and how do they simplify programming?

FIXED CYCLES

Machining holes is probably the most common opera

The method of point-to-point machining for holes is a

Rapid motion to the hale location

Rapid motion to the starting point of the cut

Feedrate motion to the specified depth

Return to a clear position

These four steps also represent the minimum number of

Machining holes is generally not a very sophistcated

Possibly the most time consuming task in programming

1n the majQ!ity of programn:iig ppiations, hole pera

Single Tool Motions vs. Fixed Cycles

The second example in program 02502 uses the same

G99 G82 R0.1 Z-0.6813 P200 F4.5

Program 02501 required the total of 18 blocks, even for

FIXED CVCLE SELECTION

High speed peck drilling cycle

The list is only general and indicates the most common

Z = Z axis end position = Z depth

The Z depth position can have an absolute value ot an in

General format for a fixed cycle s a series of parameter

G (first G command) = G98 or G99

G98 returns tool to the initial Z position

Programmed n milliseconds ( 1 second = 1 OOO ms)

The dwell time s practically applicable only to 076,

Position at which the feedrate ends

Dweff time can be n the range of O.OOlto 99999.999

Q = Address Q has two meanings

When used with cycles G73 or G83,

When used with cycles G76 or G87,

The addresses I and J may be used instead of address Q,

G99 returns tool to the point specified by the address R

G (second G command) = Cycle number

Oyfy one of the following G commands can be selected:

The I shift may be used instead of Q - see above.

X = H ale position in X axis

X value can be an absolute or incremental value

Must include the X axis shift direction for

Must include the Y axis shift direction for

The J shift may be used instead of the Q - see above.

This value is expressed in inlmin or mmlmin, depending

L ( or K) = Number of cycle repetitions

Position at which the cutting feedrate is activated

The R levei position can have an absolute value or an in

Applies to the cutting motion only

Must be within the range of LO - L9999 (KO - K9999)

o lf both X and Y axes are omitted in the fixed cycle mode,

o Address P for the dwell time designation cannot use a

Preparatory G codes of the Group O I, namely GOO, GO I,

Caution: In case of combining a fixed cycle command

fixed cycle is processed, while in

fixed cycle is not processed, but the X and Y motions will

Rapid motion and direction

Dwell function executed

ABSOLUTE ANO INCREMENTAL VALUES

Example of the initial level programming: