*Please note this is a very early, partially-completed preliminary draft that is subject to

revision based on further research.

Ketamine: a promising, potential treatment in late-stage Lyme neuroborreliosis
Anthony Murawski
Seattle, WA
[email protected]
Draft revised May 4, 2010 (with limited, selective revisions on
November 4, 2011, adding information about buprenrphine, and modifying title, and on
January 31, 2012, adding informaton about immunosuppressive effects in HIV infection).
Part I. Introduction 1
Part II. The Clinical Evidence for ketamine 3
A. Refractory depression 3
B. Refractory fibromyalgia 5
C. Refractory chronic regional pain syndrome 9
D. Case reports in other psychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders 12
E. Dosing 12
Part III. Pathogenicity in Advanced Lyme Disease 12
A. Inflammation 12
B. Kynurenine pathway-mediated excitotoxicity and oxidative stress 14
Part IV. IDO/kynurenine pathway-mediated immune dysregulation 15
A. Simplified and selective overview of some key components in adaptive
immune response 15
B. HIV- and cancer-like immunosuppression by overactivation of IDO and
kynurenine pathway 17
C. Role of IDO and kynurenine pathway in autoimmunity 19
D. Risks of suppressing TNF-alpha and IDO 20
Part V. Ketamines mechanisms of action 21
A. Anti-inflammatory effects and neuroprotective mechanisms in excitotoxicity
and oxidative stress 21
B. Likelihood of reducing immunosuppression and possibility of terminating
autoimmunity in advanced Lyme disease 22
Part VI. Low-dose ketamine safety profile 22
A. Side-effects 22
B. Tolerance and addiction 22
C. Neurotoxicity 22
D. Effects of long-term treatment with low-dose ketamine 23
E. Drug-drug interactions 23
Part VII. Conclusion 24
Figure 1. The kynurenine pathway 25
Table 1. Inducers of IDO 29
References 30

Ketamine: a promising, potential treatment in late-stage Lyme neuroborreliosis

Anthony Murawski
Seattle, WA
<[email protected]>

I. Introduction
There is a general consensus that Lyme disease symptoms, whether acute or chronic, are
driven largely by inflammation. In late-stage Lyme disease, the inflammatory cytokines
of the early (innate) immune response particularly tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFalpha) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) are chronically activated, causing direct damage both
within and outside the central nervous system (Habicht 1992; Ramesh et al. 2005; Kisand et al. 2007; Ramesh
et al. 2008; Rupprecht et al. 2008). A high percentage of patients in the advanced stages of disease
suffer from inflammation of white matter and cerebral hypoperfusion (Fallon & Nields 1994;
Fallon et al. 1995; Sumiya et al. 1997; Fallon et al. 1997; Logigian et al. 1997; Plutchok et al. 1999; Heinrich et al. 2003; Fallon et al.
2003; Donta et al. 2006; Fallon et al. 2009).

Besides direct damage, chronic inflammation also triggers

excessive and imbalanced catabolism of tryptophan, causing tryptophan depletion,
neurotoxicity, and a form of immunosuppression -- also found several forms of cancer
and HIV infection -- that significantly impairs the effector T cell response required to
attack both intracellular and extracellular infection (cites).
To date, no highly-effective means of rapid symptom relief and damage reduction has
been available in late-state Lyme disease. Although the disease appears at present to be
incurable in its more advanced stages, symptom improvement can sometimes be achieved
with antimicrobials. Yet such treatment often requires months or years of antimicrobial
therapy (Cameron et al. 2004; Stricker 2007), causing Jarisch-Herxheimer reactions and general
symptom exacerbation before any improvement is seen. In the most advanced cases of
illness, antibiotics can be intolerable or even fatal (cites). And because lysis of B.
burgdorferi triggers inflammation, the use of antibiotics without a potent cerebral antiinflammatory adjunct is likely to cause significant impairment of effector T cell response
in advanced, long-term Lyme neuroborreliosis.
Low-dose, IV ketamine is a promising option for rapid, highly-effective symptom relief,
damage reduction, and prevention of T cell suppression in late-stage Lyme disease. Even
in low doses, ketamine is a potent anti-inflammatory, inhibiting TNF-alpha and IL-6
(Royblat et al. 1998; Shapira et al. 2004; Bartoc et al. 2006; Yang et al. 2006; Beilin et al. 2007). Ketamine easily crosses
the blood-brain barrier (Pai & Heining 2007), and has been shown using brain SPECT scans in
human studies to improve cerebral blood flow in patients suffering from cerebral
hypoperfusion (Wu et al. 2006; Guedj et al. 2007a; Guedj et al. 2007b).
Phase II clinical trials, small studies, and individual case reports have shown low-dose IV
ketamine to be remarkably effective in reducing symptoms of several conditions that

2010-2012 Anthony Murawski

appear in late-stage Lyme disease, including refractory depression (Berman et al. 2000; Kudoh et al.
2002; Zarate et al. 2006; Correll & Futter 2006; Liebrenz et al. 2007a; Liebrenz et al. 2007b; Goforth & Holsinger 2007; Paul et al.
2008; Stefanczyk-Sapieha et al. 2008; Matthew et al. 2009), fibromyalgia (Srensen et al. 1995; Srensen et al. 1997; GravenNielsen et al. 2000; Guedj et al. 2007a; Guedj et al. 2007b), and chronic regional pain syndrome (CRPS)
(Harbut & Correll 2002; Correll et al. 2004; Goldberg et al. 2005; Wu et al. 2006; Kiefer et al. 2007; Villanueva-Perez et al. 2007;

although the most advanced cases of

refractory CRPS may require anesthetic dosing (Kiefer et al. 2008a; Kiefer et al. 2008b; Becerra et al. 2009).
Case reports have also shown ketamine to be effective in other syndromes that appear in
Lyme disease, including status epilepticus, explosive disorder, MS-like syndrome,
Parkinsonism, and stroke. [Add references for ketamine case reports and for appearance
of these symptoms in Lyme disease. Explain why there is no basis for statements in some
studies that these manifestations occur only rarely in Lyme disease]
Jeffreys & Woods 2007; Koffler et al. 2007; Shirani et al. 2008)

Ketamine by IV infusion is the most effective delivery method. At subanesthetic doses,

there is no respiratory depression. Subanesthetic doses are far lower than dosages used
for anesthesia. The dissociative side-effects with subanesthetic dosing are minimal and
transient, especially during short-duration infusions, such as used for depression. Some
fluctuations in blood pressure are common. No serious adverse events have been reported
in at least thousands of people who have received short duration, low-dose infusions.
In some cases, however such as long-standing and severe chronic regional pain
syndrome a prolonged anesthetic dose infusion is required.
The published studies have demonstrated that ketamine does not broadly suppress the
immune response unless infused in massive doses that have no clinical application.
Ketamine rapidly concentrates in the brain, heart, and lungs, and is not associated with
new infections or malignancies when infused at low doses, or for anesthesia. Upper
respiratory tract infections that are manageable with antibiotics have been reported in
prolonged high-dose infusions, i.e., the multi-day anesthetic dose ketamine comas that
are sometimes required for long-standing and severe CRPS. Thus, unlike systemic
steroids or various non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, ketamine does not broadly
suppress the immune response, and is not contraindicated in Lyme disease.
Animal studies demonstrate that ketamine is not neurotoxic except in massive doses that
have no clinical application. Anesthetic doses, or prolonged subanesthetic doses, might
be neurotoxic to human brain cells during the brain-growth spurt, when these cells are
particularly vulnerable, i.e., during the third trimester through three years of age, but the
significance of these studies is currently being debated.
II. The Clinical Evidence
A. Refractory depression
In 2000, Berman et al. first reported that nine patients meeting DSM-IV criteria for major
depressive episodes (n = 8, recurrent unipolar major depression; n = 1, bipolar disorder,
depressed) had significant improvement of symptoms within 72 hours after a low-dose
ketamine infusion. Patients had one infusion of .5 mg/kg ketamine over 40 minutes, and
one sham infusion of saline, separated by at least one week, in a randomized, doubleblinded manner. Robust decreases in the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) were

observed during active but not control treatment. The mean baseline BDI score was 29.5
( 8.2 SD), and mean final score was 16.8 ( 10.5). Four of eight patients demonstrated
50% or greater decreases in Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HDRS) scores during the
3-day follow-up period (i.e., 7, 30, 45, 47, 52, 52, 63, and 83% decreases), whereas only
one of eight subjects undergoing sham infusion demonstrated a similar response (i.e., 3,
6, 7, 8, and 74% decreases and three subjects remained 4, 22, and 33% above baseline
during the follow-up period; Fisher Exact, p > .05). Ketamine-induced mood
improvement returned to baseline levels (i.e., clinical impression and HDRS within 5
points of baseline) one to two weeks after infusion. An exception, one subject
demonstrating marked mood improvement (i.e., baseline HDRS of 41 points; Day 3
HDRS of 7 points), was started on antidepressant medication without having returned to
his baseline level of depression two weeks after the ketamine infusion (HDRS, 15
points). Another patient, who was excluded from analyses because of completing only
active treatment, experienced marked improvement in depressive symptoms (baseline
HDRS 33, final HDRS 16).
In 2006, Zarate et al. reported results in a trial involving 18 subjects with DSM-IV
treatment-resistant major depression. The mean length of illness was 23.7 years ( 12.5
SD). The HDRS was used as the primary outcome measure. Within 110 minutes after
injection, subjects receiving .5 mg/kg ketamine over 40 minutes showed significant
improvement in depression compared with subjects receiving placebo. One day after
infusion, 71% of subjects (12 of 17) met response criteria of 50% or greater reduction in
symptoms of depression, and 29% (5 of 17) were in remission. One week after infusion,
35% (6 of 17) maintained response. Two weeks after infusion, 12% (2 of 17) maintained
response
Significant but less robust results were reported in 2009 from a double-blind, randomized
trial involving 26 patients at the same dose/rate as in the prior trials (Mathew et al. 2009).
Seventeen patients (65%) met response criterion ( 50% reduction from baseline on the
MontgomeryAsberg Depression Rating Scale) 24 h following ketamine. Lamotrigine
failed to attenuate the mild, transient side-effects associated with ketamine and did not
enhance its antidepressant effects. Fourteen patients (54%) met response criterion 72 h
following ketamine and proceeded to participate in a 32-d, randomized, double-blind,
placebo-controlled, flexible-dose continuation trial of riluzole (100200 mg/d). The main
outcome measure was time-to-relapse. An interim analysis found no significant
differences in time-to-relapse between riluzole and placebo groups, with 80% of patients
relapsing on riluzole vs. 50% on placebo.
Several case reports have demonstrated the same, remarkable antidepressant effect as in
the trials (Kudoh et al. 2002; Correll & Futter 2006; Liebrenz et al. 2007a; Liebrenz et al. 2007b; Goforth & Holsinger 2007; Paul
et al. 2008; Stefanczyk-Sapieha et al. 2008).
In 2007, Charney et al. reported remarkable and sustained benefits in three highlyrefractory depressed patients after four or five ketamine infusions over successive days,
with benefits lasting up to 28 days. Kollmar et al. reported in 2008 that a refractory,
psychiatric in-patient with ten recent suicide attempts, no response to pharmacological
agents, and only partial response to ECT, obtained symptom relief for three days after
one low-dose ketamine infusion. Two weeks after the first infusion, she was given a

second low-dose infusion, followed by regular dosing with oral memantine. The patient
experienced remission shortly after the second infusion. She remained in remission six
months later, when her case report was submitted for publication.
This author who is being treated by an out-of-state doctor for severe Lyme-depression
has found that co-administration of memantine at a dose above 20 mg daily might
interfere with ketamines antidepressant action. This author has also found that taking 5
mg diazepam prior to a ketamine infusion prevents dissociative side-effects during
infusion, and results in longer duration of antidepressant action. It is not uncommon to
experience vivid nightmares for 1-3 nights after a ketamine infusion. Because stress
induces inflammatory cytokine production, vivid nightmares likely interrupt ketamines
anti-inflammatory effects. After his first three infusions, this author found that although
ketamine provided symptom relief within hours of infusion, the effect was aborted within
one or two days if followed by stressful sleep. The author experiences almost no postinfusion nightmares by taking 5 mg diazepam at bedtime on the evening of an infusion
and the following two evenings with full remission from depression lasting for a week.
This author was no longer taking memantine upon discovering that diazepam prevents
ketamine-induced nightmares. It is not clear, therefore, whether memantine above 20 mg
daily interfered with ketamine efficacy, or whether post-infusion nightmares were
responsible for loss of efficacy during co-administration of memantine, prior to the
addition of diazepam, in this sample-of-one.
B. Refractory fibromyalgia
Abstracts or partial abstracts with excerpts from articles and some of my preliminary
comments will add more analysis

Srensen J, Bengtsson A, Bckman E, Henriksson KG, Bengtsson M. Pain analysis in

patients with fibromyalgia. Effects of intravenous morphine, lidocaine, and ketamine.
Scand J Rheumatol. 1995;24(6):360-5.

Pain intensity, muscle strength, static muscle endurance, pressure pain threshold, and
pain tolerance at tender points and control points were assessed in 31 patients with
fibromyalgia (FM), before and after intravenous administration of morphine (9 patients),
lidocaine (11 patients), and ketamine ( 11 patients). The three different studies were
double-blind and placebo-controlled, The patients were classified as placebo-responders,
responders (decrease in pain intensity by > 50%) and non-responders. The morphine test
did not show any significant changes. The lidocaine test showed a pain decrease during
and after the infusion. The ketamine test showed a significant reduction in pain intensity
during the test period. Tenderness at tender points decreased and endurance increased
significantly, while muscle strength remained unchanged.
Twelve female fibromyalgia patients were included in the ketamine component of the
study, but one patient was subsequently excluded because she did not complete the study.
The mean age was 39 (range 23-53) years. The median duration of the fibromyalgia
symptoms was 3 (range 3-28 years). Six patients regularly used analgesic drugs such as
paracetamol or dextropropoxyphene. Eight patients were at work full- or half-time, one
studied and two had a disability pension.

During a one-week period before the first infusion (ketamine or saline) was given, during
the one-week between the two infusions, and during one-week after the second infusion
was given, the patients scored global pain once a day, on a vertical Visual Analogue Pain
scale (VAS), length 100 mm anchored at No pain and Worst imaginable pain An
intravenous cannula was inserted on the dorsum of the hand or the forearm. The patients
were given either 0.3 mg ketamine per kg body weight or the same volume of isotonic
saline by infusion pumps over a ten minute period. [Low-dose and very short duration I
wouldnt expect results with this dosing regimen].
Pain intensity was scored one week before and after the infusion of saline and ketamine,
respectively. Median (range) pain intensity score was 46 (range 2-93) and 50 (range 2100) for saline. The corresponding scores for ketamine were 58 (range 2-100) and 53
(range 2-95).
There was a significant reduction of pain at the end of the ketamine injection (p<0.05),
and 20-80 min after the end of the injection compared to placebo (p<0.0l-p<0.001). The
patients were classified as follows: 1 placebo responder, 8 responders, and 2 nonresponders. Six of the responders had a reduction in pain for 2-7 days. Statistically
significant differences were seen in pressure pain threshold and pain tolerance at tender
points, control points, and muscle endurance. No statistically significant differences were
seen in muscle strength after ketamine or after placebo. RPE scores at the end of the
endurance tests were unchanged. No spontaneous adverse effects were reported during
and after the placebo infusion. During ketamine administration, 10 of the patients
reported side effects. These included a feeling of unreality in five patients, dizziness in
four, and changes in hearing in three. These symptoms began shortly before the end of
the injection and had disappeared after 15 min. [No benzodiazepine was used to reduce
dissociative effects].

Srensen J, Bengtsson A, Ahlner J, Henriksson KG, Ekselius L, Bengtsson M.

Fibromyalgia--are there different mechanisms in the processing of pain? A double
blind crossover comparison of analgesic drugs. J Rheumatol. 1997 Aug;24(8):161521. [Need to get full article].

Pain was analyzed in patients with fibromyalgia (FM) in a randomized, double blind,
crossover study using intravenous (i.v.) administration of different drugs. METHODS: In
18 patients with FM muscle pain to i.v. administration of morphine (0.3 mg/kg),
lidocaine (5 mg/kg), ketamine (0.3 mg/kg) [low dose duration?], or saline was
studied. Spontaneous pain intensity, muscle strength, static muscle endurance,
pressure pain threshold, and pain tolerance at tender points and non-tender point
areas were followed. Drug plasma concentrations and effects on physical functioning
ability score (FIQ) were recorded. A personality inventory (KSP) was used to related
pain response to personality traits. RESULTS: Thirteen patients responded to one or
several of the drugs, but not to placebo. Two patients were placebo responders
responding to all 4 infusions. Three were nonresponders to all infusions.
Seven of the responders had a reduction in pain for 1-5 days. Pressure pain
threshold and pain tolerance increased significantly in responders. Plasma
concentrations were similar in responders and nonresponders. FIQ values improved
significantly after the ketamine infusion. Responders scored higher on KSP scales for
somatic anxiety, muscular tension, and psychasthenia compared with healthy

controls. CONCLUSION: FM diagnosed according to the American College of

Rheumatology criteria seems to include patients with different pain processing
mechanisms. A pharmacological pain analysis with subdivision into responders and
nonresponders might be considered before instituting therapeutic interventions or
research.

Graven-Nielsen T, Aspegren Kendall S, Henriksson KG, Bengtsson M, Srensen J,

Johnson A, Gerdle B, Arendt-Nielsen L. Ketamine reduces muscle pain, temporal
summation, and referred pain in fibromyalgia patients. Pain. 2000 Apr;85(3):483-91.

Fibromyalgia patients received either i.v. placebo or ketamine in two experiments.

[Saline is not a placebo in a ketamine study, since it has no psychoactive effects.]
Habitual pain intensity was assessed on a visual analogue scale (VAS). In the first
experiment, 29 FMS patients received ketamine (0.3 mg/kg or isotonic saline to
determine which patients were ketamine responders (>50% decrease in pain intensity at
rest by active drug on two consecutive VAS assessments). [Too low a dose and too short
duration of infusion for reducing FM effectively in many patients.] The screening
involved two sessions separated by one week, during which the FMS patients received
either placebo or ketamine. Before, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 75, 90 and 150 min after
infusion start, the patients gave VAS scores of their pain at rest. Fifteen out of 17
ketamine-responders were included in the second experiment, which assessed the effect
of ketamine on somatosensory sensibility and referred pain. This experiment also
involved two sessions separated by one week, in which 15 of the ketamine responders
received either placebo or ketamine given over 30 min. The investigators were blinded as
to infusion drug. Before, 10, 20, and 30 min after infusion start, the patients gave VAS
scores of the ongoing pain. Somatosensory sensibility assessments (pressure algometry,
cutaneous and i.m. electrical stimulation and saline-induced muscle pain) were performed
before and after completed medication and took maximum 30 min (i.e. no assessment of
somatosensory sensibility during infusion of ketamine or placebo). Before and after
ketamine or placebo, experimental local and referred pain was induced by intramuscular
(i.m.) infusion of hypertonic saline (0.7 ml, 5%) into the tibialis anterior (TA) muscle.
The saline-induced pain intensity was assessed on an electronic VAS, and the distribution
of pain drawn by the subject. In addition, the pain threshold (PT) to i.m. electrical
stimulation was determined for single stimulus and five repeated (2 Hz, temporal
summation) stimuli. The pressure PT of the TA muscle was determined, and the pressure
PT and pressure pain tolerance threshold were determined at three bilaterally located
tenderpoints (knee, epicondyle, and mid upper trapezius). VAS scores of pain at rest were
progressively reduced during ketamine infusion compared with placebo infusion. Pain
intensity (area under the VAS curve) to the post-drug infusion of hypertonic saline was
reduced by ketamine (-18. 4+/-0.3% of pre-drug VAS area) compared with placebo
(29.9+/-18.8%, P<0.02). Local and referred pain areas were reduced by ketamine (-12.
0+/-14.6% of pre-drug pain areas) compared with placebo (126.3+/-83. 2%, P<0.03).
Ketamine had no significant effect on the PT to single i.m. electrical stimulation.
However, the span between the PT to single and repeated i.m. stimuli was significantly
decreased by the ketamine (-42.3+/-15.0% of pre-drug PT) compared with placebo (50.
5+/-49.2%, P<0.03) indicating a predominant effect on temporal summation. Mean
pressure pain tolerance from the three paired tenderpoints was increased by ketamine
(16.6+/-6.2% of pre-drug thresholds) compared with placebo (-2.3+/-4.9%, P<0.009).

The pressure PT at the TA muscle was increased after ketamine (42.4+/-9. 2% of predrug PT) compared with placebo (7.0+/-6.6%, P<0.011). The present study showed that
mechanisms involved in referred pain, temporal summation, muscular hyperalgesia, and
muscle pain at rest were attenuated by the NMDA-antagonist in FMS patients.

Guedj E, Cammilleri S, Colavolpe C, Taieb D, de Laforte C, Niboyet J, Mundler O.

Predictive value of brain perfusion SPECT for ketamine response in hyperalgesic
fibromyalgia. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2007a Aug;34(8):1274-9. Epub 2007
Mar 13.

We evaluated brain SPECT perfusion before treatment with ketamine, using voxelbased analysis. The objective was to determine the predictive value of brain SPECT for
ketamine response.
Seventeen women with FM (4811 years; ACR criteria) were enrolled in the study. Brain
SPECT was performed before any change was made in therapy in the pain care unit. We
considered that a patient was a good responder to ketamine if the VAS score for pain
decreased by at least 50% after treatment. A voxel-by-voxel group analysis was
performed using SPM2, in comparison to a group of ten healthy women matched for age.
Patients were treated for 10 days in the pain care unit with rising doses of subcutaneous
ketamine (average maximum dose: 100 mg) [very unlikely to be as effective in reducing
cerebral hypoperfusion as i.v. ketamine]. Eleven patients were considered as good
responders, with a decrease in pain intensity, evaluated by visual analog scale (VAS),
greater than 50%. On the other hand, six patients were considered as poor responders.
Responder and non-responder subgroups were similar in terms of pain intensity before
ketamine.
In comparison to responding patients and healthy subjects, non-responding patients
exhibited a significant reduction in bilateral perfusion of the medial frontal gyrus. This
cluster of hypoperfusion was highly predictive of non-response to ketamine (positive
predictive value 100%, negative predictive value 91%). Conclusion: Brain perfusion
SPECT may predict response to ketamine in hyperalgesic FM patients.
[But see companion study below another analysis of the same patients. A plausible
explanation is simply that the nonresponders had more widespread hypoperfusion, and
that subcutaneous ketamine did not adequately penetrate all affected areas of the brain in
the nonresponders].

Guedj E, Cammilleri S, Colavolpe C, de Laforte C, Niboyet J, Mundler O. Follow-up

of pain processing recovery after ketamine in hyperalgesic fibromyalgia patients
using brain perfusion ECD-SPECT. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2007a
Dec;34(12):2115-9. Epub 2007 Sep 21.

The aim of this study was to determine whether the follow-up of pain processing
recovery in hyperalgesic fibromyalgia (FM) could be objectively evaluated with brain
perfusion ethyl cysteinate dimer single photon computerized tomography (ECD-SPECT)
after administration of ketamine.

In comparison to baseline brain SPECT, midbrain rCBF showed a greater increase after
ketamine in the responder group than in the nonresponder group (pcluster=
0.016c) in the 17 subjects described in our companion study. In agreement with the
clinical response, the change in midbrain rCBF after ketamine was highly correlated with
the reduction of VAS pain score (r=0.7182; p=0.0041).
This prospective study suggests that blockade of facilitatory descending modulation of
pain with ketamine can be evaluated in the periaqueductal grey with brain
perfusion SPECT.
C. Refractory chronic regional pain syndrome
In individual case reports and small studies, chronic regional pain syndrome has been
treated successfully with prolonged infusions of subanesthetic dose ketamine, and with
prolonged anesthetic dose infusions in the most severe cases.
One of the first case reports, published in 2002, involved a 44-year old woman with a
nine-year history of chronic right leg and foot pain that began without any apparent
triggering event. The patient required a walking cane, and had been on permanent
disability for the previous seven years. The patient had tried numerous therapies, some of
which provided partial and merely ephemeral relief. When presenting for her consult
regarding ketamine treatment, she described a constant burning pain in her right leg and
foot that ranged in intensity from 48/10. She stated that the pain was prominent on
the anterior surface of her ankle and lower leg, and the dorsal and plantar surfaces of her
right foot and toes. Walking any distance was stated to be difficult because, the
percussion of her foot to the floor was extremely painful. While riding in a car, the
patient needed to cushion her leg to ease the vibration. Her car was altered to have the
accelerator pedal moved to the left side, even though the she did not drive very often. She
described a deep bone-crushing pain in her affected area. She also reported that the
following experiences were very painful for her: a dog licking her leg, a child
touching her skin, shaving her leg, and a gentle wind blowing on her skin. She also
noted that clothes rubbing against her skin were very painful and that she preferred to
have her blanket supported above her leg while she was sleeping. She also preferred to
roll up her right pant leg so it was not touching her skin. She also commented that loud
noises made her pain worse, and that she was unable to wear closed-in shoes. Her right
ankle was notably swollen and about 20% larger than her left ankle. She stated this
swelling was common and was reduced in the early morning when she awoke after
having had her feet up in bed.
An infusion of ketamine was started at a rate of 10 mg/hr and increased by 10 mg/hr
every 2 hours as tolerated up to a maximum infusion rate of 30 mg/hr. The infusion was
continuous during daytime and nighttime for six days, with tapering down of dose to zero
on the sixth day. Given the patients weight of 306 pounds, the i.v. infusion rate of 30
mg/hr equaled 0.22 mg per kilogram body weight per hour. Further increases were not
pursued as the patient wished to remain in control and was beginning to perceive a
mild feeling of inebriation. Overall, the patients pain level remained unchanged the first
day with a VAS score of 4.55/10. Her medications included sustained-release

oxycodone 40 mg twice daily, and warfarin 10 mg daily. She remained on i.v. ketamine
30 mg/hr for seven days. At the end of the third day, her VAS score was 3/10. At the end
of the fourth day, her VAS score was 0.4/10, and she had reduced oxycodone to 10 mg
twice daily. During the fifth day, her VAS score reached 0/10, and remained at that level
for the rest of the infusion. During day 6, the rate of infusion was reduced to 20 mg per
hour, and then 10 mg per hour, and then to zero. Five months later, the patient was still
pain-free
In this case report, the patient did not experience dysphoria, sedation, or hallucinations.
The patient was carefully titrated with slowly increasing doses of ketamine up to that
level which just began to make her feel mildly inebriated (Harbut et al. 2002).
In 2004, Correll et al. published a retrospective study of 33 patients with diagnoses of
CRPS patients who had undergone ketamine treatment at least once. Due to relapse, 12 of
33 patients received a second course of therapy, and two of 33 patients received a third.
Generally, the ketamine infusions were started at a rate of 10mg/hr. The rate was
increased in small increments, as tolerated, until the onset of what patients typically
describe as a feeling of inebriation or its equivalent. The onset of this particular
CNS symptom appeared to be necessary to help guide the authors to reach what they
believe is, or is close to, the minimally effective infusion rate for ketamine. Once the
effective rate was achieved, it was continued as long as the patient tolerated the drug and
continued benefit was observed. If unacceptable side effects were noted, the rate was
decreased or the infusion was temporarily discontinued. The highest tolerated dose
producing analgesia (i.e., without unacceptable side effects) was continued for the
duration of the infusion. The average maximum infusion rate was 23.4mg/hr. During
78% of all infusion cycles, patients received ketamine at a rate 25mg/hr. Comparing
the percentage distribution of the maximum ketamine dosing, patients given a second
infusion cycle received a slightly higher infusion rate of ketamine than during the first
round of therapy, that is, a slight shift of the maximum from 1520 to 2025mg/hr. Due
to insufficient responses in three of the patients, the maximum infusion rates were
increased to 50, 46, and 40mg/hr, respectively. This increase was done in an attempt
to maximize any potential benefit for the patients. In two other patients, there
was no response to therapy despite ketamine titration up to 50 mg/hr. These two patients,
who were the only non-responders, were the only patients in the study who were taking
morphine -- in high doses.
The degree of relief obtained following the initial course of therapy was impressive (N =
33); there was complete pain relief in 25 (76%), partial relief in six (18%), and no relief
in two (6%) patients. The degree of relief obtained following repeat therapy (N = 12)
appeared even better, as all 12 patients who received second courses of treatment
experienced complete relief of their CRPS pain. The duration of relief was also
impressive, as was the difference between the duration of relief obtained after the first
and after the second courses of therapy. In this respect, following the first course of
therapy, 54% of 33 individuals remained pain free for 3 months and 31% remained pain
free for 6 months. After the second infusion, 58% of 12 patients experienced relief for
1 year, while almost 33% remained pain free for >3 years. The most frequent side effect
observed in patients receiving this treatment was a feeling of inebriation. Hallucinations
occurred in six patients. Less frequent side effects also included complaints of

10

lightheadedness, dizziness, and nausea. In four patients, an alteration in hepatic enzyme

profile was noted; the infusion was terminated and the abnormality resolved thereafter.
In 2005, Goldberg et al. published an open label, prospective study involving 40 patients
(36 female; four male) diagnosed with CRPS I or II, demonstrating that a daily four-hour
ketamine infusion escalated from 40-80 mg per infusion (i.e., from 10 to 20 mg per hour)
over ten days (during a two week period, excluding weekends) can result in a significant
reduction of pain with increased mobility and a tendency to decreased autonomic
dysregulation. [Low dose and short infusions, considering the patient population] The
patients in this study had a history of longstanding or rapidly spreading CRPS, refractory
to conventional therapy which included: a) physical therapy; b) drug combinations of
NSAIDS, tricyclic antidepressants, anticonvulsants, and opioids; c) sympatholysis either
by intermittent superior cervical or paravertebral block, or five days intrapleural or
epidural block. Four patients had failed a therapeutic trial of dorsal column stimulation.
The patients referred for therapy were diagnosed to have persistent and/or progressive
severe disease, and no known contraindications to ketamine, clonidine, or midazolam.
Prior to entering the ketamine protocol, these patients had been treated for a period of
three months to three years.
On a 0-10 point scale, the mean reduction in pain intensity was 7.54 1.93, and the mean
percentage of overall pain relief was 43.61 27.79 [why such a large standard
deviation?] by the tenth day compared to baseline.
Each patient also received clonidine 0.1 mg orally prior to the infusion to prevent a
hypertensive response and possible muscle pain, as well as midazolam (2-4 mg) to relieve
anxiety. Overall, side effects were minimal with 4/40 and 5/40 patients reporting
headaches and restlessness respectively with infusion. There were no episodes of
desaturation (SpO2<93%) and 3/40 patients experienced a 20% increase over their
baseline heart rate during the infusion of ketamine. None of these side effects required
intervention. No patient reported hallucinations or nightmares over the duration of
exposure to ketamine.
At the time of publication, four patients (10%) had a return of worst and punishing
pain to pre-infusion levels by two weeks post treatment. Twenty-five patients (62%) had
at least a 70% reduction of worst and punishing pain for six weeks and were back to
baseline pain levels by nine weeks post treatment. Eight patients (20%) had a >70%
reduction in those same pain measures for 11-12 weeks. Three patients remained CRPS
free at 15 months following treatment.
[Finish summarizing the studies]
In another study, 16 of 20 CRPS patients remained symptom-free six months after a fiveday anesthetic-dose infusion (Kiefer et al. 2008). . . Many of these patients developed chronic
CRPS after trauma or surgery. Both trauma and surgery are known to activate latent
infection (cites), while the latter, of course, is associated with high infection rates. One
possible explanation is that by reducing immunosuppression, ketamine enabled these
patients to mount an adequate immune response to clear undiagnosed, intracellular CNS
infections. Another possible explanation is that a high dose of ketamine suppresses

11

inflammatory mediators for lengthy periods. To be expanded [Need to follow up to see

whether these patients did in fact relapse at some point. If that is the case, will revise this
section]
D. Case reports in other psychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders
Case reports have also demonstrated ketamines efficacy in several other pscyhiatric and
neurodegenerative disorders, including status epilepticus, explosive disorder, multiple
sclerosis, Parkinsonism, traumatic brain injury, and post-ischemic stroke (cites).
*****
E. Dosing
Ketamine by IV infusion is the most effective delivery method. The dose for refractory
depression is usually 0.5 mg/kg over 40 minutes. This is much lower than the anesthetic
dose, which is usually started in the range of 1-4.5 mg/kg over 60 seconds. At the
subanesthetic dose, there is no respiratory depression, and there is no need for an
anesthesiologist. The dissociative side-effects at the subanesthetic dose are minimal and
transient in short-duration infusions, such as used for depression. Dissociative effects
increase with duration of low-dose infusion. Some fluctuation in blood pressure is
common. No serious adverse events have been reported in at least 500 people who have
received low-dose infusions.
Repeating low-dose infusions over several successive days, increasing the dosing time of
infusions, or increasing dosage has a cumulative effect on duration of symptom relief (aan
het Rot et al. 2010). Patients with refractory depression
Ketamine dosing varies widely depending on symptoms being addressed. 0.5 mg/kg over
40 minutes often works for depression, with anti-depressant action lasting between 3 days
and two weeks. In chronic regional pain syndrome, continuous infusion between
.25mg/kg and .5mg/kg per hour, for ten hours a day, over a five day period, is often
required, and can result in months of symptom relief.
Oral ketamine is only 25% bioavailable, as compared to 100% bioavailability for IV
ketamine. But oral ketamine is also somewhat effective It appears, however, that oral
dosing of 800 mg or more daily over several months presents a risk of urinary tract
damage (Storr & Quibell 2009).
III. Pathogenicity in Advanced Lyme Disease
A. Inflammation
The recently-discovered toll-like receptors (TLRs) play a critical role in pathogenesis in
advanced Lyme disease. TLRs are one of the key mechanisms used by the innate immune
response to detect the invasion of pathogenic microorganisms. However, TLRs are also
located on T cells, and play a role in the adpative immune response (Kabelitz 2007), including
chronic inflammatory joint disease caused by B. burgdorferi in mice (Sobek et al. 2004). TLRs

12

recognize specific molecular patterns that are present in microbial components. To date,
13 TLRs have been identified in mammals (Akira et al. 2004; Gay et al. 2006; Takeda et al. 2005; Liew et al.
2005).
Over-expression of TLR2 is strongly implicated in late-stage Lyme disease. Surface
lipoproteins of B. burgdorferi interact with TLR2/TLR1 heterodimers (Dennis et al. 2009;
Alexopoulou et al. 2002; Takeda et al. 2001) activating genetic transcription by nuclear factor kappaB
(NF-kappaB), which results in release of inflammatory cytokines, including TNF-alpha
and IL-6 (Dennis et al. 2009; Hirschfeld et al. 1999). TLR2 knockout mice, and humans with the
Arg753Gln polymorphism in the TLR2 gene, are protected from developing late-stage
Lyme disease due to reduced signaling via TLR-2/TLR-1 (Schrder et al. 2005). Moreover,
monocytes from patients with chronic Lyme disease exhibit a significantly stronger TNFalpha response to LPS as well as to borrelia antigen than monocytes from patients with
early Lyme disease and healthy controls (Kisand et al. 2007) [double check to see if this study
involved TLR2 analysis].
TLR2 is required for the innate, but not the acquired host defense to B. burgdorferi in
mice. (Wooten et al. 2002). Inflammatory cytokine production predominates in early Lyme
disease in patients with erythema migrans, with low levels of the anti-inflammatory
cytokine IL-10 (Glickstein et al. 2003). Yet B. burgdorferi can also suppress the early
inflammatory response by upregulating IL-10, helping enable the infection to disseminate
(Lazarus et al. 2008; Diterich et al. 2001; Giambartolomei et al. 1998).
Although B. burgdorferi does not contain LPS, phagocytosis of B. burgdorferi by primate
microglia enhances not only the expression of TLR1, -2, and -5, but also that of TLR4 -perhaps as a result of TLR cross-talk -- all of which elicits an inflammatory response
(Bernardino et al. 2008).
A recent in vitro mouse macrophage study may explain why TLR2 remains chronically
activated in advanced Lyme disease. (Sahay et al. 2009). Current thinking emphasizes the
primacy of CD14 in facilitating recognition of microbes by certain TLRs to initiate
proinflammatory signaling events and the importance of p38-MAPK in augmenting such
responses. CD14 is expressed by macrophages and neutrophils. Yet live B. burgdorferi
triggers an inflammatory response in CD14-deficient mouse macrophages. The
deficiency of CD14 alters PI3K/AKT/p38-MAPK signaling, compromising the induction
of tolerance and impairing negative regulation of TLR2 in mouse macrophages.
Impairment of this signaling may underlie chronic inflammation and activation of TLR2
in humans. Inhibiting PI3K in CD14-deficient mouse macrophages reduces TNF-alpha
response to B. burgdorferi.
Moreover, CD14-deficient macrophages are able to internalize live B. burgdorferi, but
killing of the internalized microbe is impaired.
CD14 deficiency results in increased localization of PI3K to lipid rafts,
hyperphosphorylation of AKT, and reduced activation of p38. Such aberrant signaling
leads to decreased negative regulation by SOCS1, SOCS3, and CIS, thereby
compromising the induction of tolerance in macrophages and engendering more severe
and persistent inflammatory responses to B. burgdorferi.

13

B. Kynurenine pathway-mediated excitotoxicity and oxidative stress

Aside from causing direct inflammatory damage, inflammatory cytokines fuel
neurotoxicity by activating enzymes that cause excessive or pathogenically imbalanced
catabolism of CNS L-tryptophan (TRP) and its metabolites -- known as kynurenines -via the kynurenine pathway. TRP is one of the ten essential amino acids, is involved in
protein synthesis, and acts as a precursor of many biologically active substances (Robotka et
al. 2008). When significantly elevated in the CNS, the tryptophan metabolite quinolinic acid
(QUIN) is neurotoxic (Guillemin et al. 2005; Halperin & Heyes 1992). And even moderate elevation of
the tryptophan metabolite 3-hydroxykynurenine (3-OH-KYN) causes neurotoxicity
(Wichers & Maes 2004; Moroni et al. 1999; Okuda et al. 1998). Cerebrospinal fluid levels of QUIN are
significantly elevated in disseminated and late-stage Lyme disease -- dramatically in
Lyme neuroborreliosis, and to a lesser degree in Lyme encephalopathy without intra-CNS
inflammation (Halperin & Heyes 1992). Likewise, increased concentrations of neopterin and of
the tryptophan degradation product, L-kynurenine, are detected in the cerebrospinal fluid
of patients with acute Lyme neuroborreliosis (Gasse et al. 1994; Fuchs et al. 1991). No studies of
CNS levels 3-OH-KYN in B. burgdorferi infection have been published.
CNS inflammation and kynurenine imbalances are found in several psychiatric and
neurodegenerative syndromes, including depression (Raison et al. 2010; Maes et al. 2009; Myint et al. 2007;
Wichers et al. 2005; ), schizophrenia (cites), Parkinsonism (elevated 3-OH-KYN, reduced
KYNA) (Mogi et al. 1994a; Mogi et al. 1994b; Blum-Degen et al. 1995; Muller et al. 1998; Mirza et al. 2000; Nagatsu et al. 2000;
Hald & Lotharius 2005; Mosley et al. 2006), early-stage Huntingtons disease (elevated 3-OH-KYN and
QUIN) (Heyes et al. 1992a; Guidetti & Schwarcz 2003; ), AIDS dementia (elevated QUIN) (Heyes et al. 1992a),
autism and autistic spectrum disorders (elevated brain levels of TNF-a, IL-6, IL-8, and
IFN-y (cites). . .
Parkinsonism typically involves CNS inflammation (Mirza et al. 2000), with increased levels of
TNF-alpha, IL-1 beta, IL-3, and IL-6 in CSF, and in the postmortem striatum and
substantia nigra.50-56 Likewise, elevated levels of 3-OH-KYN are found in the CSF, and
in the postmortem brain.59-66 Excitotoxic overactivation of the NMDA receptors in
Parkinsonism is mediated in large part by low levels of kynurenic acid, a tryptophan
metabolite that is the only known endogenous NMDA receptor antagonist. (Ogawa et al. 1992;
Stone 2001a; Erhardt et al. 2009; Stone 1993; Stone 2001b; Sas et al 2007; Nmeth et al. 2006; Borlangan et al. 2000).

Kynurenic acid and 3-OH-KYN are both synthesized from N-formylkynurenine (Nformyl-KYN), but involving different enzymes.
[Will add more detail for several psychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders].
Tryptophan is metabolized in several pathways. The most widely known is the
serotonergic pathway, which is active in platelets and neurons, and yields 5-hydroxyTRP, and then serotonin. TRP is also the precursor of the pineal hormone, melatonin. But
ninety five percent of TRP within the brain is catabolized through the kynurenine
pathway (Robotka et al. 2008). In this pathway, the enzyme indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase (IDO)
catalyzes the first step in tryptophan degradation. (See figure 1).
Elevated TNF-alpha increases production of the cytokine IFN-gamma, which exerts a
powerful stimulus on IDO. Excessive or pathogenically imbalanced catabolism through

14

the kynurenine pathway results in production of neurotoxic levels of 3-OH-KYN and

QUIN (Robotka et al. 2008; Vamos et al. 2009; Guillemin et al. 2003; Guillemin et al. 2001), and insufficient levels
of the only known endogenous NMDA receptor antagonist, kynurenic acid (KYNA).
[Expand to include other inducers of IDO]
In the human brain, IDO is expressed in microglia (Guillemin et al. 2003; Wichers et al 2005; Vamos et al.
2009) and in part in the astrocytes (Guillemin et al. 2001; Vamos et al. 2009). Infiltrating macrophages
and resident microglia are the major source of QUIN within the brain (Heyes et al. 1992b; Espey et
al. 1997; Guillemin et al. 2001; Guillemin et al. 2005). Although the kynurenine pathway is fully expressed
in both microglia and macrophages, for unknown reasons, macrophages have a much
greater capacity of producing QUIN than microglia (Guillemin et al. 2003; Guillemin et al. 2005).
Human astrocytes are not able to produce QUIN, but are capable by themselves of
producing L-kynurenine, which is the substrate for 3-OH-KYN synthesis. IDO activation
by infiltrating macrophages is particularly damaging because IL-4, which downregulates
IDO activity, is found in low levels in the brain [verify with more research] (Wesselingh et al.
1993).
The role of 3-OH-KYN in brain physiology is unknown, but in primate lenses it appears
to play a role in protecting the retina from UV radiation (Vamos et al. 2009; Vasquez et al. 2002).
Even relatively low levels of 3-OH-KYN may cause neurotoxicity by inducing oxidative
stress and neuronal apoptosis (Wichers et al. 2004; Moroni et al. 1999; Okuda et al. 1998). QUIN acts as an
agonist at the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor subgroup containing subunits
NR2A and NR2B. Significant elevation of CNS QUIN causes a form of neurotoxicity -known as excitotoxicity -- by over-activating NMDA receptors in the brain hippocampus.
This allows excessive influx of calcium into neurons (Robotka et al. 2008; Vamos et al. 2009), inhibits
glutamate uptake into the synaptic vesicle, leading to excessive microenvironment
glutamate concentrations (Robotka et al. 2008; Vamos et al. 2009), and promotes lipid peroxidation
(Robotka et al. 2008; Rios & Santamaria 1991; Behan & Stone 2002). Elevated QIUN might also potentiate its
own neurotoxicity and that of other excitatory amino acids in the context of energy
depletion (Robotka et al. 2008; Schurr & Rigor 1993; Bordelon et al. 1997; Schuck et al. 2006). Moreover, 3-OHKYN and QUIN appear to cause neurotoxicity in a synergistic manner: co-injection of
these kynurenines into the striatum of rats causes substantial neuronal loss in doses that
cause no or minimal neurodegeneration when injected alone (Robotka et al. 2008; Guidetti et al. 1991).
QUIN-induced damage is also potentiated by reactive oxygen radicals (Behan et al. 2002; Stone &
Darlington 2002). Because KYNA is an NMDA receptor antagonist, insufficient levels of this
kynurenine are functionally similar to elevated levels of QUIN.
Glutamate, like QUIN, is an NMDA receptor agonist. In the mammalian CNS, glutamate
is the main excitatory neurotransmitter, and is essential for normal brain functions (Ozawa
et al. 1998). Glutamate accumulation into synaptic vesicles is the initial critical step for
physiologic glutamatergic neurotransmission (zkan & Ueda 1998). However,
overstimulation of the glutamatergic system, which occurs when extracellular glutamate
levels increase over the physiological range, is involved in many acute and chronic brain
diseases due to excitotoxicity (Maragakis & Rothstein 2004). elevated extracellular QUIN
stimulates synaptosomal glutamate release (Tavares et al. 2002) and inhibits glutamate uptake
into astrocytes (Tavares et al. 2002). Moreover, extracellular elevation of excitotoxic QUIN
results in overlapping glutamate excitotoxicity. Elevated extracellular QUIN and

15

glutamate are found in ., including epilepsy (Meldrum 1994), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
(ALS) (Spreux-Varoquaux et al., 2002), probably Parkinsonism (Maragakis & Rothstein 2004), perhaps
Huntingtons (Maragakis & Rothstein 2004). In order to avoid excessive increases of
extracellular glutamate and glutamatergic excitotoxicity, glutamate must be taken up
from synaptic cleft to the cytosol of glial and neuronal cells to be stored into synaptic
vesicles on neuronal terminals (Robinson & Dowd, 1997; Anderson and Swanson, 2000; Fykse & Fonnum,
1996; Wolosker et al., 1996). The most significant mechanism for maintaining extracellular
glutamate levels below neurotoxic concentrations is uptake by astrocytes. (Rothstein et al.,
1996). However, elevated extracellular QUIN stimulates synaptosomal glutamate release
(Tavares et al. 2002) and inhibits glutamate uptake into astrocytes (Tavares et al. 2002). Thus,
excessive extracellular concentration of excitotoxic QUIN results in overlapping
glutamate excitotoxicity.
IV. IDO/kynurenine pathway-mediated immune dysregulation
A. Simplified and selective overview of some key components in adaptive immune
response
Suppression of CD4+ and CD8+ effector T cells and/or induction of T regulatory cells
caused by overactivation of IDO and concomitant activation of the kynurenine pathway is
likely to be a significant immunosuppressive mechanism in advanced Lyme disease, and
may also contribute to autoimmune reactions.
A simplified overview of some key components in the adaptive immune response helps
in understanding the potential effects of IDO/kynurenine pathway-mediated
dysregulation of the immune system.
During the early (innate) immune response, macrophages and dendritic cells phagocytize
extracellular pathogens and also cells that are infected by microbial pathogens
(intracellular infection). Dendritic cells are an important link between the innate and
adaptive immune response. They present antigen-derived molecules from phagocytized
microbes to T cells in the peripheral lymphoid organs, i.e., the lymph nodes, the spleen,
and the mucosal and cutaneous immune systems. For this reason, they are one of the most
important types of antigen presenting cells (APCs).
Dendritic cells carrying class I major histocompatibility (MHC-I) molecules from
phagocytized intracellular microbes are recognized only by cytotoxic CD8+ T cells.
Cytotoxic T cells recognize and attack only intracellular infections.
[How are CD8+ Tregs differentiated? By characteristics of dendritic cells carrying MHCI molecules?]
Dendritic cells carrying MHC-II molecules from phagocytized extracellular microbes are
recognized only by CD4+ T cells. Depending, among other things, on characteristics of
the dendritic cells that deliver MHC-II molecules to the peripheral lymphoid organs,
CD4+ T cells differentiate into T helper 1 (Th1) cells, T helper 2 (Th2) cells, T helper 17
(Th17) cells, or T regulatory cells (Tregs).
Th1 lymphocytes produce inflammatory cytokines that assist macrophages in
phagocytosis of cells harboring intracellular infection.

16

Th2 lymphocytes produce anti-inflammatory cytokines that assist B cells in producing

antibodies to attack extracellular infection. Th2 lymphocytes also promote the IgE and
eosinophilic response to helminths (parasitic worms), which are too large to be
phagocytized by macrophages, dendritic cells, or other phagocytes.
Th17 lymphocytes were discovered fairly recently, and are not as well understood as Th1
and Th2 lymphocytes.
Th lymphocytes (CD4+) and cytotoxic T cells (CD8+) are all known as effector T cells,
in contrast to Tregs.
Tregs are usually described as CD4+ T lymphocytes that suppress Th1 and/or Th2
lymphocytes (CD4+) to maintain a properly balanced response to the pathogen being
encountered. Nonetheless, CD8+ Tregs also exist, though they remain poorly
characterized (Smith & Kumar 2008; Bilsborough et al 2003; Gilliet & Liu 2002). Obviously, when the ratios of
these T cells are out of balance, the adaptive immune response is impaired (Abbas & Lichtman
2008; Berger 2000).
[Incorporate natural killer cells into basic summary]
Inflammatory cytokines plays a crucial role in the innate immune response to various
infections, and are also required for the adaptive immune response. Thus, inhibiting
inflammatory cytokines renders the host more susceptible to new infections (cites),
including new infection by B. burgdorferi (Wooten et al. 2002; Lazarus et al. 2008; Diterich et al. 2001;
Giambartolomei et al. 1998).
Likewise, IDO and kynurenine pathway activation have multiple protective functions in
immune system regulation. On the one hand, induction of IDO plays an important role in
the innate immune response during early stages of several infections (Njau et al. 2009; Mller et
al. 2008; Hainz et al. 2007; Popov & Schultze 2008). On the other hand, elevation of IDO and
kynurenine pathway activation may play a role in protecting the fetus from immune
system attack by fostering feto-maternal tolerance (Sedlmayr 2007).
B. HIV- and cancer-like immunosuppression by overactivation of IDO and kynurenine
pathway
However, in several forms of cancer and in several chronic infectious diseases,
overactivation of inflammatory cytokines and IDO, depletion of tryptophan, and
synthesis of kynurenines individually or in combination suppress the adaptive
immune response by affecting either T cells, antigen-presenting cells, or both. (MacKenzie et
al. 2007).
Elevated IDO appears to play a role in upregulating Tregs in human lymphatic filariasis
(Babu et al. 2006), a significant role in CD4+ T cell dysregulation in chronic human HCV
infection (Larrea et al. 2007), causes significant suppression of CD4+ and cytotoxic T cells in
the peripheral blood in chronic human HBV (Chen et al. 2009), appears to downregulate
CD4+ effector T cells, increase Tregs, and increase the rate of apoptosis in CD8+ T cells
in SIV infection (Boasso et al. 2007; Boasso et al. 2009), inhibits CD4+ T-cell proliferation that
characterizes HIV disease progression, and appears to limit proliferative and cytotoxic
capacity of CD8+ T cells in HIV infection (Boasso et al. 2007b; Boasso et al. 2007c; Persidsky et al. 2006).
This same form of immunosuppression occurs in several malignancies, including breast

17

cancer (Mansfield et al. 2009); acute myeloid leukemia (Curti et al. 2007; Curti et al. 2008; Chamuleau et al. 2008),
ovarian carcinoma (Inaba et al. 2009), lung cancer (Suzuki et al. 2009), endometrial cancer (Ino et al.
2008), pancreatic cancer (Witkiewicz et al. 2008), hepatocellular carcinoma (Pan et al. 2008), cutaneous
melanoma (Polak et al. 2007).
[Add studies on effects of natural killer cells].
The mechanisms involved in IDO/kynurenine pathway-mediated immunosuppression are
being studied intensively, and are partially understood.
Human dendritic cells that differentiate under elevated-IDO and/or low-tryptophan
conditions show a reduced capacity to stimulate T helper (Th) cells (CD4+), and favor
induction of Tregs (Brenk et al. 2009; Chen et al. 2008; Hill et al. 2007). The reduced proliferation of
CD4+ T cells and increased induction of Tregs would be systemic (Brenk et al. 2009), and
therefore measurable in the peripheral serum. Similarly, in human fibroblasts, elevated
IDO and kynurenine pathway activation suppresses proliferation of CD8+ T cells, and to
a lesser extent CD4+ T helper cells (Forouzandeh et al. 2008).
The molecular effect of tryptophan depletion and/or exposure to tryptophan catabolites
on CD8+ T cells appear to be associated with limited proliferative response and ability to
exhibit cytotoxic function (Boasso et al. 2007b).
The reduced proliferation of CD8+ cytotoxic T cells is only partially measurable in
peripheral serum, because it also occurs in the local microenvironment where elevated
IDO activates the kynurenine pathway (Brenk et al. 2009; Chen et al. 2008; Hill et al. 2007).
Liu et al. have recently shown that while elevated IDO significantly reduced the number
of proliferating CD3+ and CD8+ T cells in an experimental rat lung allograft, those levels
were still significantly higher than found in normal lungs. Yet the CD8+ T cells that did
proliferate were significantly stripped of their cytotoxic capacity in microenvironments
with elevated IDO, despite remaining viable (Liu et al. 2009).
In patients with chronic hepatitis B, elevated IDO is responsible for immunotolerance
against HBV, closely correlates with HBV viral load, and is negatively correlated with
CD4 (+) and CD8 (+) T cells, and with the ratio of CD4/CD8 (Liu et al. 2009). In patients with
chronic hepatitis C -- which is characterized by weak T-cell responses -- IDO expression
in liver tissue, and serum kynurenine-tryptophan ratio -- a reflection of IDO activity -- are
significantly elevated (Larrea et al. 2007). In hepatitis C-infected chimpanzees, hepatic IDO
expression decreased in animals that cured the infection, while it remained high in those
that progressed to chronicity (Larrea et al. 2007). Elevated IDO and kynurenine-tryptophan
ratio are strongly correlated to viral load and immunosuppressive regulatory T cell (Treg)
levels in the spleen and gut during progressive simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV)
infection (Boasso et al. 2007). Elevated IDO and depleted tryptophan also induce suppression of
cytotoxic T-cells in mice infected with malaria (Tetsutani et al. 2007).
Inhibition of IDO as an adjunct to treatment has proven remarkably effective in animal
studies of SIV and HIV infection, and several forms of cancer. In SIV-infected monkeys
experiencing only a partial response to retroviral therapy, partial blockade of IDO with
retroviral therapy reduced plasma and lymph node SIV to undetectable levels (Boasso et al.
2009). In a murine model of HIV-1 encephalitis, the IDO inhibitor 1-methyl-DL-

18

tryptophan (1-MT) enhances the generation of HIV-1-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes,

leading to elimination of HIV-1-infected macrophages in brains of the treated mice (Potula
et al. 2005). In mouse models of transplantable melanoma and breast cancer, 1-MT, in
combination with chemotherapeutic agents, significantly inhibited tumor growth and
enhanced survival of treated mice (Hou et al. 2007). Yet because of its poor solubility, 1-MT
has restricted clinical application (Hou et al. 2007, van der Sluijs et al. 2006, Popov et al. 2008). Inhibition of
IFN-gamma, with resulting inhibition of IDO, also reverses T cell unresponsiveness in
mice injected with staphylococcal enterotoxin A (Kim et al. 2009).
This same immunosuppressive mechanism is likely occurring in advanced Lyme disease
of long-term duration, since tryptophan is depleted, IDO is very likely overactivated, and
CNS QUIN is significantly elevated dramatically so in neuroborreliosis where the
severity of the infection and [inflammatory] immune stimulation [was not yet] intense.
(Halperin & Heyes 1992). [Cite studies on Th1/Th2, Treg, and CD8+ ratios in chronic Lyme].
Because cytotoxic T cells, natural killer cells, and macrophages play a central role in
attacking intracellular infection, systemic or local microenvironment
suppression/deactivation of CD8+ and CD4+ Th1 lymphocytes may largely explain the
persistence of intracellular B. burgdorferi. Likewise, suppression of CD4+ Th2 cells
would help explain the persistence of extracellular B. burgdorferi.
This could also explain the poor sensitivity of the CD57+ NK T-cell count as a diagnostic
and prognostic indicator, despite its apparent specificity in Lyme disease and/or TBIs.
[Elaborate further]
Moreover, because lysis of B. burgdorferi provokes inflammation (cites), antibiotics are
likely to cause further activation of IDO and the kynurenine pathway, which would
compromise the immune response against both intracellular and extracellular infection.
Of course, antimicrobials can be effective in Lyme disease that is not too far advanced, as
demonstrated by Halperin & Heyes (1992). But in cases of long-term infection, this
would help explain why advanced Lyme disease is incurable using antimicrobials without
a targeted, anti-inflammatory adjunct.
Plenty of anecdotal evidence for herx-like reactions in treating babesiosis. Look for
studies on this in treating babesiosis and malaria. Elevated IDO and depleted tryptophan
induce suppression of cytotoxic T-cells in mice infected with malaria (Tetsutani et al. 2007).
C. Role of IDO and kynurenine pathway in autoimmunity
It is well-established that in experimental animal models, activation of IDO often inhibits
proliferation of autoreactive T-cells and development of autoimmune disease. In mouse
models of experimental autoimmune conditions, inhibiting IDO actually exacerbates
disease by causing an increase in autoreactive CD8+ T cells.
On the other hand, Scott et al. recently demonstrated that inhibiting IDO in the earliest
stages of joint inflammation delayed the onset of autoreactive B cell-mediated arthritis
and alleviated disease severity in genetically-prone mice. In contrast, if 1MT was
administered after this time point, it was no longer effective in treating joint
inflammation. The alleviation of joint inflammation with 1MT was not due to a reduction
in Tregs or an altered Th cell cytokine profile, yet it did result from a diminished
autoreactive B cell response (Scott et al. 2009). Since this study used mice that are genetically

19

predisposed to rheumatoid arthritis, it does not support or detract from the hypothesis of a
post-Lyme autoimmune syndrome, i.e., that autoimmune Lyme arthritis is selfperpetuating in the absence of infection after adequate treatment. No studies have yet
been published concerning the role of IDO in autoimmune B cell pathogenicity in
humans.
Research on the role of IDO/kynurenine pathway activation involvement in human
autoimmunity is in its infancy, yet it is becoming clear that the experimental mouse
models involving autoreactive T cells have not held true in ex vivo and in vitro human
cell studies.
Researchers have recently discovered that at least one subset of IDO-negative dendritic
cells stimulate myelin basic protein (MBP)-specific T cells extracted from the blood of
MS patients, but that dendritic cells treated with IFN-gamma produced significant IDO,
and these IDO-positive dendritic cells did not suppress autoreactive, MBP-specific T
cells from MS patients (Terness et al. 2005).
Likewise, autoreactive T cells derived from the joint fluid of rheumatoid arthritis patients
proliferated in response to IDO-positive dendritic cells, which was not affected by
inhibition of IDO by 1-MT in the presence of IFN-gamma (Zhu et al. 2006).
In a study of Graves disease, the serum kynurenine to tryptophan ratio was increased,
which was associated with increased IDO expression in B cells and dendritic cells. Since
IDO is mainly expressed in antigen-presenting cells (APCs), such as macrophages and
dendritic cells, the activation of IDO in APCs may cause a local decrease in tryptophan
concentration, suppressing the activation of the surrounding T lymphocytes, whereas
tryptophanyl-tRNA synthetase (TTS) works in the opposite way. CD4+ T cells derived
from GD patients showed an enhanced expression of TTS, and their proliferation was not
inhibited in the presence of IDO-expressing dendritic cells from these patients. IFNgamma increases TTS expression in CD4+ T cells, and the increased TTS expression in
CD4+ T cells from these patients was IFN-gamma dependent (Wang et al. 2009).
D. Risks of suppressing TNF-alpha and IDO
Ketamine as anesthetic not associated with new infections or malignancies, or with
activation of latent infections or malignancies.
Inflammation may have a protective role and promote regeneration of damaged neurons.
We do not yet know how to achieve a "balanced" inflammation. Because some novel
anti-inflammatory treatment might have detrimental consequences, carefully monitoring
disease progress in patients treated with this category of drugs is indispensable (Aktas et al.
2007; Bransfield ). However, as inflammation, IDO activation, and CNS QUIN levels subside,
so do Lyme disease symptoms. Since short-course, low-dose ketamine infusions suppress
inflammation for days or weeks, and if ketamine is infused only symptomatically, the
immune balance should not be skewed in an anti-inflammatory direction for any extended
period.
Role of tryptophan starvation in controlling specific infections. Higher degree of
tryptophan depletion required to deactivate T cells than to fight off these infections.

20

Increased susceptibility to new infections and malignancies

Escape of infections and malignancies contained by granulomas] (Popov & Schultze 2008)
Related to enzymatic activity, e.g., infliximab vs etanercept (Furst et al. 2006), and also
distribution in areas most crucial to innate immune response.
Superior profile of ketamine
V. Ketamines mechanisms of action
A. Anti-inflammatory effects and neuroprotective mechanisms in excitotoxicity and
oxidative stress
Ketamine is an NMDA receptor antagonist. But in vitro studies suggest that ketamine is
not a strong enough antagonist to overcome the agonistic effects of highly-elevated
QUIN at the NMDA receptor (Henschke et al. 1993). Of the non-competitive inhibitors which
bind within the ion channel of the NMDA receptor, dizocilpine (MK 801) is the most
potent, whereas ketamine is one of the least active (Lees 1995). Ketamine is effective in
preventing excitotoxicity because works at both ends of the neurotoxic cascade: primarily
by preventing inflammation that activates IDO and synthesis of neuroactive kynurenines,
and secondarily by blocking the overactivated NMDA receptor.
Ketamines anti-inflammatory mechanisms have not been studied in the context of B.
burgdorferi infection. But studies in the context of LPS-induced inflammation of murine
macrophage-like Raw 264.7 cells reveal several mechanisms of action.
Treatment with ketamine at a therapeutic (anesthetic) concentration significantly reduces
LPS-stimulated IL-1 gene expressions in Raw 264.7 cells. LPS provokes inflammation
in the following manner: LPS binds to the LPS-binding protein (LBP) in the bloodstream,
then alters TLR4s conformation on macrophage-like cells, activating Ras protein. Ras
protein phosphorylates Raf kinase. Raf kinase sequentially triggers mitogen-activated
protein kinase kinases (MEK) 1/2 and extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERK) 1/2.
ERK 1/2 activates inhibitor kappaB kinase (IKK). IKK stimulates the translocation of
nuclear factor-B (NFB) from the cytoplasm to the nucleus, and the transactivation of
NFB. NFB induces the expressions of certain inflammatory genes, including the genes
for TNF-, IL-6, and IL-1. Ketamine decreases the extracellular binding affinity of LPS
to LBP in the bloodstream. Sequentially, a therapeutic concentration of ketamine
downregulates LPS-induced increases in Ras activity and Raf phosphorylation. In parallel
with these decreases in Ras/Raf activations, ketamine ameliorates LPS-induced
phosphorylations of MEK1/2, ERK1/2, and IKK, significantly reducing translocation and
transactivation of NFB, and therefore significantly reducing expression of genes for
TNF-alpha, IL-6, and IL-1. Ketamine targets this activity at toll-like receptors 2 and 4.
(Wu et al. 2009).
Treatment with ketamine at a therapeutic (anesthetic) concentration significantly reduced
LPS-stimulated TNF- and IL-6 gene expressions in Raw 264.7 cells. LPS binds to the
LPS-binding protein (LBP) in the bloodstream. Alteration of TLR4s conformation on
macrophage-like cells activates phosphorylation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK). JNK

21

activation phosphorylates c-Jun and c-Fos, two major components in the heterodimeric
structure of the AP-1 activator protein. Phosphorylation causes c-Jun and c-Fos to
translocate from the cytoplasm to the nuclei of macrophage-like cells, resulting in AP-1
activation. AP-1 induces the expressions of the genes for TNF- and IL-6. Ketamine
significantly and sequentially decreases LPS-induced activation of c-Jun N-terminal
kinase, and translocation and transactivation of c-Jun and c-Fos in Raw 264.7 cells. Jun
and Fos are two major components in the heterodimeric structure of AP-1 transcription
factor. Ketamine-induced suppression of c-Jun and c-Fos translocation from the
cytoplasm to nuclei means that this ketamine can decrease AP-1 activation in LPSstimulated macrophages. The AP-1 activator protein induces the expressions of certain
inflammatory genes, including TNF-alpha and IL-6. Ketamine targets this activity
originating at toll-like receptor 4 (Chen et al. 2009).
Ketamine also acts on a wide range of receptors
B. Likelihood of reducing immunosuppression and possibility of terminating
autoimmunity in advanced Lyme disease
By reducing CNS inflammation, ketamine should counteract IDO/tryptophan/kynureninemediated induction of Tregs, suppression of CD4+ and CD8+ effector T cells.
Autoimmunity in Lyme-MS, Lyme-arthritis after adequate antibiotic therapy
Only one in vivo mouse study so far to support this, but possibility that lysis-induced
inflammation can trigger or exacerbate autoimmune response by further activating IDO
and kynurenine pathway
VI. Low-dose ketamine safety profile
A. Side-effects
Dissociative effects
Midazolam, diazepam, etc. for reduction of dissociative effects during infusion, and
prevention of post-infusion nightmares. Include info in drug-drug interactions re.
ketamine increasing sedating effects of benzodiazepines.
...
Thousands of people have taken low-dose ketamine infusions with no serious adverse
consequences. In a retrospective study at one clinic, 500 people had taken low-dose
infusions of ketamine without serious adverse incident. But these were just one-time
doses
Strong safety record as anesthetic
B. Tolerance and addiction

22

Daily dosing with i.v. or i.m. ketamine for an extended period likely to result in rapid
tolerance and moderate addiction. May also be true for weekly dosing. Best approach is
to do a higher dose (for longer effect) as infrequently as possible.
Tolerance and addiction with daily oral dosing? Havent seen any indication of this in
studies discussing prolonged, daily oral dosing. But wouldnt be surprised if this were the
case.
Buprenorphine is a mu-opioid receptor agonist that is used in treatment-resistant
depression. Like ketamine, buprenorphine produces anti-inflammatory effects. Ketamine
acts on a wide range of receptors, including agonism of the mu-opioid receptor. In this
authors experience (sample size one), ketamine and buprenorphine act synergistically
with regard to their anti-depressant effects, and buprenorphine increases ketamines
dissociative effects. On the other hand, this author stopped developing tolerance to
ketamine after beginning to take buprenorphine as an adjunct to ketamine, because
ketamine alone had lost efficacy at higher doses. For the past six weeks on a daily basis,
this author has taken buprenorphine 1-2 hours prior to i.m. ketamine injection, and10 mg
diazepam 15 minutes prior to ketamine injection to reduce dissociative effects, with no
increase in tolerance to buprenorphine or ketamine. Without this combination of
medications, the author suffers extreme, life-threatening depression.
C. Neurotoxicity
To be drafted [no risk of neurotoxicity at subanesthetic doses in adults]
D. Effects of long-term treatment with low-dose ketamine
Ketamine is gradually being incorporated into clinical treatment of several conditions,
including depression, CRPS, and fibromyalgia. There are few published reports of
adverse effects after several months of intermittent IV infusions or daily oral dosing.
Risks
Long-term, daily use of high-dose ketamine -- urinary tract damage, ulcerative cystitis,
disabling frequent urination Controlled effectively by author by Class IV 7.5 W, 980
nm medical near-infrared laser.
Mimicry of schizophrenic symptoms by blockage of NMDA receptor should not be an
issue in Lyme disease if used symptomatically, since NMDA receptor is overactivated.
However, since the NMDA receptor is generally underactivated in schizophrenia, and
because the Halperin & Heyes study showing dramatically elevated quinolinic acid
(NDMA receptor antagonist) in Lyme neuroborreliosis involved a small and
heterogeneous group of patients, ketamine should be used very cautiously in Lymeschizophrenia.
More to add
E. Drug-drug interactions

23

Non-comprehensive list
Morphine, at least in high doses, may block the analgesic effects of ketamine (Correl et al.
2004). Moreover, there is evidence from animal experiments that morphine-3-glucuronide
(M3G), an active metabolite of morphine, activates the NMDA receptors (Correl et al. 2004;
Popik et al. 1998). This would, of course, contribute to overactivation of the NMDA receptor
by quinolinic acid, and would therefore increase neurotoxicity, although the effect may
be masked by morphines analgesic properties.
More to add
VII. Conclusion
Symptom reduction, neuroprotection, etc. . . .
Because ketamine aids in cerebral delivery of IV antibiotics by ameliorating cerebral
hypoperfusion, and may also ameliorate a major form of immunosuppression, the
duration of antibiotic treatment and time to cure should be decreased in Lyme disease
patients using ketamine. Ketamine also offers hope for late-stage patients who cannot
tolerate antibiotic-induced symptom exacerbation.

24

Fig. 1. The kynurenine pathway expressed primarily in infiltrating monocytes/macrophages, microglia and
in part in astrocytes, with only sporadic presence of some pathway enzymes in neurons1
Alphabetical footnotes list common synyonyms
Numerical footnotes provide source references
L-tyrptophan

(Trp or L-Trp )[A]

Tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase (TDO)[B] in liver & brain
Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) - IDO1[C] & IDO2[D] in
brain

N-formylkynurenine (N-formyl-KYN or NFK)[E]

Kynurenine formamidase[F]
L-kynurenine

Kynureninase
(KYNase)[I]
[expressed little in microglia]1
[Vit B6-dependant]
Anthranilic acid
(AA)[N]

Kynureninase
(KYNase)[I]
[Vit B6-dependant]

(KYN)[G]

Kynurenine 3-hydroxylase (K3H)[H]

[not expressed in astrocytes]1

3-hydroxykynurenine (3-OH-KYN or 3-HK)[M]

[even low levels may cause neurotoxicity by inducing
oxidative stress and neuronal apoptosis in presence of
neurotoxins, esp. QUIN; also potentiates QUINinduced excitotoxicity]

Kynurenine
aminotransferases[J]
(KAT-IK] and KAT-II[L])
[expressed little in microglia]1
[Vit B6-dependant]
Kynurenic acid
(KYNA)[O] [NMDA
receptor antagonist]
Kynurenine
aminotransferases[J]
(KAT-I[K] and KAT-II[L])
[Vit B6-dependant]

Xanthurenic acid (XANTH)[Q]

3-hydroxyanthranilic acid
(3-HANA or 3-HAA or 3-Ohaa)[P]

3-hydroxyanthranilate 3,4-dioxygenase (3-HAO or 3HAO)[R]

Quinolinic acid (QUIN)[S]
[NMDA receptor agonist]
Quinolinate phosphoribosyltransferase (QPRT)[T]

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD or NAD+)[U]

25

Synonyms for Figure 1 Kynurenine Pathway

A.

L-Tryptophan

synonyms:
(L)-Tryptophan
tryptophan, Ltryptophane
L-Tryptophane
tryptophan (H-3)
tryptophanum [Latin]
(S)-Tryptophan
tryptacin

B.

Tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase (TDO) synonyms:

tryptamin 2,3-dioxygenase
tryptophan pyrrolase
tryptophanase
tryptophan oxygenase
Note: TDO2 is the name of the TDO gene

C.

Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 1 (IDO-1) synonyms:

indoleamine-pyrrole 2,3-dioxygenase

D.

Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 2 (IDO-2) synonyms:

indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase-like protein 1
indoleamine-pyrrole 2,3-dioxygenase-like protein 1

E.

N-formylkynurenine (N-formyl-KYN) synonyms:

N-formylkynurenine
formylkynurenine
N'-formylkynurenine

F.

Kynurenine formamidase synonyms:

formamidase

G.

L-kynurenine

H.

Kynurenine 3-hydroxylase (K3H) synonyms:

kynurenine hydroxylase
kynurenine 3-monooxygenase

I.

Kynureninase (KYNase) synonyms:

L-kynurenine hydrolase

J.

Kynurenine aminotransferases synonyms:

L-kynurenine aminotransferases
aminotransferases, kynurenine
kynurenine 2-oxoglutarate transaminases
kynurenine transaminases (cyclizing)

K.

Kynurenine aminotransferase-I (KAT-1) synonyms:

kynurenine pyruvate aminotransferase

(KYN) synonyms:
kynurenine

26

L.

Kynurenine aminotransferase-II (KAT-1I) synonyms:

kynurenine-2-oxoglutarate aminotransferase

M.

3-hydroxykynurenine (3-OH-KYN or 3-HK) synonyms:

3-(3-hydroxyanthraniloyl)alanine
2-amino-4-(2-amino-3-hydroxyphenyl)-4-oxobutanoic acid

N.

Anthranilic acid (AA) synonyms:

anthranilate
o-Aminobenzoic acid
2-Carboxyaniline
benzoic acid, o-aminoo-Carboxyaniline
ortho-Aminobenzoic acid
2-Aminobenzoic acid
benzoic acid, 2-amino1-Amino-2-carboxybenzene
2-Aminobenzoate
vitamin L1
o-Anthranilic acid

O.

Kynurenic acid (KYNA) synonyms:

kynurenate
transtorine
4-Hydroxyquinoline-2-carboxylic acid
4-Hydroxy-2-quinolinecarboxylic acid
4-hydroxyquinoline-2-carboxylic acid
quinaldic acid, 4-hydroxy2-Quinolinecarboxylic acid, 4-hydroxy-

P.

3-hydroxyanthranilic acid (3-HANA or 3-HAA or 3-Ohaa) synonyms:

2-Amino-3-hydroxy-benzoic acid
2-Amino-3-hydroxybenzoic acid
3-Oxyanthranilic acid

Q.

Xanthurenic acid (XANTH) synonyms:

xanthurate
xanthurenate
oxoxanthurenate

R.

3-hydroxyanthranilate 3,4-dioxygenase (3-HAO or 3HAO) synonyms:

3-hydroxyanthranilate 3,4-di3- hydroxyanthranilate oxygenase
3-hydroxyanthranilic acid oxidase
3-hydroxyanthranilic acid oxygenase
oxygenase, 3-hydroxyanthranilate 3,4-di-

S.

Quinolinic acid (QUIN) synonyms:

quinolinate
pyridine-2,3-dicarboxylic acid
2,3-Pyridinedicarboxylic acid
pyridine-2,3-dicarboxylate

T.

Quinolinate phosphoribosyltransferase (QPRT) synonyms:

27
QPRTase

QAPRTase
nicotinate-nucleotide pyrophosphorylase
U.

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD or NAD+) synonyms:

nicotinamide dinucleotide
beta-Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
codehydrase I

References for Figure 1 Kynurenine Pathway

1. Vamos E, Pardutz A, Klivenyi P, Toldi J, Vecsei L. The role of kynurenines in disorders of the central
nervous system: possibilities for neuroprotection. J Neurol Sci. 2009 Aug 15;283(1-2):21-7.
2.

28

Table 1 IDO inducers

Amyloid peptide A1-42 induces lDO expression and a significant increase in the production of QUIN by
human macrophages and microglia in Alzheimers. (Guillemin et al. 2003).
Interferon- (IFN-) in multiple sclerosis, pharmacologically relevant concentrations of IFN-beta are able
to induce the kynurenine pathway in human macrophages. (Amirkhani et al. 2005; Gullemin et al. 2001)
Interferon- (IFN- ) very potetently activates IDO
Nef (Smith et al. 2001)
Tat (Smith et al. 2001)
Tumor necrosis factor- (TNF- ) strongly stimulates IFN- (see above)
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Guillemin GJ, Williams KR, Smith DG, Smythe GA, Croitoru-Lamoury J, Brew BJ. Quinolinic acid in the
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