Wave Motion

Introduction

The studies of wave motion is very important in Physics

The application of wave motion is useful in the communication technologies.
Wave propagation normally needs a medium but the propagation of electromagnetic waves
does not require any medium.

2.1 Wave and Energy

Normally the propagation of wave is also the propagation of energy. The sea wave is produced by the
energy carried by the blowing wind. The profile of the waves and the energy that are moving from the
sea to the beach is call water waves. In light, the waves and the energy travelled together from one
place to another.
There are two types of waves:
i.
Mechanical waves and
ii.
Electromagnetic waves.
The vibrations of the object in the medium produce the mechanical waves and these waves require
mediums to propagate.
The electromagnetic waves are the combination of the electrical and magnetic waves. These waves do
not need a medium to propagate.
While the wave is moving, the energy is transferred to the surroundings without the transfer of any
mass.
Examples of waves are: light waves, sound waves sea waves and radio waves.
2.2 Progressive waves
The progressive waves are waves that move continuously in a medium or even without any medium.
One example of such waves is shown in figure 2.1. If there is a continuos vibration at the end of a
rope A, the profiles of waves move continuously from A to B with the energy supplied from A .In this
case, the energy is moving forward.
Up
Vibration
Down
Figure 2.1

Figure 2.2(a) and (b) show the pictures of the progressive waves at two different points.

Figure 2.2 (a)

Figure 2.2(b)
The point P is the referent point. It is observed that the point P does not change its position while the
profile of the waves is moving.
The wave can be represented as a function of time, t as show in figure 2.3(a) and (b).

Figure 2.3(a) Sinuous Wave: Displacement verse time

Figure 2.3(b) Cosinous wave: displacement verse time

Common Terms used for wave motions.

The quantities for a wave can be represented quantitatively and qualitatively. These quantities have
their symbol respectively as below:

Particle displacement, y displacement of the particle from its equilibrium or its min.
Wave displacement, x distant which is in the same direction with the waves.
Amplitude, A maximum displacement of the particle from its equilibrium point.
Period, T- time for one oscillation.
Frequency, f frequency of the vibration of the particles in the waves and f=1/T.
Wavelength - distant between two consecutive points, which are same phase.
Wave number, k = (2/)
Phase angle (phase different) - the phase different between two points and it is related with
the wave displacement and wavelength as below:
= (x/ ) 2 .
The phases different is proportionally to the wave displacement:
=kx.

Wave fronts-These are represented in the figure 2.4(a) to (c).

(a)One Dimension
(Lines)

(b) Two Dimension (c) Three Dimension

(circles)
(spheres )
Figure 2.4

Wave equations
The general sinuous wave equation for the waves that move from left to right, is
y = A sin (t kx +)
For the waves that move from right to left is
y = A sin (t + kx)

(2.1)
(2.2)

The general cosine formula for the waves is the same as equations (2.1) and (2.2) by replacing sin by
cos. If kx is equal to zero, then y = A sin t, which is the same as the equation for SHM.
For waves that moves from right at a distance x from the origin (0, 0) the equation will become
equation 2.1 i.e. y = A sin (t kx) and it can be written as
y = A sin 2 (vt x)

(2.3)


To determine u, the velocity of the particles, which are vibrating, we can differentiate equation 2.1
i.e. dy/dt.
u = A cos (t kx)

Hence

(2.4)

To obtain the acceleration for the particles, we need to do the differentiation second time i.e. d 2y/dt2.
a = - 2A sin (t kx)
= - 2y

Then

(2.5)

Example 2.1
Determine the phases for y1 = A sin ( -t kx) and y2 = A sin (t + kx) and then sketch the graphs
separately.
Answer
y1 = A sin ( -t kx) = - A sin (t + kx), hence the wave has an opposite phase to that of equation
y2 = A sin (t + kx)

y =- A sin (t + kx)
2.3 Transverse and longitudinal waves
A wave, which is propagated by vibrations perpendicular to the direction of travel of the wave, is
called a transverse wave as shown in figure 2.5.
Direction
of vibration
of particles
Direction of wave propagation

Figure 2.5
Vibrating one end of a long slinky spring or a rope upward and downward repeatedly can produce the
transverse waves.
Figure 2.6 show how a transverse wave is produced in the slinky spring.
Examples of transverse waves are electromagnetic waves like light waves and waves in a stretched
string.
Direction
Of
Vibration

Direction of propagation

Figure 2.6
The longitudinal wave is a wave, in which the vibrations occur in the same direction as the direction
of travel of the wave as shown in figure 2.7.
Direction
of particles
vibration

Direction of wave propagation

Figure 2.7
The longitudinal wave can be produced by vibrating one end of a slinky spring to and fro in the
direction of travel of the wave. Figure 2.8 shows how the compression, M and the rarefactions, R are
formed along the spring .One common example of such waves is sound wave.

Figure 2.8
Note: R-rarefaction and M compression
Intensity of wave and Amplitude
The intensity of a wave at a certain point, I is defined as the rate of transfer of the total energy E per
unit cross-section area in which the wave propagated.

I=

= =

(2.6)

Unit: W m 2
The intensity of the wave, I at a certain location depends on the amplitude, a of the wave at that point.
As shown below:
I a2
Or qualitatively

I =2a2

where , and are the velocity, density of the medium and the angular frequency.

The intensity of the wave at a distance l

The intensity of the wave detected at a short distance is greater then the intensity detected at a very far
distance. However the total energy per second for both cases is the same, therefore the energy per
second per unit area received at the far distance, which has a larger area, is small.
Hence the area, which received the energy per second, is related with the distance from the source of
the waves.
Figure 2.9 explains the relation between the Intensity and the distance from the source of waves.
According to three-dimension geometry theory, it can be proved that the ratio of area A 1 with area A2
is the same as the ratio of (l1)2 with (l2)2 i.e.
A1 = (l1)2
A2
(l2)2

(2.7)

From equation 2.6 the intensity is proportional inversely with the area if the power is constant.
Therefore the relationship between the ratios of intensity,I 1 where the area is A1 to the intensity I2
where the area is A2 and the ratio of the distance l1 to the distance l2 can be written as
I1 (l1)2
I2
(l2)2

(2.8)

From equation 2.8, we can write the relation between the intensity, I and the distance, L as
I2 1/ l2

Source of waves

Figure 2.9

(2.9)

2.4 Principle of Superposition

The wave, which is moving from left to right, can be combined with the one moving from the
opposite direction. The Principle of superposition states that the resultant displacement at any point is
the sum of the separate displacements due to the two waves.
Figure 2.10 shows how the resultant displacement of the two pulses which have the same amplitudes,
and are moving in the opposite direction along the stretched string is produced .The interaction can be
maximum or minimum resultant displacements.

(a) Resultant displacement increasing

Figure 2.10 (a) and (b)
2.5 Stationary wave
Superposition between two waves can produce stationary wave. If two waves which are coherent (i.e.
having same frequency, amplitude) travel in the opposite direction, the resultant wave produced is
called stationary wave.
Figure 2.11 explain the formation of stationary wave, while figure 2.12 shows the stationary wave
produced as a result of the superposition of two coherent waves.
Figure 2.11 Superposition of two waves at time, t and the period T

Figure 2.11
Stationary wave equations
The stationary wave equation, Y can be derived from the principle of superposition by adding
algebraically the two waves y1 and y2 .
Hence Y = y1 + y2
If the equations for the two waves are
y1 = A sin ( t k x)

and

y2 = A sin ( t + k x)

Then the equation for the stationary wave is

Y = A sin ( t k x) + A sin ( t + k x)
= A [sin ( t k x) + sin ( t + k x)]

(2.10)

By using the mathematics formula

sin ( A B ) = sin A cos B

cos A sin B

The equation 2.10 becomes

Y = 2A cos kx sin t

where 2A cos kx is the amplitude of the stationary wave.

Anti-node

Figure 2.12 Stationary Wave

(2.11)

Stationary wave in a stretched string.

In figure 2.13, a vibrator, which generates vibration at the end of the stretched string, is connected to a
weight of mass, m through a frictionless pulley at the other end of the string.

Pulley

Vibrator

Weight

Figure 2.13
When the vibrator generates continuos vibrations, a transverse wave is produced on the string and
moving towards the pulley. However the wave is reflected and travels in the opposite direction.
Always there are waves moving towards the pulley and waves that are reflected along the string.
Hence superposition between two waves always happens and produced stationary waves in the string.
Figure 2.14(a) and (b) show respectively how the waves travel towards the pulley and the waves that
are reflected by the pulley.

(a)

(b)

Figure 2.14
Modes of vibration in a string.
If a stretched string is plucked at its middle point, a stationary wave as shown in Figure 2.14 is
produced by superposition of two waves in the string.
The mode of vibration in the string depends on the tension in the string and hence various types of
notes can be produced
Figure 2.15 show the fundamental note and overtones of a stationary wave in the string.

Fundamental note

First
Overtone

Second
Overtone

Figure 2.15
At the fundamental note, its frequency is called fundamental frequency, fo and it is given by
fo = () ()
Where

f=

(2.13)

(2.12)
and the velocity

v = ()

(2.14)

Where = mass per unit length, l = length and T = tension in the string.

The frequencies for the overtones can be determined by using equation 2.13. For the first, second and
the third overtones, their frequencies are given below:
f1 = 2fo
f2 = 3fo
f3 = 4fo

(2.15)
(2.16)
(2.17)

The seri of frequencies given above is called Harmonic Seri. Therefore fo in equation 2.12 is the first
harmonic frequency, 2fo, 3fo and 4fo are the second, third and fourth harmonics respectively.
Stationary waves in a closed pipe
When we blow some air into the opening of a small bottle, a sound is produced.
When the wave travels from the opening of the bottle, a reflected wave is produced at the bottom of
the bottle and the superposition between these two waves take placed. In this way a stationary sound
wave is produced.
The profile of the wave produced is shown in figure 2.16.

Fundamental note

First Overtone

Figure 2.16
The fundamental frequency fo for the fundamental note of the closed pipe is given by:
fo =
It can be derived from equation 2.13 by substitute =4l

(2.18)

To determine the frequencies for the other overtones, we can substitute its respective values of in
equation 2.13. The frequency for the first overtone, f 1 is
f1 =
or

f1 = 3fo

(2.19)

The second and third overtones are

f2 = 5fo
f3 = 7fo

(2.20)
(2.21)

The stationary waves in a open pipe

An open pipe is a pipe where both of its ends are opened. The profiles of the waves produced are
shown in figure 2.17(a) for fundamental note and (b) the first overtone.

Fundamental
note

First Overtone

Figure 2.17
The frequency for fundamental note fo and the first overtone f 1 can be determined from equation 2.13

and

fo =

(2.22)

f1 = 2= 2o

(2.23)

End-correction of pipes
In both closed and open pipes, we consider the antinodes of the waves are located at the opening of
the pipes.
But actually the antinodes are situated only very close to the opening where the air molecules can
vibrate. Hence we need to add a small length which is called end correction to the actual length of
the pipe, l.
From figure 2.18

And for open pipe

l + c = /4

(2.24)

l + 2c = /2

(2.25)

Fundamental note

Figure 2.18
The differences between progressive and stationary waves are shown in the table below
Progressive wave
No node
The wave profile propagates in the direction of
the wave
All the adjacent points are not in phrase
The amplitude for any point is the same

Stationary wave
There are points called nodes where the
displacement is permanently zero
The wave profile is stationary
The points between two consecutive nodes are in
phrase
The amplitudes for any point between two
consecutive nodes are different.

Questions
1. (a) State the principle of superposition.
(b) Explain how a stationary wave is formed. What are the conditions required for the stationary
waves to be formed?
( c ) A stationary wave is produced when two waves represented by
y1 = A sin ( t k x)
and y2 = A sin ( t + k x) are superpositioned.
Show that the equation or the stationary is given by
Y = 2A cos kx sin t
2. (a) state the differences between the progressive transverse wave and the progressive stationary
wave.
( b ) A wave equation is given as
y= 0.04 cos 2 ( t - + )

Determine
i.

frequency

ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.

wavelength
velocity
angular velocity
period
angular phase of the wave.

And sketch the profile of the wave.

Sound wave

Introduction

The propagation of the sound wave is one example of longitudinal waves

The energy of the waves is transferred to the surrounding through the air molecules
The ranges of intensities that can be heard by human being are between
1.0x 10 12 W m 2 to 1.0 W m 2.
The sound waves can be divided into three groups:
i. Range which is sensitive to human ears 20Hz to 20 000 Hz
ii. Infrasonic less then the audible frequency range ( 20Hz) and
iii Ultrasonic

3.1 Propagation of sound wave

Sound wave can be propagated through the periodic processes of compressions and rarefactions
of the air molecules.
A region of high pressure is produced when there is compression but it is low pressure for rarefaction.
The general equation for the sound wave can be written as
y=y o sin (t kx )

(3.1)

The sound wave has two types of amplitudes: displacement amplitude, s o and pressure amplitude po.
We write the changes of displacement of the particles with time and the displacement of waves as
s=so sin (t kx )

(3.2)

and the changes of pressure with time and the displacement of the waves as
p=po sin (t kx + /2)

(3.3)

Figure 3.1 shows the graphs of displacement and pressure of a sound wave respectively.
From the figure 3.1, it can be observed that when the molecules vibrated between right and left, the
molecules are compressed or expanded. The region where the molecules are compressed, it is at high
pressure, whereas the region is at low pressure, if the molecules are expanded.
From the figure, it can be observed that the phase difference between profile of the displacement and
the profile of the pressure is /2 radian. Hence the profile of pressure is lagging to the right by an
amount /2.

Displacement, x

Pressure, p

Fig. 3.1
3.2 Interference of sound waves
Interference of sound waves can be happened likes the interference of light.
When two coherent sound waves of same wavelengths, frequencies, and constant phrase differences
are superpositioned, interference of sound waves can be produced. We can hear a series of sounds of
maximum intensity and minimum intensity.

min
max
min
max
min
max
min

Figure 3.2

Figure 3.2 shows the positions of two speakers, which produced coherent sound waves, are located at
a distance D in front of the screen. The distance between the speakers is a. The distance between the
mid point of the maximum and the next maximum point is y, then
y=

3.3 The intensity of sound.

(3.4)

The intensity of sound, I is the rate of energy traveled normally through a unit area, or the power, P
for a unit area, A normal to its direction of propagation.
I=

(3.5)

Since the sound wave has two types of amplitudes: displacement amplitude and pressure amplitude,
they can be related as
po = so

(3.6)

where , , and are the velocity, density of air and the angular frequency.
The relationship between the Intensity, I with these quantities are
I = 2so2
=

( 3.7)
(3.8)

From the equation 3.7.and 3.8 it can be observed that I s o2 or I po2.

Intensity Levels
The intensity level of sound, KA is measured in decibel (dB) as its unit. We can use
KA = 10 log10 ( ) dB

(3.9)

where Io is the intensity for threshold hearing that is the minimum intensity of sound and Io is equal
to 1x10 12 W m 2.Another unit which can be used is bel where 10 dB =1 bel.
Example 3.1
Calculate the ratio of the intensity levels between two musical instruments: guitar and the trumpet if
their intensities are 16.0x10 5 W m 2 and 0.2 W m 2.respectively.
Answer
Ratio of intensity level =10 log10 ( )
= 10 log10 ( )
=10 log10 ( 8x10 -4)
= - 31 dB
(The negative sign indicates that the intensity of the sound from guitar is less then that of trumpet and
hence the sound from the guitar cannot be heard.)
3.4 The Beats
When two waves travel in the same direction but have a small difference between their frequencies, a
phenomenon called beat is produced as shown in figure 3.3.

Wave Envelope
y1 + y2

The two waves super positioned on each other to produce the beat. Therefore the amplitude of the
beat is the resultant displacement of the vibrating particles of the two waves.
If the equations for each waves are
y1 = A sin ( 1 t )

(3.10)

y2= A sin ( 2 t )

(3.11)

where the frequencies for y1 and y1 are f1 and f 2 respectively.

The equation for the beat can be obtained by adding the equation 3.10 and 3.11
Therefore

Y = y1 + y2

. That is

Y = A sin ( 1 t ) + A sin ( 2 t )

It can be proved that

Y= 2A cos t sin t

(3.12)

(3.13)

From equation 3.13, the amplitude, Am is given

Am = 2A cos t
(3.14)
It can observe that the amplitude, Am depends on the time, t and the angular frequency, .
The difference between the angular frequencies causes the difference in the frequencies f 1, between f2.
This difference in frequencies produced the beat frequency fr
fr = [f2 - f1
The period of the beat Tr is

(3.15)
Tr = 1/fr

(3.16)

Hence when there is small difference between two frequencies that produced beat, we can hear a high
and low sounds repeatedly according to the beat frequency.

Figure 3.3
The envelope of the waves represents the beat that we can hear.

3.5 Doppler Effect.

Consider an ambulance with siren switched on and moving as shown in figure 3.4. The lines, which
are compressed, indicated that the velocity of the sound of siren is high whereas the lines which are
extended indicated the velocity of the sound of the siren is slow.
Ambulance

Figure 3.4
If an observer is stationary in front of the vehicle, he will receive a high pitch from the siren then if he
stands at the back of the vehicle.
On the other hand, if the vehicle is not moving but the siren is still switched on, the velocity of the
sound from the siren is uniform in all direction.
The change in the frequency of the sounds is because there is an apparent change in frequency when
there is a relative motion between the source of sound and the observer. The frequency, which
received by the observer is called apparent frequency or the Doppler frequency.
This phenomenon, which caused the change in frequency, is called Doppler Effect.
Formula for Doppler Effect
Doppler effects can be studied in the following cases.
Taking =the velocity of sound, s = velocity of the source., p = velocity of the observer. ,fk =
apparent frequency, f = the frequency of the source
(a) Source is moving away from the stationary observer.

fk f , this indicates that the observer would receive a lower frequency.

(b) Source is moving towards the stationary observer

fk f, this indicates that the observer would receive a high frequency.

(c)Source is stationary, and the observer is moving towards it.

fk f, this indicates that the observer will receive a high frequency.

(d)Source is stationary, and the observer is moving away from it.

fk f , this indicates that the observer will receive a lower frequency

(e) Source and observer are moving towards each other.

fk f, this indicates that the observer would receive a high frequency

(f) Source and observer are moving away from each other.

fk f , this indicates that the observer would receive a lower frequency

(g) Observer is moving in front of the moving source.

(h) Source is moving in front of the moving observer.

Example 3.2
A driver who is in a car moving with velocity 20 ms 1 blows its horn with frequency 400 Hz before
overtakes a motorbike rider, which is moving at a velocity of 10ms -1 in the same direction. The horn is
continuously switched on until the car overtaken the motorbike rider.
Calculate the apparent frequency, which is received by the motorbike rider while
(a) Before the car overtakes him and
(b) After the car overtakes him.
Assuming the horn of the car is always switched on for both cases. And the velocity of sound is 340
ms-1.
Answer
(a)
vs

f k=

( v vp )
( v vs )

vp

f=

( 340 10 )
( 340 20 )

(400)

= 412.5 Hz
vp

vs

f k=

( v vp )
( v vs )

f=

( 340 10 )
( 340 20 )

(400)

= 388.9 Hz
Questions
1. Superposition of progressive waves, which have same frequencies and wavelengths, produced
stationary wave. If the wavelength for the stationary wave is what is the distance between
(a) Two adjacent nodes
(b) one node and the next antinode.
2. Two speakers are located 1.0 m from each other. Assuming the speaker produced the same sound.
If each speaker produced a sound of frequency 1000Hz and the velocity of sound is 340m -1 . Draw
the interference pattern produced using a suitable scale. If the distance between the speaker and
the screen is 2.0 m, determine the distance between the mid point of the maximum and the nearby
maximum point.
3. Two tuning forks of different frequencies are played at the same time. If these sounds produced
interference and given out beats at 0.15s interval. What is the difference in frequency between the
two tuning forks?