f-.

CHAPTER-l

CIIAPTER : I

InTRODUCTion
Software:

Program is a collection of code/instruction.

Software is a collection of program.

Hardware:

Physicaldevice is a collection of computer system is called Hardware.

For example:-processor, RAM,HD,I/O devices.

Types of Softwa re:

Software is divide into three types:

1. System software:The software which is used to perform all types of system level work of the
computer system is called system software.
Exampleof system software:1) Operating system:Operating system provide on interface between user and computer system.
e.g.:- UNIX, LlNUX,MS-DOS,Windows XP,Windows 2000, Windows NT.
2) Compiler:Compiler is used to convert high level language into machine level language.
3) Interpreter:Interpreter is used for converting high level language into machine level language

.. ~.

~..----

\_/ While compiler convert whole program at a time.

4) Linker:Linker is used to ~inkthe programs.
Operating System

CHAPTER-l

5) Loader:Loader is used to load the program.

6) Assembler:-

Assembler is used to convert Assembly language into machine level.

2. Utility Software :The software, which provide an additional meaning to the computer system.
e.g.:- calculator, MS-paint....
'

3. Application Software:The software which is created by users, using the different high level language and
database system for any special purpose.
.
For ex.:- Library management system software for manage the library works.
- Banking software for manage the Bankworks.

What is operating system ??????? (Concept of OS)

User
1

1
Complier

User
3
~
Assembler

-------------

1
Text edition

Operating System
Computer Hardware

Computer system is divide into four components:

1. Hardware
2. Operating system
Operating System

User
n

1
Database sys

1"-CHAPTER-l
3. Application pro.
4. User.

-7 Usersare use computer system to solve the different problem, so there may be many
application programs and system programs to solve the problems of users.

-7 The operating system control and co-ordinates the use of the hardware among the
various application program for the different user.

-7 Operating system provide an interface between the user's application

program and

hardware of computer system.

-7 Operating system provide an environment to usersto use the computer system.

-7 The components of computer system are hardware, software, and data the operating
system provides the means to use these components in the operating of computer
system.

-7 Operating system makes the use of system easier.

Justify that operating system is like a Government

operating system provide an environment to usethe computer system.

Government also provides facilities to the peoples like providing job
opportunities, making new plans for facilities of peoples, solve problems of peoples.
So, operating system is similar to government.

-7 Operating system provide services like process management, memory management,

file management, resource allocation and protection to the system..
-7 Operating system act as a resource allocation:
In computer system many resources are require to solve the problems of users
& computer system, resources are: CPU,memory, i/o devices, file storage etc...

-7 All these resources allocate to specific programs and users as per the requirement to
perform specific tasks by the operating system.

-7 Operating system allocate the resources, according to the request are come, to
operate the computer system efficiently.
e.g.:- UNIX,DOS,Windows XP,etc

Operating System

CHAPTER-l

SERVICES OF OPERATING SYSTEM:

Operating System provides various types of servicesto user. And make easier use of
computer.
Types of Servicesare following:
1. PROGRAM EXECUTION:-

The system must be able 0 load a program into memory and run it. The program must
be able to complete its execution either normally or abnormally with indicating the
errors.
2. I/O OPERATION:-

System running program may require I/O. This I/O involves a file or an I/O device. The
operating system provide mean to do. Also it managesall I/O operation.
3. FILESYSTEM MANIPULATION:-

Operating system maintains the file system file system do and manages all types of
operation doing on the file like: creating, writing, reading, appending, truncating.
4. COMMUNICATION:-

Sometime process need to exchangethe information with another process.

if both process are on same computer than communication will be done by shared
memory. If both processesare on different computer in a network, then message
passingtechnique is used. Messageis a packet of information.

s. ERRORDETECTION:The operating system constantly needs to be aware of possible errors. Errors may
come in CPU,in memory or in any hardware or any I/O devices. And also error may
come in user programs.
For each type of error operating system should take appropriate action. Operating
system will detect the errors and give to the users. Operating system will not solve or
remove any error.

Operating System

t-- CHAPTER-l
6. RESOURCEALLOCATION:-

Operating system manage all resources of computer system like CPUcycles memory
and file storage. These resources are allocated to the multiple users as per the
requirement of users.
7. ACCOUNTING:-

Operating system will keep record of which users use how much and what kind of
resources.
8. PROTECTION :-

Operating system provide security mechanism to protect the system from accessof
unauthorized users. By given the username and password to the system.

Program And Process:

P'.!I,.m, Program is set of code or tnstruction:

P,.~ell'when program is going for the execution

it is called process.
Programs are reside in secondary memory and Process are reside in Main
Memory.

P'.!I,.m II p."lpe enlil,.

P,.~ell11.~llpe
enllll!.
1. Shell :- Commands are given to the operating system by control statement, a program
which read and interpret this control statements is called Shell.
~ function of shell is get the next command statement and execute it".
2. System call:- A system call is a request made by any program to the operating system
for performing tasks.
-System calls provide the interface between a processand the operating system.
3. Kernel:- Kernal is main program of operating system which load first in main memory.
And run all time into the computer system.
~ Kernel is heart of operating system. Kernel provide the services of operating system
like CPU management, memory management, file management through the system
call.
Operating System

CHAPTER-l

Types of Operating System:

1.Single User-Single task
One User can effectively do one thing at a time.
Example: Palm Computer.

2. Batch Operating System:Operating system always resident in memory.

~ In this type of operating system prepare the job consists of data, program, and
control information about the job and submit it to the computer.
~ Here, operating system will transfer control from one job to next.

Operating
system

User
Program
Area

"'r
...-:

In Batch operating system, jobs will batched together and run through the
computer as a group.
This batching of jobs will increase the speed of processing.
Batch operating system will read the stream of separate jobs, when job is
complete, its output is printed.
Here job is prepared and submitted and after some time output appears.
Turn around time:- The time between job submission and job completion is
called turn around time.
In Batch OS,no interaction between user & job, when job is executing.
Operating System

~ CHAPTER-l

In Batch 0.5. is often Idle.

* SPOOLlNG:-(simultaneous

peripheral operation online)

POOL

O/P

liP

Everyjob will be submitted into the pool which will store the
jobs,

Job will be executed one by one by the CPU,and after the

execution of the job the output will be printed on the output.

Buffer will store the job incoming from the input side, and also it
will contain the job after its completion of job, until the output
is not ready for the print the output.

This process is called spooling.

Provide less processing speed.

3. Multiprogramming

operating system:

This 0.5. is different from Batch 0.5.

In Multi programming 0.5., multiple jobs are keep in main memory.

Here, CPUwill execute only one job at a time from the multiple jobs.

All job is store in job pool, job will be execute by CPUone by one.

Operating System

CHAPTER-l

Here job will come for execution from buffer in the FIFO(First in First out)
manner.

The job which come first into the buffer, it will execute first.
Main Memory
O.S.

JOB 1
JOB 2
JOB 3

When one job is executing, other jobs have to wait, when execution will
complete, another job will execute from the buffer.

When job selecting from the buffer it will load into main memory, it is
called JOBSCHEDULING.
User can execute more than one program simultaneously.

Here CPUis never idle. CPUcan busy more of the time.

Here the multiple programs and only one CPUfor execution of these
multiple programs.
Multiprogramming is also called multitasking os.
This type of OSare provides better resource utilization.

4. Multiprocessing

Operating System.:

When more than program or task executes same time it is called multiprocessing.
Multiprocessing use more than one processor.
In multiprocessing 0.5. multiple processesare executed by multiple processor at a
time.
Here the CPUscheduling is required every time, 0.5. will schedule the CPU.One
CPUwill execute one program at a time.
Provide good processing speed: more than one task execute at a time.
Operating System

r- CHAPTER-l

Provide reliability:lf

any processor failure ,system will not fail.

In Multiprogramming
----- Job scheduling.
Multiprocessing ------ CPU scheduling.

5.Multitasking Operating system:

In multitasking, only one CPU is involved, but it switches from one program to another so
quickly that it gives the appearance of executing all of the programs at the same time.

6. Multithreading Operating System:

-7 In this type of 0.5. the process will be devide

into the threads.

Thread

Here the process is divide into 7 threads.

Thread will execute instead of whole process. Thread is called light weight
process (LWP), while the process is heavy weight process(HWP).

Definition-7

Here the execution of thread will done according to thread ID. Multiple
thread will execute by same time of different processes.

Thread is called execution stream of process.

-7 There are two types of Thread:

1). User Threads:
Here the thread creation and thread execution will be done at the user
level. Here the management of thread will done by users, kernel is unaware from
these threads. Thread creation and scheduling is done in the user space.
2)Kernal Threads:
Kernal threads are supported by the 0.5., here thread creation
scheduling management is done by kernel in kernel space. Kernel threads slower to
create and manage while user threads are faster.

Operating System

CHAPTER-l

-+ Advantage Of multithreadingO.S.
1. Responsiveness:Threads performing lengthy operation and increasing responsivenessto
the user.
2. Resource sharing:Thread are share resources of process and memory.
3. Economy:Threads economical to create compare to process.
4. Utilization of multiprocessor architecture:Eachthread may be running parallel on a multiprocessor system.

=> Tightly coupled System:

Systems have more than one processor in close communication sharing the computer
bus, clocks, memory and peripheral devices this type of system is called Tightly coupled
system.

=> Loosely coupled System;

System in which instead of memory and CPUclocks, system will share every resource
and base of computer system.

7.Network Operating System: (NOS)

NOSshare the activities of multiple computer acrossthe

network.

NOSwork as director for sharing this network. NOSis type of

tightly coupled system.

There are two types of NOS

Peerto Peer
Client / Server.

Operating System

{' CHAPTER-l

Peer to Peer n/w:

-7 In Peerto Peer NOS,user can share resources and files between the computer
connected into network.
2

-7 Here 4 computers are connected directly with each other to share the files are
resource of other computer connected into the network.

-7 Advantage: * less expense - no need of dedicated server.

* setup is very easy.

-7 Disadvantage. : * No one central connection.

* Does not provide good security.

2.Client / Server:

-7 Here every computer into the network, directly connected to the server. Computer
are not connected each other like Peerto peer n/w.

-7 Here, one server and 3 computer are connected to server is called client.
-7 server: The computer which provide the service.

Operating System

CHAPTER-l
~ Client: The computer which accept the service or use the service provided by
server.
~ All types of resources are available from server. Client send request to server for
use any resources or file and server will provide these resources or file requested by
client.
~ Novell network and windows NT server are example of Client/server

NOS.

Advantage:
* Resources & data security controlled by server.
*Any new client easily add or replace.
*New technology can be easilv integrated into system.
* All components work together.
*Server can access any client.
~ Disadvantage:

* Heavy expense for create the server.

* Not easy to maintain.
* If server goes down then system will not work properly.

8.Distributed

Here Processors can share every resource like CPU clock,

memory cycles.

In PC has operating system.and users aware from the all users in

network.

NOS has also single processor,but it need NIC care and some
network related functionalities in PC,for example TELNET,FTP
etc.

Example:Windows

NT ,Novell Netware.

Operating System (DOS)

In DOSMultiple computer are connected into close communication to

share the files and resources.

DOSis the LOOSELYCOUPLEDSYSTEM.Rather than CPUclock and Memory

everything can share between computers.

DOSprovides system wide sharing of resources files and I/O devices. DOS
provide facility to accessremote resources, communication with remote
process.

Operating System

~CHAPTER-l

Main aim of DOSis to balance the load of processors. OSautomatically

distributes the load on ther machine if any processor have higher load.
User don't know where his programming is executing.

In Distributed 0.5. each processor has its own local memory and CPUclock.

In DOSevery users are not aware from other users means transparency
achieved in DOS.

~ Following are the characteristics of DOS:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Resourcesharing
computation speedup
Reliability
communication.

9.Real time Operating System:

~ Realtime operating system are used where rigid time requirement on operation of
processor.
~ A real time 0.5. has well defined fixed time constraints. Here the processing must
be done within the defined constraints or the system will fail.
~ real time work properly and give correct result if work is finish within time
constraints.

-+ Air traffic control systems are example of such OS.

Two types of real time 0.5:
1. Hard real time System:- guarantees that critical task complete on time.
2. soft real time System:- work according to priority oftask.
- soft real time o.s. has limited utility than hard real time system.

Operating System

CHAPTER-l

QUESTIONS

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Define 0.5 .. Explain Concept of as.

Explainvarious System Software.
Compare Multiprogramming and Multiprocessing 0.5.
DiscussDistributed as and Network as.
Explaintypes of services provided by 0.5.
Explain Real-time as.
Explain Multithreading as
Explain batch Operating system.
What is shell, kernel, system call?

Operating System

,..CHAPTER-2

f'

CIIAPTER :t
lOOTinG

PROCEll or WinDOW. XP

Operating system is resided at Secondary memory. When we switch on the computer,

Operating system will load into the main memory. Then user can operate the computer.

Concept of Booting Process:

-Booting is process that load the operating system and start the execution it.
Processorcan execute the programs from main memory using operating system. RAM
is volatile memory, so when computer is SWITCHEDOFFthen RAM will be blank.
Operating system is also resided at Secondary memory. and to operate the computer
operating system should be load from Secondary memory to main memory.
Booting is the process in which operations are performed to load the operating system
into main memory. And start the execution of operating system.
During this process checking of hardware of system and all resources also performed.
It also called boot strap process.

Types of Booting:
l.Cold Boot:
Booting process which is start when computer will be switched ON.
During the cool boot complete boot sequence will performed.

2.Warm Boot:
Booting process which is start when computer will be RESTART.
Computer can restart command from startup menu or by pressing key
ALT+CTRL+DEL.
POST is not performed during this process which decreasesthe boot up time and
the PCboots faster.

BOOT SEQUENCE:
A boot sequence is the initial set of operations that the computer performs

when power is switched ON.

Operating System

can be operated in either single or multi-user environment. In single-user mode it would interfa~e ?irect~y
to the customer's Pc. In multi-user mode, it will seamlessly integrate into a local area network with Its bUIlt
in Ethernet Interface RJ-45 (10/100) and also acts as an access router to support services to connecting PCs.
VSAT Equipment is mainly consist of
ODU ( Outdoor Unit)

IDU ( Indoor Unit) as shown in Fig.2

7.1 Outdoor Unit (ODU):

The

outdoor unit system is specifically optimized for use with the Indoor Unit and consists of:
Transmit 1 Receive Dish (Antenna) (0.75m - 1.8m)
Block Up-converter (BUC) (I W-2W)
Low Noise. Block-Down-converter (LNB)
Feed Assembly
OOU

IOU

,...--SATRX
......
--USB
...__ Ethernet 10/100
1iI". BaseT(RJ-4S)

:I..... TelephoneJack
for VoIP (RJ-U)

BUe: amplifies
LNB: converts

Fig. 2 ODU & IDU

Block up-converter converts incoming I.F. (from IDU) to R.F. transmitting frequency,
it and passes it to feed.
LNB amplifies incoming R.F.(Radio Frequency) from feed using low noise amplifier,
it to I.F. and passes it to IDU

7.2 IDU (Indoor Unit):

On receiving side, converts l.F. (Intermediate Frequency) from ODU to base band signals which
may be data, video or voice. On transmitting side, converts base band signals to I.F. and passes them to
ODU. I.F. is generally in L band. R.F. can be in C, Ku or Ka bands.
The indoor unit may be a small desktop box, or it may be (as in this case) a network module
integrated with a router providing VSA T network connectivity just as any other network module and
provide flexible Interfaces like Ethernet 10/100 BaseT (RJ45), USB with maximum download speed of up
to 4 Mbps and maximum upload speed of up to 2 Mbps.

8 Features Broadband V-SATsystem of BSNL:

Maximum Trans 1 Receive Data up to 2 Mbps 1 4 Mbps with 10/100 Mbps Base-T Ethernet
interfaces.
Supports all IP V4 protocols
Shared and customized Bandwidth for customers requirements (i.e. dedicated or shared
Bandwidth)

Y CHAPTER-2
,
BOOT SEQUENCE OF WINDOWS XP:
1.BIOS(Basic Input Output System):
The initial function of the BIOSis to identify, test, and initialize system devices such
asthe video display card, hard disk, floppy disk and other hardware of system.
BIOSprograms are stored on a CMOS chip and are built to work with various devices
that make up the complementary chipset of the system. They provide a small library of basic
input/output functions that can be called to operate and control the peripherals of system.
BIOSis called Boot Strap Program. BIOSis start the execution of POST(Power on self test) .
BIOS performs a POST for the keyboard, drives, ports, chips, and all other hardware in the
system to make sure they are working correctly.
User can see and hear the BIOSperforming this POSTduring your system's startup
process.One long beep means the BIOSsuccessfullycompleted all the hardware tests.
After Successful completion

of POSTthen BIOS read the MBR.

Fig.1Showsthe menu of BIOS.

Fig.1-BIOS

Phoenix

- AwardBIOS

~Standard ems Featuf'es

enos

Setup Utility

~ Pr-eque ncq.> 00 It age Contra I

~nd~'nccd BIOS features

Load fail-Safe

~Advaneed Chipset Features

Load OptiMized Defaults

~lnte9ratcd

Set Supervisor

Peripherals

Default,s

Password

~Power HanagelftentSetup

Set User Password

~PnP/PCI Configurations

Save 8 Exit Setup

~pe Health Status

Exit "lthout

Esc: Quit

P10: Save Ii Exit Setup

"t .......

: Select

Title, Date, Hard Disk Type ...

Operating System

Savin
Item

(J

Ku band:

Up Link Frequency
Down Link Frequency

1.

14.0 - 14.5 G Hz.

10.95 - 11.2 and 11.45 - 11.7 GHz.
A total of 500 MHz BW in Ku band.

Advantages of Satellite Communications

Wide coverage
Almost one third of the earth except the polar regions is visible from a geostationary satellite. It is,
therefore, possible to cover wide geographical area irrespective of intervening terrain using a single
satellite. Satellite media is the only alternative for remote areas inaccessible through terrestrial routes. By
suitable design and configuration of earth station equipment, satellite links can be used for thin and heavy
traffic routes in a cost effective manner.

Suitable for both Digital and Analog Transmission

Same satellite can be used for both digital and analog communicationlinks. Satellite is transparent
to the type of service being provided.

High Quality
Satellite links are designed high quality of performance. The links are free from atmospheric
disturbancesand fading. As only one repeater is involved,the reliability is very high.

Flexibility
In terrestrial links, the topology of the network gets tied down to the installed equipment. On the
other hand, a satellite can be accessed from any point on the earth from where it is visible. The earth
stations can be relocated and reconfigured providing complete flexibility of operation and utilization of the
satellitecapacity.

Quick Provision of Services

Compared to the terrestrial links, earth stations can be installed in much shorter period and,
therefore,services can become available faster.

Mobile and Emergency Communication

An earth station can be mounted on a vehicle to provide mobile communication services. Using
small air lift able earth station terminals, telecommunicationservices can be extended to any location in
emergency

6 Ku Band VSAT of BSNL

The Ku band ("kay-yoo" K-under band) is a portion of the electromagnetic spectrum in the
microwave range of frequencies from II to 18 GHz. VSAT technology is a secure and reliable medium to
connect geographically dispersed locations and represents a cost effective solution for users seeking an
independent communication network connecting to the global network. In a situation where other
connectivity options are not feasible, Ku Band VSAT offer value added satellite based services capable of
supporting internet, Local Area Network, voice, Fax and can also provide powerful dependable private
communicationsolutions.

7 What is VSAT?
VSAT stands for Very Small Aperture Terminal. VSAT is a device (also known as an "earth
station") that is used to send and receive wireless transmissions by satellite. Millions of VSATs are in use
around the world, allowing people to send and receive two-way data, voice or video transmissions by
bouncing signals off of satellites in orbit. The "very small" component of the VSAT acronym refers to the
size of the VSAT "antenna" or "dish" - typically about 2 to 5feet (0.55-1.8 meters) in diameter for Ku-band
systems - that is mounted on a roof, attached to a wall or placed on the ground and is capable of both
receiving and sending satellite signals. VSAT systems can be designed to serve both broadcast and
interactive applications whether data, voice or video, which are now being served by terrestrial lines and

,-

CHAPTER-2

2.MBR:
A master boot record (MBR), is the 512-byte boot sector that is the first sector of
first track of hard disk.
MBR start the booting process of computer.
MBRcontain some code which will be executed to load the operating system.
MBR read the first sector of active partition where the boot loader of operating system
stored.(Mainly C:/ Drive is active partition in our System).
EveryOperating System has Boot loader. Windows XPhas boot loader whose name
is :NTLDR.
3.NTLDR(NTLoader);
NTLDR is a program that starts this sequence of loading into RAM, it also known as a
bootstrap loader.
Before operating system load in RAM, it should be sure that system is suitable to load
OSor not? To check this NTLDRwill execute NTDETECT.COM.
NTDETECT.COM
will check basic hardware of system. Basedon the result of NTDETECT.COM
Operating system will be loaded in RAM.
NTLDRhas also files are BOOT.INIand BOOTSECT.DOS.
When System has multiple Operating systems then BOOTSECT.DOS
file will be execute to
select which OSis user want to load.
After this NTLDRwill execute BOOT.INIfile to check where operating system is stored.
Now, NTLDRwill load the NTOSKRNL.EXE
and HAL.DLL.These 2 files are Windows XP.
These files are stored in our System at C:/Windows/System32.
HAL.DLLis called hardware Abstraction layer file.
4.NTOSKRNL.EXE:
This is kernel of windows XP.
All the services of Operating System is provided by the kernel.
5.WINLOGON.EXE:
After the completion of working of NTOSKRNL.EXE, the file WINLOGON.EXEwill be
executed.
This file is responsible to see windows XPscreen on monitor.
After this LSASS.EXE
will be executed which will display user login screen on monitor.then
user can logon in Windows XP.
When User will logon ,OSwill load the settings of the user.

Operating System

geostationary orbit (GEO) and Low Earth Orbit (LEO). Medium Earth Orbit enables a satellite provider to
cover the earth with fewer satellites than Low Earth Orbit, but requires more satellites to do so that
geostationary orbit.
Medium Earth Orbit terrestrial terminals can be of lower power and use smaller antennas than the
terrestrial terminals of geostationary orbit satellite systems. However, they cannot be as low power or
have as small antennas as Low Earth Orbit terrestrial terminals. Medium Earth Orbit satellite systems
offer better Round Trip Time (RTT) than geosynchronous orbit systems, but not as low as Low Earth
Orbit systems.

3.3High Earth Orbit (HEO) :

Geocentric orbits above the altitude of geosynchronous orbit 35,786 km (22,240 miles).

3.4 Geosynchronous

Orbit (GEO)

Orbits with an altitude of approximately 35,786 km (22,300 miles). Geostationary orbits are often referred
to as geosynchronous or just GEO. A geosynchronous orbit with an inclination of zero. To an observer on
the ground this satellite would appear as a fixed point in the sky. A geostationary satellite is any satellite
which is placed in a geostationary orbit. Satellites in geostationary orbit maintain a constant position
relative to the surface of the earth. Geostationary satellites do this by orbiting the earth approximately
22,300 miles above the equator. This orbital path is called the Clarke Belt, in honor of Arthur C. Clarke. In
other words, if a satellite in a geostationary orbit is in a certain place above the earth, it will stay in that
same spot above the earth. Its latitude stays at zero and its longitude remains constant and one satellite can
cover almost 113 of earth surface Geostationary satellites are commonly used for communications and
weather-observation. The typical service life expectancy of a geostationary satellite is ten to fifteen years.

LOW EAKT'H ORBIT

450 km - 1000 krn
MEDIUM EAIrT'H
ORBIT (15000 km)

CEO STATIONARY
ORBIT(36000 km)
Fig. 1 Different Orbits of Satellite

4 Important

Frequency

Bands For Satellite

c- Band:
Up Link Frequency
Down Link Frequency
Extended C- Band :
Up Link Frequency
Down Link Frequency

5.925 - 6.425 GHz.

3.7 - 4.2 G Hz.
Total 500 M Hz BW.
6.725 -7.025 GHz.
4.5 - 4.8 G Hz.
Additional 300 MHz BW

Communication

f,,_CHAPTER-2

QU ESTIONS

1. What is booting? Give types of Booting.

2. What is boot sequence?
3. Explain Boot Sequence of Windows XP.
4. What is BIOS,MBR, NTLDR?
5. What is use of NTDETECT.COM,BOOT.INI,NTKRNL.EXE?

Operating System

SATELLITE

COMMUNICATION

1A brief history of space communication

The idea of radio transmission through space was first conceived in 1911. In 1945 British author-scientist
Arthur C. Clarke suggested the use of a geo synchronous earth satellite for the purpose. His assumption of a
manned space station was later revised by a US engineer, J R Pierce, in April 1955, who was also the first
one to analyze unmanned communication satellites. This idea later led to the great success of satellite
communications.
The first artificial satellite "SPUTNIK I" was launched by the erstwhile USSR, in 1957. This began a series
of space initiatives by USA and USSR. The first satellite communication experiment was the US
government's project SCORE (Signal Communication by Orbiting Relay Equipment), which launched a
satellite on December 18, 1958. This satellite circled the earth in an elliptical orbit and retransmitted
messages recorded on a magnetic tape. It lasted for about 13 days after which the batteries ran out!!

2 Types of Satellites
Anti-Satellite weapons, sometimes called "Killer satellites" are satellites designed to destroy
"enemy" satellites, other orbital weapons and targets.
Astronomical satellites are satellites used for observation of distant planets, galaxies, and other
outer space objects.

Biosatellites are satellites

designed

to carry

living

organisms,

generally

for scientific

experimentation.

Communications satellites are an artificial satellite stationed in space for the purposes of
telecommunications. Modem communications satellites typically use geosynchronous orbits, Medium earth
orbits or low Earth orbits.
Miniaturized satellites are satellites of unusually low weights and small sizes. New
classifications are used to categorize these satellites: mini-satellite (500-200 kg), micro-satellite (below 200
kg), nano-satellite (below 10 kg).
Navigation satellites are satellites which use radio time signals transmitted to enable mobile
receivers on the ground to determine their exact location. The relatively clear line of sight between the
satellites and receivers on the ground, combined with ever-improving electronics, allows satellite
navigation systems to measure location to accuracies on the order of a few meters in real time.

3 Altitude Classifications:
3.1Low Earth Orbit (LEO):
Geocentric orbits ranging in altitude from 0 - 2,000 km (0 - 1,240 miles). Low Earth Orbit (LEO) refers to a
satellite which orbits the earth at altitudes between (very roughly) 200 miles and 930 miles. Low Earth
Orbit satellites must travel very quickly to resist the pull of gravity -- approximately 17,000 miles per hour.
Because of this, Lowe Earth Orbit satellites can orbit the planet in as little as 90 minutes. Low Earth Orbit
satellite systems require several dozen satellites to provide coverage of the entire planet. Low Earth Orbit
satellites typically operate in polar orbits. Low Earth Orbit satellites are used for applications where a short
Round Trip Time (RTT) is very important, such as Mobile Satellite Services (MSS).

3.2 Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) :

Geocentric orbits ranging in altitude from 2,000 krn (1,240 miles) - to just below geosynchronous orbit at
35,786 km (22,240 miles). Also known as an intermediate circular orbit. Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) refers
to .a satellite which orbits the earth at an altitude below 22,300 miles (geostationary orbit) and above the
altitude of Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites. Medium Earth Orbit represents a series of tradeoffs between