The Science of Cement and Concrete

Introduction
1.1
1.2

The purpose of this monograph

1.3

What is (and is not) covered

1.4

3
3.1

Is concrete a scientifically interesting material?

Basic definitions and terminology

Concrete Basics
2.1

Introduction

2.2

The components of concrete

2.3

The concrete construction process

Manufacture and composition of portland cement

Overview

This chapter will give an overview of the process of manufacturing portland cement and will
then devote somewhat more attention to the final properties of the cement, including the
composition and structure of the four main cement minerals, the oxide and mineral composition
of various types of portland cement, and the particle size distribution (fineness) of cement.
Finally, as this monograph will focus on the basic science of cement, the process of
synthesizing pure minerals for research purposes is also covered.
3.2

Note on cement chemistry notation and mineral names

At the high temperatures present in a cement kiln, all of the constituents of the raw
ingredients are either driven off as a gas or converted to an oxide form. To make the formulas
of cement minerals, compounds, and reactions shorter and easier to read, it is traditional to use
a shorthand notation that leaves out the oxygen. This system is listed in Table 3.4 .
Table 3.4: Cement chemistry notation based on oxides.
Oxide form

Notation

CaO

SiO2

Al2O3

Fe2O3

SO3

H2O

Other abbreviations are also in use, such as MgO=M and Na2O = N, but only those listed
above in Table 3.4 will be used in this monograph. While this system has definite advantages, it
does take some getting used to, since, for example, C normally stands for carbon and H
normally stands for hydrogen.
Unfortunately the confusion does not end there, as we also have to deal with chemical
and mineral names for solid phases. The chemical name of a solid compound is simply the
word version of the chemical formula, for example calcium hydroxide. The mineral name (in
this case portlandite) is meant to represent either a particular crystal structure or a potentially
impure form of the phase. The various ways of describing some of the main solid phases
associated with cement chemistry are summarized in Table 3.4. In this monograph we will use
primarily the chemical name and the cement notation. In the case of the cement minerals, this
is actually a bit inaccurate. Names such as alite and belite indicate a particular crystal structure
as well as the fact that these phases contain a variety of impurities when found in cement.
Table 3.4: Summary of the different ways to represent some cement minerals and
products.

Chemical Name

Chemical
Formula

Oxide Formula

Cement
Notation

Mineral
Name

Tricalcium Silicate

Ca3SiO5

3CaO.SiO2

C3S

Alite

Dicalcium Silicate

Ca2SiO4

2CaO.SiO2

C2S

Belite

Tricalcium Aluminate

Ca3Al2O6

3CaO.Al2O3

C3A

Aluminate

Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite

Ca2AlFeO5

4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3

C4AF

Ferrite

Calcium hydroxide

Ca(OH)2

CaO.H2O

CH

Portlandite

Calcium sulfate dihydrate

CaSO4.2H2O

CaO.SO3.2H2O

C S H2

Gypsum

Calcium oxide

CaO

CaO

Lime

3.3

Raw materials for cement manufacture

The first step in the manufacture of portland cement is to combine a variety of raw
ingredients so that the resulting cement will have the desired chemical composition. These
ingredients are ground into small particles to make them more reactive, blended together, and
then the resulting raw mix is fed into a cement kiln which heats them to extremely high
temperatures.
Since the final composition and properties of portland cement are specified within rather
strict bounds, it might be supposed that the requirements for the raw mix would be similarly
strict. As it turns out, this is not the case. While it is important to have the correct proportions of
calcium, silicon, aluminum, and iron, the overall chemical composition and structure of the
individual raw ingredients can vary considerably. The reason for this is that at the very high

temperatures in the kiln, many chemical components in the raw ingredients are burned off and
replaced with oxygen from the air. Table 3.4 lists just some of the many possible raw
ingredients that can be used to provide each of the main cement elements.
Table 3.4: Examples of raw materials for portland cement manufacture (adapted
from ref. [1], Table 2.1).

Calcium

Silicon

Aluminum

Iron

Limestone

Clay

Clay

Clay

Marl

Marl

Shale

Iron ore

Calcite

Sand

Fly ash

Mill scale

Aragonite

Shale

Aluminum ore refuse

Shale

Shale

Fly ash

Sea Shells

Rice hull ash

Cement kiln dust

Slag

Blast furnace dust

The ingredients listed above include both naturally occurring materials such as limestone
and clay, and industrial byproduct materials such as slag and fly ash. From Table 3.4 it may
seem as if just about any material that contains one of the main cement elements can be tossed
into the kiln, but this is not quite true. Materials that contain more than minor (or in some cases
trace) amounts of metallic elements such as magnesium, sodium, potassium, strontium, and
various heavy metals cannot be used, as these will not burn off in the kiln and will negatively
affect the cement. Another consideration is the reactivity, which is a function of both the
chemical structure and the fineness. Clays are ideal because they are made of fine particles
already and thus need little processing prior to use, and are the most common source of silica
and alumina. Calcium is most often obtained from quarried rock, particularly limestone (calcium
carbonate) which must be crushed and ground before entering the kiln. The most readily
abundant source of silica is quartz, but pure quartz is very unreactive even at the maximum kiln
temperature and cannot be used.
Grinding and blending prior to entering the kiln can be performed with the raw
ingredients in the form of a slurry (the wet process) or in dry form (the dry process). The
addition of water facilitates grinding. However, the water must then be removed by evaporation
as the first step in the burning process, which requires additional energy. The wet process,
which was once standard, has now been rendered obsolete by the development of efficient dry
grinding equipment, and all modern cement plants use the dry process. When it is ready to
enter the kiln, the dry raw mix has 85% of the particles less than 90 m in size [2].
3.4

Burning in a kiln formation of cement clinker

The next step in the process is to heat the blended mixture of raw ingredients (the raw
mix) to convert it into a granular material called cement clinker. This requires maximum

temperatures that are high enough to partially melt the raw mix. Because the raw ingredients
are not completely melted, the mix must be agitated to ensure that the clinker forms with a
uniform composition. This is accomplished by using a long cylindrical kiln that slopes downward
and rotates slowly (see Figure 3-0).
Figure 3-0: A rotary kiln for cement manufacture. The inset shows a view inside
the hot kiln. (Image courtesy of the Portland Cement Association).

To heat the kiln, a mixture of fuel and air is injected into the kiln and burned at the bottom
end (see Figure 3-0). The hot gases travel up the kiln to the top, through a dust collector, and
out a smokestack. A variety of fuels can be used, including pulverized coal or coke, natural gas,
lignite, and fuel oil. These fuels create varying types and amounts of ash, which tend to have
compositions similar to some of the aluminosilicate ingredients in the raw mix. Since the ash
combines with the raw mix inside the kiln, this must be taken into account in order to correctly
predict the cement compassion. There is also an increasing trend to use waste products as part
of the fuel, for example old tires. In the best-case scenario, this saves money on fuel, reduces
CO2 emissions, and provides a safe method of disposal.
The burning process
This description refers to a standard dry-process kiln as illustrated in Figure 3-0. Such a
kiln is typically about 180 m long and 6 m in diameter, has a downward slope of 3-4%, and
rotates at 1-2 revolutions per minute.
(After Mindess and Young, Fig. 3.2)
Figure 3-0: Diagram of the reactions occurring in a typical dry process cement
kiln without a preheater.

The raw mix enters at the upper end of the kiln and slowly works its way downward to the
hottest area at the bottom over a period of 60-90 minutes, undergoing several different reactions
as the temperature increases. It is important that the mix move slowly enough to allow each
reaction to be completed at the appropriate temperature. Because the initial reactions are
endothermic (energy absorbing), it is difficult to heat the mix up to a higher temperature until a
given reaction is complete. The general reaction zones (see Figure 3-0) are as follows:
Dehydration zone (up to ~ 450C): This is simply the evaporation and removal of the free water.
Even in the dry process there is some adsorbed moisture in the raw mix. Although the
temperatures required to do this are not high, this requires significant time and energy. In the
wet process, the dehydration zone would require up to half the length of the kiln, while the dry
process requires a somewhat shorter distance.
Calcination zone (450C 900C): The term calcination refers to the process of decomposing a
solid material so that one of its constituents is driven off as a gas. At about 600C the bound
water is driven out of the clays, and by 900C the calcium carbonate is decomposed, releasing
carbon dioxide. By the end of the calcination zone, the mix consists of oxides of the four main

elements which are ready to undergo further reaction into cement minerals. Because
calcination does not involve melting, the mix is still a free-flowing powder at this point.
Solid-state reaction zone (900 - 1300C): This zone slightly overlaps, and is sometimes
included with, the calcination zone. As the temperature continues to increase above ~ 900C
there is still no melting, but solid-state reactions begin to occur. CaO and reactive silica
combine to form small crystals of C2S (dicalcium silicate), one of the four main cement minerals.
In addition, intermediate calcium aluminates and calcium ferrite compounds form. These play
an important role in the clinkering process as fluxing agents, in that they melt at a relatively low
temperature of ~ 1300C, allowing a significant increase in the rate of reaction. Without these
fluxing agents, the formation of the calcium silicate cement minerals would be slow and difficult.
In fact, the formation of fluxing agents is the primary reason that portland (calcium silicate)
cements contain aluminum and iron at all. The final aluminum- and iron-containing cement
minerals (C3A and C4AF) in a portland cement contribute little to the final properties. As the mix
passes through solid-state reaction zone it becomes sticky due to the tendency for adjacent
particles to fuse together.
Clinkering zone (1300C 1550C): This is the hottest zone where the formation of the most
important cement mineral, C3S (alite), occurs. The zone begins as soon as the intermediate
calcium aluminate and ferrite phases melt. The presence of the melt phase causes the mix to
agglomerate into relatively large nodules about the size of marbles consisting of many small
solid particles bound together by a thin layer of liquid (see Figure 3-0). Inside the liquid phase,
C3S forms by reaction between C2S crystals and CaO. Crystals of solid C3S grow within the
liquid, while crystals of belite formed earlier decrease in number but grow in size. The clinkering
process is complete when all of silica is in the C3S and C2S crystals and the amount of free lime
(CaO) is reduced to a minimal level (<1%).
Figure 3-0: A nodule in the clinkering zone.

Cooling zone: As the clinker moves past the bottom of the kiln the temperature drops rapidly
and the liquid phase solidifies, forming the other two cement minerals C3A (aluminate) and C4AF
(ferrite). In addition, alkalis (primarily K) and sulfate dissolved in the liquid combine to form
K2SO4 and Na2SO4. The nodules formed in the clinkering zone are now hard, and the resulting
product is called cement clinker. The rate of cooling from the maximum temperature down to
about 1100C is important, with rapid cooling giving a more reactive cement. This occurs
because in this temperature range the C3S can decompose back into C2S and CaO, among
other reasons. It is thus typical to blow air or spray water onto the clinker to cool it more rapidly
as it exits the kiln.
Figure 3-0: Nodules of portland cement clinker after cooling (Photograph courtesy
of the Portland Cement Association).

Suspension preheaters and calciners

The chemical reactions that occur in the dehydration and calcination zones are
endothermic, meaning that a continuous input of energy to each of the particles of the raw mix is
required to complete the reaction. When the raw mix is piled up inside a standard rotary kiln,
the rate of reaction is limited by the rate at which heat can be transferred into a large mass of
particles. To make this process more efficient, suspension preheaters are used in modern
cement plants to replace the cooler upper end of the rotary kiln (see Figure 3-0). Raw mix is fed
in at the top, while hot gas from the kiln heater enters at the bottom. As the hot gas moves
upward it creates circulating cyclones that separate the mix particles as they settle down from
above. This greatly increases the rate of heating, allowing individual particles of raw mix to be
dehydrated and partially calcined within a period of less than a minute.
Alternatively, some of the fuel can be burned directly within the preheater to provide even
more heating to the suspended particles. The area of the preheater where fuel is burned is
called a precalciner. With a precalciner, the particles are nearly completely calcined as they
enter the rotary kiln. Preheaters and precalciners save on fuel and increase the rate at which
the mix can be moved through the rotary kiln.

Figure 3-0: Suspension preheater.

Grinding and the addition of gypsum

Once the nodules of cement clinker have cooled, they are ground back into a fine
powder in a large grinding mill. At the same time, a small amount of calcium sulfate such as
gypsum (calcium sulfate dihydrate) is blended into the cement. The calcium sulfate is added to
control the rate of early reaction of the cement, as will be discussed in Section 5.3. At this point
the manufacturing process is complete and the cement is ready to be bagged or transported in
bulk away from the plant. However, the cement is normally stored in large silos at the cement
plant for a while so that various batches of cement can be blended together to even out small
variations in composition that occur over time. Cement manufacturers go to considerable
lengths to maintain consistent behavior in their cements over time, with the most important
parameters being the time to set, the early strength development, and the workability at a given
water content.
Cement kiln dust
As the hot kiln gas moves through the kiln, it carries with it the smallest particles of the raw
mix as well as volatilized inorganic substances such as alkalis (sodium and potassium) and
chlorides. As the gas cools, the volatiles condense back round the small particles, and the
resulting powder is called cement kiln dust (CKD). In the old days, the CKD was simply vented
out of the smokestack, after which it would continuously settle out of the air to create a thin
coating of grey dust on the surrounding countryside. This is no longer allowed. In fact,
environmental restrictions even prevent CKD from being buried in landfills because of the
tendency for the alkalis and chlorides to leach into groundwater. In modern cement plants, the
CKD is removed in the suspension preheater and by and electrostatic precipitators located near
the base of the smokestack.

Approximately 30 million tons of CKD are produced worldwide each year [3], and finding a
way to use or dispose of this material has become a rather urgent problem for the cement
industry. Some CKD can be returned to the kiln as raw mix, but this is limited by the tendency
for the recycled CKD to increase the alkali and chloride contents of the cement clinker to
unacceptable levels. High alkali contents can promote deleterious reactions with aggregate
particles that damage the concrete, while chloride ions corrode reinforcing steel. Up to 15% of
the total input of raw kilnstock can be lost as CKD.
Because CKD contains a high proportion of soluble alkali chlorides and sulfates, an
obvious use is as an activator for blended cements, pozzolans, and hydaulic slags. At present,
the drawbacks of CKD as a cement additive seem to outweigh the advantages, although
research in this area is ongoing. This is expanded a bit in the following optional section.

3.4.1 The use of cement kiln dust as an additive or activator

This section contains a short discussion of the possibility of using cement kiln dust (CKD)
as a cement additive or as an activator for reactive byproduct materials such as slag and fly
ash. The best results have been achieved with ternary blends of CKD, slag, and OPC [Error:
Reference source not found,4]. The OPC offers early strengths while the slag, which is activated
by the CKD, improves durability. These blends can absorb 10-15% by weight of CKD while still
generating strengths equal to that of a neat OPC paste. However, the advantages of such an
approach seem to be outweighed by the drawbacks associated with the CKD. These
drawbacks include:

At levels higher than 10-15%, CKD reduces the strength of concrete.

The high alkali content of CKD presents potential problems with alkali-silica
reaction between the pore fluid and the aggregate. This issue affects all alkaliactivated cementitious materials, and is an important reason why alkali-activated slag
(AAS) concrete, which has excellent early and ultimate strength and durability, has
seen limited application [5].

The chloride in CKD presents increased risk for corrosion of reinforcing steel,
making CKD concretes inappropriate for reinforced concrete.

Concrete containing CKD has a lower workability at a given water/cement ratio.

[Error: Reference source not found]. While this can be addressed by using water
reducing admixtures, this adds cost.

CKD is a variable product. The CKD from different kilns and from different times
can have very different compositions. This makes it difficult to design a concrete
mixture with CKD. This problem is compounded by the fact that careful design of the
mix has been shown to be needed to generate good properties with CKD concrete
[Error: Reference source not found,Error: Reference source not found].

Table 3.4.1.1 summarizes the reported oxide composition of CKD used in recent published
studies (six varieties from four publications).

Table 3.4.1.1. Chemical oxide composition of six varieties of CKD (wt%) reported in refs [Error:
Reference source not found,Error: Reference source not found,6, 7].

Component

Range (wt%)

Average (wt%)

SiO2

12.0 34.3

17.3

Al2O3

1.1 6.9

4.0

Fe2O3

1.8 4.5

2.65

CaO

34.3 57.0

46.3

MgO

0.8 2.4

1.5

SO3

1.7 10.6

6.9

Na2O

0.3 3.9

1.6

K2O

1.2 8.2

4.0

Cl-

0.4 8.1

4.2

Loss on ignition

8.0 21.0

16.5

The variation in the composition shown in Table 3.4.1.1 is even greater than is suggested
by the oxide composition, because the mineral composition cannot be assumed from the oxide
composition as it can with a cement. For example, Dyer et al. [Error: Reference source not
found] used two types of CKD with nearly identical CaO contents. They performed X-ray and
Rietfeld analysis to determine the minerals, and found that one contained 9% calcite (a form of
calcium carbonate) and 27% calcium hydroxide, while the other contained 53% calcite and 8%
calcium hydroxide. Since calcium hydroxide is consumed in the pozzolanic reaction while
calcite is not, the results obtained with the two CKDs in a blended cement will clearly differ
greatly. Other minerals reported by Dyer et al [Error: Reference source not found] include free
lime, anhydrite, quartz, thenardite, Friedels salt, halite, and syngenite. One way to improve the
cementing properties of CKD is to calcine it at temperatures above about 600C to decompose
the calcite. Amin et al. [8] calcined CKD for 2 hrs at 800, 900, and 1000C, and found that
calcite X-ray peaks disappeared in all cases, that the chloride was nearly fully removed at
1000C, the alkali content was unchanged, and that there was an increase in the amount of C2S. The hydraulic properties of a CKD/ slag cement mixture improved with the CKD calcining
temperature. It is not clear whether it would be economically viable to perform an additional
calcining step on CKD, however.
One way to reduce the negative effects of CKD variability is through precasting, where
the composition and reactivity of the material can be measured and controlled at the production
facility to ensure consistent results. Another advantage of precasting is that elevated
temperature curing can be used to accelerate the hydration process. A logical place to locate a
manufacturing plant would be adjacent to a cement plant where the CKD is produced, because
excess heat from the kilns could be reused for the elevated temperature curing.
3.5

Properties of the major cement minerals

About 90-95% of a Portland cement is comprised of the four main cement minerals, which
are C3S, C2S, C3A, and C4AF, with the remainder consisting of calcium sulfate, alkali sulfates,
8

unreacted (free) CaO, MgO, and other minor constituents left over from the clinkering and
grinding steps. The four cement minerals play very different roles in the hydration process that
converts the dry cement into hardened cement paste. The C3S and the C2S contribute virtually
all of the beneficial properties by generating the main hydration product, C-S-H gel. However,
the C3S hydrates much more quickly than the C2S and thus is responsible for the early strength
development. The C3A and C4AF minerals also hydrate, but the products that are formed
contribute little to the properties of the cement paste. As was discussed in the previous section,
these minerals are present because pure calcium silicate cements would be virtually impossible
to produce economically.
The crystal structures of the cement minerals are quite complex, and since these
structures do not play an important role in the properties of cement paste and concrete we will
only present the most important features here. More detailed information can be found in the
book by Taylor [Error: Reference source not found]. The hydration reactions of the cement
minerals are covered in Section5.3.
Tricalcium Silicate (C3S)
C3S is the most abundant mineral in portland cement, occupying 4070 wt% of the
cement, and it is also the most important. The hydration of C3S gives cement paste most of its
strength, particularly at early times.
Pure C3S can form with three different crystal structures. At temperatures below 980C the
equilibrium structure is triclinic. At temperatures between 980C 1070C the structure is
monoclinic, and above 1070C it is rhombohedral. In addition, the triclinic and monoclinic
structures each have three polymorphs, so there are a total of seven possible structures.
However, all of these structures are rather similar and there are no significant differences in the
reactivity. The most important feature of the structure is an awkward and asymmetric packing of
the calcium and oxygen ions that leaves large holes in the crystal lattice. Essentially, the ions
do not fit together very well, causing the crystal structure to have a high internal energy. As a
result, C3S is highly reactive.
The C3S that forms in a cement clinker contains about 3-4% of oxides other than CaO
and SiO2. Strictly speaking, this mineral should therefore be called alite rather than C3S.
However, as discussed in Section 3.2, we will avoid using mineral names in this monograph. In
a typical clinker the C3S would contain about 1 wt% each of MgO, Al2O3, and Fe2O3, along with
much smaller amounts of Na2O, K2O, P2O5, and SO3 [Error: Reference source not found].
These amounts can vary considerably with the composition of the raw materials used to make
the cement, however. Of the three major impurities, Mg and Fe replace Ca, while Al replaces
Si.
One effect of the impurities is to stabilize the monoclinic structure, meaning that the
structural transformation from monoclinic to triclinic that would normally occur on cooling is
prevented. Most cements thus contain one of the monoclinic polymorphs of C3S.
Dicalcium Silicate (C2S)
As with C3S, C2S can form with a variety of different structures. There is a high
temperature structure with three polymorphs, a structure in that is in equilibrium at
intermediate temperatures, and a low temperature structure. An important aspect of C2S is
that -C2S has a very stable crystal structure that is completely unreactive in water. Fortunately,

the structure is easily stabilized by the other oxide components of the clinker and thus the
form is never present in portland cement. The crystal structure of C2S is irregular, but
considerably less so than that of C3S, and this accounts for the lower reactivity of C2S. The C2S
in cement contains slightly higher levels of impurities than C3S. According to Taylor [Error:
Reference source not found], the overall substitution of oxides is 4-6%, with significant amounts
of Al2O3, Fe2O3, and K2O.
Tricalcium Aluminate (C3A)
Tricalcium aluminate (C3A) comprises anywhere from zero to 14% of a portland cement.
Like C3S, it is highly reactive, releasing a significant amount of exothermic heat during the early
hydration period. Unfortunately, the hydration products of formed from C3A contribute little to
the strength or other engineering properties of cement paste. In certain environmental
conditions (i.e., the presence of sulfate ions), C3A and its products can actually harm the
concrete by participating in expansive reactions that lead to stress and cracking.
Pure C3A forms only with a cubic crystal structure. The structure is characterized by Ca+2
atoms and rings of six AlO4 tetrahedra. As with C3S, the bonds are distorted from their
equilibrium positions, leading to a high internal energy and thus a high reactivity. Significant
amounts of CaO and the Al2O3 in the C3A structure can be replaced by other oxides, and at high
levels of substitution this can lead to other crystal structures. The C3A in portland cement
clinker, which typically contains about 13% oxide substitution, is primarily cubic, with smaller
amounts of orthorhombic C3A. The C3A and C4AF minerals form by simultaneous precipitation
as the liquid phase formed during the clinkering process cools, and thus they are closely
intermixed. This makes it difficult to ascertain the exact compositions of the two phases. The
cubic form generally contains ~4% substitution of SiO2, ~5% substitution of Fe2O3, and about
1% each of Na2O, K2O, and MgO. The orthorhombic form has similar levels, but with a greater
(~5%) substitution of K2O.
Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite (C4AF)
A stable compound with any composition between C2A and C2F can be formed, and the
cement mineral termed C4AF is an approximation that simply the represents the midpoint of this
compositional series. The crystal structure is complex, and is believed to be related to that of
the mineral perovskite. The actual composition of C4AF in cement clinker is generally higher in
aluminum than in iron, and there is considerable substitution of SiO2 and MgO. Taylor [Error:
Reference source not found] reports a typical composition (in normal chemical notation) to be
Ca2AlFe0.6Mg0.2Si0.15Ti0.5O5. However, the composition will vary somewhat depending on the
overall composition of the cement clinker.

3.6

Mineral and oxide composition of portland cement

When considering the composition of a portland cement, the most important factors are
the relative amounts of each of the cement minerals, the amount of calcium sulfate, and the
total amount of alkalis (Na and K). However, when performing a direct chemical analysis of the
cement (see Section ), what is actually determined is the relative concentrations of each of the
elements in the cement. These values are then normally converted to the weight fraction of
each element in oxide form, since the cement always contains an amount of oxygen sufficient to

10

charge balance the other elements. This, along with a few other measurements, is then
reported as the oxide composition of the cement (see Table 3.4). It should be noted that only a
very small fraction of a cement consists of independent oxides of the form shown in Table 3.4.

Table 3.4. Oxide composition of a Portland cement. Ranges in column 2 are for
OPC Types I-V, as given in ref. [Error: Reference source not found]. Values in
column 3 are averaged results from 125 laboratories, from a study conducted by
the Cement and Concrete Research Laboratory (CCRL) at NIST in 2000
(proficiency cement #135).

Oxide

Range
%)

(wt

Cement #135
(wt%)

CaO

60.2 66.3

63.81

SiO2

18.6 23.4

21.45

Al2O3

2.4 6.3

4.45

Fe2O3

1.3 6.1

3.07

MgO

0.6 4.8

2.42

P2O5

--

0.11

TiO2

--

0.22

Na2O

0.05 1.20

0.20

K2O

(Na2O equiv)

0.83

SO3

1.7 4.6

2.46

Loss on Ignition

--

0.81

Insoluble residue

--

0.16

Free CaO

--

0.64

The loss on ignition reported in Table 3.4 is the weight lost when the cement was heated
to 1000C. At this temperature any water or CO2 present in the cement specimen is driven off.
The insoluble residue is the mass of material that is not dissolved by acid. This material
generally consists of mineral crystals such as quartz, and a rule of thumb used by cement
chemists is that the insoluble reside is 2/3 SiO2 and 1/3 Al2O3. The free CaO (often called the
free lime) is the amount of calcium oxide present as CaO, that is, not bound into the cement
minerals. The free CaO is already counted in the weight fraction of CaO, so the total amount of
cement mass accounted for in Table 3.4 is the sum of all the rows except for the last, which is
99.9%. The remaining 0.1% is likely in the form of other trace elements that were not tested for.
As was noted above, the mineral composition of the cement is more useful than the oxide
composition. However, the mineral composition is more difficult to determine accurately. It can

11

be measured directly using techniques such as light microscopy, powder X-ray diffraction, or
SEM X-ray analysis, or it can be calculated from the oxide composition. According to a
summary by Taylor [Error: Reference source not found] powder XRD analysis is difficult
because of the dominance of the C3S peaks and the extensive amount of peak overlap, and
accurate results are obtained only when very careful procedures and analysis are followed.
Microscopy, which involves a point-count method, tends to be operator dependent and
unreliable for separating the C3A and C4AF phases.
Probably the best experimental method for directly measuring the mineral composition of
cement is quantitative SEM imaging [9,10]. With this method, the cement is dispersed in a
hardened resin which is then polished to evenly expose all of the minerals within the cement
particles. A location on the specimen is selected at a relatively low magnification (250-500X),
and then the SEM is programmed to automatically scan over the selected image taking
thousands of x-ray measurements in a regular grid pattern. The result is a set of dot map
images representing the intensity of the x-ray signal for each of elements of interest (typically
Ca, Si, Al, Fe, S, K, and Mg). A computer program then determines which mineral (if any) is
present at each pixel from the relative elemental intensities at that location. An added
advantage of this technique is that the mineral information can be combined with the original
SEM backscattered image to create a color-coded image of the cement showing the
composition distribution (see Figure 3-0). Such an image is particularly useful as a realistic
starting microstructure for a digital model of cement hydration [Error: Reference source not
found].

QuickTime and a
TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.

Figure 3-0: SEM/X-ray image of a portland cement with each solid phase
assigned a different color. Image is 256 m by 200 m. Colors correspond to the
following phases: red-C3S, aqua-C2S, green-C3A, orange-C4AF, pale greencalcium sulfates, yellow-K2SO4, and white-free CaO. Image taken from ref. [Error:
Reference source not found].

12

Because this technique requires a significant amount of time on a good-quality SEM

instrument, it is clearly not ideal for routine analysis. The most attractive option in terms of time
and expense is to calculate the mineral composition from the measured oxide composition. If
this is done carefully, reasonably accurate results can be obtained. This is discussed below.
The Bogue calculation of cement mineral composition
A simple estimate of the phase composition of a portland cement can be obtained from
the oxide composition if one assumes that the four main cement minerals occur in their pure
form. With this assumption, all of the Fe2O3 is assigned to C4AF and the remaining Al2O3 is
assigned to C3A. This leaves a set of two linear equations to be solved for the amounts of C2S
and C3S. This method is named after the cement chemist R.H. Bogue. A standardized version
of this simple method is given in ASTM C 150 [11]. There are two sets of equations, based on
the ratio of A/F in the cement (both inputs and outputs are in weight percent):
If A/F > 0.64
C3S = 4.071C 7.600S 6.718A 1.430F 2.852 S
C2S = 2.867S 0.7544C3S
C3A = 2.650A 1.692F
C4AF = 3.043F

3.1 (a)

If A/F < 0.64

C3S = 4.071C 7.600S 4.479A 2.859F 2.852 S
C2S = 2.867S 0.7544C3S
C3A = 0
C4AF = 2.100A + 1.702F

3.1 (b)

Applying Eqs. 3.1(a) to the oxide composition given in column 3 of Table 3.4 results in:
55.4% C3S, 19.7% C2S, 6.6% C3A, and 9.3% C4AF.
While this method is simple, it is not very accurate. In particular, there is a tendency to
overestimate the amount of C2S and underestimate the amount of C3S. One study found that
the Bogue calculation gave C3S contents that were on average 8% lower than of those obtained
from light microscopy (a technique that is reasonably accurate for estimating C3S). Also, the
sum of the four minerals tends to be much less than 100%.
While there are several sources of error in the Bogue calculation, the most significant is
the assumption that the minerals occur in their pure form. In fact, the actual composition of
each of the cement minerals differs rather significantly from its assumed formula. This was
discussed in Section 3.5. By taking into account the known tendency for other oxides to
substitute into the cement minerals, a more accurate (but also more complex) calculation can
be devised, as described below.
Modified Bogue calculation based on actual mineral compositions
To accurately calculate the mineral composition of a cement from the oxide composition
it is necessary to estimate the true composition of the cement minerals in the clinker and to
account for phases other than the main four cement minerals such as gypsum. A more

13

complete description of this useful technique is given in ref. [12]. To perform this type of
calculation requires an accurate and detailed oxide composition, such as that shown in Table
3.4. The process can be divided into the following steps:
1) If the oxide composition is for a cement (i.e., clinker ground with gypsum), subtract the
contribution of gypsum from the oxide composition.
As an example, assume that 2 wt% gypsum (C S H2) was added to the clinker to make the
cement. Gypsum consists of 33% C and 47% S by weight, so we would subtract 0.66% from
the total C content and 0.94% from the total S content (the remaining 20 wt% of gypsum is
bound water, which would be lost on ignition). If the amount of gypsum added to the cement is
be made. A typical clinker
not known, then a reasonable estimate must
S content of 0.5%

could be assumed, so the remaining S would be in gypsum. Clearly this will add a possible
source of error to the calculation.
2) Estimate the amount of C, S, A, and F in the clinker that is
present in phases other than the

main cement minerals, and subtract these amounts from the overall oxide compositions.
The S content of the clinker (having subtracted the gypsum in step 1, if the oxide
composition is for a cement) can be distributed in a few different phases, including K2SO4,
Na2SO4, Ca2K(SO4)3, and as impurities in the cement minerals. The only concern at this point is
the amount of C bound into phases such as Ca2K(SO4)3. If the ratio S /(N+K) in the clinker is

less than about 1, this will be a small correction that can probably be safely ignored. If not, a
procedure for estimating this amount is given in ref. [Error: Reference source not found].
The insoluble residue of the clinker or cement should be considered 67% S and 33% A,

and these amounts subtracted from the total amounts of S and A. If the insoluble residue is not
known, a value of 0.3 wt% can be assumed [Error: Reference source not found]. The amount of
free CaO should be subtracted from the C content. Finally, if there is any CO2 in the cement or
clinker, it should be assumed to be in the form of calcium carbonate (CaCO3); this means that
48% of the CO2 content should be subtracted from the total amount of C.
After these corrections, all of the remaining C, S, A, and F can be assumed to reside in the
main cement minerals.
3) Estimate the true compositions of the four main cement minerals.
These compositions can be measured directly using an x-ray microanalysis technique
similar to that used to generate Figure 3-0. However, this obviously negates all of the
advantages of performing the calculation. As noted by Taylor [Error: Reference source not
found], modern OPCs are processed in such a way that the compositions of the minerals in the
clinker are fairly constant, and thus average compositional values give a good approximation.
Table 3.4 lists the typical compositions reported by Taylor [Error: Reference source not found],
along with the theoretical compositions of the pure minerals.
Table 3.4. Typical compositions of the cement minerals as found in portland
cement clinker and cement (after [Error: Reference source not found], and also
given in [Error: Reference source not found]). The numbers in parentheses are the
values for the pure minerals. All values are wt%.

14

C3S

71.6 (73.7)

25.2 (26.3)

1.0 (0)

0.7 (0)

C2S

63.5 (65.1)

31.5 (34.9)

2.1 (0)

0.9 (0)

C3A

56.6 (62.3)

3.7 (0)

31.3 (37.7)

5.1 (0)

C4AF

47.5 (46.2)

3.6 (0)

21.9 (21.0)

21.4 (32.9)

4 ) Set up and solve a system of four equations and four unknowns to find the mineral
composition of the cement.
Once the total amount of C, S, A, and F residing in the cement minerals has been
calculated by adjusting the total oxide composition of the cement or clinker (steps 1 and 2) and
the ratio of the oxides within each of the main cement minerals has been estimated (step 3), a
system of four equations in four unknowns can be set up and solved for the amount (in wt%) of
each cement mineral. Using the cement oxide composition for proficiency cement #135 given in
Table 3.4 and the mineral oxide compositions given in Table 3.4 results in the following set of
equations:
0.716C3S + 0.635C2S + 0.566C3A + 0.475C4AF = 62.52 (C)
0.252C3S + 0.315C2S + 0.037C3A + 0.036C4AF = 21.34 (S)
0.010C3S + 0.021C2S + 0.313C3A + 0.219C4AF = 4.40

(A)

0.007C3S + 0.009C2S + 0.051C3A + 0.214C4AF = 3.07

(F)

3.2

Eqs. 3.2 can be solved using a computer program or spreadsheet or a programmable

calculator (or by hand if you have the patience!). Table 3.4 compares the mineral compositions
for cement #135 calculated using the standard Bogue calculation (Eqs. 3.1(a)) and the modified
calculation of Eqs. 3.2, along with an experimental determination using SEM/X-ray
microanalysis [Error: Reference source not found].
Table 3.4. The calculated and measured mineral composition of cement #135 (see
Table 3.4 for the oxide composition).
Mineral

Standard
Bogue

Modified
Bogue

SEM/X-ray
(ref. [Error:
Reference
source not
found]a)

C3S

55.4

64.7

62.1

C2S

19.7

14.4

16.4

C3A

6.6

3.47

6.2

C4AF

9.3

10.8

8.6

Total

91.0

93.3

93.3

15

Values reported in ref. [Error: Reference source not found] were converted from vol% to wt% and renormalized
to a total of 93.3%

Comparison of the values shown in Table 3.4 indicates that the modified Bogue gives
much higher C3S content and a lower C2S content than the standard Bogue, and that these
values are in better agreement with the SEM/X-ray analysis. For the C3A and C4AF phases the
agreement is not as good. It is difficult to draw any conclusions on this, because it is difficult to
distinguish the C3A and C4AF experimentally. In any case, the C3S content of the cement is the
most important aspect of the mineral composition, and this is certainly more accurate with the
modified Bogue.
According to the modified Bogue calculation, the total weight percent occupied by the
cement minerals is 93.3%. From Table 3.4 we can see that the free lime, loss on ignition, and
insoluble reside account for 1.6%. Other phases and their estimated amounts are: 2% calcium
sulfate (i.e. added gypsum), 1.2% K2SO4, 0.8% MgO (the mineral periclase), and 0.2% Na2SO4.

3.7

The fineness and particle size distribution of Portland cement

The final step in the production of cement is to grind the clinker pellets (and added
gypsum) into a fine powder. The resulting individual cement particles have a variety of angular
shapes, and a wide range of sizes (see Figure 3-0 below). Most of the cement particles will
consist of regions of each of the four main cement minerals.

Figure 3-0: SEM micrograph of a portland cement showing the wide range of
particle sizes and shapes.

The size of a cement particle has an important effect on the rate at which it will hydrate
when exposed to water. As it reacts, a layer of hydration product forms around the outside of
the particle, separating the unreacted core of the particle from the surrounding water. As this
layer grows thicker, the rate of hydration slows down. Therefore, a small particle will react much
more quickly than a large particle. A particle that has a diameter of 1 m will react completely in
about 1 day, whereas a particle with a diameter of 10 m will react completely in about 1 month.
Particles larger than about 50 m will probably never become fully reacted, even if there is a
sufficient source of water. Clearly, the particle size distribution is critical for controlling the rate
at which a cement sets and gains strength. There must be a certain amount of small particles to
ensure that the cement sets in a reasonable amount of time, but if there are too many small
particles the cement will set too quickly, leaving no time for mixing and placing. Fortunately, the
grinding process has a natural tendency to produce a wide range of particle sizes, so this is not
a problem.
Figure 3-0 shows the particle size distribution for a typical portland cement. About 10 wt%
of the cement is made of particles larger than 50 m, and only a few wt% is particles larger than
90 m. On the fine end, less than 10% of the cement is particles smaller than 2 m. Such a
distribution is traditionally measured by a sedimentation process, in which the size of the
particles is determined from the rate at which they sink in a column of liquid. A faster and more
precise method is laser particle analysis. A small amount of powder is dispersed in a solvent

16

such as methanol and then pumped through a clear tube in front of a laser. The particle size
distribution is calculated from the diffraction pattern generated by the scattering of the laser light
off of the particles.

Figure 3-0: The particle size distribution of a typical portland cement. Left: the
cumulative distribution, where the y axis value is the wt% of the particles that are
smaller than the x-axis value. Right: a histogram showing the wt% of particles in
different size ranges.

The average particle size, defined as the size for which 50 wt% of the cement consists of
larger particles, is sometimes used to characterize the overall fineness of the cement (in Figure
3-0 the average particle size is ). However, this is only one aspect of the particle size
distribution, the other being its breadth. If two cements have the same average particle size but
different distributions, the cement with the broader distribution will have more fine particles and
thus will exhibit a faster rate of early hydration.
A better parameter for describing the fineness of the cement (at least in terms of knowing
how reactive it will be at early times) is the specific surface area, because most of the surface
area comes from the smallest particles. The most common method for characterizing the
surface area of a cement is the Blaine air permeability test, which is described by an ASTM
standard [13]. This test is based on the fact that the rate at which air can pass through a porous
bed of particles under a given pressure gradient is a function of the surface area of the powder.
A chamber of known cross sectional area and volume is filled with a known mass of cement,
and then the time required to pass a known volume of air through the powder is measured.
While the surface area can in theory be calculated explicitly from this data, in practice the
surface area is determined through an empirical equation developed by measuring powders of a
known surface area using the same instrument. The resulting value, called the Blaine fineness,
is today expressed in units of m2/kg, although in previous times it was expressed in cm2/g. The
Blaine fineness of OPC usually ranges from 300 500 m2/kg (3000 5000 cm2/g).
It should be noted that the specific surface area is a notoriously difficult parameter to pin
down because most materials have features at many different length scales, so that the more
sensitive the measurement, the more surface area will be found. Thus different measuring
techniques give different values. When the surface area of a cement is measured using gas
sorption, a technique that measures how many gas molecules can fit on the surface of a solid,
the resulting value is 2-3 times higher than the Blaine value [Error: Reference source not found].
This occurs because the cement particles have a rough, irregular surface with internal cracks
and pores.
The specific surface area of a hydrated cement paste is much higher than that of the dry
cement powder, because the main hydration product, the C-S-H gel, has a system of very small
internal pores. This extremely important aspect of the microstructure of cement paste will be
discussed in detail in Chapter 7. As a final note, the specific surface area of a cement powder
tells little about the size of the largest particles or the breadth of the particle size distribution.
These parameters affect the workability of the cement at a given water/cement ratio and the
degree of hydration and strength development over long periods of time, among other factors.
No single parameter can substitute for a full particle size distribution.

17

3.8

Types of Portland cement

The ASTM has designated five types of portland cement, designated Types I-V. Physically
and chemically, these cement types differ primarily in their content of C3A and in their fineness.
In terms of performance, they differ primarily in the rate of early hydration and in their ability to
resist sulfate attack. The general characteristics of these types are listed in Table 3.4. The
oxide and mineral compositions of a typical Type I portland cement were given in Tables 3.4 and
3.6.
Table 3.4. General features of the main types of portland cement.
Classification

Characteristics

Applications

Type I

General purpose

Fairly high C3S content for

good early strength
development

General construction (most

buildings, bridges, pavements,
precast units, etc)

Type II

Moderate sulfate
resistance

Low C3A content (<8%)

Structures exposed to soil or

water containing sulfate ions

Type III

High early strength

Ground more finely, may have

slightly more C3S

Rapid construction, cold

weather concreting

Type IV

Low heat of hydration

(slow reacting)

Low content of C3S (<50%)

and C3A

Massive structures such as

dams. Now rare.

Type V

High sulfate resistance

Very low C3A content (<5%)

Structures exposed to high

levels of sulfate ions

White

White color

No C4AF, low MgO

Decorative (otherwise has

properties similar to Type I)

The differences between these cement types are rather subtle. All five types contain
about 75 wt% calcium silicate minerals, and the properties of mature concretes made with all
five are quite similar. Thus these five types are often described by the term ordinary portland
cement, or OPC.
Types II and V OPC are designed to be resistant to sulfate attack. Sulfate attack is an
important phenomenon that can cause severe damage to concrete structures. It is a chemical
reaction between the hydration products of C3A and sulfate ions that enter the concrete from the
outside environment. The products generated by this reaction have a larger volume than the
reactants, and this creates stresses which force the concrete to expand and crack. Although
hydration products of C4AF are similar to those of C3A, they are less vulnerable to expansion, so
the designations for Type II and Type V cement focus on keeping the C3A content low. There is
actually little difference between a Type I and Type II cement, and it is common to see cements
meeting both designations labeled as Type I/II. The phenomenon of sulfate attack will be
discussed in much more detail in Sections 5.3 and 12.3, but it should be noted here that the
most effective way to prevent sulfate attack is to keep the sulfate ions from entering the
concrete in the first place. This can be done by using mix designs that give a low permeability

18

(mainly by keeping the w/c ratio low) and, if practical, by putting physical barriers such as sheets
of plastic between the concrete and the soil.
Type III cement is designed to develop early strength more quickly than a Type I cement.
This is useful for maintaining a rapid pace of construction, since it allows cast-in-place concrete
to bear loads sooner and it reduces the time that precast concrete elements must remain in their
forms. These advantages are particularly important in cold weather, which significantly reduces
the rate of hydration (and thus strength gain) of all portland cements. The downsides of rapidreacting cements are a shorter period of workability, greater heat of hydration, and a slightly
lower ultimate strength.
Type IV cement is designed to release heat more slowly than a Type I cement, meaning of
course that it also gains strength more slowly. A slower rate of heat release limits the increase
in the core temperature of a concrete element. The maximum temperature scales with the size
of the structure, and Type III concrete was developed because of the problem of excessive
temperature rise in the interior of very large concrete structures such as dams. Type IV cement
is rarely used today, because similar properties can be obtained by using a blended cement.
White portland cement (WPC) is made with raw ingredients that are low in iron and
magnesium, the elements that give cement its grey color. These elements contribute essentially
nothing to the properties of cement paste, so white portland cement actually has quite good
properties. It tends to be significantly more expensive than OPC, however, so it is typically
confined to architectural applications. WPC is sometimes used for basic cements research
because the lack of iron improves the resolution of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
measurements.

3.9

Synthetic minerals used for research purposes

The hydration of portland cement is a complicated process because all of the cement
minerals are hydrating at the same time, forming a wide variety of hydration products. Like all
scientists who study complex systems, cement chemists often prefer to study simpler systems
consisting of one or perhaps two minerals. The advantage of this is that the results are much
easier to analyze and interpret. The disadvantage, of course, is that the behavior of the simple
system may or may not be characteristic of the full system. Fortunately, the pure mineral C3S is
in many respects a good model system for portland cement. The development of strength, the
early hydration kinetics, and the main hydration products in a C3S paste are all very similar to
those of portland cement. Pure cement minerals cannot be obtained by separating them out
from a cement, but must be manufactured separately. This is not particularly difficult, but it can
be time consuming and labor intensive, and the amount of material formed is generally quite
small.
The starting materials should be reagent grade CaCO3, SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 with low
impurity levels and a small particle size to enhance reactivity. Silica fume and colloidal silica are
good sources of SiO2, but quartz will also work as long as the particles are smaller than about
40 m. These reactants should be combined in the correct mole ratio for the mineral being
synthesized. The formation of the pure minerals is by solid-state reaction, which requires close
contact between the reactants. Therefore the reactants should be well mixed in the form of
slurry made with a solvent such as ethanol. The solvent should then be fully evaporated and
the resulting well-mixed powder pressed into a pellet to bring the reactants closer together.

19

To fire the pellets, they should be placed in a platinum crucible and heated in a hightemperature electric furnace. The heating rate should be slow, with a 1 hour hold near 900C to
fully decompose the CaCO3. The hold time at the highest temperature should be about 2 hours;
longer times do not noticeably increase the conversion. The conversion of the reactants into
minerals does not occur as readily as it does during the clinkering process, because of the lack
of a liquid phase. Usually it is necessary to grind and repress the pellet and fire it a second or
even a third time before all of the starting material reacts. The degree of reaction can be
evaluated by performing X-ray diffraction scans to see if there are peaks corresponding to
unreacted material or intermediate compounds.
In some cases it will be desirable to include impurity components in order to stabilize a
high-temperature polymorph or to more closely simulate the composition of the minerals as
found in cement clinker. As reported in ref. [14], there are two issues to watch out for. Some
components, including boron, sodium, potassium, sulfur, uranium, and fluorine will volatilize at
high temperatures, meaning that they may end up condensed on the inside of the furnace rather
than in the solid product. Covering the crucible will help but the composition of the product
should be measured independently. Also, phosphorous, iron, nickel, cobalt, and other p-block
elements and transition metals in their elemental form can damage the platinum crucible [Error:
Reference source not found]. This may not be a problem if the conditions are oxidizing and the
concentrations are low, but should be kept in mind if you are using someone elses crucible.
Here are some additional instructions and suggestions for making each of the main four
cement minerals, taken from references Error: Reference source not found and 15.
Tricalcium silicate (C3S)
To make pure triclinic C3S, fire pellets at 1450-1500C. Grind up and refire at least once,
using XRD to ensure that no unreacted CaO remains. To form the monoclinic form of C3S found
in cement requires stabilizing impurities. One possibility is to add up to 1 wt% of MgO and Al2O3
in place of SiO2.
Dicalcium silicate (C2S)
Use of pure reactants will result in the unreactive gamma form of C2S. To stabilize the
beta form found in cement requires impurities such as MgO and Al2O3 in amounts generally < 1
wt%. B2O3 is an excellent stabilizer but is not found in cement. The firing procedure is the same
as for C3S, but lower temperatures (down to ~1350C) may be used. Regrind as needed,
checking for free CaO. Rapid cooling by removing the crucible from the furnace will help
stabilize the beta form. See the section below on the Pechini process for making a highly
reactive form of -C2S using a different method.
Tricalcium aluminate (C3A)
The firing temperature should be ~ 1425C, and multiple grindings may be needed.
Impurities are not needed for stabilization.
Tetracalcium aluminoferrite (C4AF)
Note that the stoichiometry of the cement mineral tends to be rather different than the
formula suggests (see Section 3.5). The ratio of A to F can be varied, but C/(A+F) should be

20

equal to 2. Impurities are not needed for stabilization. The firing temperature should be ~
1370C and more than one grinding may be needed.
Formation of fine powders (Pechini process)
As discussed above, the formation of solid compounds by solid-state reaction is limited by
the need for the individual reactants to be in close proximity. If the reactants can be mixed on
an atomic scale prior to firing, it is possible to form solid compounds at much lower
temperatures than those listed above. This can be accomplished by forming intermediate
chemical compounds. An important side effect of a lower firing temperature is a higher surface
area product, since there is less opportunity for finely divided material to sinter. A high surface
area product is particularly useful for investigating C2S, because its reactivity with water is
limited by its relatively low solubility. The solubility of a powder is proportional to its surface
area. Another advantage of this method is that pure -C2S can be formed, i.e. with no
stabilizing impurities. The transformation to the more stable gamma phase is prevented by the
high surface area.
As summarized by Hong and Young [16], reactive C2S can be formed by a number of
methods, including sol gel and spray drying, evaporative decomposition of solutions, thermal
decomposition of the mineral hillebrandite or of calcium silicate hydrate phases, and by the
Pechini process [17]]. The latter process, summarized briefly below, is particularly useful
because the surface area can be accurately controlled by varying the firing temperature [Error:
Reference source not found,Error: Reference source not found]. Table 3.4 shows the surface
area (measured by gas sorption) and the equivalent particle diameter (calculated from the
surface area assuming all particles are the same size) of C2S formed at different calcination
temperatures.
Table 3.4. Effect of firing temperature on the surface area of dicalcium
silicate (C2S) powder, after [Error: Reference source not found].
Firing
Temperature (C)

BET Surface Area

(m2/g)

Equiv. Diam .
(m)

700

40

0.045

800

31

0.059

900

16

0.114

1000

0.300

1200

1.2

1.60

1300

1.1

1.75

The surface area is a strong function of the firing temperature, particularly in the range of
800 1200C. Hong and Young [Error: Reference source not found] found that the C2S fired at
700C could be fully hydrated in less than 4 days, whereas C2S formed at 1300C or higher
requires more than 28 days.

21

To form C2S by the Pechini process, the source of silica is a colloidal silica slurry
consisting of nanometer-sized SiO2 particles in water (this is commercially available). The
correct stoichiometric amount of Ca(NO3)2 is dissolved in the slurry, causing the reactants to be
mixed on the scale of nanometers. This solution is stabilized by combining it with a resin
composed of citric acid monohydrate and ethylene glycol. As the mixture of reactants and resin
is dried in a Pyrex beaker over a hot plate, it forms a crusty, papery solid that can be easily
ground into a fine powder before firing. For more details see refs. [Error: Reference source not
found] and [Error: Reference source not found].

References

22

1 . S.H. Kosmatka, B. Kerkhoff, and W.C. Panarese, Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures,
Portland Cement Association, Skokie, IL. 14th Ed., 2002.
2. H.F.W. Taylor, Cement Chemistry, Thomas Telford, London, 2nd Ed., 1997.
3 . T.D. Dyer, J.E. Halliday, and R.K. Dhir, An investigation of the hydration chemistry of ternary
blends containing cement kiln dust, J. Mater. Sci. 34, pp. 4975-4983 (1999).
4 . K.J. Wang, M.S. Konsta-Gdoutos, and S.R. Shah, Hydration, rheology, and strength of ordinary
Portland cement (OPC)-cement kiln dust (CKD)-slag binders, ACI Mater. J. 99, pp. 173-179
(2002).
5 . S.-D. Wang, Alkali-activated slag cement and concrete: a review of properties and problems,
Adv. Cem. Res. 7, pp. 93-102 (1995).
6 . T.M. Salem and S.M. Ragai, Electrical conductivity of granulated slag cement kiln dust- silica
fume pastes at different porosities, Cem. Concr. Res. 31, pp. 781-787 (2001).
7 . Youssef, Utilization of cement kiln dust in the manufacture of wall tiles, Ind. Ceram. 22, pp. 1-8
(2002).
8 . A.M. Amin, Eebied, and H. Eldidamony, Activation of Granulated Slag with Calcined Cement Kiln
Dust, Silicates Industriels 60, pp. 109-115 (1995).
9 . D.P. Bentz and P.E. Stutzman, SEM Analysis and Computer Modeling of Hydration of Portland
Cement, pp. 60-73 in Petrography of Cementitious Materials, S.M. Dehayes, D. Stark, Eds. ASTM,
Philadelphia, 1994.
10 . D.P. Bentz, X. Feng, C.-J. Haecker, and P.E. Stutzman, Analysis of CCRL Proficiency Cements
135 and 136 using CEMHYD3D, NIST Internal Report 6545, August 2000.
11 . ASTM C150
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13 . ASTM C 204 Blaine fineness
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