Freeways

406. Freeways
406.1. Level of Service
According to the Highway Capacity Manual

[1],

the density of passenger car

equivalents per mile per lane (pcpmpl or pc/mi/ln) of a freeway segment is

used to dene the level of service. These LOS boundaries can also be
expressed in terms of the following proxy variablesspeed (mph), volume to
capacity ratio, and service ow rate (pcphpl or pc/mi/ln). Table 406.1
summarizes the boundaries for the various regimes of level of service (A
through E) based on these parameters. This table can be used once the free
ow speed (FFS) has been determined.

Table 406.1. Level of Service Criteria for Basic Freeway Segments

A

(LOS) B

(LOS) C

(LOS) D

(LOS) E

FFS = 75 mph
Maximum

11

18

26

35

45

75.0

74.8

70.6

62.2

53.3

0.34

0.56

0.76

0.90

1.00

820

1350

1830

2170

2400

density
(pc/mi/ln)
Minimum
speed
(mi/h)
Maximum
v/c ratio
Maximum

service
ow rate
(pc/h/ln)
FFS = 70 mph
Maximum

11

18

26

35

45

70.0

70.0

68.2

61.5

53.3

0.32

0.53

0.74

0.90

1.00

770

1260

1770

2150

2400

11

18

26

35

45

65.0

65.0

64.6

59.7

52.2

0.30

0.50

0.71

0.89

1.00

710

1170

1680

2090

2350

18

26

35

45

density
(pc/mi/ln)
Minimum
speed
(mi/h)
Maximum
v/c ratio
Maximum
service
ow rate
(pc/h/ln)
FFS = 65 mph
Maximum
density
(pc/mi/ln)
Minimum
speed
(mi/h)
Maximum
v/c ratio
Maximum
service
ow rate
(pc/h/ln)
FFS = 60 mph
Maximum
density
(pc/mi/ln)

11

Minimum

60.0

60.0

60.0

57.6

51.1

0.29

0.47

0.68

0.88

1.00

660

1080

1560

2020

2300

11

18

26

35

45

55.0

55.0

55.0

54.7

50.0

0.27

0.44

0.64

0.85

1.00

600

990

1430

1910

2250

speed
(mi/h)
Maximum
v/c ratio
Maximum
service
ow rate
(pc/h/ln)
FFS = 55 mph
Maximum
density
(pc/mi/ln)
Minimum
speed
(mi/h)
Maximum
v/c ratio
Maximum
service
ow rate
(pc/h/ln)
Source Highway Capacity Manual , Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC,
2000.

NOTE The upper limit for LOS E corresponds to a v/c ratio = 1.0.
Therefore, the corresponding value of service ow rate represents freeway
lane capacity. Thus, at a free ow speed of 65 mph, a freeway lane has a
capacity of 2350 pc/h.

406.2. Default Values of Parameters

For basic freeway segments, the following default values of certain input
parameters may be used when eld measured data are not available.
Lane width = 12 ft
Lateral clearance = 10 ft
Base free ow speed = 75 mph (rural), 70 mph (urban)
PHF = 0.88 (rural), 0.92 (urban)
Percentage of heavy vehicles = 10% (rural), 5% (urban)
Driver population factor = 1.00. This may be changed to 0.85 for analysis
of weekend conditions in a recreational area.
FFS is not equal to posted speed limit or 85th percentile speed. It is the mean
eld measured speed when volumes are less than 1300 pcphpl.

406.3. Free Flow Speed

The Highway Capacity Manual outlines the following procedure for
determining free ow speed based on the base free ow speed (BFFS) and
certain site-specic adjustments (speed deductions).

(406.1)
The following values of the base free ow speed (BFFS) are specied by the
HCM:
BFFS = 70 mph (urban)
BFFS = 75 mph (rural)
406.3.1. Speed Adjustments to BFFS
The parameters f

LW,

LC,

N,

and f

ID

are adjustments for lane width, right

shoulder lateral clearance, number of lanes, and interchange density,

respectively. These are given by Tables 406.2 through 406.5 respectively.

Table 406.2. Free Flow Speed Adjustment for Lane Width

Reduction in free ow speed

Lane width (ft)

(mph)

12

0.0

11

1.9

10

6.6

Source Highway Capacity Manual , Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC,

2000.

Table 406.3. Free Flow Speed Adjustment for Lateral Clearance

Reduction in free ow speed (mph)
Lanes in one direction
Right
shoulder
lateral

clearance
(ft)
6

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.1

1.2

0.8

0.4

0.2

1.8

1.2

0.6

0.3

2.4

1.6

0.8

0.4

3.0

2.0

1.0

0.5

3.6

2.4

1.2

0.6

Source Highway Capacity Manual , Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC,

2000.

Table 406.4. Free Flow Speed Adjustment for Number of Lanes

Reduction in free ow speed

Number of lanes in one direction

(mph)

0.0

1.5

3.0

4.5
Note: For all rural freeway segments, f

= 0.0

Source Highway Capacity Manual , Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC,

2000.

Table 406.5. Free Flow Speed Adjustment for Interchange Density

Reduction in free ow speed

Number of interchanges per mile

(mph)

0.50

0.0

0.75

1.3

1.00

2.5

1.25

3.7

1.50

5.0

1.75

6.3

2.00

7.5

Source Highway Capacity Manual , Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC,

2000.

406.4. Flow Rate

The peak ow rate v p (pcphpl) is calculated from the peak hourly volume V
(veh/h) using

(406.2)
where PHF = peak-hour factor based on peak 15-min vehicular count

N = number of lanes
f

HV

= driver population factor

= heavy vehicle factor

406.5. Peak Hour Factor

The peak-hour factor is an indicator of the variability of ow. The greater the
variability in the ow, the lower is the PHF. A lower value of PHF results in a
higher value of peak ow rate v p .
Example 406.1 Calculation of Peak-Hour Factor (PHF)
Fifteen minute trac counts for a highway were conducted over a contiguous
2-h window. These are shown in the table below. What is the peak-hour
factor?
Time (hh:mm)

Vehicles

09:0009:15

234

09:1509:30

256

09:3009:45

245

09:4510:00

231

10:0010:15

237

10:1510:30

266

10:3010:45

245

10:4511:00

210

Solution The sliding window (1-h width) captures the hourly volumes for the
9:0010:00, 9:1510:15, 9:3010:30, 9:4510:45, and 10:0011:00 windows as
966, 969, 979, 979, and 958, respectively.

Time (hh:mm)

Vehicles

Consecutive hourly
counts

09:0009:15

234

966

09:1509:30

256

969

09:3009:45

245

979

09:4510:00

231

979

10:0010:15

237

958

10:1510:30

266

10:3010:45

245

10:4511:00

210

The peak hourly volume is then V = 979 veh/h and the peak 15-min ow is
266 veh/15 min. The PHF is calculated as

406.6. Heavy Vehicle Factor

The heavy vehicle factor converts the mixed trac (passenger cars, trucks,
buses, and recreational vehicles) into an equivalent number of passenger
cars. The factor is calculated in terms of equivalence factors E

(trucks and

cars. The factor is calculated in terms of equivalence factors E T (trucks and

buses) and E R (RVs), which in turn are dependent primarily on terrain. The
factor f

HV

is given by

(406.3)
where P T and P R are the truck fraction and RV fraction, respectively and
equivalence factors E T and E R are given in Table 406.6.

Table 406.6. Passenger Car Equivalents on Extended Freeway

Segments
Equivalence

(Type of

(Type of

factor

terrain) Level

terrain) Rolling

E T (trucks and

(Type of
terrain)
Mountainous

1.5

2.5

4.5

1.2

2.0

4.0

buses)

E R (RVs)

Source Highway Capacity Manual , Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC,

2000.

The factors given in Table 406.6 apply when analyzing extended sections of
freeways that have been broadly classied as level/rolling/mountainous.
However, when making more detailed analysis of freeway segments with
short lengths and specic grades, then equivalence factors E T and E R
should be given by Tables 406.7 through 406.9.

Table 406.7. Passenger Car Equivalents for Trucks and Buses on

Upgrades

Table 406.8. Passenger Car Equivalents for RVs on Upgrades

Table 406.9. Passenger Car Equivalents for Trucks and Buses on

Downgrades
ET
Percentage of trucks
Downgrade

Length

(%)

(mi)

10

15

20

<4

All

1.5

1.5

1.5

1.5

45

1.5

1.5

1.5

1.5

45

>4

2.0

2.0

2.0

1.5

>56

1.5

1.5

1.5

1.5

>56

>4

5.5

4.0

4.0

3.0

>.6

1.5

1.5

1.5

1.5

>6

>4

7.5

6.0

5.5

4.5

Source Highway Capacity Manual , Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC,

2000.

406.7. Driver Population Factor

The driver population factor (f

P)

accounts for the eect of driver's familiarity

with the roadway on level of service. This factor varies between 0.85 and 1.0.
Unless there is sucient reason for using a lesser value, the default value is
1.0, which represents weekday commuter trac.

406.8. Determining Level of Service

Either density or peak ow rate can be used in conjunction with the free ow
speed to determine LOS using Table 406.1. The density D (pc/mi/ln) is
calculated from the ow rate v p (pc/h/ln) using

(406.4)
where S is average speed (mph).
Example 406.2
Determine the level of service for an extended stretch of a four-lane (two
lanes in each direction) rural freeway in rolling terrain. Lanes are 11 ft wide.
Shoulder width = 2 ft. Assume a peak-hour factor PHF = 0.92. The trac
consists of approximately 5% trucks and 2% RVs. The one way peak-hour
volume is 2300 veh/h. There are 0.7 interchanges per mile. Assume that the
trac primarily consists of commuters.
Solution For a rural freeway, assume BFFS = 75 mph.
Lane width = 11 ft. Table 406.2 gives f

LW

= 1.9

Right shoulder clearance = 2 ft. Table 406.3 gives f

For a rural freeway, Table 406.4 gives f

LC

= 2.4

= 0.0

Interchange density = 0.7 int/mile Table 406.5 gives f

interpolation)
Commuter trac implies population factor f

= 1.0

ID

= 1.0 (by

Heavy vehicle factor

V = 2300 vph

For a free ow speed = 70 mph and ow rate = 1369 pcphpl, LOS C (range
12601770).
Example 406.3
On a freeway serving trac to and from coastal beach resorts, the minimum
level of service during the peak hour is to be D . Determine the number of
lanes required if the following parameters are given:
One directional hourly volume = 4500 vph
PHF = 0.90
Lane width = 12 ft
Rolling terrain
Average spacing of interchanges = 2 mi
8% trucks and 2% RVs
Right shoulder lateral clearance = 6 ft
Solution For a suburban freeway, with an FFS = 65 mph, maximum ow rate
for LOS D is approximately 2000 pcphpl. Based on the V = 4500 vph, which
will be inated by PHF and f

HV

to approximately 6000 pcphpl, let us assume

three lanes. This initial assumption is needed in order to use a correction f

Assume BFFS = 70 mph
Lane width = 12 ft. Table 406.2 gives f

LW

= 0.0.

Right shoulder clearance = 6 ft. Table 406.3 gives f

LC

= 0.0.

N.

For three lanes in each direction, Table 406.4 gives f

= 3.0.

Interchange density = 0.5 int/mile. Table 406.5 gives f

Recreational destination, implying population factor f

ID

= 0.0.

= 0.9.

Heavy vehicle factor

V = 4500 vph

Interpolating for the upper limit of LOS D between FFS = 70 mph (2150
pcphpl) and FFS = 65 mph (2090 pcphpl), for an FFS = 67 mph, maximum ow
rate for LOS D is 2114 pcphpl.

Therefore, three lanes are OK.

406.9. Weaving
Weaving length is measured from a point at the merge gore where the right
edge of the freeway lane and the left edge of the merging lane are 2 ft apart
to a point on the diverge gore where the two edges are 12 ft apart. The
length of the weaving segment constrains the time and space within which
the driver must make all lane changes. Typically, weaving segments are
limited to a length of 2500 ft. Longer weaving segments are possible, but
they typically have merging and diverging movements separated. Table
406.10 denes the LOS criteria for weaving segments.

Table 406.10. LOS Criteria for Weaving Segments

[Density (pc/mi/ln)]
LOS

Freeway weaving
segment

[Density (pc/mi/ln)]
Multilane and
collector distributor

segment

weaving segments

10

12

> 1020

>1224

>2028

>2432

>2835

>3236

>3543

>3640

>43

>40

Source Highway Capacity Manual , Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC,

2000.

406.9.1. Weaving Segment Conguration

The conguration of a weaving segment is based on the number of lane
changes required of each weaving movement. Three congurationstype A,
type B, and type C are used. The applicability of these three types is
summarized in the Table 406.11, where v w 1 is the larger of the two weaving
ow rates (pc/h) and v w 2 is the smaller of the two weaving ow rates (pc/h).

Table 406.11. Weaving Conguration Types

Number of lane changes required by movement

vw1
Number of lane
changes

required by

movement v w 2
0

Type B

Type B

Type C

Type B

Type A

N/A

Type C

N/A

N/A

Source Highway Capacity Manual , Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC,

2000.

Table 406.12. LOS Criteria for Merge and Diverge Areas

LOS

Density (pc/mi/ln)

10

>1020

>2028

>2835

>35

Demand exceeds capacity

The three types of geometric congurations are dened below:

Type A

Weaving vehicles in both directions

must make one lane change to
successfully complete a weaving
maneuver.

Type B

Weaving vehicles in one direction

may complete a weaving maneuver
without making a lane change,
whereas other vehicles must make
one lane change to successfully
complete a weaving maneuver.

Type C

Weaving vehicles in one direction

may complete a weaving maneuver
without making a lane change,
whereas other vehicles must make
at least two lane changes to
successfully complete a weaving
maneuver.

406.9.2. Freeway Ramps

For freeway ramps, in the absence of local eld measured data, the following
defaults may be assumed:
Acceleration lane length = 590 ft
Deceleration lane length = 140 ft
Ramp free ow speed = 35 mph
PHF = 0.88 (rural), 0.92 (urban)
Heavy vehicles = 10% (rural), 5% (urban)
Driver population factor = 1.0
406.9.3. Freeway Ramp Analysis
The critical variables for ramp junctions are shown below.

406.9.4. On-Ramps
The methodology to determine LOS on on-ramps has three major steps.

First, ow entering lanes 1 and 2 immediately upstream of the merge

inuence area (v 12) or at the beginning of the deceleration lane at diverge is
determined as a fraction of the approach ow (v F ) using Eq. (406.5).

(406.5)
The procedure to determine the fraction P FM for on-ramps is summarized in
Table 406.13.

Table 406.13. HCM Models for Predicting v12 at On-Ramps

Four-lane freeways

P FM = 1.000

(two lanes in each

direction)
Six-lane freeways

P FM = 0.5775 +

Eq. (406.6)

(three lanes in each

0.000028L A

Eq. (406.7)

direction)

P FM = 0.7289

Eq. (406.8)

0.0000135(v F + v R )
0.003296 +
0.000063L up

P FM = 0.5487 +
0.2628v D /L down
Eight-lane freeways

P FM = 0.2178

(four lanes in each

0.000125v R +

direction)

0.01115L A /S FR

Eq. (406.9)

Second, several capacity values are determined to determine the likelihood of

congestion. These are as follows:
Maximum total ow approaching a major diverge area on the freeway ( v F ),
Maximum total ow departing from a merge or diverge area on the freeway
(v FO ),

Maximum total ow entering the ramp inuence area (v R 12 for merge

areas and v 12 for diverge areas), and
Maximum ow on a ramp (v R ).
The density of ow within the ramp inuence area ( D R ) and the level of
service based on this variable are determined. For some situations, the
average speed of vehicles within the inuence area (S R ) may also be
estimated.
All relevant freeway and ramp ows must be converted to equivalent pc/h
under base conditions during the peak 15 min of the hour. This is
accomplished by using the peak hour factor (PHF) and heavy vehicle factor
(f

HV ).

Ramps on four-lane, eight-lane, and ten-lane freeways are always analyzed as

isolated merge or diverge areas. The nature of the procedure for predicting

v 12 makes the four-lane case trivial, and there is insucient data to

determine the eects of adjacent ramps on eight-lane and ten-lane freeways.
For six-lane freeways, the eect of adjacent ramps on lane distribution at a
subject ramp can be calculated. When nearby ramps inject vehicles into or
remove them from lane 1, the lane distribution may be seriously altered.
Important variables determining this impact include the total ow on the
upstream (v U ) or downstream (v D ) ramp (or both), in pc/h, and the distance
from the subject ramp to the adjacent upstream (L up) or downstream (L down)
ramp (or both), in feet. For ramps on six-lane freeways, therefore, an
additional analysis step is required to determine whether adjacent ramps are
close enough to aect trac distribution in the subject ramp.
With all of these variables, the total approaching freeway ow has the most
dominant inuence on ow in lanes 1 and 2. Longer acceleration lanes lead
to lower densities in the inuence area and higher ows in lanes 1 and 2.
When the ramp has a higher free-ow speed, vehicles tend to enter the
freeway at higher speeds, and approaching freeway vehicles tend to move
further left to avoid the possibility of high-speed turbulence.
The variables used in Table 406.13 are dened as follows:

v 12 = ow rate in lanes 1 and 2 of freeway immediately upstream of merge

(pc/h)

v F = freeway demand ow rate immediately upstream of merge (pc/h)

v R = on-ramp demand ow rate (pc/h)
v D = demand ow rate on adjacent downstream ramp (pc/h)
P FM = fraction of approaching freeway ow remaining in lanes 1 and 2
immediately upstream of merge

L A = length of acceleration lane (ft)

S FR = free-ow speed of ramp (mi/h)
L up = distance to adjacent upstream ramp (ft)
L down = distance to adjacent downstream ramp (ft)
Selecting equations for PFM for Six-Lane Freeways
Adjacent
upstream

Subject
ramp

ramp

Adjacent
downstream
ramp

Equation
used

Remarks

None

On

None

Eq. (406.6)

None

On

On

Eq. (406.6)

None

On

Eq. (406.6)

Use Eq.

or (406.8)

(406.6) if
distance
between
ramps

L EQ , Eq.
(406.8)
otherwise
On

On

None

Eq. (406.6)

On

None

Eq. (406.6)

Use Eq.

or (406.7)

(406.6) if
distance
between
ramps

L EQ , Eq.

(406.7)
otherwise
On

On

On

Eq. (406.6)

On

On

Eq. (406.6)

Use Eq.

or (406.8)

(406.6) if
distance
between
ramps

L EQ , Eq.
(406.8)
otherwise
O

On

On

Eq. (406.6)

Use Eq.

or (406.7)

(406.6) if
distance
between
ramps

L EQ , Eq.
(406.7)
otherwise
O

On

Eq. (406.6),

Use Eq.

(406.7), or

(406.6) if

(406.8)

distance
between
ramps

L EQ . Else,
try both
Eqs. (406.7)
and (406.8)
and choose
larger value
of P FM

L EQ is that distance for which Eqs. (406.5) and (406.6) or (406.7) as

appropriate, yield the same value of P

. Where an adjacent upstream o-

appropriate, yield the same value of P FM . Where an adjacent upstream oramp exists, calculate LEQ according to Eq. (406.10):

(406.10)
If L up > L EQ , use Eq. (406.6), otherwise use Eq. (406.8).
Similarly, when a downstream ramp exists, Eq. (406.11) is used to compute

L EQ

(406.11)
If L down > L EQ , use Eq. (406.6), otherwise use Eq. (406.8).
406.9.5. Two-Lane On-Ramps
For two-lane on-ramps, however, the following values of P FM are used:
Four-lane freeways, P FM = 1.000
Six-lane freeways, P FM = 0.555
Eight-lane freeways, P FM = 0.209
406.9.6. O-Ramps
Flow rate in lanes 1 and 2 immediately upstream of the diverge ( v 12) is
determined as the sum of the ow rate in ramp plus a fraction of the rest of
approach ow (v F v R ) using Eq. (406.12).

(406.12)
The procedure to determine the fraction P FD for o-ramps is summarized in
Table 406.14.

Table 406.14. HCM Models for Predicting v12 at O-Ramps

Four-lane freeways

P FD = 1.000

(two lanes in each

direction)
Six-lane freeways

P FD = 0.760

Eq. (406.13)

(three lanes in each

0.000025v F

Eq. (406.14)

direction)

0.000046v R

Eq. (406.15)

P FD = 0.717
0.000039v F +
0.0604v U /L up

P FD = 0.616
0.000021v F +
0.1248v D /L down
Eight-lane freeways

P FD = 0.436

Eq. (406.16)

(four lanes in each

direction)

The variables used in Table 406.14 are dened as follows:

v 12 = ow rate in lanes 1 and 2 of freeway immediately upstream of

diverge (pc/h)

v F = freeway demand ow rate immediately upstream of diverge (pc/h)

v R = o-ramp demand ow rate (pc/h)
v U = demand ow rate on adjacent upstream ramp (pc/h)
v D = demand ow rate on adjacent downstream ramp (pc/h)
P FD = proportion of through freeway ow remaining in lanes 1 and 2
immediately upstream of diverge

L up = distance to adjacent upstream ramp (ft)

L down = distance to adjacent downstream ramp (ft)
Selecting equations for PFD for Six-Lane Freeways

Adjacent
upstream

Subject
ramp

ramp

Adjacent
downstream
ramp

Equation
used

Remarks

None

None

Eq. (406.13)

None

On

Eq. (406.13)

None

Eq. (406.13)

Use Eq.

or (406.15)

(406.13) if
distance
between
ramps

L EQ , Eq.
(406.15)
otherwise
On

None

Eq. (406.13)

Use Eq.

or (406.14)

(406.13) if
distance
between
ramps

L EQ , Eq.
(406.14)
otherwise
O

None

Eq. (406.13)

On

On

Eq. (406.13)

Use Eq.

or (406.14)

(406.13) if
distance
between
ramps

L EQ , Eq.
(406.14)
otherwise
On

Eq. (406.13),

Use Eq.

(406.14), or

(406.13) if

(406.15)

distance
between
ramps

L EQ . Else,
try both
Eqs. (406.14)
and (406.15)
and choose
larger value
of P FD
O

On

Eq. (406.13)

Eq. (406.13)

Use Eq.

or (406.15)

(406.13) if
distance
between
ramps

L EQ , Eq.
(406.15)
otherwise

L EQ is that distance for which Eq. (406.13) and Eq. (406.14) or (406.15), as
appropriate, yield the same value of P FD . Where an adjacent upstream onramp exists, L EQ is calculated using Eq. (406.16).

(406.16)
Where an adjacent downstream o-ramp exists, L EQ is calculated using Eq.
(406.17).

(406.17)
406.9.7. Two-Lane O-Ramps
Rather than using the standard equations of Table 406.14, P FD for two-lane
o-ramps is found as follows:

Four-lane freeways, P FD = 1.000

Six-lane freeways, P FD = 0.450
Eight-lane freeways, P FD = 0.260
[1]Highway

Capacity Manual , Transportation Research Board, Washington,

DC, 2000.
Citation
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