TECHNICAL TERMS

Measurement
Measurement is the act, or the result, of a quantitative comparison between a
predetermined standard and an unknown magnitude.
Range
It represents the highest possible value that can be measured by an instrument.
Scale sensitivity
It is defined as the ratio of a change in scale reading to the corresponding change
in pointer deflection. It actually denotes the smallest change in the measured variable to
which an instrument responds.
True or actual value
It is the actual magnitude of a signal input to a measuring system which can only
be approached and never evaluated.
Accuracy
It is defined as the closeness with which the reading approaches an accepted
standard value or true value.
Precision
It is the degree of reproducibility among several independent measurements of
the same true value under specified conditions. It is usually expressed in terms of
deviation in measurement.
Repeatability
It is defined as the closeness of agreement among the number of consecutive
measurement of the output for the same value of input under the same operating
conditions. It may be specified in terms of units for a given period of time.

 Reliability
It is the ability of a system to perform and maintain its function in routine
circumstances. Consistency of a set of measurements or measuring instrument often used
to describe a test.
Systematic Errors
A constant uniform deviation of the operation of an instrument is known as
systematic error. Instrumentational error, environmental error, Systematic error and
observation error are systematic errors.
Random Errors
Some errors result through the systematic and instrument errors are reduced or at
least accounted for. The causes of such errors are unknown and hence, the errors are
called random errors.
Calibration
Calibration is the process of determining and adjusting an instruments accuracy
to make sure its accuracy is within the manufacturers specifications.
GENERAL CONCEPT
Introduction to Metrology
Metrology word is derived from two Greek words such as metro which means
measurement and logy which means science. Metrology is the science of precision
measurement. The engineer can say it is the science of measurement of lengths and
angles and all related quantities like width, depth, diameter and straightness with high
accuracy. Metrology demands pure knowledge of certain basic mathematical and
physical principles. The development of the industry largely depends on the engineering
metrology. Metrology is concerned with the establishment, reproduction and
conservation and transfer of units of measurements and their standards. Irrespective of
the branch of engineering, all engineers should know about various instruments and

techniques.
Introduction to Measurement
Measurement is defined as the process of numerical evaluation of a dimension or
the process of comparison with standard measuring instruments. The elements of
measuring system include the instrumentation, calibration standards, environmental
influence, human operator limitations and features of the work-piece. The basic aim of
measurement in industries is to check whether a component has been manufactured to
the requirement of a specification or not.

Types of Metrology
Legal Metrology
'Legal metrology' is that part of metrology which treats units of measurements,
methods of measurements and the measuring instruments, in relation to the technical and
legal requirements. The activities of the service of 'Legal Metrology' are:
(i)
(ii)

Control of measuring instruments;

Testing of prototypes/models of measuring instruments;

(iii)

Examination of a measuring instrument to verify its conformity to the statutory

requirements etc.

Dynamic Metrology
'Dynamic metrology' is the technique of measuring small variations of a
continuous nature. The technique has proved very valuable, and a record of continuous
measurement, over a surface, for instance, has obvious advantages over individual
measurements of an isolated character.
Deterministic metrology
Deterministic metrology is a new philosophy in which part measurement is
replaced by process measurement. The new techniques such as 3D error compensation
by CNC (Computer Numerical Control) systems and expert systems are applied, leading
to fully adaptive control. This technology is used for very high precision manufacturing

machinery and control systems to achieve micro technology and nanotechnology

accuracies.
OBJECTIVES OF METROLOGY
Although the basic objective of a measurement is to provide therequired accuracy
at a minimum cost, metrology has further objectives ina modern engineering plant with
different shapes which are:
1. Complete evaluation of newly developed products.
2.
Determination of the process capabilities and ensure that these are better
than the relevant component tolerances.
3.
Determination of the measuring instrument capabilities andensure that
they are quite sufficient for their respective measurements.
4.
Minimizing the cost of inspection by effective and efficient use of
available facilities.
5.
Reducing the cost of rejects and rework through application of Statistical
Quality Control Techniques.
6. To standardize the measuring methods
7. To maintain the accuracies of measurement.
8. To prepare designs for all gauges and special inspection fixtures.

Necessity and Importance of Metrology

1.

The importance of the science of measurement as a tool for scientific

research (by which accurate and reliable information can be obtained) was emphasized
by Ga1ileo and Gvethe. This is essential for solving almost all technical problems in the
field of engineering in general, and in production engineering and experimental design in
particular. The design engineer should not only check his design from the point of view
of strength or economical production, but he should also keep in mind how the
dimensions specified can be checked or measured. Unfortunately, a considerable amount

of engineering work is still being executed without realizing the importance of

inspection and quality control for improving the function of product and achieving the
economical production.

2.

Higher productivity and accuracy is called for by the present

manufacturing techniques. This cannot be achieved unless the science of metrology is

understood, introduced and applied in industries. Improving the quality of production
necessitates proportional improvement of the measuring accuracy, and marking out of
components before machining and the in-process and post process control of the
dimensional and geometrical accuracies of the product. Proper gauges should be
designed and used for rapid and effective inspection. Also automation and automatic
control, which are the modem trends for future developments, are based on
measurement. Means for automatic
gauging as well as for position and displacement measurement with feedback control
have to be provided.
METHODS OF MEASUREMENTS

These are the methods of comparison used in measurement process. In precision

measurement various methods of measurement are adopted depending upon the accuracy
required and the amount of permissible error.
The methods of measurement can be classified as:
l. Direct method
2. Indirect method
3.

Absolute or Fundamental method

4. Comparative method
5. Transposition method
6. Coincidence method
7. Deflection method
8. Complementary method
9. Contact method

10. Contact less method

1. Direct method of measurement:
This is a simple method of measurement, in which the value of the quantity to be
measured is obtained directly without any calculations. For example, measurements by
using scales, vernier callipers, micrometers, bevel protector etc. This method is most
widely used in production. This method is not very accurate because it depends on
human insensitiveness in making judgment.
2. Indirect method of measurement:
In indirect method the value of quantity to be measured is obtained by measuring
other quantities which are functionally related to the required value. E.g. Angle
measurement by sine bar, measurement of screw pitch diameter by three wire method
etc.
3. Absolute or Fundamental method:
It is based on the measurement of the base quantities used to define the quantity.
For example, measuring a quantity directly in accordance with the definition of that
quantity, or measuring a quantity indirectly by direct measurement of the quantities
linked with the definition of the quantity to be measured.
4. Comparative method:
In this method the value of the quantity to be measured is compared with known
value of the same quantity or other quantity practically related to it. So, in this method
only the deviations from a master gauge are determined, e.g., dial indicators, or other
comparators.

5. Transposition method:
It is a method of measurement by direct comparison in which the value of the
quantity measured is first balanced by an initial known value A of the same quantity, and

then the value of the quantity measured is put in place of this known value and is
balanced again by another known value B. If the position of the element indicating
equilibrium is the same in both cases, the value of the quantity to be measured is AB. For
example, determination of amass by means of a balance and known weights, using the
Gauss double weighing.
6. Coincidence method:
It is a differential method of measurement in which a very small difference
between the value of the quantity to be measured and the reference is determined by the
observation of the coincidence of certain lines or signals. For example, measurement by
vernier calliper micrometer.
7. Deflection method:
In this method the value of the quantity to be measured is directly indicated by a
deflection of a pointer on a calibrated scale.
8. Complementary method:
In this method the value of the quantity to be measured is combined with a
known value of the same quantity. The combination is so adjusted that the sum of these
two values is equal to predetermined comparison value. For example, determination of
the volume of a solid by liquid displacement.
9. Method of measurement by substitution:
It is a method of direct comparison in which the value of a quantity to be
measured is replaced by a known value of the same quantity, so selected that the effects
produced in the indicating device by these two values are the same.
10. Method of null measurement:
It is a method of differential measurement. In this method the difference between
the value of the quantity to be measured and the known value of the same quantity with
which it is compared is brought to zero.
GENERALIZED MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

A measuring system exists to provide information about the physical value of

some variable being measured. In simple cases, the system can consist of only a single
unit that gives an output reading or signal according to the magnitude of the unknown
variable applied to it. However, in more complex measurement situations, a measuring
system consists of several separate elements as shown in Figure1.1.

Standards

The term standard is used to denote universally accepted specifications for

devices. Components or processes which ensure conformity and interchangeability
throughout a particular industry. A standard provides a reference for assigning a
numerical value to a measured quantity. Each basic measurable quantity has associated
with it an ultimate standard. Working standards, those used in conjunction with the
various measurement making instruments.

The national institute of standards and technology (NIST) formerly called

National Bureau of Standards (NBS), it was established by an act of congress in 1901,
and the need for such body had been noted by the founders of the constitution. In order
to maintain accuracy, standards in a vast industrial complex must be traceable to a single
source, which may be national standards.

The following is the generalization of echelons of standards in the national

measurement system.
1. Calibration standards
2. Metrology standards
3. National standards

1. Calibration standards: Working standards of industrial or governmental

laboratories.
2. Metrology standards: Reference standards of industrial or Governmental
laboratories.
3. National standards: It includes prototype and natural phenomenon of SI
(Systems International), the world wide system of weight and measures
standards. Application of precise measurement has increased so much, that a
single national laboratory to perform directly all the calibrations and
standardization required by
a large country with high technical development. It has led to the establishment
of a considerable number of standardizing laboratories in industry and in various
other areas. A standard provides a reference or datum for assigning a numerical
value to a measured quantity.
Classification of Standards
To maintain accuracy and interchangeability it is necessary that Standards to be
traceable to a single source, usually the National Standards of the country, which are
further linked to International Standards. The accuracy of National Standards is
transferred to working standards through a chain of intermediate standards in a manner
given below.
National Standards
National Reference Standards
Working Standards
Plant Laboratory Reference Standards

Plant Laboratory Working Standards

Shop Floor Standards
Evidently, there is degradation of accuracy in passing from the defining standards
to the shop floor standards. The accuracy of particular standard depends on a
combination of the number of times it has been compared with a standard in a higher
echelon, the frequency of such comparisons, the care with which it was done, and the
stability of the particular standards itself.
Accuracy of Measurements
The purpose of measurement is to determine the true dimensions of a part. But no
measurement can be made absolutely accurate. There is always some error. The amount
of error depends upon the following factors:
The accuracy and design of the measuring instrument
The skill of the operator
Method adopted for measurement
Temperature variations
Elastic deformation of the part or instrument etc.
Thus, the true dimension of the part cannot be determined but can only by
approximate. The agreement of the measured value with the true value of the measured
quantity is called accuracy. If the measurement of dimensions of a part approximates
very closely to the true value of that dimension, it is said to be accurate. Thus the term
accuracy denotes the closeness of the measured value with the true value. The difference
between the measured value and the true value is the error of measurement. The lesser
the error, more is the accuracy.
Precision
The terms precision and accuracy are used in connection with the performance of
the instrument. Precision is the repeatability of the measuring process. It refers to the
group of measurements for the same characteristics taken under identical conditions. It
indicates to what extent the identically performed measurements agree with each other. If
the instrument is not precise it will give different (widely varying) results for the same
dimension when measured again and again. The set of observations will scatter about the
mean. The scatter of these measurements is designated as , the standard deviation. It is

used as an index of precision. The less the scattering more precise is the instrument.
Thus, lower, the value of , the more precise is the instrument.
Accuracy
Accuracy is the degree to which the measured value of the quality characteristic
agrees with the true value. The difference between the true value and the measured value
is known as error of measurement. It is practically difficult to measure exactly the true
value and therefore a set of observations is made whose mean value is taken as the true
value of the quality measured.
Distinction between Precision and Accuracy

Accuracy is very often confused with precision though much different. The
distinction between the precision and accuracy will become clear by the following
example. Several measurements are made on a component by different types of
instruments (A, B and C respectively) and the results are plotted. In any set of
measurements, the individual measurements are scattered about the mean, and the

precision signifies how well the various measurements

performed by same instrument on the same quality characteristic agree with each other.
The difference between the mean of set of readings on the same quality characteristic
and the true value is called as error. Less the error more accurate is the instrument.
Figure shows that the instrument A is precise since the results of number of
measurements are close to the average value. However, there is a large difference (error)
between the true value and the average value hence it is not accurate. The readings taken
by the instruments are scattered much from the average value and hence it is not precise
but accurate as there is a small difference between the average value and true value.
Factors affecting the accuracy of the Measuring System
The basic components of an accuracy evaluation are the five elements of a
measuring system such as:
Factors affecting the calibration standards.
Factors affecting the work piece.
Factors affecting the inherent characteristics of the instrument.
Factors affecting the person, who carries out the measurements,
Factors affecting the environment.
1. Factors affecting the Standard: It may be affected by:
-Coefficient of thermal expansion
-Calibration interval
-Stability with time
-Elastic properties
-Geometric compatibility

2.

Factors affecting the Work piece: These

are: -Cleanliness
-Surface finish, waviness, scratch, surface defects
etc., -Hidden geometry
-Elastic properties,-adequate datum on the work
piece -Arrangement of supporting work piece

-Thermal equalization etc.

3.

Factors affecting the inherent characteristics of

Instrument: -Adequate amplification for accuracy
objective
-Scale error
-Effect of friction, backlash, hysteresis, zero drift error
-Deformation in handling or use, when heavy work pieces are
measured -Calibration errors
-Mechanical parts (slides, guide ways or moving
elements) -Repeatability and readability
-Contact geometry for both work piece and standard.

4. Factors affecting person:

Training, skill
-Sense of precision appreciation
-Ability to select measuring instruments and
standards -Sensible appreciation of measuring cost
-Attitude towards personal accuracy achievements
-Planning measurement techniques for minimum cost, consistent with precision
requirements etc.
5. Factors affecting Environment:
-Temperature, humidity etc.
-Clean surrounding and minimum vibration enhance
precision -Adequate illumination
-Temperature equalization between standard, work piece, andinstrument
-Thermal expansion effects due to heat radiation from lights

-Heating elements, sunlight and people

-Manual handling may also introduce thermal expansion.
Higher accuracy can be achieved only if, ail the sources of error due to the above

five elements in the measuring system are analyzed and steps taken to eliminate
them. The above analysis of five basic metrology elements can be composed into
the acronym SWIPE, for convenient reference where,
S STANDARD

W WORKPIECE

P PERSON

E ENVIRONMENT

I INSTRUMENT

SENSITIVITY
Sensitivity may be defined as the rate of displacement of the indicating device of
an instrument, with respect to the measured quantity. In other words, sensitivity of an
instrument is the ratio of the scale spacing to the scale division value. For example, if on
a dial indicator, the scale spacing is 1.0 mm and the scale division value is 0.01 mm, then
sensitivity is 100. It is also called as amplification factor or gearing ratio. If we now
consider sensitivity over the full range of instrument reading with respect to measured
quantities as shown in Figure the sensitivity at any value of y=dx/dy, where dx and dy
are increments of x and y, taken over the full instrument scale, the sensitivity is the slope
of the curve at any value of y.
The sensitivity may be constant

or

variable along the scale. In the first case

we

get linear transmission and in the

second non-linear transmission. .
Sensitivity refers to the ability of
measuring device to detect small
differences

in

quantity

being

measured. High sensitivity instruments

may lead to drifts due to thermal or other effects, and indications may be less repeatable
or less precise than that of the instrument of lower sensitivity.
Readability
Readability refers to the case with which the readings of a measuring Instrument
can be read. It is the susceptibility of a measuring device to have its indications

converted into meaningful number. Fine and widely spaced graduation lines ordinarily
improve the readability. If the graduation lines are very finely spaced, the scale will be
more readable by using the microscope; however, with the naked eye the readability will
be poor. To make micrometers more readable they are provided with vernier scale. It can
also be improved by using magnifying devices.
Calibration
The calibration of any measuring instrument is necessary to measure the quantity
in terms of standard unit. It is the process of framing the scale of the instrument by
applying some standardized signals. Calibration is a pre-measurement process, generally
carried out by manufacturers. It is carried out by making adjustments such that the read
out device produces zero output for zero measured input. Similarly, it should display an
output equivalent to the known measured input near the full scale input value. The
accuracy of the instrument depends upon the calibration. Constant use of instruments
affects their accuracy. If the accuracy is to be maintained, the instruments must be
checked and recalibrated if necessary. The schedule of such calibration depends upon the
severity of use, environmental conditions, accuracy of measurement required etc. As far
as possible calibration should be performed under environmental conditions which are
vary close to the conditions under which actual measurements are carried out. If the
output of a measuring system is linear and repeatable, it can be easily calibrated.
Repeatability
It is the ability of the measuring instrument to repeat the same results for the
measurements for the same quantity, when the measurement are carried out-by the same
observer,-with the same instrument,-under the same conditions,-without any change in
location,-without change in the method of measurement-and the measurements are
carried out in short intervals of time. It may be expressed quantitatively in terms of
dispersion of the results.
Reproducibility

Reproducibility is the consistency of pattern of variation in measurement i.e.

closeness of the agreement between the results of measurements of the same quantity,
when individual measurements are carried out:
-by different observers
-by different methods

-using different instruments

-under different conditions, locations, times etc.
ERRORS IN MEASUREMENTS

It is never possible to measure the true value of a dimension there is always some
error. The error in measurement is the difference between the measured value and the
true value of the measured dimension.
Error in measurement = Measured value - True value
The error in measurement may be expressed or evaluated either as an absolute
error or as a relative error.
Absolute Error
True absolute error:
It is the algebraic difference between the result of measurement and the
conventional true value of the quantity measured.
Apparent absolute error:
If the series of measurement are made then the algebraic difference
between one of the results of measurement and the arithmetical mean is known
as apparent absolute error.
Relative Error:
It is the quotient of the absolute error and the value of comparison use or
calculation of that absolute error. This value of comparison may be the true
value, the conventional true value or the arithmetic mean for series of
measurement. The accuracy of measurement, and hence the error depends upon
so many factors, such as:
-calibration
standard -Work

piece -Instrument
-Person
-Environment
etc
1.7.2 Types of Errors
1. Systematic Error
These errors include calibration errors, error due to variation in the atmospheric
condition Variation in contact pressure etc. If properly analyzed, these errors can be
determined and reduced or even eliminated hence also called controllable errors. All
other systematic errors can be controlled in magnitude and sense except personal error.
These errors results from irregular procedure that is consistent in action. These errors
are repetitive in nature and are of constant and similar form.
2. Random Error
These errors are caused due to variation in position of setting standard and
work-piece errors. Due to displacement of level joints of instruments, due to backlash
and friction, these error are induced. Specific cause, magnitude and sense of these
errors cannot be determined from the knowledge of measuring system or condition of
measurement. These errors are non-consistent and hence the name random errors.
3.Environmental Error
These errors are caused due to effect of surrounding temperature, pressure and
humidity on the measuring instrument. External factors like nuclear radiation,
vibrations and magnetic field also leads to error. Temperature plays an important role
where high precision is required. e.g. while using slip gauges, due to handling the slip
gauges may acquire human body temperature, whereas the work is at 20C. A 300 mm
length will go in error by 5 microns which is quite a considerable error. To avoid
errors of this kind, all metrology laboratories and standard rooms worldwide are
maintained at 20C.
Calibration

It is very much essential to calibrate the instrument so as to maintain its

accuracy. In case when the measuring and the sensing system are different it is very
difficult to calibrate the system as an whole, so in that case we have to take into
account the error producing properties of each component. Calibration is usually
carried out by making adjustment such that when the instrument is having zero
measured input then it should read out zero and when the instrument is measuring
some dimension it should read it to its closest accurate value. It is very much
important that calibration of any measuring system should be performed under the
environmental conditions that are much closer to that under which the actual
measurements are usually to be taken.
Calibration is the process of checking the dimension and tolerances of a gauge, or
the accuracy of a measurement instrument by comparing it to the instrument/gauge that
has been certified as a standard of known accuracy. Calibration of an instrument is done
over a period of time, which is decided depending upon the usage of the instrument or on
the materials of the parts from which it is made. The dimensions and the tolerances of
the instrument/gauge are checked so that we can come to whether the instrument can be
used again by calibrating it or is it wear out or deteriorated above the limit value. If it is
so then it is thrown out or it is scrapped. If the gauge or the instrument is frequently
used, then it will require more maintenance and frequent calibration. Calibration of
instrument is done prior to its use and afterwards to verify that it is within the tolerance
limit or not. Certification is given by making comparison between the instrument/gauge
with the reference standard whose calibration is traceable to accepted National standard.

INTRODUCTION TO DIMENSIONAL AND GEOMETRIC TOLERANCE

General Aspects
In the design and manufacture of engineering products a great deal of attention
has to be paid to the mating, assembly and fitting of various components. In the early
days of mechanical engineering during the nineteenth century, the majority of such
components were actually mated together, their dimensions being adjusted until the

required type of fit was obtained. These methods demanded craftsmanship of a high
order and a great deal of very fine work was produced. Present day standards of quantity
production, interchangeability, and continuous assembly of many complex compounds,
could not exist under such a system, neither could many of the exacting design
requirements of modern machines be fulfilled without the knowledge that certain
dimensions can be reproduced with precision on any number of components. Modern
mechanical production engineering is based on a system of limits and fits, which while
not only itself ensuring the necessary accuracies of manufacture, forms a schedule or
specifications to which manufacturers can adhere.
In order that a system of limits and fits may be successful, following conditions
must be fulfilled:
1. The range of sizes covered by the system must be sufficient for most purposes.
2. It must be based on some standards; so that everybody understands alike and a
given dimension has the same meaning at all places.
3. For any basic size it must be possible to select from a carefully designed range
of fit the most suitable one for a given application.
4. Each basic size of hole and shaft must have a range of tolerance values for
each of the different fits.
5. The system must provide for both unilateral and bilateral methods of applying
the tolerance.
6. It must be possible for a manufacturer to use the system to apply either a holebased or a shaft-based system as his manufacturing requirements may need.
7. The system should cover work from high class tool and gauge work where
very wide limits of sizes are permissible.
Nominal Size and Basic Dimensions
Nominal size: A 'nominal size' is the size which is used for purpose of general
identification. Thus the nominal size of a hole and shaft assembly is 60 mm, even
though the basic size of the hole may be60 mm and the basic size of the shaft 59.5
mm.

Basic dimension: A 'basic dimension' is the dimension, as worked out by

purely design considerations. Since the ideal conditions of producing basic
dimension, do not exist, the basic dimensions can be treated as the theoretical or
nominal size, and it has only to be approximated. A study of function of machine part
would reveal that it is unnecessary to attain perfection because some variations in
dimension, however small, can be tolerated size of various parts. It is, thus, general
practice to specify a basic dimension and indicate by tolerances as to how much
variation in the basic dimension
can be tolerated without affecting the functioning of the assembly into which this
part will be used.
Definitions
The definitions given below are based on those given in IS: 919
Shaft: The term shaft refers not only to diameter of a circular shaft to any external
dimension on a component.
Hole: This term refers not only to the diameter of a circular hole but to any internal
dimension on a component.
Basics of Fit
A fit or limit system consists of a series of tolerances arranged to suit a
specific range of sizes and functions, so that limits of size may. Be selected and
given to mating components to ensure specific classes of fit. This system may be
arranged on the following basis:
1. Hole basis system
2. Shaft basis system.

Hole basis system:

'Hole basis system' is one in which the limits on the hole are kept constant

and the variations necessary to obtain the classes of fit are arranged by varying
those on the shaft.
Shaft basis system:
'Shaft basis system' is one in which the limits on the shaft are kept constant
and the variations necessary to obtain the classes of fit are arranged by varying the
limits on
the holes. In present day industrial practice hole basis system is used because a great
many holes are produced by standard tooling, for example, reamers drills, etc., whose
size is not adjustable. Subsequently the shaft sizes are more readily variable about the
basic size by means of turning or grinding operations. Thus the hole basis system
results in considerable reduction in reamers and other precision tools as compared to
a shaft basis system because in shaft basis system due to non-adjustable nature of
reamers, drills etc. great variety (of sizes) of these tools are required for producing
different classes of holes for one class of shaft for obtaining different fits.
Systems of Specifying Tolerances
The tolerance or the error permitted in manufacturing a particular dimension
may be allowed to vary either on one side of the basic size or on either side of the
basic size. Accordingly two systems of specifying tolerances exit.
1. Unilateral system
2. Bilateral system.
In the unilateral system, tolerance is applied only in one direction.
Examples:

+ 0.04
40.0 or
+ 0.02

-0.02
40.0
-0.04

In the bilateral system of writing tolerances, a dimension is permitted to vary

in two directions.
+
0.02 Examples:
40.0
- 0.04
INTERCHANGEABILITY
It is the principle employed to mating parts or components. The parts are
picked at random, complying with the stipulated specifications and functional
requirements of the assembly. When only a few assemblies are to be made, the correct
fits between parts arc made by controlling the sizes while machining the parts, by
matching them with their mating parts. The actual sizes of the parts may vary from
assembly to assembly to such an extent that a given part can fit only in its own
assembly. Such a method of manufacture takes more time and will therefore increase
the cost. There will also be problems when parts arc needed to be replaced. Modern
production is based on the concept of interchangeability. When one component
assembles properly with any mating component, both being chosen at random, then
this is interchangeable manufacture. It is the uniformity of size of the components
produced which ensures interchangeability.

The advantages of interchangeability are as follows:

1. The assembly of mating parts is easier. Since any component picked up from its
lot will assemble with any other mating part from another lot without additional
fitting and machining.
2. It enhances the production rate.
3. The standardization of machine parts and manufacturing methods is decided.

4. It brings down the assembling cost drastically.

5. Repairing of existing machines or products is simplified because component
parts can be easily replaced.
Replacement of worn out parts is easy.