N e o n a t a l In f e c t i o u s D i s e a s e s

Evaluation of Neonatal Sepsis

Andres Camacho-Gonzalez,
Barbara J. Stoll, MDb

MD, MSc

a,

*, Paul W. Spearman,

MD

KEYWORDS
! Neonatal sepsis ! Immature immunity ! Early and late onset disease
! Biologic markers ! Treatment
KEY POINTS
! The adoption of Centers for Disease Control and Prevention guidelines for intrapartum
antibiotic prophylaxis to reduce vertical transmission of Group B streptococcus (GBS)
resulted in an 80% decrease in neonatal GBS sepsis.
! Nonetheless, GBS and Escherichia coli remain the most common causes of early-onset
sepsis in neonates.
! Coagulase-negative staphylococci are now the most common cause of late-onset
neonatal sepsis, particularly in low birth weight infants.
! Among commonly used biomarkers, limited studies suggest that serial C-reactive protein
levels and serial assessment of immature:total neutrophil counts provide the best negative
predictive value for neonatal sepsis.
! No biomarker to date provides a good positive predictive value for neonatal sepsis.

! Newer biomarkers and broad-based and real-time polymerase chain reaction have
demonstrated promise in the early detection of neonatal sepsis, but further study is
required to determine if they will be useful in clinical practice.
! Among recent interventions to prevent neonatal sepsis, the use of fluconazole prophylaxis
in very low birth weight infants is the only intervention that has shown repeated efficacy in
multiple trials.
! Other interventions to prevent neonatal sepsis, such as antistaphylococcal monoclonal
antibodies and lactoferrin administration, show early promise but require larger studies
to determine real-world efficacy.

Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Emory Department of Pediatrics, Childrens Healthcare of Atlanta, Emory University, 2015 Uppergate Drive, Suite 500, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA;
b
Department of Pediatrics, Childrens Healthcare of Atlanta at Egleston, Emory-Childrens
Center, 2015 Uppergate Drive, Suite 200, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected]
Pediatr Clin N Am 60 (2013) 367389
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pcl.2012.12.003
pediatric.theclinics.com
0031-3955/13/$ see front matter ! 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

368

Camacho-Gonzalez et al

EPIDEMIOLOGY OF NEONATAL SEPSIS

Neonatal sepsis remains a feared and serious complication, especially among very
low birth weight (VLBW) preterm infants. Neonatal sepsis is divided into early-onset
and late-onset sepsis, based on timing of infection and presumed mode of transmission. Early-onset sepsis (EOS) is defined by onset in the first week of life, with some
studies limiting EOS to infections occurring in the first 72 hours that are caused by
maternal intrapartum transmission of invasive organisms. Late-onset sepsis (LOS) is
usually defined as infection occurring after 1 week and is attributed to pathogens
acquired postnatally. Risk factors for neonatal sepsis include maternal factors,
neonatal host factors, and virulence of infecting organism (Table 1).
In the United States, widespread acceptance of intrapartum antibiotic prophylaxis
(IAP) to reduce vertical transmission of Group B Streptococcal (GBS) infections in
high-risk women has resulted in a significant decline in rates of EOS GBS infection.1
Overall, it is not believed that IAP has resulted in a change in pathogens associated
with EOS; however, some studies among VLBW preterm infants have shown an
increase in EOS caused by Escherichia coli.2 A recent study done by the Eunice
Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD)
Neonatal Research Network (NRN) estimated the overall incidence of EOS to be 0.98
cases per 1000 live births, with increasing rates in premature infants.3 Studies with
stratification of disease burden by gestational age and race have shown that black
preterm neonates have a significantly higher incidence of neonatal sepsis as
compared with the rest of the population, accounting for 5.14 cases per 1000 births
with a case fatality rate of 24.4%.4
Despite efforts to detect GBS colonization during pregnancy and provide appropriate GBS prophylaxis to colonized mothers, not all cases of early-onset GBS are prevented and GBS continues to be the most common cause of EOS in term neonates.
Sepsis caused by E coli has increased in recent years, mainly affecting preterm
newborns weighing less than 2500 g at birth, and is considered the most common
cause of EOS in this weight group. E coli is frequently associated with severe
Table 1
Risk factors for the development of neonatal sepsis

Source

Risk Factor

Early-onset neonatal sepsis

Maternal Group B streptococcal colonization

Chrorioamnionitis
Premature rupture of membranes
Prolonged rupture of membranes (>18 h)
Maternal urinary tract infection
Multiple pregnancies
Preterm delivery (<37 wk)

Late-onset neonatal sepsis

Breakage of the natural barriers (skin and mucosa)

Prolonged indwelling catheter use
Invasive procedures (eg, endotracheal intubation)
Necrotizing enterocolitis
Prolonged use of antibiotics
H2-receptor blocker or proton pump inhibitor use

Neonatala

Prematurity
! Decreased passage of maternal immunoglobulin and specific
antibodies
! Immature function of immune system

Increases the risk for both early-onset and late-onset neonatal sepsis.

Evaluation of Neonatal Sepsis

infections and meningitis and it has become the leading cause of sepsis-related
mortality among VLBW infants (24.5%).4 Together, GBS and E coli account for about
70% of cases of EOS in the neonatal period.5,6
Rates of LOS are most common in preterm low birth weight infants. Studies from the
NICHD NRN report that approximately 21% of VLBW infants weighing less than 1500 g,
developed 1 or more episode of blood cultureconfirmed LOS, with rates inversely
related to gestational age (GA) (58% at 22 weeks GA and 20% at 28 weeks GA).7,8 Intrapartum antibiotic prophylaxis has not had an impact on rates of LOS.1,9 VLBW preterm
infants are at particular risk for LOS in part because of prolonged hospitalization and
prolonged use of indwelling catheters, endotracheal tubes, and other invasive procedures. Several studies have documented rates of LOS from 1.87 to 5.42, with decreasing
rates as birth weight increases.6,7 Coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS) have
emerged as the most commonly isolated pathogens among VLBW infants with LOS.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM AND INCREASED RISK OF NEONATES TO
INFECTIONS

The development of the immune system entails a number of changes that occur during
the first years of life. Neonates, especially preterm infants, are relatively immunocompromised because of immaturity of the immune system, as well as decreased
placental passage of maternal antibodies. Here we highlight some of the components
of the neonatal immune system that are immature and contribute to increased susceptibility to serious bacterial, fungal, and viral infections.
Innate Immune System

The innate immune system produces an immediate immunologic response and is

capable of doing this without previous exposure to a specific pathogen. Recognition
of pathogens occurs by identification of conserved biologic regions known as
pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). Recognition receptors, such as
TOLL-like receptors, NOD-like receptors and RIG-like receptors, identify and respond
to PAMPs with the production of cytokines and proinflammatory responses that activate the adaptive immune system.10 Studies comparing neonatal and adult innate
immune functions show that neonatal cells have a decreased ability to produce inflammatory cytokines, especially tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and interleukin (IL)-6.11 In
addition, they induce IL-10 production, which in itself is capable of inhibiting synthesis
of proinflammatory cytokines.12 Neutrophil and dendritic cell functions are also
reduced; neutrophils show a decreased expression of adhesion molecules, as well
as a decreased response to chemotactic factors,13,14 and dendritic cells have
a decreased capacity of producing IL-12 and interferon (IFN) gamma. The overall
reduction in cytokine production in neonates also results in decreased activation of
natural killer cells.15 Impairment of the innate immune system leads to an increased
susceptibility to bacterial and viral infection in this population.
Adaptive Immune System

The adaptive branch of the immune system is designed to eliminate specific pathogens. In newborns, the adaptive immune system slowly increases its function toward
an adultlike response, minimizing the otherwise overwhelming inflammatory response
that would occur when infants transition from a sterile to a colonized environment.16
Decreased cytotoxic function (strong T-helper 2 polarization with decreased IFNgamma production), lack of isotype switching, and overall immaturity and decreased
memory (because of limited pathogen exposure at time of birth), reduce the neonates

369

370

Camacho-Gonzalez et al

ability to respond effectively to infections.1720 For example, the reduction of cellmediated immunity increases the risks of infections caused by intracellular pathogens,
such as Listeria, Salmonella, herpes simplex virus (HSV), cytomegalovirus, and
enteroviruses.
Transplacental passage of maternal immunoglobulin G (IgG) is inversely related to
gestational age and limits the functional ability of the neonate to respond to certain
pathogens.21,22 Minimal IgG is transported to the fetus in the first trimester, whereas
fetal IgG rises in the second trimester from approximately 10% at 17 to 22 weeks
gestation to 50% at 28 to 32 weeks gestation.23,24 Thus, preterm infants lack
adequate humoral protection against a number of infant pathogens, whereas term
infants will often be protected against most vaccine-preventable neonatal infections
through transplacental passage from the mothers serum. Histologic studies have
also demonstrated that the marginal zone of the spleen is not fully developed until
2 years of age, increasing the infants susceptibility to encapsulated bacterial infections (Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, Neisseria meningitidis).25
Finally, transfer of IgA, IgG, cytokines, and antibacterial peptides present in human
milk may be compromised, especially in premature babies. The lack of secretory
IgA decreases the ability of the neonate to respond to environmental pathogens.26
Complement

Complement levels increase with increasing gestational age, but are only about 50%
of adult levels at term. Reduced complement levels are associated with deficient
opsonization and impaired bacterial killing. Although both pathways seem to be
capable of being activated, there may be variations in their activation level. In addition,
profound C9 deficiency has been observed in neonates, reducing the ability to form
bacteriolytic C5b-9 (m), which will increase the risk of acquiring severe invasive bacterial infections.27,28
ETIOLOGIC AGENTS IN NEONATAL SEPSIS

The etiologic agents associated with neonatal sepsis in the United States have
changed over time.5 In this section, we review current data on organisms associated
with early-onset and late-onset neonatal sepsis (Table 2).
EARLY-ONSET SEPSIS
Group B-streptococcus

Despite widespread use of IAP to prevent vertical transmission of invasive GBS

disease, missed opportunities for prevention exist and GBS remains the most common
Table 2
Organisms associated with early-onset and late-onset neonatal sepsis
Early-Onset Sepsis

Late-Onset Sepsis

Group B Streptococcus

Coagulase-negative Staphylococcus

Escherichia coli

Staphylococcus aureus

Listeria monocytogenes

Enterococci

Other streptococci: Streptococcus pyogenes,

viridans group streptococci, Streptococcus
pneumoniae

Multidrug-resistant gram-negative rods

(E coli, Klebsiella, Pseudomonas,
Enterobacter, Citrobacter, Serratia)

Enterococci

Candida

Nontypable Haemophilus influenzae

Evaluation of Neonatal Sepsis

organism associated with EOS in the United States. According to the Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), rates of early-onset invasive GBS disease
have declined by 80% since the CDC prevention guidelines were first published.9
GBS are gram-positive encapsulated bacteria for which 10 different serotypes have
been identified; serotype III strains are responsible for most of disease (54%).29 GBS
commonly colonize the gastrointestinal (GI) and genital tracts, with rates up to 20%
in the adult population.30 Transmission occurs late in pregnancy or during labor and
delivery, and the likelihood of disease, as well as the severity, has been associated
with the density of recto-vaginal carriage.31,32 GBS possess different virulence factors
that determine its ability to cause invasive disease: (1) capsular polysaccharide, which
helps evade phagocytosis; (2) pili, which allows adherence of GBS to the hosts epithelial cells as well as transepithelial migration; and (3) C5a peptidase, which inhibits
human C5a, a neutrophil chemoattractant produced during complement activation.
Among infected newborns, clinical manifestations develop very early after delivery
and most infants will have signs of respiratory distress and cardiovascular instability.
Infants with early-onset GBS are at increased risk for meningitis. Rapid deterioration
of the clinical status is expected unless prompt antibiotic management is started.
Risk of death is inversely related to gestational age, with mortality of 20% to 30%
among infected infants of less than 33 weeks gestation, compared with a mortality
of 2% to 3% in full-term infants.1,33
Escherichia coli

E coli, a gram-negative rod that commonly colonizes the maternal urogenital and GI
tracts, is considered the second most common cause of neonatal sepsis in term
infants and the most common cause in VLBW neonates with rates of 5.09 per 1000
live births.3,34,35 The antigenic structure of E coli is represented by multiple antigens
(O), (K), and (H), which in combination account for the genetic diversity of the bacteria.
Strains with the K1 antigen have been associated with the development of neonatal
sepsis and meningitis, as well as with increased risk of mortality when compared
with K1-negative strains.36 Some studies suggest a more aggressive presentation
for infants infected with E coli, with a higher risk of thrombocytopenia and death in
the first days of life.3 Several US studies have shown high rates of ampicillin resistance
in E coli strains that infect newborns. Although some studies have shown an association between intrapartum antibiotic exposure and ampicillin-resistant E coli, ampicillin resistance has increased throughout the community and a direct link between
intrapartum use of ampicillin and the higher likelihood of resistance has not been
established.3,3739
Listeria monocytogenes

Listeria is a facultative anaerobic, gram-positive bacterium found in soil, decaying

vegetation, fecal flora, and raw unprocessed food.40 Multiple virulence factors allow
Listeria to escape the immune system, including listeriolysin, which helps the organism
avoid the oxidative stress of phagolysosomes, allowing intracellular replication. Listeria proteins ActA, phospholipase C, and lecithinase allow polymerization of actin and
lysis of phagosomal membranes, enabling cell-to-cell transmission.41,42 Pregnant
women have 17% higher risk of Listeria infection than nonpregnant women, and infection has been associated with spontaneous abortions and stillbirths. Early neonatal
infections have a similar clinical presentation, as EO GBS infections, with respiratory
distress, sepsis, and meningitis. In severe cases, patients may present with a granulomatous rash (small patches with erythematous base), known as granulomatosis infantisepticum. Most cases of neonatal Listeria are caused by serotypes 1, 2, and 4, with

371

372

Camacho-Gonzalez et al

the latter serotype responsible for almost all cases of meningitis.43 Suspicion for
Listeria sepsis should be increased in ill infants of mothers who have consumed raw
milk, unpasteurized cheeses, or other unprocessed food products that have been
contaminated with the organism.44,45
Other Bacterial Etiologic Agents Seen in EOS

Other less common but important pathogens associated with EOS include other
streptococci (Streptococcus pyogenes, viridans group streptococci, S pneumoniae),
enterococci, staphylococci, and nontypable H influenzae. S pyogenes (group A Streptococcus [GAS]) was once the predominant organism responsible for neonatal sepsis.
Although overall incidence has decreased significantly, severe cases of EO GAS
continue to be reported. A recent literature review identified 38 cases of neonatal
GAS sepsis (24 with EOS). Patients were most likely to present with pneumonia and
empyema (42%) or toxic shock syndrome (17%); 70% of the isolates were M1 serotype and they were all susceptible to penicillin. Mortality was estimated to be 38%
among patients with EOS.46 The presentation of pneumococcus, groups C and G
streptococci, and viridans streptococci neonatal sepsis is very similar to GBS infection, and transmission seems to be secondary to bacterial colonization of the maternal
genital tract.4751 Enterococcal EOS is usually mild compared with LOS and is characterized by either a mild respiratory illness or diarrhea without a focal infection. Enterococcus faecalis is more frequently isolated than Enterococcus faecium, and most of
the isolates remain ampicillin susceptible.52 Although nontypable H influenzae
frequently colonizes the maternal genital tract, neonatal infection is relatively rare,
but with high mortality rates, especially in preterm neonates.3,53 Hershckowitz and
colleagues54 reported a cluster of 9 cases with 3 deaths; similar high mortality rates
were reported in a series by Takala and colleagues.55
LOS

The increased survival of preterm low birth weight infants, particularly those who are
VLBW, with need for prolonged hospitalization and use of invasive procedures and
devices, especially long-term intravascular catheters, results in ongoing risk of infection. LOS is largely caused by organisms acquired from the environment after birth.
The following section reviews the most common organisms associated with LOS
(see Table 2).
CoNS and Staphylococcus aureus

CoNS has emerged as the single most commonly isolated pathogen among VLBW
infants with LOS and is associated with 22% to 55% of LOS infections among VLBW
infants.56,57 S aureus is associated with 4% to 8%.7,58 Staphylococcus commonly colonizes the human skin and mucous membranes and is capable of adhering to plastic
surfaces with the subsequent formation of biofilms. These biofilms protect the bacteria
from antibiotic penetration and can produce substances that will help them evade the
immune system. Although CoNS infections are usually secondary to Staphylococcus
epidermidis, other strains such as Staphylococcus capitis, Staphylococcus haemolyticus, and Staphylococcus hominis have also been reported.59 Methicillin-resistant
S aureus (MRSA) has been isolated in 28% of staphylococcal infections in preterm
neonates with no significant differences between MRSA and methicillin-susceptible
organisms in terms of morbidity, mortality, and length of hospital stay. Overall, 25%
of infants infected with MRSA die, with no significant difference in death rates between
infants infected with MRSA or methicillin-susceptible S aureus.58

Evaluation of Neonatal Sepsis

Gram-negative Organisms

Gram-negative organisms are associated with about one-third of cases of LOS, but
40% to 69% of deaths due to sepsis in this age group. Transmission occurs from
the hands of health care workers, colonization of the GI tract, contamination of total
parenteral nutrition or formulas, and bladder catheterization devices.60,61 The most
common gram-negative organisms isolated include E coli, Klebsiella, Pseudomonas,
Enterobacter, Citrobacter, and Serratia.62 In some case series, Klebsiella is recognized
as the most common gram-negative agent associated with LOS, ranging from 20% to
31% of cases.63,64 Infections caused by Pseudomonas have been associated with the
highest mortality.65 Citrobacter is uniquely associated with brain abscesses, but
dissemination can occur to other organs. Its ability to survive intracellularly has
been linked to the capacity of creating chronic central nervous system (CNS) infections and abscesses.66,67
Candida Infections

Infections caused by Candida species are the third leading cause of LOS in premature
infants. Risk factors of infection include low birth weight, use of broad-spectrum antibiotics, male gender, and lack of enteral feedings.68 Candida albicans and Candida
parapsilosis are the species most commonly associated with disease in neonates.69,70
Poor outcomes, including higher mortality rates and neurodevelopmental impairment,
have been associated with the ability of the organisms to express virulence traits, such
as adherence factors and cytotoxic substances.71 Candida easily grows in blood
culture media, but its isolation may require larger volumes of blood than normally
obtained in neonates and therefore multiple cultures may be necessary to document
infection and clearance. Among those with a positive cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) culture,
as many as 50% will have a negative blood culture; the discordance of blood and CSF
cultures underscores the need for a lumbar puncture (LP).68 Prompt removal of
contaminated catheters is also recommended based on the ability of Candida species
to create biofilms, as well as better survival rates and neurodevelopmental outcomes
in patients who had early removal and clearance of the infection.68
HSV

HSV is a potentially devastating cause of late-onset neonatal infection. HSV should be

included in the differential diagnosis and treatment strategy of newborns who present
with signs and symptoms of sepsis, especially after the first few days of life. For
a detailed discussion on neonatal HSV infection, refer to the article by Kimberlin
and colleagues, elsewhere in this issue.
CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS

Both EOS and LOS have nonspecific clinical manifestations (Table 3). The importance
of a lumbar puncture in neonates with suspected sepsis and without specific CNS clinical manifestations is underscored by studies showing growth of CSF cultures despite
negative blood cultures, especially in VLBW infants.72
DIAGNOSTIC METHODS

Early diagnosis of neonatal sepsis is challenging because clinical characteristics are

nonspecific and difficult to differentiate from those of noninfectious etiologies, and
because the repertoire of ancillary laboratory tests is limited and not always reliable.
Blood culture remains the gold standard for diagnosis of neonatal sepsis, but the

373

374

Camacho-Gonzalez et al

Table 3
Clinical manifestations in patients with early-onset and late-onset neonatal sepsis
Sepsis/Meningitis

Temperature instability
Respiratory distress
Apnea
Jaundice & feeding intolerance
Bulging fontanel
Seizures

Other

Skin lesions: may occur in disseminated staphylococcal, Listeria, and

Candida infections
Joint and bone: may be the preceding event

rate of positivity is low, influenced by factors such as intrapartum antimicrobial administration and limitations in blood volume per culture that can be obtained in
neonates.73,74 Here we review the standard evaluation of neonatal sepsis, followed
by a discussion of recent data on inflammatory markers and diagnostic methods in
neonatal sepsis.
General Evaluation of Neonatal Sepsis

A neonate with signs and symptoms of sepsis (see Table 3) requires prompt evaluation and initiation of antibiotic therapy. Blood, CSF (as clinical condition allows), and
urine cultures (useful only after the third day of life) should be obtained.72,75,76 Chest
radiograph is indicated in patients having respiratory symptoms. If disseminated
herpes is suspected (herpetic skin lesions, elevated hepatic transaminases, maternal
peripartum herpes infection), surface cultures from conjunctiva, mouth, skin, and
anus, as well as herpes DNA polymerase chain reaction (PCR) from CSF and blood
should also be ordered.77,78 Ancillary tests, such as complete blood count (CBC)
and C-reactive protein (CRP), should not preclude a sepsis evaluation in a neonate,
because they can be normal (see the following sections).79 If positive, however, they
can be useful in supporting the diagnosis and determining length of therapy. Careful
maternal and exposure history targeted toward identifying potential risk factors (see
Table 1), as well as a complete physical examination, including skin and catheter
insertion sites, should be obtained.
Complete Blood Cell Count

Contrary to older children and adults, the white blood cell (WBC) count does not accurately predict infection in neonates. A recent multicenter review of CBCs and blood
cultures in neonates admitted to 293 neonatal intensive care units (NICUs) in the
United States, showed that low WBC and absolute neutrophil counts, as well as
high immature-to-total neutrophil ratio (I:T ratio) were associated with increasing
odds of infection (odds ratios 5.38, 6.84, and 7.90, respectively); however, the test
sensitivities for detection of sepsis were low.80 Studies looking at serial values of
WBC counts and I:T ratios have shown better outcomes. Murphy and Weiner,81 in
a single-center historical cohort study, showed that 2 serial normal I:T ratios and
a negative blood culture in the first 24 hours of life had a negative predictive value
(NPV) of 100% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 99.905%100%), but the specificity
and positive predictive value were 51.0% and 8.8% respectively. CBC values need
to be interpreted cautiously and in conjunction with other clinical and laboratory
parameters.

Evaluation of Neonatal Sepsis

CRP

CRP was first described in the 1930s and since then multiple studies have shown
elevation of the CRP in several infectious and noninfectious etiologies that share
a common background of inflammation or tissue injury.82 In neonates, serial measurements of the CRP in the first 24 to 48 hours of symptoms increases the sensitivity of
the test, with suggestion that normal CRP values during this period have a 99% negative predicted value for determination of infection.83,84 In contrast, elevated levels of
CRP may be more difficult to interpret, especially for diagnosis of EOS, because
factors such as premature rupture of membranes (PROM), maternal fever,
pregnancy-induced hypertension, prenatal steroid use, and fetal distress may also
cause elevation of the CRP.85,86 Additionally, studies have suggested a physiologic
variation of the CRP during the first few days of life limiting the use of single values.86
Gestational age influences CRP kinetics, with preterm infants having a lower and
shorter CRP response compared with healthy term infants.87,88 Studies suggest
that CRP is best used as part of a group of ancillary diagnostic tests to help determine
if an infant has infection, rather than as a single test.
Procalcitonin

Tissue release of procalcitonin (PCT) increases with infection, making it a potential

marker for early detection of sepsis. PCT differs from CRP, in that PCT levels increase
more rapidly and may be more useful for detection of EOS. Auriti and colleagues,89 in
a multicenter, prospective observational study of 762 neonates, showed a significant
increase in the median value of PCT level in neonates with sepsis compared with
those without sepsis (3.58 vs 0.49 ng/mL; P<.001), In addition, a cutoff value of
2.4 ng/mL was suggested as the most accurate level for differentiation of sepsis in
neonates regardless of gestational age, with a sensitivity of 62% and a specificity
of 84%. A meta-analysis of 16 studies (1959 neonates), showed that PCT had
a pooled sensitivity and specificity of 81% and 79% respectively.90 Although these
are promising results, further studies are needed to clarify the use of PCT in clinical
practice.
Mannose-Binding Lectin

Mannose-binding lectin (MBL) is a plasma protein, primarily produced by the liver, with
an important role in the innate immune defense. MBL activates the lectin pathway of
the complement system, increasing opsonization and enhancing phagocytosis.91
Genetic polymorphisms in the MBL gene have been associated with an increased
risk of sepsis. In a recent study in which MBL levels were measured in 93 neonates,
development of sepsis was associated with lower levels of MBL and with the presence
of BB genotype in exon 1 of the MBL gene. MBL remains a research tool with further
studies needed to confirm diagnostic utility.92
Cytokine Profile

Multiple cytokines have been studied for diagnosis of neonatal sepsis including IL-6,
IL-8, IL-10, and TNF-alpha. IL-6 and IL-8 increase very rapidly with bacterial invasion,
but they promptly normalize in serum levels (within the first 24 hours), limiting their
ability to be used as clinical markers. TNF-alpha has not shown to have high sensitivity, but the ratio of IL-10 and TNF-alpha has been used for diagnosis of LOS
in VLBW neonates with some success.93,94 Evaluating a combination of cytokine
profiles may increase the likelihood of identifying infection more than single
measurements.

375

376

Camacho-Gonzalez et al

Neutrophil CD64 and Neutrophil/Monocyte CD11B

The specific markers, neutrophil CD64 and neutrophil/monocyte CD11B, are cell
surface antigens whose production increases after activation of leukocytes by
bacteria and therefore can potentially be used for diagnosis of neonatal sepsis. Their
upregulation precedes that of CRP, suggesting potential use in EOS. A recent study by
Genel and colleagues95 showed that CD64 had a sensitivity and specificity to accurately identify neonatal sepsis of 81% and 77% respectively, with an NPV of 75%.
Similarly, CD11b had a sensitivity and specificity of 66% and 71%. Cost and processing time may be barriers to use of these markers in clinical practice.
Molecular Techniques for Early Detection of Neonatal Sepsis

Important advances have been made in molecular diagnostics, and studies of realtime PCR and a broad range of conventional PCR assays suggest improved sensitivity
and specificity for sepsis diagnosis. A meta-analysis done by Pammi96 found that
sensitivity and specificity of real-time PCR was 0.96 (95% CI for sensitivity: 0.65
1.00 and 95% CI for specificity: 0.920.98). Similarly, broad-range PCR had a sensitivity of 0.95 (95% CI 0.840.98) and specificity of 0.98 (0.951.0); however, neither
test achieved the minimum limits of sensitivity or specificity set up by the study and
results were insufficient to replace blood cultures for diagnosis of neonatal sepsis.
Currently these techniques should be seen as adjunctive methods in the diagnosis
of neonatal sepsis, with limitations that include the inability to provide information
about antibiotic susceptibility, as well as significant cost of implementation in clinical
practice. An exception to this is the use of HSV PCR for the diagnosis of HSV encephalitis, which is the gold standard test for this condition. The role of HSV PCR from the
blood in diagnosing disseminated HSV infection is less clear.
Genomics and Proteomics

Exciting alternatives for detection of neonatal sepsis include the use of genomics and
proteomics for identification of host response biomarkers. Genomics targets genes
that are upregulated with infection and proteomics analyzes the structure, function,
and interactions of proteins produced by a particular gene. Early studies in neonates
have suggested potential utility in these techniques for identification of sepsis and necrotizing enterocolitis. A score based on proapolipoprotein CII (Pro-apoC2) and a desarginine variant of serum amyloid, was used to withhold antibiotics in 45% of patients
with suspected infection and to discontinue antibiotics in 16%.93,97 Studies are needed
for validation of this score, as well as for detection of other potential biomarkers.
TREATMENT
Prevention and Infection Control Practices

Prevention of neonatal sepsis is the goal, through implementation of what is known

and development of new prevention strategies. Maternal prenatal care continues to
be important for prevention of EO GBS sepsis with identification of maternal carriage
of GBS through universal screening for all pregnant women. Early recognition of chorioamnionitis, with appropriate antimicrobial therapy for the mother, decreases
maternal fetal transmission. The recent CDC GBS prevention guidelines emphasize
the need for universal maternal GBS screening at 35 to 37 weeks of gestation and
includes chromogenic agar and nucleic amplification tests as newer diagnostic techniques that can be used to increase the yield of GBS identification. The guidelines also
clarify the definition of adequate intrapartum prophylaxis as the use of penicillin, ampicillin, or cefazolin at least 4 hours before delivery (Table 4). Clindamycin and

Evaluation of Neonatal Sepsis

vancomycin, which can be used in penicillin-allergic patients, are not considered

effective prophylaxis therapy.9 Other potential prevention strategies include rapid
GBS testing during labor and a safe and effective GBS vaccine. Diagnostic tests
during labor will identify colonized women who either had a negative screen at 35 to
37 weeks or were not screened before labor. Further studies are needed to improve
sensitivity and specificity of rapid tests.98
Efforts to reduce hospital-acquired late-onset infections require much closer attention to appropriate hand washing, infection control, and proper techniques for placement and management of central catheters. Recently, the American Academy of
Pediatrics published guidelines for the prevention of health careassociated infections
in the NICU. These guidelines emphasize the need for 100% compliance with appropriate hand-washing techniques and recommend use of alcohol-based products for
hand hygiene. Catheter bundles that include guidelines for insertion and management
of central lines have been shown to reduce risk of central lineassociated bloodstream
infection.99102 The use of heparin for prevention of line infections has been successful
in single-center randomized studies, but has not been confirmed in larger multicenter
studies; therefore, its routine use is not recommended.103,104 Daily check lists that
document continued need for central lines to reduce duration of line use and a goal
of zero central lineassociated infections should be the responsibility of the whole
health care team.99
Prevention Strategies

A variety of interventions to decrease rates of neonatal sepsis have been studied,

including postnatal use of lactoferrin, antistaphylococcal monoclonal antibodies,
intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG), granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factors, probiotics, glutamine, and fluconazole prophylaxis for invasive candida infection
(Table 5).
IVIG

Delay in the synthesis of immunoglobulin and a decrease in transplacental antibody

transfer in neonates suggested that the use of IVIG could be a potential strategy for
prevention of neonatal sepsis. In 1994, a randomized controlled trial in 2416 infants
failed to show a decreased incidence of nosocomial infections, morbidity/mortality,
and duration of hospital stay among VLBW infants.105 A follow-up meta-analysis of
10 trials showed that mortality was reduced with the use of IVIG in suspected (relative
risk [RR] 0.58, 95% CI 0.380.89) and proven infection (RR 0.55, 95% CI 0.310.98),
but the investigators caution about their conclusions based on concerns about individual study quality.106 Recently, the International Neonatal Immunotherapy Study
randomized 3493 infants with suspected or proven sepsis to receive either 2 doses
of polyvalent IgG immune globulin or placebo 48 hours apart. Their primary outcome

Table 4
Recommended intrapartum antibiotic prophylaxis for Group B Streptococcuspositive women
Antibiotic

Dose

Penicillin G

5 million units IV as an initial dose followed by 2.5 million units

every 4 h until delivery

Ampicillin

2 g IV as an initial dose, followed by 1 g IV every 4 h until delivery

Cefazolin

2 g IV as an initial dose, followed by 1 g IV every 8 h until delivery

Abbreviation: IV, intravenous.

377

378

Camacho-Gonzalez et al

Table 5
Evidence of strategies for prevention of neonatal sepsis
Prevention Strategy

Notes

Lactoferrin

Small studies show reduction of both fungal and bacterial

infection; large studies needed.

Intravenous immunoglobulin

No proven efficacy for prevention of neonatal sepsis.

Antistaphylococcal monoclonal
antibodies

Monoclonal antibodies against capsular polysaccharide

and clumping Factor A have shown no effect in
prevention of sepsis. Antilipoteichoic acid antibodies
may have an effect but further randomized controlled
studies are required.

Probiotics

No proven efficacy for neonatal sepsis. Useful as

prevention of necrotizing enterocolitis.

GM-CSF/G-CSF

No proven efficacy of neonatal sepsis.

Glutamine

No proven efficacy of neonatal sepsis.

Fluconazole

Efficacious in prevention of Candida sepsis in VLBW infants.

Abbreviations: G-CSF, granulocyte colony-stimulating factor; GM-CSF, granulocyte-macrophage

colony-stimulating factor; VLBW, very low birth weight.

was rate of death or major disability at the age of 2 years. There was no difference in
the primary outcome between the 2 groups (RR 1.00, 95% CI 0.921.08).107
Antistaphylococcal monoclonal antibodies

Because of the burden of staphylococcal infections in neonatal sepsis, different antistaphylococcal monoclonal antibodies had been developed. These include antibodies against the capsular polysaccharide antigen, antibodies against microbial
surface components that recognize adhesive matrix molecules, antibodies to clumping factor A, and anti-lipoteichoic acid (LTA) antibodies.108110 Initial animal studies,
as well as phase I and II trials in humans, showed that capsular-directed antibodies
and anti-clumping factor A were well tolerated and had the potential to reduce staphylococcal sepsis111,112; however, a meta-analysis showed that their efficacy in
decreasing staphylococcal infections was limited and recommended against their
use.113 Recently, Weisman and colleagues110 showed safety and tolerance of pagibaximab (anti-LTA antibody) at doses of 60 and 90 mg/kg in VLBW infants, with those
receiving 90 mg/kg per dose showing no staphylococcal sepsis. Although these are
exciting results, randomized controlled studies are needed to further confirm these
findings.
Granulocyte/Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factors

Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) increases T-Helper 1

immune responses and enhances bactericidal activity by stimulating neutrophils
and monocytes. Animal studies have shown that both GM-CSF and granulocyte
colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF), given before bacterial inoculation, decrease
mortality. A single blinded multicenter study looking at the use of GM-CSF and the
development of sepsis showed that although the absolute neutrophil count on the
treatment arm increased significantly faster (P 5 .002), there was no difference in
sepsis-free survival to day 14 from study entry (risk difference 8%, 95% CI 18%
to 3%).114 A meta-analysis that included 4 small studies had similar results (RR
0.89, 95% CI 0.431.86).96

Evaluation of Neonatal Sepsis

Glutamine

Based on promising adult studies, glutamine supplementation has been suggested as

a potential intervention to reduce neonatal sepsis. A randomized double-blinded study
from the NICHD NRN among 1433 extremely low birth weight infants showed no difference in mortality and late-onset sepsis outcomes (RR 1.07, 95% CI 0.971.17;
P 5 .18).115 Similar results were obtained in a meta-analysis of 5 trials that included
2240 neonates looking at the effects of glutamine in the incidence of culture-proven
invasive infection (RR 1.01, 95% CI 0.911.13).116 Glutamine supplementation is not
currently recommended as a strategy to decrease or prevent neonatal sepsis.
Probiotics

Evidence continues to grow regarding the use of probiotics to prevent necrotizing

enterocolitis,117,118 but data on use of probiotics for prevention of neonatal sepsis
are limited and contradictory. A major problem with the use of probiotics is the lack
of standardization and federal regulation. If probiotics are considered food additives,
no formal evaluation is required and a wide of variety of products are available. Some
investigators have stressed the need for review and approval by the Food and Drug
Administration, especially if probiotics are to be used in at-risk VLBW infants. Although
small studies have indicated potential benefits of probiotics in decreasing neonatal
sepsis, a recent meta-analysis (RR 0.90, 95% CI 0.761.07) and a systematic review
(RR 0.98, 95% CI 0.811.18) found no evidence that probiotics decreased sepsis in
preterm VLBW infants.117,119
Lactoferrin

Lactoferrin is a glycoprotein present in human milk that contains immunomodulatory

properties by increasing cytokine production in the gut and associated lymphoid
tissue, as well as by showing antibioticlike activities against gram-negative and
gram-positive bacteria. A recent multicenter randomized study in 472 VLBW neonates
demonstrated decreased bacterial and fungal LOS among newborns treated with lactoferrin (5.9% in lactoferrin group vs 17.3% in controls, P 5 .002).120 Further studies
are needed to confirm these findings and to evaluate optimal dosage as well as
short-term and long-term safety.
Fluconazole prophylaxis

Studies have documented that fluconazole prophylaxis among high-risk VLBW infants
is effective in reducing the number of severe infections. Kaufman and colleagues121
found a 22% decrease in risk of fungal colonization among infants weighing less
than 1000 g who were on fluconazole prophylaxis. In addition, they found no fungal
invasive infections in those who received fluconazole compared with 20% in the
placebo group. Similar results were obtained by the Italian Task Force in 322 neonates
who were randomized to receive fluconazole or placebo.122 The success in decreasing the incidence of fungal infections in the neonatal units has not been translated into decreased mortality; however, all prospective studies of fluconazole
prophylaxis have consistently revealed decreasing mortality trends.121124 In addition,
Healy and colleagues,125 in a retrospective 4-year study looking at the incidence of
invasive candidiasis, showed that there were no attributable deaths among patients
who received fluconazole prophylaxis compared with 21% of those who did not.
Current recommendations advocate for the use of fluconazole prophylaxis in infants
with birth weights of less than 1000 g in neonatal units with high rates of invasive
candidiasis.126 Recently, Kaufman and colleagues123 reported an 8-year to 10-year
follow-up study evaluating the long-term and neurodevelopmental outcomes of fluconazole prophylaxis. They found no significant neurodevelopmental impairment or

379

380

Camacho-Gonzalez et al

difference in head circumference growth and cholestasis in patients on prophylaxis

when compared with placebo. A larger study is needed to verify these findings.
Another important aspect of fluconazole prophylactic use has been the concern
regarding emergence of fluconazole-resistant strains; however, studies have failed
to show such an association, and a significant increase in fluconazole-resistant
Candida species has not yet occurred.125
Judicious Use of Antibiotics

Appropriate use of antibiotics is important to save lives and reduce complications.

Indiscriminate use increases risk of multidrug-resistant organisms and other complications, including disseminated candida infections and necrotizing enterocolitis.127,128
Reports of vancomycin-resistant enterococcus, beta lactamaseproducing organisms
(E coli, Klebsiella, Enterobacter), and highly resistant Acinetobacter, Burkholderia,
Chryseobacterium meningosepticum, and Serratia are increasing in the neonatal population, calling for a judicious use of antibiotics.129134 A study looking at antibiotic
prescribing practices in 4 NICUs found that approximately 28% of the established
antibiotic courses and 24% of antibiotic days were inappropriate for the prescribing
indication. The most common cause of inappropriate use was excessive continuation
of antibiotics, rather than inappropriate initiation, followed by inability to target the
specific pathogen once isolated.135 General principles for antibiotic use, as well as
effective antibiotic stewardship programs, may help decrease misuse of antibiotics
in the NICU (Table 6). Such programs require developing antibiotic guidelines and
education initiatives, accompanied by preprescription approval and postprescription
review (ie, modification of empiric antibiotic regimen, dose optimization, therapeutic
monitoring, oral antimicrobial conversion, and drug-drug interactions). Close involvement and communication among an infectious disease specialist, neonatologist,
clinical pharmacist, and infection control and microbiology personnel are essential
for the success of the program.136 Efforts to document and measure the success of
stewardship programs are important as well as generating nonpunitive feedback on
antibiotic prescription practices. The NICU has specific characteristics in antibiotic
prescription practices, as multiple providers may be involved in the decision of initiating, continuing, or discontinuing antibiotics; adapting programs to such characteristics is important.137 Recently, the CDC launched the Get Smart for Health Care
campaign, which focuses on improving antibiotic use in inpatient/outpatient health
care facilities and offers tools for implementation and improvement of stewardship
efforts (http://www.cdc.gov/getsmart/healthcare).
Ampicillin and gentamicin continue to be the preferred antibiotics for empiric treatment of suspected early-onset neonatal sepsis. Increasing ampicillin-resistant E coli in
some centers has led to increased use of third-generation cephalosporins as part of
the empiric treatment; however, studies have shown a potential association with
Table 6
Principles for antibiotic use
Empiric initiation of antibiotics

Use only when bacterial infections are likely

and discontinue empiric treatment when
they have not been identified.

Switch antibiotics based on susceptibility

patterns

Change the antibiotic agents to those with

the narrowest spectrum.

Define duration of antibiotic therapy

Establish a final duration of antibiotic

management based on the disease process.

Evaluation of Neonatal Sepsis

Table 7
Duration of antibiotic therapy in neonatal sepsis based on clinical presentation

Clinical Presentation

Duration of Antibiotic Therapy

Early-onset sepsis without meningitis

10 d

Late-onset sepsis without meningitis

1014 d

Meningitis: early-onset or late-onset sepsis

1421 da

Gram-negative rod meningitis: will require at least 21 days of therapy.

increased mortality and the development of multidrug-resistant organisms associated

with this practice. In addition, cephalosporins are not active against Listeria and
enterococcus. In LOS, coverage with vancomycin should be considered, especially
in hospitalized VLBW infants at risk for CoNS infection.
Definitive therapy should be chosen based on antibiotic susceptibilities. Combination therapy for gram-negative organisms is not required for patients without meningitis, and for patients with an inducible B-lactamaseproducing organism (Serratia,
indol-positive Proteus, Citrobacter, and Enterobacter), the use of a carbapenem
should be considered. The duration of therapy is based on the disease process
(Table 7).
Amphotericin and fluconazole continue to be the antifungal drugs of choice for treatment of neonatal candidiasis. Local susceptibility patterns should be followed if
Candida glabrata, Candida krusei, or Candida lusitaniae are isolated, as susceptibility
of these species to both fluconazole and amphotericin may be decreased. C krusei is
intrinsically fluconazole resistant, and may have reduced susceptibility to amphotericin, whereas C lusitanaie is among the few Candida species to show full in vitro resistance to amphotericin in some isolates. Candida tropicalis and Candida parapsilosis
are frequently resistant to fluconazole, although resistance rates vary by area, but
they are usually susceptible to amphotericin. The experience with the use of echinocandins (micafungin, caspofungin, anidulafungin) in neonates continues to increase,
but their use is not yet approved in this population, and their poor CNS penetration
is also a concern.138 Micafungin is the echinocandin that has been studied the most
in the neonatal population and these studies show that higher doses may be required,
especially for better CNS penetration.139141
SUMMARY

Neonatal sepsis continues to be a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in term

and preterm infants. Although GBS and E coli are the most common pathogens associated with EOS, and CoNS are the most frequently isolated agents in newborns with
LOS, other organisms, as well as multidrug-resistant pathogens, need to be considered. Development of accurate novel early diagnostic markers will allow clinicians
to better assess the risk of infection and need for antibiotic therapy. Adherence to
infection-control policies, including attention to strict hand hygiene, antibiotic stewardship, and catheter management, are required to decrease the number of infections
in hospitalized neonates.
REFERENCES

1. Verani JR, McGee L, Schrag SJ. Prevention of perinatal group B streptococcal

diseaserevised guidelines from CDC, 2010. MMWR Recomm Rep 2010;59:
136.

381

382

Camacho-Gonzalez et al

2. Stoll BJ, Hansen N, Fanaroff AA, et al. Changes in pathogens causing earlyonset sepsis in very-low-birth-weight infants. N Engl J Med 2002;347:2407.
3. Stoll BJ, Hansen NI, Sanchez PJ, et al. Early onset neonatal sepsis: the burden
of group B Streptococcal and E. coli disease continues. Pediatrics 2011;127:
81726.
4. Weston EJ, Pondo T, Lewis MM, et al. The burden of invasive early-onset
neonatal sepsis in the United States, 2005-2008. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2011;30:
93741.
5. Bizzarro MJ, Raskind C, Baltimore RS, et al. Seventy-five years of neonatal
sepsis at Yale: 1928-2003. Pediatrics 2005;116:595602.
6. Vergnano S, Menson E, Kennea N, et al. Neonatal infections in England: the
NeonIN surveillance network. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2011;96:F914.
7. Stoll BJ, Hansen N, Fanaroff AA, et al. Late-onset sepsis in very low birth weight
neonates: the experience of the NICHD Neonatal Research Network. Pediatrics
2002;110:28591.
8. Stoll BJ, Hansen NI, Bell EF, et al. Neonatal outcomes of extremely preterm
infants from the NICHD Neonatal Research Network. Pediatrics 2010;126:
44356.
9. Baker CJ, Byington CL, Polin RA. Policy statementRecommendations for the
prevention of perinatal group B streptococcal (GBS) disease. Pediatrics 2011;
128:6116.
10. Kumar S, Ingle H, Prasad DV, et al. Recognition of bacterial infection by innate
immune sensors. Crit Rev Microbiol 2012. [Epub ahead of print].
11. Kollmann TR, Crabtree J, Rein-Weston A, et al. Neonatal innate TLR-mediated
responses are distinct from those of adults. J Immunol 2009;183:715060.
12. Belderbos ME, Levy O, Stalpers F, et al. Neonatal plasma polarizes TLR4mediated cytokine responses towards low IL-12p70 and high IL-10 production
via distinct factors. PLoS One 2012;7:e33419.
13. Carr R. Neutrophil production and function in newborn infants. Br J Haematol
2000;110:1828.
14. Levy O. Innate immunity of the newborn: basic mechanisms and clinical correlates. Nat Rev Immunol 2007;7:37990.
15. Guilmot A, Hermann E, Braud VM, et al. Natural killer cell responses to infections
in early life. J Innate Immun 2011;3:2808.
16. Schelonka RL, Maheshwari A, Carlo WA, et al. T cell cytokines and the risk of
blood stream infection in extremely low birth weight infants. Cytokine 2011;53:
24955.
17. Tolar J, Hippen KL, Blazar BR. Immune regulatory cells in umbilical cord blood:
T regulatory cells and mesenchymal stromal cells. Br J Haematol 2009;147:
2006.
18. Risdon G, Gaddy J, Horie M, et al. Alloantigen priming induces a state of unresponsiveness in human umbilical cord blood T cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A
1995;92:24137.
19. Takahashi N, Kato H, Imanishi K, et al. Change of specific T cells in an emerging
neonatal infectious disease induced by a bacterial superantigen. Microbiol
Immunol 2009;53:52430.
20. Sautois B, Fillet G, Beguin Y. Comparative cytokine production by in vitro stimulated mononucleated cells from cord blood and adult blood. Exp Hematol
1997;25:1038.
21. Palmeira P, Quinello C, Silveira-Lessa AL, et al. IgG placental transfer in healthy
and pathological pregnancies. Clin Dev Immunol 2012;2012:985646.

Evaluation of Neonatal Sepsis

22. van den Berg JP, Westerbeek EA, van der Klis FR, et al. Transplacental transport
of IgG antibodies to preterm infants: a review of the literature. Early Hum Dev
2011;87:6772.
23. Malek A. Ex vivo human placenta models: transport of immunoglobulin G and its
subclasses. Vaccine 2003;21:33624.
24. Malek A, Sager R, Kuhn P, et al. Evolution of maternofetal transport of immunoglobulins during human pregnancy. Am J Reprod Immunol 1996;36:24855.
25. Zandvoort A, Timens W. The dual function of the splenic marginal zone: essential for initiation of anti-TI-2 responses but also vital in the general first-line
defense against blood-borne antigens. Clin Exp Immunol 2002;130:411.
26. Brandtzaeg P. The mucosal immune system and its integration with the
mammary glands. J Pediatr 2010;156:S815.
27. Hogasen AK, Overlie I, Hansen TW, et al. The analysis of the complement activation product SC5 b-9 is applicable in neonates in spite of their profound C9
deficiency. J Perinat Med 2000;28:3948.
28. Suzuki-Nishimura T, Uchida MK. Binding of spin-labeled fatty acids and lysophospholipids to hydrophobic region of calmodulin. J Biochem 1991;110:3338.
29. Imperi M, Gherardi G, Berardi A, et al. Invasive neonatal GBS infections from an
area-based surveillance study in Italy. Clin Microbiol Infect 2011;17:18349.
30. Tomlinson MW, Schmidt NM, Rourke JW Jr, et al. Rectovaginal Staphylococcus
aureus colonization: is it a neonatal threat? Am J Perinatol 2011;28:6736.
31. Yancey MK, Duff P, Kubilis P, et al. Risk factors for neonatal sepsis. Obstet
Gynecol 1996;87:18894.
32. Regan JA, Klebanoff MA, Nugent RP, et al. Colonization with group B streptococci in pregnancy and adverse outcome. VIP Study Group. Am J Obstet
Gynecol 1996;174:135460.
33. Schrag SJ, Zywicki S, Farley MM, et al. Group B streptococcal disease in the era
of intrapartum antibiotic prophylaxis. N Engl J Med 2000;342:1520.
34. Tsai CH, Chen YY, Wang KG, et al. Characteristics of early-onset neonatal
sepsis caused by Escherichia coli. Taiwan J Obstet Gynecol 2012;51:2630.
35. Bizzarro MJ, Dembry LM, Baltimore RS, et al. Changing patterns in neonatal
Escherichia coli sepsis and ampicillin resistance in the era of intrapartum antibiotic prophylaxis. Pediatrics 2008;121:68996.
36. Kaczmarek A, Budzynska A, Gospodarek E. Prevalence of genes encoding
virulence factors among Escherichia coli with K1 antigen and non-K1 E. coli
strains. J Med Microbiol 2012;61(Pt 10):13605.
37. Schrag SJ, Hadler JL, Arnold KE, et al. Risk factors for invasive, early-onset
Escherichia coli infections in the era of widespread intrapartum antibiotic use.
Pediatrics 2006;118:5706.
38. Al-Hasan MN, Lahr BD, Eckel-Passow JE, et al. Antimicrobial resistance trends
of Escherichia coli bloodstream isolates: a population-based study, 1998-2007.
J Antimicrob Chemother 2009;64:16974.
39. Puopolo KM, Eichenwald EC. No change in the incidence of ampicillin-resistant,
neonatal, early-onset sepsis over 18 years. Pediatrics 2010;125:e10318.
40. Versalovic J. Manual of clinical microbiology. 10th edition. Washington, DC: ASM
Press; 2012.
41. Shetron-Rama LM, Marquis H, Bouwer HG, et al. Intracellular induction of Listeria monocytogenes actA expression. Infect Immun 2002;70:108796.
42. Moors MA, Levitt B, Youngman P, et al. Expression of listeriolysin O and ActA by
intracellular and extracellular Listeria monocytogenes. Infect Immun 1999;67:
1319.

383

384

Camacho-Gonzalez et al

43. Smith B, Kemp M, Ethelberg S, et al. Listeria monocytogenes: maternal-foetal

infections in Denmark 1994-2005. Scand J Infect Dis 2009;41:215.
44. CDC. From the Centers for Disease Control. Foodborne listeriosisUnited
States, 1988-1990. JAMA 1992;267:24468.
45. Schlech WF 3rd. Foodborne listeriosis. Clin Infect Dis 2000;31:7705.
46. Miyairi I, Berlingieri D, Protic J, et al. Neonatal invasive group A streptococcal
disease: case report and review of the literature. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2004;23:
1615.
47. Prommalikit O, Mekmullica J, Pancharoen C, et al. Invasive pneumococcal infection in neonates: 3 case reports. J Med Assoc Thai 2010;93(Suppl 5):S468.
48. Malhotra A, Hunt RW, Doherty RR. Streptococcus pneumoniae sepsis in the
newborn. J Paediatr Child Health 2012;48:E7983.
49. Gomez M, Alter S, Kumar ML, et al. Neonatal Streptococcus pneumoniae infection: case reports and review of the literature. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1999;18:10148.
50. Appelbaum PC, Friedman Z, Fairbrother PF, et al. Neonatal sepsis due to group
G streptococci. Acta Paediatr Scand 1980;69:55962.
51. West PW, Al-Sawan R, Foster HA, et al. Speciation of presumptive viridans
streptococci from early onset neonatal sepsis. J Med Microbiol 1998;47:9238.
52. Dobson SR, Baker CJ. Enterococcal sepsis in neonates: features by age at
onset and occurrence of focal infection. Pediatrics 1990;85:16571.
53. Ault KA. Vaginal flora as the source for neonatal early onset Haemophilus influenzae sepsis. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1994;13:243.
54. Hershckowitz S, Elisha MB, Fleisher-Sheffer V, et al. A cluster of early neonatal
sepsis and pneumonia caused by nontypable Haemophilus influenzae. Pediatr
Infect Dis J 2004;23:10612.
55. Takala AK, Pekkanen E, Eskola J. Neonatal Haemophilus influenzae infections.
Arch Dis Child 1991;66:43740.
56. Didier C, Streicher MP, Chognot D, et al. Late-onset neonatal infections: incidences and pathogens in the era of antenatal antibiotics. Eur J Pediatr 2012;
171:6817.
57. Lim WH, Lien R, Huang YC, et al. Prevalence and pathogen distribution of
neonatal sepsis among very-low-birth-weight infants. Pediatr Neonatol 2012;
53:22834.
58. Shane AL, Hansen NI, Stoll BJ, et al. Methicillin-resistant and susceptible Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia and meningitis in preterm infants. Pediatrics
2012;129:e91422.
59. de Silva GD, Kantzanou M, Justice A, et al. The ica operon and biofilm production in coagulase-negative Staphylococci associated with carriage and disease
in a neonatal intensive care unit. J Clin Microbiol 2002;40:3828.
60. Drudy D, Mullane NR, Quinn T, et al. Enterobacter sakazakii: an emerging pathogen in powdered infant formula. Clin Infect Dis 2006;42:9961002.
61. Tresoldi AT, Padoveze MC, Trabasso P, et al. Enterobacter cloacae sepsis
outbreak in a newborn unit caused by contaminated total parenteral nutrition
solution. Am J Infect Control 2000;28:25861.
62. Cohen-Wolkowiez M, Moran C, Benjamin DK, et al. Early and late onset sepsis in
late preterm infants. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2009;28:10526.
63. Bell Y, Barton M, Thame M, et al. Neonatal sepsis in Jamaican neonates. Ann
Trop Paediatr 2005;25:2936.
64. Leibovitz E, Flidel-Rimon O, Juster-Reicher A, et al. Sepsis at a neonatal intensive care unit: a four-year retrospective study (1989-1992). Isr J Med Sci 1997;
33:7348.

Evaluation of Neonatal Sepsis

65. Townsend S, Hurrell E, Forsythe S. Virulence studies of Enterobacter sakazakii

isolates associated with a neonatal intensive care unit outbreak. BMC Microbiol
2008;8:64.
66. Etuwewe O, Kulshrestha R, Sangra M, et al. Brain abscesses due to Citrobacter
koseri in a pair of twins. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2009;28:1035.
67. Townsend SM, Pollack HA, Gonzalez-Gomez I, et al. Citrobacter koseri brain
abscess in the neonatal rat: survival and replication within human and rat macrophages. Infect Immun 2003;71:587180.
68. Benjamin DK Jr, Stoll BJ, Fanaroff AA, et al. Neonatal candidiasis among
extremely low birth weight infants: risk factors, mortality rates, and neurodevelopmental outcomes at 18 to 22 months. Pediatrics 2006;117:8492.
69. Neu N, Malik M, Lunding A, et al. Epidemiology of candidemia at a childrens
hospital, 2002 to 2006. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2009;28:8069.
70. Chitnis AS, Magill SS, Edwards JR, et al. Trends in Candida central lineassociated bloodstream infections among NICUs, 1999-2009. Pediatrics 2012;
130:e4652.
71. Bliss JM, Wong AY, Bhak G, et al. Candida virulence properties and adverse
clinical outcomes in neonatal candidiasis. J Pediatr 2012;161:441447.e2.
72. Stoll BJ, Hansen N, Fanaroff AA, et al. To tap or not to tap: high likelihood of
meningitis without sepsis among very low birth weight infants. Pediatrics
2004;113:11816.
73. Jawaheer G, Neal TJ, Shaw NJ. Blood culture volume and detection of coagulase negative staphylococcal septicaemia in neonates. Arch Dis Child Fetal
Neonatal Ed 1997;76:F578.
74. Neal PR, Kleiman MB, Reynolds JK, et al. Volume of blood submitted for culture
from neonates. J Clin Microbiol 1986;24:3536.
75. Visser VE, Hall RT. Urine culture in the evaluation of suspected neonatal sepsis.
J Pediatr 1979;94:6358.
76. Wiswell TE, Baumgart S, Gannon CM, et al. No lumbar puncture in the evaluation
for early neonatal sepsis: will meningitis be missed? Pediatrics 1995;95:8036.
77. Lakeman FD, Whitley RJ. Diagnosis of herpes simplex encephalitis: application
of polymerase chain reaction to cerebrospinal fluid from brain-biopsied patients
and correlation with disease. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious
Diseases Collaborative Antiviral Study Group. J Infect Dis 1995;171:85763.
78. Simko JP, Caliendo AM, Hogle K, et al. Differences in laboratory findings for
cerebrospinal fluid specimens obtained from patients with meningitis or
encephalitis due to herpes simplex virus (HSV) documented by detection of
HSV DNA. Clin Infect Dis 2002;35:4149.
79. Christensen RD, Rothstein G, Hill HR, et al. Fatal early onset group B streptococcal sepsis with normal leukocyte counts. Pediatr Infect Dis 1985;4:2425.
80. Hornik CP, Benjamin DK, Becker KC, et al. Use of the complete blood cell count
in early-onset neonatal sepsis. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2012;31:799802.
81. Murphy K, Weiner J. Use of leukocyte counts in evaluation of early-onset
neonatal sepsis. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2012;31:169.
82. Tillett WS, Francis T. Serological reactions in pneumonia with a non-protein
somatic fraction of pneumococcus. J Exp Med 1930;52:56171.
83. Hengst JM. The role of C-reactive protein in the evaluation and management of
infants with suspected sepsis. Adv Neonatal Care 2003;3:313.
84. Philip AG, Mills PC. Use of C-reactive protein in minimizing antibiotic exposure:
experience with infants initially admitted to a well-baby nursery. Pediatrics 2000;
106:E4.

385

386

Camacho-Gonzalez et al

85. Chiesa C, Signore F, Assumma M, et al. Serial measurements of C-reactive

protein and interleukin-6 in the immediate postnatal period: reference intervals
and analysis of maternal and perinatal confounders. Clin Chem 2001;47:
101622.
86. Forest JC, Lariviere F, Dolce P, et al. C-reactive protein as biochemical indicator
of bacterial infection in neonates. Clin Biochem 1986;19:1924.
87. Chiesa C, Natale F, Pascone R, et al. C reactive protein and procalcitonin: reference intervals for preterm and term newborns during the early neonatal period.
Clin Chim Acta 2011;412:10539.
88. Hofer N, Muller W, Resch B. Non-infectious conditions and gestational age influence C-reactive protein values in newborns during the first 3 days of life. Clin
Chem Lab Med 2011;49:297302.
89. Auriti C, Fiscarelli E, Ronchetti MP, et al. Procalcitonin in detecting neonatal
nosocomial sepsis. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2012;97:F36870.
90. Vouloumanou EK, Plessa E, Karageorgopoulos DE, et al. Serum procalcitonin as
a diagnostic marker for neonatal sepsis: a systematic review and meta-analysis.
Intensive Care Med 2011;37:74762.
91. Neth O, Jack DL, Dodds AW, et al. Mannose-binding lectin binds to a range of
clinically relevant microorganisms and promotes complement deposition. Infect
Immun 2000;68:68893.
92. Ozkan H, Koksal N, Cetinkaya M, et al. Serum mannose-binding lectin (MBL)
gene polymorphism and low MBL levels are associated with neonatal sepsis
and pneumonia. J Perinatol 2012;32:2107.
93. Ng PC, Li K, Wong RP, et al. Proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokine
responses in preterm infants with systemic infections. Arch Dis Child Fetal
Neonatal Ed 2003;88:F20913.
94. Resch B, Gusenleitner W, Muller WD. Procalcitonin and interleukin-6 in the diagnosis of early-onset sepsis of the neonate. Acta Paediatr 2003;92:2435.
95. Genel F, Atlihan F, Gulez N, et al. Evaluation of adhesion molecules CD64,
CD11b and CD62L in neutrophils and monocytes of peripheral blood for early
diagnosis of neonatal infection. World J Pediatr 2012;8:725.
96. Pammi M, Brocklehurst P. Granulocyte transfusions for neonates with confirmed or suspected sepsis and neutropenia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev
2011;(10):CD003956.
97. Ng PC, Ang IL, Chiu RW, et al. Host-response biomarkers for diagnosis of lateonset septicemia and necrotizing enterocolitis in preterm infants. J Clin Invest
2010;120:29893000.
98. Daniels JP, Gray J, Pattison HM, et al. Intrapartum tests for group B streptococcus: accuracy and acceptability of screening. BJOG 2011;118:25765.
99. Polin RA, Denson S, Brady MT. Strategies for prevention of health careassociated infections in the NICU. Pediatrics 2012;129:e108593.
100. Kilbride HW, Wirtschafter DD, Powers RJ, et al. Implementation of evidencebased potentially better practices to decrease nosocomial infections. Pediatrics
2003;111:e51933.
101. Bloom BT, Craddock A, Delmore PM, et al. Reducing acquired infections in
the NICU: observing and implementing meaningful differences in process
between high and low acquired infection rate centers. J Perinatol 2003;23:
48992.
102. Andersen C, Hart J, Vemgal P, et al. Prospective evaluation of a multi-factorial
prevention strategy on the impact of nosocomial infection in very-lowbirthweight infants. J Hosp Infect 2005;61:1627.

Evaluation of Neonatal Sepsis

103. Shah P, Shah V. Continuous heparin infusion to prevent thrombosis and catheter
occlusion in neonates with peripherally placed percutaneous central venous
catheters. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2005;(3):CD002772.
104. Birch P, Ogden S, Hewson M. A randomised, controlled trial of heparin in total
parenteral nutrition to prevent sepsis associated with neonatal long lines: the
Heparin in Long Line Total Parenteral Nutrition (HILLTOP) trial. Arch Dis Child
Fetal Neonatal Ed 2010;95:F2527.
105. Fanaroff AA, Korones SB, Wright LL, et al. A controlled trial of intravenous
immune globulin to reduce nosocomial infections in very-low-birth-weight
infants. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Neonatal
Research Network. N Engl J Med 1994;330:110713.
106. Ohlsson A, Lacy J. Intravenous immunoglobulin for suspected or subsequently
proven infection in neonates. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2010;(3):CD001239.
107. Brocklehurst P, Farrell B, King A, et al. Treatment of neonatal sepsis with intravenous immune globulin. N Engl J Med 2011;365:120111.
108. Vernachio J, Bayer AS, Le T, et al. Anti-clumping factor A immunoglobulin
reduces the duration of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia
in an experimental model of infective endocarditis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2003;47:34006.
109. Patti JM, Allen BL, McGavin MJ, et al. MSCRAMM-mediated adherence of
microorganisms to host tissues. Annu Rev Microbiol 1994;48:585617.
110. Weisman LE, Thackray HM, Steinhorn RH, et al. A randomized study of a monoclonal antibody (pagibaximab) to prevent staphylococcal sepsis. Pediatrics
2011;128:2719.
111. Benjamin DK, Schelonka R, White R, et al. A blinded, randomized, multicenter
study of an intravenous Staphylococcus aureus immune globulin. J Perinatol
2006;26:2905.
112. Bloom B, Schelonka R, Kueser T, et al. Multicenter study to assess safety and
efficacy of INH-A21, a donor-selected human staphylococcal immunoglobulin,
for prevention of nosocomial infections in very low birth weight infants. Pediatr
Infect Dis J 2005;24:85866.
113. Shah PS, Kaufman DA. Antistaphylococcal immunoglobulins to prevent staphylococcal infection in very low birth weight infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev
2009;(2):CD006449.
114. Carr R, Brocklehurst P, Dore CJ, et al. Granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor administered as prophylaxis for reduction of sepsis in extremely
preterm, small for gestational age neonates (the PROGRAMS trial): a singleblind, multicentre, randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2009;373:22633.
115. Poindexter BB, Ehrenkranz RA, Stoll BJ, et al. Effect of parenteral glutamine
supplementation on plasma amino acid concentrations in extremely low-birthweight infants. Am J Clin Nutr 2003;77:73743.
116. Tubman TR, Thompson SW, McGuire W. Glutamine supplementation to prevent
morbidity and mortality in preterm infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev
2008;(1):CD001457.
117. Alfaleh K, Anabrees J, Bassler D, et al. Probiotics for prevention of necrotizing
enterocolitis in preterm infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2011;(3):CD005496.
118. Bonsante F, Iacobelli S, Gouyon JB. Routine probiotic use in very preterm infants:
retrospective comparison of two cohorts. Am J Perinatol 2012. [Epub ahead of print].
119. Deshpande G, Rao S, Patole S, et al. Updated meta-analysis of probiotics for
preventing necrotizing enterocolitis in preterm neonates. Pediatrics 2010;125:
92130.

387

388

Camacho-Gonzalez et al

120. Manzoni P, Rinaldi M, Cattani S, et al. Bovine lactoferrin supplementation for

prevention of late-onset sepsis in very low-birth-weight neonates: a randomized
trial. JAMA 2009;302:14218.
121. Kaufman D, Boyle R, Hazen KC, et al. Fluconazole prophylaxis against fungal
colonization and infection in preterm infants. N Engl J Med 2001;345:16606.
122. Manzoni P, Stolfi I, Pugni L, et al. A multicenter, randomized trial of prophylactic
fluconazole in preterm neonates. N Engl J Med 2007;356:248395.
123. Kaufman DA, Cuff AL, Wamstad JB, et al. Fluconazole prophylaxis in extremely
low birth weight infants and neurodevelopmental outcomes and quality of life at
8 to 10 years of age. J Pediatr 2011;158:759765.e1.
124. Kicklighter SD, Springer SC, Cox T, et al. Fluconazole for prophylaxis against
candidal rectal colonization in the very low birth weight infant. Pediatrics
2001;107:2938.
125. Healy CM, Campbell JR, Zaccaria E, et al. Fluconazole prophylaxis in extremely low
birth weight neonates reduces invasive candidiasis mortality rates without emergence of fluconazole-resistant Candida species. Pediatrics 2008;121:70310.
126. Pappas PG, Kauffman CA, Andes D, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for the
management of candidiasis: 2009 update by the Infectious Diseases Society
of America. Clin Infect Dis 2009;48:50335.
127. Cotten CM, Taylor S, Stoll B, et al. Prolonged duration of initial empirical antibiotic treatment is associated with increased rates of necrotizing enterocolitis and
death for extremely low birth weight infants. Pediatrics 2009;123:5866.
128. Kuppala VS, Meinzen-Derr J, Morrow AL, et al. Prolonged initial empirical antibiotic treatment is associated with adverse outcomes in premature infants.
J Pediatr 2011;159:7205.
129. Arslan U, Erayman I, Kirdar S, et al. Serratia marcescens sepsis outbreak in
a neonatal intensive care unit. Pediatr Int 2010;52:20812.
130. Dashti AA, Jadaon MM, Gomaa HH, et al. Transmission of a Klebsiella pneumoniae clone harbouring genes for CTX-M-15-like and SHV-112 enzymes in
a neonatal intensive care unit of a Kuwaiti hospital. J Med Microbiol 2010;59:
68792.
131. Golan Y, Doron S, Sullivan B, et al. Transmission of vancomycin-resistant enterococcus in a neonatal intensive care unit. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2005;24:5667.
132. Linkin DR, Fishman NO, Patel JB, et al. Risk factors for extended-spectrum
beta-lactamase-producing Enterobacteriaceae in a neonatal intensive care
unit. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2004;25:7813.
133. Maraki S, Scoulica E, Manoura A, et al. Chryseobacterium meningosepticum
colonization outbreak in a neonatal intensive care unit. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect
Dis 2009;28:14159.
134. Touati A, Achour W, Cherif A, et al. Outbreak of Acinetobacter baumannii in
a neonatal intensive care unit: antimicrobial susceptibility and genotyping analysis. Ann Epidemiol 2009;19:3728.
135. Patel SJ, Oshodi A, Prasad P, et al. Antibiotic use in neonatal intensive care units
and adherence with Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 12 Step
Campaign to Prevent Antimicrobial Resistance. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2009;28:
104751.
136. Tamma PD, Cosgrove SE. Antimicrobial stewardship. Infect Dis Clin North Am
2011;25:24560.
137. Patel SJ, Saiman L, Duchon JM, et al. Development of an antimicrobial stewardship intervention using a model of actionable feedback. Interdiscip Perspect
Infect Dis 2012;2012:150367.

Evaluation of Neonatal Sepsis

138. Chen SC, Slavin MA, Sorrell TC. Echinocandin antifungal drugs in fungal infections: a comparison. Drugs 2011;71:1141.
139. Smith PB, Walsh TJ, Hope W, et al. Pharmacokinetics of an elevated dosage of
micafungin in premature neonates. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2009;28:4125.
140. Heresi GP, Gerstmann DR, Reed MD, et al. The pharmacokinetics and safety of
micafungin, a novel echinocandin, in premature infants. Pediatr Infect Dis J
2006;25:11105.
141. Benjamin DK Jr, Smith PB, Arrieta A, et al. Safety and pharmacokinetics of
repeat-dose micafungin in young infants. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2010;87:939.

389