Complex permittivity

A dielectric permittivity spectrum over a wide range of frequencies.

and denote the real and the imaginary part of the permittivity,
respectively. Various processes are labeled on the image: ionic and
dipolar relaxation, and atomic and electronic resonances at higher
energies.[4]
As opposed to the response of a vacuum, the response of normal
materials to external fields generally depends on the frequency of the
field. This frequency dependence reflects the fact that a material's
polarization does not respond instantaneously to an applied field. The
response must always be causal (arising after the applied field) which
can be represented by a phase difference. For this reason, permittivity is
often treated as a complex function of the (angular) frequency of the
applied field :
(since complex numbers allow specification of
magnitude and phase). The definition of permittivity therefore becomes

where
D0 and E0 are the amplitudes of the displacement and electrical
fields, respectively,
i is the imaginary unit, i2 = 1.
The response of a medium to static electric fields is described
by the low-frequency limit of permittivity, also called the static
permittivity s (also DC ):
At the high-frequency limit, the complex permittivity is
commonly referred to as . At the plasma frequency and
above, dielectrics behave as ideal metals, with electron gas
behavior. The static permittivity is a good approximation for
alternating fields of low frequencies, and as the frequency
increases a measurable phase difference emerges
between D and E. The frequency at which the phase shift
becomes noticeable depends on temperature and the details
of the medium. For moderate fields strength
(E0), D and E remain proportional, and

Since the response of materials to alternating fields is

characterized by a complex permittivity, it is natural to
separate its real and imaginary parts, which is done by
convention in the following way:

where
is the real part of the permittivity, which is related to the stored
energy within the medium;
is the imaginary part of the permittivity, which is related to the
dissipation (or loss) of energy within the medium.

It is important to realize that the choice of sign for timedependence, exp(-it), dictates the sign convention for the
imaginary part of permittivity. The signs used here correspond to
those commonly used in physics, whereas for the engineering
convention one should reverse all imaginary quantities.
The complex permittivity is usually a complicated function of
frequency , since it is a superimposed description of dispersion
phenomena occurring at multiple frequencies. The dielectric
function () must have poles only for frequencies with positive
imaginary parts, and therefore satisfies the KramersKronig
relations. However, in the narrow frequency ranges that are often
studied in practice, the permittivity can be approximated as
frequency-independent or by model functions.
At a given frequency, the imaginary part of leads to absorption
loss if it is positive (in the above sign convention) and gain if it is
negative. More generally, the imaginary parts of the eigen
values of the anisotropic dielectric tensor should be considered.
In the case of solids, the complex dielectric function is intimately
connected to band structure. The primary quantity that
characterizes the electronic structure of any crystalline material is
the probability of photon absorption, which is directly related to
the imaginary part of the optical dielectric function (). The
optical dielectric function is given by the fundamental expression:
[5]

In this expression, Wc,v(E) represents the product of the Brillouin

zone-averaged transition probability at the energy E with the
joint density of states,[6][7] Jc,v(E); is a broadening function,
representing the role of scattering in smearing out the energy
levels.[8] In
general,
the
broadening
is
intermediate
[9][10]
between Lorentzian and Gaussian;
for an alloy it is somewhat

closer to Gaussian because of strong scattering from statistical

fluctuations in the local composition on a nanometer scale.
Classification of materials
Materials can be classified according to their permittivity
and conductivity, . Materials with a large amount of loss inhibit
the propagation of electromagnetic waves. In this case, generally
when /() >> 1, we consider the material to be a good
conductor. Dielectrics are associated with lossless or low-loss
materials, where /() << 1. Those that do not fall under either
limit are considered to be general media. A perfect dielectric is a
material that has no conductivity, thus exhibiting only a
displacement current. Therefore it stores and returns electrical
energy as if it were an ideal capacitor.
/()

Current conduction

Field propagation
perfect dielectric
lossless medium

low-conductivity material
poor conductor

low-loss medium
good dielectric

lossy conducting material

lossy propagation medium

high-conductivity material
good conductor

high-loss medium
poor dielectric

perfect conductor

Lossy medium
In the case of lossy medium, i.e. when the conduction current is
not negligible, the total current density flowing is:
where

 is the conductivity of the medium;

is the real part of the permittivity.
is the complex permittivity
The size of the displacement current is dependent on
the frequency of the applied field E; there is no displacement
current in a constant field.
In this formalism, the complex permittivity is defined as[11]:
In general, the absorption of electromagnetic energy by dielectrics
is covered by a few different mechanisms that influence the shape
of the permittivity as a function of frequency:
First, are the relaxation effects associated with permanent and
induced molecular dipoles. At low frequencies the field changes
slowly enough to allow dipoles to reach equilibrium before the
field has measurably changed. For frequencies at which dipole
orientations cannot follow the applied field because of
the viscosity of the medium, absorption of the field's energy leads
to energy dissipation. The mechanism of dipoles relaxing is
called dielectric relaxation and for ideal dipoles is described by
classic Debye relaxation.
Second are the resonance effects, which arise from the rotations or
vibrations of atoms, ions, or electrons. These processes are
observed in the neighborhood of their characteristic absorption
frequencies.
The above effects often combine to cause non-linear effects within
capacitors. For example, dielectric absorption refers to the inability
of a capacitor that has been charged for a long time to completely
discharge when briefly discharged. Although an ideal capacitor
would remain at zero volts after being discharged, real capacitors
will develop a small voltage, a phenomenon that is also
called soakage or battery action. For some dielectrics, such as

many polymer films, the resulting voltage may be less than 1-2%
of the original voltage. However, it can be as much as 15 - 25% in
the case of electrolytic capacitors or supercapacitors.
Quantum-mechanical interpretation
In terms of quantum mechanics, permittivity is explained
by atomic and molecular interactions.
At low frequencies, molecules in polar dielectrics are polarized by
an applied electric field, which induces periodic rotations. For
example, at the microwave frequency, the microwave field causes
the periodic rotation of water molecules, sufficient to
breakhydrogen bonds. The field does work against the bonds and
the energy is absorbed by the material as heat. This is why
microwave ovens work very well for materials containing water.
There are two maxima of the imaginary component (the absorptive
index) of water, one at the microwave frequency, and the other at
far ultraviolet (UV) frequency. Both of these resonances are at
higher frequencies than the operating frequency of microwave
ovens.
At moderate frequencies, the energy is too high to cause rotation,
yet too low to affect electrons directly, and is absorbed in the form
of resonant molecular vibrations. In water, this is where the
absorptive index starts to drop sharply, and the minimum of the
imaginary permittivity is at the frequency of blue light (optical
regime).
At high frequencies (such as UV and above), molecules cannot
relax, and the energy is purely absorbed by atoms,
excitingelectron energy levels. Thus, these frequencies are
classified as ionizing radiation.
While carrying out a complete ab initio (that is, first-principles)
modelling is now computationally possible, it has not been widely
applied yet. Thus, a phenomenological model is accepted as being
an adequate method of capturing experimental behaviors.
The Debye model and the Lorentz model use a 1st-order and 2nd-

order (respectively) lumped system parameter linear representation

(such as an RC and an LRC resonant circuit).
Measurement
Main article: dielectric spectroscopy
The dielectric constant of a material can be found by a variety of
static electrical measurements. The complex permittivity is
evaluated over a wide range of frequencies by using different
variants of dielectric spectroscopy, covering nearly 21 orders of
magnitude from 106 to 1015 Hz. Also, by using cryostats and
ovens, the dielectric properties of a medium can be characterized
over an array of temperatures. In order to study systems for such
diverse excitation fields, a number of measurement setups are
used, each adequate for a special frequency range.
Various microwave measurement techniques are outlined in
Chen et al..[12] Typical errors for the Hakki-Coleman method
employing a puck of material between conducting planes are about
0.3%.[13]
Low-frequency time domain measurements (106-103 Hz)
Low-frequency frequency domain measurements (105-106 Hz)
Reflective coaxial methods (106-1010 Hz)
Transmission coaxial method (108-1011 Hz)
Quasi-optical methods (109-1010 Hz)
Terahertz time-domain spectroscopy (1011-1013 Hz)
Fourier-transform methods (1011-1015 Hz)
At infrared and optical frequencies, a common technique
is ellipsometry. Dual polarisation interferometry is also used to

measure the complex refractive index for very thin films at optical
frequencies.

Dielectric

A polarized dielectric material

A dielectric material (dielectric for short) is an
electrical insulator that can be polarized by an appliedelectric
field. When a dielectric is placed in an electric field, electric
charges do not flow through the material as they do in
a conductor, but only slightly shift from their average equilibrium
positions causing dielectric polarization. Because of dielectric
polarization, positive charges are displaced toward the field and
negative charges shift in the opposite direction. This creates an
internal electric field that reduces the overall field within the
dielectric itself.[1] If a dielectric is composed of weakly bonded
molecules, those molecules not only become polarized, but also
reorient so that their symmetry axis aligns to the field.[1]

The study of dielectric properties concerns storage and

dissipation of electric and magnetic energy in materials.
[2]
Dielectrics are important for explaining various phenomena
in electronics, optics, andsolid-state physics.
Contents
[hide]

1 Terminology

2 Electric susceptibility
o

2.1 Dispersion and causality

3 Dielectric polarization

3.1 Basic atomic model

3.2 Dipolar polarization

3.3 Ionic polarization

4 Dielectric dispersion

5 Dielectric relaxation
o

5.1 Debye relaxation

5.2 Variants of the Debye equation

6 Paraelectricity

7 Tunability

8 Applications

8.1 Capacitors

8.2 Dielectric resonator

9 Some practical dielectrics

10 See also

11 References

12 Further reading

13 External links
Terminology[edit]
While the term insulator implies low electrical
conduction, dielectric typically means materials with a
high polarizability. The latter is expressed by a number called
the relative permittivity (also known in older texts as dielectric
constant). The term insulator is generally used to indicate
electrical obstruction while the term dielectric is used to indicate
the energy storing capacity of the material (by means of
polarization). A common example of a dielectric is the electrically
insulating material between the metallic plates of a capacitor. The
polarization of the dielectric by the applied electric field increases
the capacitor's surface charge for the given electric field strength.
[1]

The term "dielectric" was coined by William Whewell (from "diaelectric") in response to a request from Michael Faraday.[3]
[4]
A perfect dielectric is a material with zero electrical conductivity.
(cf. perfect conductor),[5] thus exhibiting only a displacement

current; therefore it stores and returns electrical energy as if it

were an ideal capacitor.
Electric susceptibility[edit]
Main article: permittivity
The electric susceptibility e of a dielectric material is a
measure of how easily it polarizes in response to an electric field.
This, in turn, determines the electric permittivity of the material
and thus influences many other phenomena in that medium, from
the capacitance ofcapacitors to the speed of light.
It is defined as the constant of proportionality (which may be
a tensor) relating an electric field E to the induced
dielectric polarization density Psuch that

where

is the electric permittivity of free space.

The susceptibility of a medium is related to its relative

permittivity by

So in the case of a vacuum,

The electric displacement D is related to the polarization

density P by

Dispersion and causality[edit]

In general, a material cannot polarize instantaneously in

response to an applied field. The more general formulation
as a function of time is

That is, the polarization is a convolution of the electric field at

previous times with time-dependent susceptibility given
by
. The upper limit of this integral can be extended to
infinity as well if one defines
for
. An
instantaneous response corresponds to Dirac delta
function susceptibility
.
It is more convenient in a linear system to take the Fourier
transform and write this relationship as a function of
frequency. Due to theconvolution theorem, the integral
becomes a simple product,

Note the simple frequency dependence of the susceptibility,

or equivalently the permittivity. The shape of the
susceptibility with respect to frequency characterizes
the dispersion properties of the material.
Moreover, the fact that the polarization can only depend on
the electric field at previous times (i.e.,
for
),
a consequence of causality, imposes KramersKronig
constraints on the real and imaginary parts of the
susceptibility
.
Dielectric polarization[edit]

Basic atomic model[edit]

Electric field interaction with an atom under the classical

dielectric model.
In the classical approach to the dielectric model, a material is
made up of atoms. Each atom consists of a cloud of
negative charge (electrons) bound to and surrounding a
positive point charge at its center. In the presence of an
electric field the charge cloud is distorted, as shown in the
top right of the figure.
This can be reduced to a simple dipole using
the superposition principle. A dipole is characterized by
its dipole moment, a vector quantity shown in the figure as
the blue arrow labeled M. It is the relationship between the
electric field and the dipole moment that gives rise to the
behavior of the dielectric. (Note that the dipole moment
points in the same direction as the electric field in the figure.

This isn't always the case, and is a major simplification, but

is true for many materials.)
When the electric field is removed the atom returns to its
original state. The time required to do so is the socalled relaxation time; an exponential decay.
This is the essence of the model in physics. The behavior of
the dielectric now depends on the situation. The more
complicated the situation, the richer the model must be to
accurately describe the behavior. Important questions are:
Is the electric field constant or does it vary with time? At what
rate?
Does the response depend on the direction of the applied
field (isotropy of the material)?
Is the response the same everywhere (homogeneity of the
material)?
Do any boundaries or interfaces have to be taken into
account?
Is the response linear with respect to the field, or are
there nonlinearities?
The relationship between the electric field E and the dipole
moment M gives rise to the behavior of the dielectric, which,
for a given material, can be characterized by the
function F defined by the equation:
.

When both the type of electric field and the type of material
have been defined, one then chooses the simplest
function F that correctly predicts the phenomena of interest.
Examples of phenomena that can be so modeled include:
Refractive index
Group velocity dispersion
Birefringence
Self-focusing
Harmonic generation
Dipolar polarization[edit]
Dipolar polarization is a polarization that is either inherent
to polar molecules (orientation polarization), or can be
induced in any molecule in which the asymmetric distortion
of the nuclei is possible (distortion polarization).
Orientation polarization results from a permanent dipole,
e.g., that arising from the 104.45 angle between the
asymmetric bonds between oxygen and hydrogen atoms in
the water molecule, which retains polarization in the absence
of an external electric field. The assembly of these dipoles
forms a macroscopic polarization.
When an external electric field is applied, the distance
between charges within each permanent dipole, which is
related to chemical bonding, remains constant in orientation
polarization; however, the direction of polarization itself
rotates. This rotation occurs on a timescale that depends on

the torque and surrounding local viscosity of the molecules.

Because the rotation is not instantaneous, dipolar
polarizations lose the response to electric fields at the
highest frequencies. A molecule rotates about 1 radian per
picosecond in a fluid, thus this loss occurs at about 10 11 Hz
(in the microwave region). The delay of the response to the
change of the electric field causes friction and heat.
When
an
external
electric
field
is
applied
at infrared frequencies or less, the molecules are bent and
stretched by the field and the molecular dipole moment
changes. The molecular vibration frequency is roughly the
inverse of the time it takes for the molecules to bend, and
thisdistortion polarization disappears above the infrared.
Ionic polarization[edit]
Ionic polarization is polarization caused by relative
displacements between positive and negative ions in ionic
crystals (for example, NaCl).
If a crystal or molecule consists of atoms of more than one
kind, the distribution of charges around an atom in the
crystal or molecule leans to positive or negative. As a result,
when lattice vibrations or molecular vibrations induce relative
displacements of the atoms, the centers of positive and
negative charges are also displaced. The locations of these
centers are affected by the symmetry of the displacements.
When the centers don't correspond, polarizations arise in
molecules or crystals. This polarization is called ionic
polarization.

Ionic polarization causes the ferroelectric effect as well

as dipolar polarization. The ferroelectric transition, which is
caused by the lining up of the orientations of permanent
dipoles along a particular direction, is called an orderdisorder phase transition. The transition caused by ionic
polarizations in crystals is called a displacive phase
transition.
Dielectric dispersion[edit]
In physics, dielectric dispersion is the dependence of the
permittivity of a dielectric material on the frequency of an
applied electric field. Because there is a lag between
changes in polarization and changes in the electric field, the
permittivity of the dielectric is a complicated function of
frequency of the electric field. Dielectric dispersion is very
important for the applications of dielectric materials and for
the analysis of polarization systems.
This is one instance of a general phenomenon known
as material dispersion: a frequency-dependent response of a
medium for wave propagation.
When the frequency becomes higher:
1. dipolar polarization can no longer follow the oscillations of
the electric field in the microwave region around 1010 Hz;
2. ionic polarization and molecular distortion polarization can
no longer track the electric field past the infrared or farinfrared region around 1013 Hz, ;

3. electronic polarization loses its response in the ultraviolet

region around 1015 Hz.
In the frequency region above ultraviolet, permittivity
approaches the constant 0 in every substance, where 0 is
the permittivity of the free space. Because permittivity
indicates the strength of the relation between an electric field
and polarization, if a polarization process loses its response,
permittivity decreases.
Dielectric relaxation[edit]
Dielectric relaxation is the momentary delay (or lag) in
the dielectric constant of a material. This is usually caused
by the delay in molecular polarization with respect to a
changing electric field in a dielectric medium (e.g., inside
capacitors or between two large conducting surfaces).
Dielectric relaxation in changing electric fields could be
considered analogous to hysteresis in changing magnetic
fields (for inductors ortransformers). Relaxation in general is
a delay or lag in the response of a linear system, and
therefore dielectric relaxation is measured relative to the
expected linear steady state (equilibrium) dielectric values.
The time lag between electrical field and polarization implies
an irreversible degradation of Gibbs free energy.
In physics, dielectric relaxation refers to the relaxation
response of a dielectric medium to an external electric field
of microwave frequencies. This relaxation is often described
in terms of permittivity as a function of frequency, which can,
for ideal systems, be described by the Debye equation. On
the other hand, the distortion related to ionic and electronic

polarization
shows
behavior
of
the resonance or oscillator type. The character of the
distortion process depends on the structure, composition,
and surroundings of the sample.
The number of possible wavelengths of emitted radiation
due to dielectric relaxation can be computed using
Hemmings' first law (named after Mark Hemmings)

where
n is the number of different possible wavelengths of emitted
radiation
is the number of energy levels (including ground level).
Debye relaxation[edit]
Debye relaxation is the dielectric relaxation response of an
ideal, noninteracting population of dipoles to an alternating
external electric field. It is usually expressed in the complex
permittivity of a medium as a function of the
field's frequency :

where
is the permittivity at the high frequency
limit,
where is the static, low frequency
permittivity, and is the characteristic relaxation time of the
medium.

This relaxation model was introduced by and named after

the physicist Peter Debye (1913).[6]
Variants of the Debye equation[edit]
ColeCole equation
ColeDavidson equation
HavriliakNegami relaxation
KohlrauschWilliamsWatts function
of stretched exponential function)

(Fourier

transform

Paraelectricity[edit]
Paraelectricity is the ability of many materials (specifically
ceramic crystals) to become polarized under an
applied electric field. Unlikeferroelectricity, this can happen
even if there is no permanent electric dipole that exists in the
material, and removal of the fields results in
thepolarization in the material returning to zero.[7] The
mechanisms that cause paraelectric behaviour are the
distortion of individual ions(displacement of the electron
cloud from the nucleus) and polarization of molecules or
combinations of ions or defects.
Paraelectricity
occurs
in crystal phases
where electric dipoles are
unaligned
(i.e.,
unordered
domains that are electrically charged) and thus have the
potential to align in an external electric field and strengthen
it. In comparison to the ferroelectric phase, the domains are
unordered and the internal field is weak.

The LiNbO3 crystal is ferroelectric below 1430 K, and above

this temperature it transforms into a disordered paraelectric
phase. Similarly, other perovskites also exhibit paraelectricity
at high temperatures.
Paraelectricity has been explored as a possible refrigeration
mechanism; polarizing a paraelectric by applying an electric
field under adiabatic process conditions raises the
temperature, while removing the field lowers the
temperature.[8] A heat pump that operates by polarizing the
paraelectric, allowing it to return to ambient temperature (by
dissipating the extra heat), bringing it into contact with the
object to be cooled, and finally depolarizing it, would result in
refrigeration.
Tunability[edit]
Tunable dielectrics are insulators whose ability to store
electrical charge changes when a voltage is applied.[9][10]
Generally, strontium
titanate (SrTiO
3) is used for devices operating at low temperatures,
while barium
strontium
titanate (Ba
1xSr
xTiO
3) substitutes for room temperature devices. Other potential
materials include microwave dielectrics and carbon
nanotube (CNT) composites.[9][11][12]
In 2013 multi-sheet layers of strontium titanate interleaved
with single layers of strontium oxide produced a dielectric
capable of operating at up to 125GHz. The material was

created via molecular beam epitaxy. The two have

mismatched crystal spacing that produces strain within the
strontium titanate layer that makes it less stable and tunable.
[9]

Systems
such
as Ba
1xSr
xTiO
3 have a paraelectricferroelectric transition just below
ambient temperature, providing high tunability. Such films
suffer significant losses arising from defects.Here we report
the experimental realization of a highly tunable ground state
arising from the emergence of a local ferroelectric instability
in biaxially strained Srn+1TinO3n+1 phases with n 3 at
frequencies up to 125 GHz. In contrast to traditional methods
of modifying ferroelectrics doping or strain in this
unique system an increase in the separation between the
(SrO)2 planes, which can be achieved by changing n,
bolsters the local ferroelectric instability. This new control
parameter, n, can be exploited to achieve a figure of merit at
room temperature that rivals all known tunable microwave
dielectrics.[9]
Applications[edit]
Capacitors[edit]
Main article: Capacitor

Charge separation in a parallel-plate capacitor causes an

internal electric field. A dielectric (orange) reduces the field
and increases the capacitance.
Commercially manufactured capacitors typically use
a solid dielectric material with high permittivity as the
intervening medium between the stored positive and
negative charges. This material is often referred to in
technical contexts as the capacitor dielectric.[13]
The most obvious advantage to using such a dielectric
material is that it prevents the conducting plates, on which
the charges are stored, from coming into direct electrical
contact. More significantly, however, a high permittivity
allows a greater stored charge at a given voltage. This can
be seen by treating the case of a linear dielectric with
permittivity and thickness d between two conducting plates
with uniform charge density . In this case the charge
density is given by

and the capacitance per unit area by

From this, it can easily be seen that a larger leads to

greater charge stored and thus greater capacitance.
Dielectric materials used for capacitors are also chosen such
that they are resistant to ionization. This allows the capacitor
to operate at higher voltages before the insulating dielectric
ionizes and begins to allow undesirable current.
Dielectric resonator[edit]
Main article: dielectric resonator
A dielectric resonator oscillator (DRO) is an electronic
component that exhibits resonance of the polarization
response for a narrow range of frequencies, generally in the
microwave band. It consists of a "puck" of ceramic that has a
large dielectric constant and a low dissipation factor. Such
resonators are often used to provide a frequency reference
in an oscillator circuit. An unshielded dielectric resonator can
be used as a Dielectric Resonator Antenna (DRA).
Some practical dielectrics[edit]
Dielectric materials can be solids, liquids, or gases. In
addition, a high vacuum can also be a useful, nearly lossless
dielectric even though its relative dielectric constant is only
unity.
Solid dielectrics are perhaps the most commonly used
dielectrics in electrical engineering, and many solids are very
good insulators. Some examples include porcelain, glass,

and most plastics. Air, nitrogen and sulfur hexafluoride are

the three most commonly used gaseous dielectrics.
Industrial coatings such as parylene provide a dielectric
barrier between the substrate and its environment.
Mineral
oil is
used
extensively
inside
electrical transformers as a fluid dielectric and to assist in
cooling. Dielectric fluids with higher dielectric constants,
such as electrical grade castor oil, are often used in high
voltage capacitors to help prevent corona discharge and
increase capacitance.
Because dielectrics resist the flow of electricity, the surface
of a dielectric may retain stranded excess electrical charges.
This may occur accidentally when the dielectric is rubbed
(the triboelectric effect). This can be useful, as in a Van de
Graaff generator or electrophorus, or it can be potentially
destructive as in the case of electrostatic discharge.
Specially processed dielectrics, called electrets (which
should not be confused with ferroelectrics), may retain
excess internal charge or "frozen in" polarization. Electrets
have a semipermanent electric field, and are the electrostatic
equivalent to magnets. Electrets have numerous practical
applications in the home and industry.
Some dielectrics can generate a potential difference when
subjected to mechanical stress, or (equivalently) change
physical shape if an external voltage is applied across the
material. This property is called piezoelectricity. Piezoelectric
materials are another class of very useful dielectrics.
Some
ionic crystals and polymer dielectrics
exhibit
a
spontaneous dipole moment, which can be reversed by an

externally applied electric field. This behavior is called

the ferroelectric effect. These materials are analogous to the
way ferromagnetic materials behave within an externally
applied magnetic field. Ferroelectric materials often have
very high dielectric constants, making them quite useful for
capacitors.

ColeCole equation
The ColeCole equation is a relaxation model that is often used
to describe dielectric relaxation in polymers.
It is given by the equation

where is the complex dielectric constant, and

are the
"static" and "infinite frequency" dielectric constants, is
the angular frequencyand is a time constant.
The exponent parameter , which takes a value between 0 and
1, allows to describe different spectral shapes. When
, the
Cole-Cole model reduces to the Debye model. When
, the
relaxation is stretched, i.e. it extends over a wider range on a
logarithmic scale than Debye relaxation.

Cole-Cole relaxation constitutes a special case of HavriliakNegami relaxation when the symmetry parameter () is equal
to 1 - that is, when the relaxation peaks are symmetric. Another
special case of Havriliak-Negami relaxation (<1, =0) is
known as Cole-Davidson relaxation, for an abridged and
updated review of anomalous dielectric relaxation in dissored
systems see Kalmykov.

Electrical impedance
Electromagnetism

Electricity
Magnetism

A graphical representation of the complex impedance plane

Electrical impedance is the measure of the opposition that
a circuit presents to a current when avoltage is applied.
In quantitative terms, it is the complex ratio of the voltage to the
current in an alternating current (AC) circuit. Impedance extends
the concept of resistance to AC circuits, and possesses both
magnitude andphase, unlike resistance, which has only
magnitude. When a circuit is driven with direct current (DC), there
is no distinction between impedance and resistance; the latter can
be thought of as impedance with zero phase angle.

It is necessary to introduce the concept of impedance in AC

circuits because there are two additional impeding mechanisms to
be taken into account besides the normal resistance of DC
circuits: the induction of voltages in conductors self-induced by
the magnetic fields of currents (inductance), and the electrostatic
storage of charge induced by voltages between conductors
(capacitance). The impedance caused by these two effects is
collectively referred to as reactance and forms the imaginary part
of complex impedance whereas resistance forms the real part.
The symbol for impedance is usually Z and it may be represented
by writing its magnitude and phase in the form |Z|. However,
complex number representation is often more powerful for circuit
analysis purposes. The term impedance was coined by Oliver
Heaviside in July 1886.[1][2] Arthur Kennelly was the first to
represent impedance with complex numbers in 1893.[3]
Impedance is defined as the frequency domain ratio of the voltage
to the current.[4] In other words, it is the voltagecurrent ratio for a
single complex exponential at a particular frequency . In
general, impedance will be a complex number, with the
same units as resistance, for which the SI unit is the ohm(). For
a sinusoidal current or voltage input, the polar form of the
complex impedance relates the amplitude and phase of the
voltage and current. In particular,

The magnitude of the complex impedance is the ratio of the

voltage amplitude to the current amplitude.

The phase of the complex impedance is the phase shift by

which the current lags the voltage.

The reciprocal of impedance is admittance (i.e., admittance is the

current-to-voltage ratio, and it conventionally carries units
of siemens, formerly called mhos).
Complex impedance[edit]
Impedance is represented as a complex quantity and the
term complex impedance may be used interchangeably; the polar
formconveniently captures both magnitude and phase
characteristics,

where the magnitude represents the ratio of the voltage

difference amplitude to the current amplitude, while the
argument
(commonly given the symbol ) gives the phase
difference between voltage and current. is the imaginary unit,
and is used instead of in this context to avoid confusion with
the symbol for electric current. In Cartesian form,

where the real part of impedance is the resistance

the imaginary part is the reactance .

and

Where it is required to add or subtract impedances the

cartesian form is more convenient, but when quantities are
multiplied or divided the calculation becomes simpler if the
polar form is used. A circuit calculation, such as finding the
total impedance of two impedances in parallel, may require
conversion between forms several times during the
calculation. Conversion between the forms follows the
normal conversion rules of complex numbers.

Ohm's law[edit]

An AC supply applying a voltage , across a load , driving a

current .
Main article: Ohm's law
The meaning of electrical impedance can be understood by
substituting it into Ohm's law.[5][6]

The magnitude of the impedance acts just like

resistance, giving the drop in voltage amplitude across an
impedance for a given current . The phase factor tells
us that the current lags the voltage by a phase of
(i.e., in the time domain, the current signal is shifted
later with respect to the voltage signal).
Just as impedance extends Ohm's law to cover AC
circuits, other results from DC circuit analysis such
asvoltage division, current division, Thvenin's theorem,
and Norton's theorem can also be extended to AC circuits
by replacing resistance with impedance.

Complex voltage and current[edit]

Generalized impedances in a circuit can be drawn with

the same symbol as a resistor (US ANSI or DIN Euro) or
with a labeled box.
In order to simplify calculations, sinusoidal voltage and
current waves are commonly represented as complexvalued functions of time denoted as and .[7][8]

Impedance is defined as the ratio of these quantities.

Substituting these into Ohm's law we have

Noting that this must hold for all , we may equate the
magnitudes and phases to obtain

The magnitude equation is the familiar Ohm's law applied to

the voltage and current amplitudes, while the second
equation defines the phase relationship.
Validity of complex representation[edit]
This representation using complex exponentials may be
justified by noting that (by Euler's formula):

The real-valued sinusoidal function representing either

voltage or current may be broken into two complex-valued
functions. By the principle ofsuperposition, we may analyse
the behaviour of the sinusoid on the left-hand side by
analysing the behaviour of the two complex terms on the
right-hand side. Given the symmetry, we only need to
perform the analysis for one right-hand term; the results will

be identical for the other. At the end of any calculation, we

may return to real-valued sinusoids by further noting that

Phasors[edit]
Main article: Phasor (electronics)
A phasor is a constant complex number, usually expressed
in exponential form, representing the complex amplitude
(magnitude and phase) of a sinusoidal function of time.
Phasors are used by electrical engineers to simplify
computations involving sinusoids, where they can often
reduce a differential equation problem to an algebraic one.
The impedance of a circuit element can be defined as the
ratio of the phasor voltage across the element to the phasor
current through the element, as determined by the relative
amplitudes and phases of the voltage and current. This is
identical to the definition from Ohm's lawgiven above,
recognising that the factors of
cancel.
Device examples[edit]

The phase angles in the equations for the impedance of

inductors and capacitors indicate that the voltage across a
capacitorlags the current through it by a phase of
, while
the voltage across an inductorleads the current through it
by
. The identical voltage and current amplitudes indicate
that the magnitude of the impedance is equal to one.
The impedance of an ideal resistor is purely real and is
referred to as a resistive impedance:

In this case, the voltage and current waveforms are

proportional and in phase.
Ideal inductors and capacitors have
purely imaginary reactive impedance:
the impedance
increases;

of

inductors

increases

a
as

frequency

the impedance of capacitors decreases as frequency

increases;

In both cases, for an applied sinusoidal voltage, the resulting

current is also sinusoidal, but in quadrature, 90 degrees out
of phase with the voltage. However, the phases have
opposite signs: in an inductor, the current is lagging; in a
capacitor the current is leading.

Note the following identities for the imaginary unit and its
reciprocal:

Thus the inductor and capacitor impedance equations can

be rewritten in polar form:

The magnitude gives the change in voltage amplitude for a

given current amplitude through the impedance, while the
exponential factors give the phase relationship.
Deriving the device-specific impedances[edit]
What follows below is a derivation of impedance for each of
the three basic circuit elements: the resistor, the capacitor,
and the inductor. Although the idea can be extended to
define the relationship between the voltage and current of
any
arbitrary signal,
these
derivations
will
assume sinusoidal signals, since any arbitrary signal can be
approximated as a sum of sinusoids through Fourier
analysis.
Resistor[edit]
For a resistor, there is the relation:

This is Ohm's law.

Considering the voltage signal to be

it follows that

This says that the ratio of AC voltage amplitude to alternating

current (AC) amplitude across a resistor is , and that the AC
voltage leads the current across a resistor by 0 degrees.
This result is commonly expressed as

Capacitor[edit]
For a capacitor, there is the relation:

Considering the voltage signal to be

it follows that

And thus

This says that the ratio of AC voltage amplitude to AC

current amplitude across a capacitor is , and that the AC
voltage lags the AC current across a capacitor by 90
degrees (or the AC current leads the AC voltage across a
capacitor by 90 degrees).
This result is commonly expressed in polar form, as

or, by applying Euler's formula, as

Inductor[edit]
For the inductor, we have the relation:

This time, considering the current signal to be:

it follows that:

And thus:

This says that the ratio of AC voltage amplitude to AC

current amplitude across an inductor is , and that the
AC voltage leads the AC current across an inductor by
90 degrees.
This result is commonly expressed in polar form, as

or, using Euler's formula, as

Generalised s-plane impedance[edit]

Impedance defined in terms of j can strictly only be applied
to circuits which are driven with a steady-state AC signal.
The concept of impedance can be extended to a circuit
energised with any arbitrary signal by using complex
frequency instead of j. Complex frequency is given the
symbol s and is, in general, a complex number. Signals are
expressed in terms of complex frequency by taking
the Laplace transformof the time domain expression of the
signal. The impedance of the basic circuit elements in this
more general notation is as follows:
Element

Resistor

Inductor

Impedance expression

Capacitor

For a DC circuit this simplifies to s = 0. For a steady-state sinusoidal AC signal s = j.

Resistance vs reactance[edit]
Resistance and reactance together determine the magnitude and
phase of the impedance through the following relations:

In many applications the relative phase of the voltage and

current is not critical so only the magnitude of the
impedance is significant.
Resistance[edit]
Main article: Electrical resistance
Resistance is the real part of impedance; a device with a
purely resistive impedance exhibits no phase shift between
the voltage and current.

Reactance[edit]
Main article: Electrical reactance
Reactance is the imaginary part of the impedance; a
component with a finite reactance induces a phase shift
between the voltage across it and the current through it.

A purely reactive component is distinguished by the

sinusoidal voltage across the component being in quadrature
with the sinusoidal current through the component. This
implies that the component alternately absorbs energy from
the circuit and then returns energy to the circuit. A pure
reactance will not dissipate any power.
Capacitive reactance[edit]
Main article: Capacitance
A capacitor has a purely reactive impedance which
is inversely proportional to the signal frequency. A capacitor
consists of two conductorsseparated by an insulator, also
known as a dielectric.

At low frequencies a capacitor is open circuit, as no charge

flows in the dielectric. A DC voltage applied across a
capacitor causes charge to accumulate on one side;
the electric field due to the accumulated charge is the source
of the opposition to the current. When
the potentialassociated with the charge exactly balances the
applied voltage, the current goes to zero.
Driven by an AC supply, a capacitor will only accumulate a
limited amount of charge before the potential difference
changes sign and the charge dissipates. The higher the
frequency, the less charge will accumulate and the smaller
the opposition to the current.
Inductive reactance[edit]
Main article: Inductance

Inductive reactance
is proportional to the
signal frequency and the inductance .

An inductor consists of a coiled conductor. Faraday's law of

electromagnetic induction gives the back emf (voltage
opposing current) due to a rate-of-change of magnetic flux
density through a current loop.

For an inductor consisting of a coil with

loops this gives.

The back-emf is the source of the opposition to current flow.

A constant direct current has a zero rate-of-change, and
sees an inductor as ashort-circuit (it is typically made from a
material with a low resistivity). An alternating current has a
time-averaged rate-of-change that is proportional to
frequency, this causes the increase in inductive reactance
with frequency.
Total reactance[edit]
The total reactance is given by

so that the total impedance is

Combining impedances[edit]

Main article: Series and parallel circuits

The total impedance of many simple networks of components can
be calculated using the rules for combining impedances in series
and parallel. The rules are identical to those used for combining
resistances, except that the numbers in general will be complex
numbers. In the general case however, equivalent impedance
transforms in addition to series and parallel will be required.
Series combination[edit]
For components connected in series, the current through each
circuit element is the same; the total impedance is the sum of the
component impedances.

Or explicitly in real and imaginary terms:

Parallel combination[edit]
For components connected in parallel, the voltage across
each circuit element is the same; the ratio of currents
through any two elements is the inverse ratio of their
impedances.

Hence the inverse total impedance is the sum of the

inverses of the component impedances:

or, when n = 2:

The equivalent impedance

can be calculated in terms of
the equivalent series resistance
and reactance .[9]

Measurement[edit]
The measurement of the impedance of devices and
transmission lines is a practical problem in radio technology
and others. Measurements of impedance may be carried out
at one frequency, or the variation of device impedance over
a range of frequencies may be of interest. The impedance
may be measured or displayed directly in ohms, or other

values related to impedance may be displayed; for example

in a radio antenna the standing wave ratio or reflection
coefficient may be more useful than the impedance alone.
Measurement of impedance requires measurement of the
magnitude of voltage and current, and the phase difference
between them. Impedance is often measured by "bridge"
methods, similar to the direct-current Wheatstone bridge; a
calibrated reference impedance is adjusted to balance off the
effect of the impedance of the device under test. Impedance
measurement in power electronic devices may require
simultaneous measurement and provision of power to the
operating device.
The impedance of a device can be calculated by complex
division of the voltage and current. The impedance of the
device can be calculated by applying a sinusoidal voltage to
the device in series with a resistor, and measuring the
voltage across the resistor and across the device.
Performing this measurement by sweeping the frequencies
of the applied signal provides the impedance phase and
magnitude.[10]
The use of an impulse response may be used in combination
with the fast Fourier transform (FFT) to rapidly measure the
electrical impedance of various electrical devices.[10]
The LCR meter (Inductance (L), Capacitance (C), and
Resistance (R)) is a device commonly used to measure the
inductance, resistance and capacitance of a component;
from these values the impedance at any frequency can be
calculated.
Variable impedance[edit]
In general, neither impedance nor admittance can be time
varying as they are defined for complex exponentials for

< t < +. If the complex exponential voltagecurrent ratio

changes over time or amplitude, the circuit element cannot
be described using the frequency domain. However, many
systems (e.g., varicaps that are used in radio tuners) may
exhibit non-linear or time-varying voltagecurrent ratios that
appear to be linear time-invariant (LTI) for small signals over
small observation windows; hence, they can be roughly
described as having a time-varying impedance. That is, this
description is an approximation; over large signal swings or
observation windows, the voltagecurrent relationship is
non-LTI and cannot be described by impedance.

Displacement current
In electromagnetism, displacement
current is
a
quantity
appearing in Maxwell's equations that is defined in terms of the
rate of change of electric displacement field. Displacement current
has the units of electric current density, and it has an
associated magnetic field just as actual currents do. However it is
not an electric current of moving charges, but a timevarying electric field. In materials, there is also a contribution from
the slight motion of charges bound in atoms, dielectric
polarization.
The idea was conceived by James Clerk Maxwell in his 1861
paper On Physical Lines of Force, Part III in connection with the
displacement of electric particles in a dielectric medium. Maxwell
added displacement current to the electric current term
in Ampre's Circuital Law. In his 1865 paper A Dynamical Theory
of the Electromagnetic Field Maxwell used this amended version
of Ampre's Circuital Law to derive the electromagnetic wave

equation. This derivation is now generally accepted as a historical

landmark in physics by virtue of uniting electricity, magnetism and
optics into one single unified theory. The displacement current
term is now seen as a crucial addition that completed Maxwell's
equations and is necessary to explain many phenomena, most
particularly the existence ofelectromagnetic waves.
Explanation[edit]
The electric displacement field is defined as:

where:
0 is the permittivity of free space
E is the electric field intensity
P is the polarization of the medium
Differentiating this equation with respect to time defines the displacement current
density, which therefore has two components in adielectric:[1]

The first term on the right hand side is present in material

media and in free space. It doesn't necessarily come from
any actual movement of charge, but it does have an
associated magnetic field, just as does a current due to
charge motion. Some authors apply the namedisplacement
current to the first term by itself. [2]
The second term on the right hand side comes from the
change in polarization of the individual molecules of the
dielectric material. Polarization results when the charges in
molecules have moved from a position of exact cancellation
under the influence of an applied electric field. The positive
and negative charges in molecules separate, causing an
increase in the state of polarization P. A changing state of

polarization corresponds to charge movement and so is

equivalent to a current.
This polarization is the displacement current as it was
originally conceived by Maxwell. Maxwell made no special
treatment of the vacuum, treating it as a material medium.
For Maxwell, the effect of P was simply to change
the relative permittivity r in the relation D = r0 E.
The modern justification of displacement current is explained
below.
Isotropic dielectric case[edit]
In the case of a very simple dielectric material
the constitutive relation holds:

where the permittivity = 0 r,

r is the relative permittivity of the dielectric and

0 is the electric constant.

In this equation the use of accounts for the polarization of
the dielectric.
The scalar value of displacement current may also be
expressed in terms of electric flux:

The forms in terms of are correct only for

linear isotropic materials. More generally may be replaced

by a tensor, may depend upon the electric field itself, and

may exhibit frequency dependence (dispersion).
For a linear isotropic dielectric, the polarization P is given by:

where e is known as the electric susceptibility of the

dielectric. Note that:

Necessity[edit]
Some implications of the displacement current follow, which agree
with experimental observation, and with the requirements of
logical consistency for the theory of electromagnetism.
Generalizing Ampre's circuital law[edit]
Current in capacitors[edit]
An example illustrating the need for the displacement current
arises in connection with capacitors with no medium between the
plates. Consider the charging capacitor in the figure. The
capacitor is in a circuit that transfers charge (on a wire external to
the capacitor) from the left plate to the right plate, charging the
capacitor and increasing the electric field between its plates. The
same current enters the right plate (say I ) as leaves the left plate.
Although current is flowing through the capacitor, no actual
charge is transported through the vacuum between its plates.
Nonetheless, a magnetic field exists between the plates as
though a current were present there as well. The explanation is

that adisplacement current ID "flows" in the vacuum, and this

current produces the magnetic field in the region between the
plates according toAmpre's law:[3][4]

An electrically charging capacitor with an imaginary cylindrical

surface surrounding the left-hand plate. Right-hand surfaceR lies
in the space between the plates and left-hand surface L lies to the
left of the left plate. No conduction current enters cylinder
surface R, while current I leaves through surface L. Consistency
of Ampre's law requires a displacement current ID = I to flow
across surface R.

where

is the closed line integral around some closed curve C.

is the magnetic field measured in tesla.

is the vector dot product.

is an infinitesimal line element (or differential 1-form)

along the curve C, that is, a vector with magnitude equal
to the length element of C, and direction given by the
tangent to the curve C).

is the magnetic constant, also called the permeability of

free space.

is the net displacement current that passes through a

small surface bounded by the curve C.

The magnetic field between the plates is the same as that

outside the plates, so the displacement current must be the
same as the conduction current in the wires, that is,

which extends the notion of current beyond a mere

transport of charge.
Next, this displacement current is related to the charging
of the capacitor. Consider the current in the imaginary
cylindrical surface shown surrounding the left plate. A
current, say I, passes outward through the left
surface L of the cylinder, but no conduction current (no
transport of real charges) crosses the right surface R.
Notice that the electric field between the
plates E increases as the capacitor charges. That is, in a
manner described by Gauss's law, assuming no dielectric
between the plates:

where S refers to the imaginary cylindrical surface.

Assuming a parallel plate capacitor with uniform electric
field, and neglecting fringing effects around the edges of the
plates, differentiation provides:[3]

where the sign is negative because charge leaves this plate

(the charge is decreasing), and where S is the area of the
face R. The electric field at face L is zero because the field

due to charge on the right-hand plate is terminated by the

equal but opposite charge on the left-hand plate. Under the
assumption of a uniform electric field distribution inside the
capacitor, the displacement current density JD is found by
dividing by the area of the surface:

where I is the current leaving the cylindrical surface (which

must equal ID as the two currents sum to zero) and JD is the
flow of charge per unit area into the cylindrical surface
through the face R.

Example showing two surfacesS1 and S2 that share the

same bounding contour S. However, S1is pierced by
conduction current, while S2 is pierced by displacement
current.
Combining these results, the magnetic field is found using
the integral form of Ampre's law with an arbitrary choice of
contour provided the displacement current density term is
added to the conduction current density (the AmpreMaxwell equation):[5]

This equation says that the integral of the magnetic

field B around a loop S is equal to the integrated
current J through any surface spanning the loop, plus the
displacement current term 0 E / t through the surface.
Applying the Ampre-Maxwell equation to surface S1 we find:

However, applying this law to surface S2, which is bounded

by exactly the same curve , but lies between the plates,
provides:

Any surface that intersects the wire has current I passing

through it so Ampre's law gives the correct magnetic field.
Also, any surface bounded by the same loop but passing
between the capacitor's plates has no charge transport
flowing through it, but the 0 E / t term provides a second
source for the magnetic field besides charge conduction
current. Because the current is increasing the charge on the
capacitor's plates, the electric field between the plates is
increasing, and the rate of change of electric field gives the
correct value for the field B found above.
Mathematical formulation[edit]
In a more mathematical vein, the same results can be obtained
from the underlying differential equations. Consider for simplicity a
non-magnetic medium where the relative magnetic permeability is
unity, and the complication of magnetization current (bound
current) is absent, so that M=0 and J=Jf. The current leaving a

volume must equal the rate of decrease of charge in a volume. In

differential form this continuity equation becomes:

where the left side is the divergence of the free current density
and the right side is the rate of decrease of the free charge
density. However,Ampre's law in its original form states:

which implies that the divergence of the current term

vanishes, contradicting the continuity equation. (Vanishing of
the divergence is a result of the mathematical identity that
states the divergence of a curl is always zero.) This conflict
is removed by addition of the displacement current, as then:
[6][7]

and

which is in agreement with the continuity equation

because of Gauss's law:

Wave propagation[edit]
The added displacement current also leads to wave
propagation by taking the curl of the equation for
magnetic field.[8]

Substituting this form for J into Ampre's law, and assuming

there is no bound or free current density contributing to J :

with the result:

However,

leading to the wave equation:[9]

where use is made of the vector identity that holds for any
vector field V(r, t):

and the fact that the divergence of the magnetic field is zero.
An identical wave equation can be found for the electric field
by taking the curl:

If J, P and are zero, the result is:

The electric field can be expressed in the general form:

where is the electric potential (which can be chosen to

satisfy Poisson's equation) and A is a vector potential.
The component on the right hand side is the Gauss's law
component, and this is the component that is relevant to the
conservation of charge argument above. The second term
on the right-hand side is the one relevant to the
electromagnetic wave equation, because it is the term that
contributes to the curlof E. Because of the vector identity that
says the curl of a gradient is zero, does not contribute
to E.
History and interpretation[edit]
Maxwell's displacement current was postulated in part III of
his 1861 paper 'On Physical Lines of Force'. Few topics in
modern physics have caused as much confusion and
misunderstanding as that of displacement current.[10] This is
in part due to the fact that Maxwell used a sea of molecular
vortices in his derivation, while modern textbooks operate on
the basis that displacement current can exist in free space.
Maxwell's derivation is unrelated to the modern day
derivation for displacement current in the vacuum, which is
based on consistency between Ampre's law for the
magnetic field and the continuity equation for electric charge.
Maxwell's purpose is stated by him at (Part I, p. 161):
I propose now to examine magnetic phenomena from a
mechanical point of view, and to determine what tensions in,
or motions of, a medium are capable of producing the
mechanical phenomena observed.

He is careful to point out the treatment is one of analogy:

The author of this method of representation does not attempt
to explain the origin of the observed forces by the effects due
to these strains in the elastic solid, but makes use of the
mathematical analogies of the two problems to assist the
imagination in the study of both.
In part III, in relation to displacement current, he says
I conceived the rotating matter to be the substance of certain
cells, divided from each other by cell-walls composed of
particles which are very small compared with the cells, and
that it is by the motions of these particles, and their
tangential action on the substance in the cells, that the
rotation is communicated from one cell to another.
Clearly Maxwell was driving at magnetization even though
the same introduction clearly talks about dielectric
polarization.
Maxwell concluded, using Newton's equation for the speed
of sound (Lines of Force, Part III, equation (132)), that light
consists of transverse undulations in the same medium that
is the cause of electric and magnetic phenomena.
But although the above quotations point towards a magnetic
explanation for displacement current, for example, based
upon the divergence of the above curl equation, Maxwell's
explanation ultimately stressed linear polarization of
dielectrics:
This displacement...is the commencement of a current...The
amount of displacement depends on the nature of the body,
and on the electromotive force so that if h is the

displacement, R the electromotive force, and E a coefficient

depending on the nature of the dielectric:

and if r is the value of the electric current due to

displacement

These relations are independent of any theory about the

mechanism of dielectrics; but when we find electromotive
force producing electric displacement in a dielectric, and
when we find the dielectric recovering from its state of
electric displacement...we cannot help regarding the
phenomena as those of an elastic body, yielding to a
pressure and recovering its form when the pressure is
removed.Part III The theory of molecular vortices
applied to statical electricity , pp. 1415
With some change of symbols (and units): r J, R
E and the material constant E2 4 r0 these equations
take the familiar form:

When it came to deriving the electromagnetic wave equation

from displacement current in his 1865 paper A Dynamical
Theory of the Electromagnetic Field, he got around the
problem of the non-zero divergence associated with Gauss's
law and dielectric displacement by eliminating the Gauss
term and deriving the wave equation exclusively for the
solenoidal magnetic field vector.

Maxwell's emphasis on polarization diverted attention

towards the electric capacitor circuit, and led to the common
belief that Maxwell conceived of displacement current so as
to maintain conservation of charge in an electric capacitor
circuit. There are a variety of debatable notions about
Maxwell's thinking, ranging from his supposed desire to
perfect the symmetry of the field equations to the desire to
achieve compatibility with the continuity equation