South China Sea: How We Got to This Stage

http://nationalinterest.org/feature/south-china-sea-how-we-gotstage-16118
Fu Ying,Wu Shicun
May 9, 2016
The South China Sea issue has become one of the major irritants
in the China-US relations in recent years, over which the public
opinion in the two countries are very critical of each other.
There are even frictions in the sea between the two navies. The
South China Sea seems like an outlet for the rivalry and
confrontation that are building up of late between China and the
US. As a result, the two sides seem to be reassessing each
others intentions on a strategic level. The latest rhetoric is
about militarizing the South China Sea, and on the part of
the US, announcements to carry out freedom of navigation
operational assertions. Hawkish voices are growing louder in
both sides of the Pacific. Such frictions surrounding the South
China Sea are leading to further strategic mistrust and hostility.
The American scholar David M. Lampton was straightforward
when he observed worriedly in reference to the existing
situation, A tipping point in the U.S.-China relations is upon
us. It is obvious that the South China Sea issue is a major

catalyst for the troubled China-US relations, if not the key

contributing factor.
Opinions diverge in both countries on what has led to the current
situation in the South China Sea. In China, it is widely believed
that it is the USs Asia-Pacific rebalance strategy, its taking
sides on disputes in the South China Sea, and its direct
intervention that have escalated the tensions and made the issue
more complicated. In the US, accusations are strident of
Chinas defiance of international law, coercion of smaller
neighbors by force and attempted denial of access to the US, in
its bid to gradually take control of the South China Sea using a
salami-slicing strategy and to eventually turn it into a Chinese
lake.
It is obvious from the incidents and events that have unfolded in
the South China Sea over the years that all disputes are centered
on sovereignty and rights over the Nansha Islands and their
surrounding waters. In fact, such disputes were not uncommon
in third world countries in modern history, including during the
Cold War era. But the discovery of abundant oil reserves in the
Nansha waters in the late 1960s and the introduction of
international arrangements concerning the EEZs or the
continental shelf, such as the Convention on the Continental

Shelf and the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea,
provided fresh incentives for other claimants to covet and grab
Chinas Nansha Islands. The disputes then spilled from those
islands and reefs to wider maritime areas, but without spinning
out of control. A good proof was the golden era of the
China-ASEAN relations from 1991 to the end of 2010, during
which bilateral cooperation flourished and trade ballooned
nearly 37 times, from no more than 8 billion to 300 billion USD.
During this period, Chinas GDP rose rapidly, and most
Southeast Asian economies expanded more than five-fold.
Tensions started to build up in 2009 and have escalated since
2012. How have things festered against a backdrop of peace of
development, and following a sustained period of regional
cooperation? It is obvious that no single event or cause could
have escalated and changed the situation in the region. So it is
worth examining the incidents and behavior that have happened,
the reactions they triggered, and the consequences incurred, in
the leading up to the current state of affairs. This paper provides
an overview of the chain of events contributing to the escalation
of tensions in the South China Sea, as well as the context in
which they occurred and potential connections they have. It is
hoped this paper will help those concerned about the disputes

see the bigger picture and get to the heart of why things have
happened that way. It also serves as a warning against further
deepening of misunderstanding and spiraling of tensions for all
countries concerned.
Imperial Japan s Occupation of the Nansha Islands and
Post-war Arrangements
The South China Sea is the largest marginal sea in the West
Pacific region, covering an area of 3.5 million km2. It is located
south of mainland China and the island of Taiwan, west of the
Philippines, north of Kalimantan and Sumatra, and east of the
Malay and Indo-China peninsulas. It connects the Pacific
through the Bashi and Balintang channels in the northeast, and
the Mindoro and Balabac straits in the southeast; joins the Java
Sea through the Karimata and Gaspar straits, and is linked with
the Indian Ocean through the Strait of Malacca in the southwest.
Rich in fisheries resources and oil and gas reserves, the sea
plays an important role in the economic development of the
coastal countries.
China has sovereignty over four archipelagos in the South China
Sea, namely, the Xisha, Nansha, Zhongsha and Dongsha Islands,
which are indicated by the dash lines on the map drawn in 1947.
The Nansha Islands (or the Spratly Islands; coordinates: 340'-

1155' N; 10933'-11750' E) comprise over 230 islands, islets,

sandbanks, rocks and shoals that are scattered along a 1,000
kilometer span from the southeast to the northwest of the Sea.
This area in question was initially discovered and named by
China as the Nansha Islands, over which China was the first to
exercise sovereignty and that exercise has been ongoing. [i]
Before the 1930s, there was no dispute over Chinas
ownership of them, as reflected in many maps and
encyclopedias published around the world.
Beginning in the 20th century, western colonial powers,
including the United Kingdom, Germany and France, followed
by Asias emerging power Japan, kept coveting the Nansha
Islands as they colonized Southeast Asia and invaded China.
Most of their territorial ambitions ended in failure due to strong
resistance from Chinas Late Qing government, the succeeding
Nationalist government and the general public. Japan was the
first to have seized some of the islands in the South China Sea,
including the Nansha Islands. In 1939, Japan occupied part of
the Nansha Islands in an effort to control Southeast Asia and in
preparations for an invasion of Australia. [ii]
The Cairo Declaration of November 1943, signed by the heads
of the governments of China, the United States and the United

Kingdom, proclaimed that Japan shall be stripped of all the

islands in the Pacific which she has seized or occupied since the
beginning of the first World War in 1914, and that all the
territories Japan has stolen from the Chinese, such as
Manchuria, Formosa, and the Pescadores, shall be restored to
the Republic of China. The Potsdam Declaration of July 26,
1945 also stipulated in its eighth article that the Japanese
sovereignty shall be limited to the islands of Honshu, Hokkaido,
Kyushu, Shikoku, and such minor islands as we determine, as
had been announced in the Cairo Declaration in 1943.
In December 1946, a year after the defeat of Japan, the
Nationalist government of China sent warships to occupy
Taiping Island (Itu Aba Island) and Zhongye Island (Thitu
Island) and set up a base on Taiping Island. In 1947, the
Ministry of the Interior of Chinas Nationalist government
renamed a total of 159 islands, islets and sandbanks, including
those of the Nansha Islands, historically under China s
jurisdiction in the South China Sea. Meanwhile, the Nationalist
government officially published a chart of its territorial waters
that China had owned in the South China Sea demarcated by an
eleven-dash line. For a long time afterwards, the US made no
objections whatsoever. Given it being a long-term ally of

Taiwan and its heavy presence in postwar Asia, the US had

every reason to be aware of the existence of the chart.
Obviously,

Chinas

position

was

recognized

and

acknowledged.
In the face of the division of both sides of the Taiwan Straits, the
outbreak of the Cold War and tensions between the two Camps,
the US opted for a pragmatic attitude toward the ownership of
the islands and reefs in the South China Sea. This pragmatism
was reflected in the Peace Treaty of San Francisco between
Japan and some of the Allied Powers. Signed on September 8,
1951 and entering into force on April 28, 1952, the document
served to end the Allied post-war occupation of Japan and
establish Japan's role in the international arena. It officially
renounced Japan's rights to the land it occupied including
renounces all right, title and claim to the Spratly Islands and
to the Paracel Islands. Its Article 2(6) provided that "Japan
renounces all right, title and claim to the Spratly Islands (the
Nansha Islands) and to the Paracel Islands (the Xisha Islands)",
but did not specify the ownership of these islands.
However, as the biggest victims of the Japanese militarism and
one of the four major victors in WWII, the PRC was not invited
to the treaty talks held in San Francisco. In reaction to that, on

15th August, the Chinese government issued the Declaration on

the Draft Peace Treaty with Japan by the US and the UK and on
the San Francisco Conference by the then Foreign Minister
Zhou Enlai, affirming China's sovereignty over the archipelagos
in the South China Sea, including the Nansha Islands, and
protesting about the absence of any provisions in the draft on
who shall take over the South China Sea islands following
Japan's renouncement of all rights, title and claim to them. It
reiterated that "the Chinese government of the day had taken
over those islands" and that the PRC's rightful sovereignty "shall
remain intact".[iii]
In its effort to reconcile the relations between Japan and the
Taiwan authorities for better US strategic deployment in the
APAC region, the United States presided over the signing of the
Treaty of Peace between Japan and the Republic of China in
1952. Article 2 of the document provided that "It is recognized
that under Article 2 of the Treaty of Peace which Japan signed at
the city of San Francisco on 8 September 1951 (hereinafter
referred to as the San Francisco Treaty), Japan has renounced all
right, title, and claim to Taiwan (Formosa) and Penghu (the
Pescadores) as well as the Spratly Islands and the Paracel
Islands." Indeed, the United States and Japan deemed the

Taiwan authorities as Chinas legitimate government to take

over Chinas rightful territories in the South China Sea
forcibly seized by Japan.
Disputes during the Cold War
Since mid-1950s, the Philippines and South Vietnam started
their encroachment of the Nansha Islands. In 1956, Tomas
Cloma, a Filipino adventurer announced his discovery of a
group of islands in the Nansha waters, and renamed them
"Freedomland". Shortly after, the Philippine government argued
that these Islands should belong to their country on the grounds
of the "Cloma discovery", and threatened to take over the
islands

immediately.

Obviously

aware

of

the

Taiwan

authoritys position on the sovereignty over the islands,

Manila even intended to send a delegation to Taiwan to discuss
the matter. [iv] Since 1962, South Vietnam occupied Nanzi Cay
(South West Cay), Dunqian Cay (Sandy Cay), Hongxiu Island
(Namyit Island), Jinghong Island (Sin Cowe Island), Nanwei
Island (Spratly Island), and Anbo Cay (Amboyna Cay), which
was strongly objected and protested by both sides of the Taiwan
Straits.
A bigger wave of encroachment happened in the 1970s and
1980s, under the influence of the discovery of rich oil and gas

reserves on the continental shelve of the South China Sea by the

US and a number of UN survey agencies in the late 1960s, and
the signing of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the
Sea (the Convention) in 1982, which introduced the 200 nautical
mile exclusive economic zone (EEZ) regime.
Greatly incentivized by a high potential for resource
exploration, Vietnam, the Philippines and Malaysia set their
sights on islands and reefs in the Nansha Islands.
North Vietnamese regime had openly recognized China's
sovereignty over the South China Sea islands, but soon
abandoned this policy after its unification of Vietnam. [v] In
1975, North Vietnam, on the pretext of "liberation", occupied six
islands and reefs of the Nansha Islands which were formerly
seized by South Vietnam. Later, it seized another 18 islands and
reefs, including Ranqingsha Reef (Grierson Reef) and Wanan
Bank (Vanguard Bank). On March 14, 1988, Vietnam had a
skirmish with China in waters near China s Chigua Reef
(Johnson South Reef).
The Philippines occupied 8 islands and reefs, including Feixin
Island (Flat Island) and Zhongye Island (Thitu Island); Malaysia
seized Danwan Reef (Swallow Reef), Nanhai Reef (Mariveles
Reef) and Guangxingzai Reef (Ardasier Reef).

At the same time, these countries dramatically altered their

original stance on the issue of the Nansha Islands. By
formulating national laws of the sea and issuing political
statements, they officially asserted sovereignty over the Nansha
Islands and made claims on the territorial waters surrounding
the Nansha Islands.
At the same time, US clearly demonstrated its acknowledgment
of Chinas sovereignty over the Nansha Islands in its
diplomatic inquiries, measurement requests and flight plan
notifications. In addition, the Taiwan authorities have also
received the American military personnels on Nansha Island
where it stationed forces. For a long period of time, the US
remained silent to the encroachments by the Philippines and
Vietnam, but it did consulted the Taiwan authorities on many
occasions related to the sovereignty issue over these islands and
reefs. [vi] From February 1957 to February 1961 the US
Government made multiple application requests to the Taiwan
authorities to allow the US Air Force based in the Philippines to
conduct nautical chart measurement and meteorological surveys
in the vicinity of Huangyan Island (Scarborough Reef) and the
Nansha Islands, obviously acknowledging China's sovereignty
over these islands through the role of the Taiwan authorities.

Such acknowledgment was confirmed in books and maps

published around this time such as Columbia Lippincott
Gazetteer of the World (1961), Worldmark Encyclopedia of the
Nations (1963), and Constitutions of the Countries of the World
(1971), all of which clearly state that the Nansha Islands belong
to China. Indeed, the US policy-makers faced a dilemma at that
time: on one hand, out of a moral commitment to its Chinese
Nationalist ally in Taiwan, and in accordance with international
law, the US should have announced these features as Chinese
territory; on the other hand, out of its anti-communism policy
and Asia-Pacific strategy, it could not possibly recognize
Mainland China as their rightful owner, nor did it want to hurt
its relations with its important allies, such as the Philippines,
through such recognition.
As far as China is concerned, over the years, only the Taiwan
authorities had station forces on Taiping Island. It s not until
the late 1980s in the 20th century when the mainland China
started to take control over six minor islands and reefs. In 1994,
China built fishery and sheltering facilities on Maiji Reef.
The Road to the Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the
South China Sea
In the early 1990s, as the Cold War came to an end, the relations

among the countries began to reconcile and economic

development became the primary focus in the APAC region,
China switched to a fast track toward establishing rapport with
Southeast Asian countries and the Association of Southeast
Asian Nations (ASEAN). In 1990, it established official
diplomatic relations with Singapore and resumed diplomatic ties
with Indonesia. A year later, China launched a dialogue process
with ASEAN, and in 1992, it started dialogue with ASEAN.
China then embarked on a path of confidence-building and allround cooperation with ASEAN, guided by its new foreign
policy of realizing and maintaining stability in Southeast Asia.
In spite of all these developments, sovereignty over the Nansha
Islands remained the most frequently debated issue between
China and its ASEAN neighbors. China, based on its historical
ownership of these islands and widely-recognized international
documents, consistently defended its indisputable sovereignty
over them as it had done in the past. On the other hand, China
decided to copy here its policy of "setting aside dispute and
pursuing joint development",[vii] which was practiced over the
Diaoyu Island of the East China Sea, for the sake of cooperation
and regional stability. However, China made clear this did not
mean renouncing its sovereignty over Nansha Islands.

In 1994, China normalized its diplomatic relations with

Vietnam. In 1995, ASEAN's membership extended to 10
countries with the admission of Vietnam, Myanmar, Laos and
Cambodia. In 1996, China became ASEAN's full dialogue
partner, and in the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis, China lived up
to being a responsible partner, winning wide praise and greater
trust from ASEAN countries. In 1997, the first China-ASEAN
Informal Summit was held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, at which
both sides announced the establishment of "a 21st centuryoriented partnership of good neighborliness and mutual trust".
Throughout the 1990s, the rapid development of the ChinaASEAN relations largely masked seething contention in the
South China Sea; nevertheless, disputes surfaced from time to
time.
A major development was a new wave of unilateral occupation
of the Nansha Islands and development of oil and gas in
surrounding waters by some countries. Entering the 1990s,
Vietnam occupied 5 more reefs, bringing a total of 29 islands
and reefs under its control. By March 1994, Vietnam had
illegally licensed out 120 oil blocks in the bulk of the Nansha
and Xisha waters through bidding rounds. Malaysia seized Yuya
Shoal (Investigator Shoal) and Boji Reef (Erica Reef) in 1999,

and has been actively exploiting oil and gas and fisheries
resources in surrounding waters. It accounted for half of the oil
rigs among the disputed parties in Nansha areas, and its
maritime law enforcement made the largest number of
expulsions and arrests of Chinese fishermen in the 1990s.
The Philippines also orchestrated a number of provocations on
Chinas Meiji Reef (Mischief Reef), Huangyan Island, and
Renai Shoal (Second Thomas Shoal).
The most extreme behavior was in reaction to China s 1994
installation of fishery facilities and shelters on Meiji Reef. The
Philippine Navy, in late March of the following year, blew up
survey markers that China had installed on Wufang Atoll
(Jackson Atoll), Xiane Reef (Alicia Annie Reef), Xinyi Shoal
(First Thomas Shoal), Banyue Shoal (Half Moon Shoal) and
Renai Shoal. Supported by Philippine Air Force planes, it also
launched a raid on four Chinese fishing vessels working near
Banyue Shoal, detaining 62 Chinese fishermen on board. On
May 13, the Philippine military attempted to escalate the dispute
by sending warships and planes to Meiji Reef, which then
started an 8-hour standoff with the China Fisheries Law
Enforcement Commands No. 34 boat patrolling the
surrounding

waters.

Regardless

of

the

attacks

and

confrontations, China completed the installations.

In late April of 1997, the Philippine Navy landed on Huangyan
Island, blew up the territory monument that China had erected,
and planted a flag of the Philippines on the island. China reacted
by sending marine surveillance ships to the waters of the island,
which faced a standoff with Philippine warships that did not
ease until a few days later on May 3. In subsequent years, the
Philippines expelled, arrested and even shot at Chinese
fishermen passing through the waters near Huangyan Island.
On May 9, 1999, the Philippine Navy deliberately ran its
landing craft BRP Sierre Madre (LT-57) aground at Ren'ai
Shoal, using hull leak repair as an excuse, and stayed there with
regular rotated soldiers, refusing to withdraw ever since. China
reacted with a series of strong diplomatic representations to no
avail. On November 3 of the same year, the Philippine Navy
repeated the behavior by running another decommissioned
warship aground at Huangyan Island on the pretext of cabin
leakage, blocking the southeast entrance to its lagoon. Already
immune to this old trick, China applied great diplomatic
pressure on Manila. On November 29, the then Philippine
President Joseph Estrada ordered the withdrawal of the vessel.
Following the incident, the Chinese government, with a view to

stopping the dispute from boiling over and maintaining the

sound

China-ASEAN

partnership,

resorted

to

all-round

diplomatic efforts on the consultations with countries like

Vietnam, Malaysia and especially the Philippines. Then, the
tension began to ease. In March 1999, the working group on the
development of confidence-building measures held their first
meeting in Manila, at which both sides agreed, after multiple
consultations, to exercise restraint and refrain from taking any
action that may escalate disputes.
Meanwhile, ASEAN also follow closely on the situation in the
South China Sea, and held multiple discussions with China.
There was also a Track 1.5 closed-door dialogue on the
disputes participated by all the relevant parties including not
only from mainland China but also Taiwan. An important
consensus coming out of these dialogues was that to address the
disputes over the sovereignty of the Nansha Islands, which were
complicated and had no easy solutions, all parties concerned
should resort to peaceful talks. China s setting aside
disputes proposal proved the most feasible option. They also
acknowledged that as no delimitation of maritime boundaries
would be possible without settling sovereignty disputes over
islands and reefs in question, thus maintaining ambiguity on the

maritime claims might be the best choice for the moment. These
ideas and proposals provided the basis for future consensus
between China and ASEAN. Adopted at the 1998 ASEAN
Summit with an aim to enhance regional integration, the Hanoi
Plan of Action proposed that efforts should be made to
"establish a regional code of conduct in the South China Sea
among the parties directly concerned".[viii] In order to promote
confidence-building and good-neighborly friendship, China
agreed in principle to start consultations with the ASEAN
countries on a code of conduct. [ix]
An informal consultation was held between China and the
ASEAN countries in Thailand on March 15, 2000, and "the code
of conduct" documents respectively drafted by both sides were
exchanged and discussed. However, due to considerable
different views on its binding powers among the parties, and
China and Vietnams differences on the areas it should cover,
the drafting process did not go very well, and subsequent
consultations yielded no substantial outcome.
With a view to diffuse the standoff, Malaysia proposed to
replace "the code of conduct" with a compromising and nonbinding "declaration" at the 35th ASEAN Ministerial Meeting
held in Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei in July 2002. The motion

was approved by the ASEAN Ministerial Meeting, and a joint

statement was published after the meeting, stating that ASEAN
and China would work closely together to make "the
declaration" a reality. [x] Several months later, a consultation on
the Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China
Sea (DOC) was held in place of a consolation on "the code of
conduct", where both sides engaged in many rounds of difficult
negotiations. At the 8th ASEAN Summit convened in Phnom
Penh, Cambodia on November 4, 2002, Mr. Wang Yi, then Vice
Minister of Foreign Affairs, and Foreign Ministers of the ten
ASEAN Member States jointly signed the DOC.
In the DOC, which contains ten provisions, the parties recognize
the need to promote a peaceful, friendly and harmonious
environment in the South China Sea; undertake to resolve their
territorial and jurisdictional disputes by peaceful means, without
resorting to the threat or use of force, through friendly
consultations and negotiations by sovereign states directly
concerned, in accordance with universally recognized principles
of international law, including the 1982 UN Convention on the
Law of the Sea; reaffirm their respect for and commitment to the
freedom of navigation in and overflight above the South China
Sea; undertake to exercise self-restraint in the conduct of

activities that would complicate or escalate disputes and affect

peace and stability including, among others, refraining from
action of inhabiting on the presently uninhabited islands, reefs,
shoals, cays, and other features and to handle their differences in
a constructive manner; and agree to work, on the basis of
consensus, towards the eventual attainment of the document s
objective. [xi] The focus throughout the negotiations was on the
disputes over the sovereignty of the Nansha islands and reefs.
Much attention was directed to preventing escalation of disputes
and the main purpose of the DOC was to prevent further act of
occupying and controlling islands.
It is worth noting that right before the signing of the DOC,
opinions divided about what name to use referring to the
disputed areas. Most ASEAN Member States wanted to use the
expression of Spratly Islands, while having no objection to
China using Nansha Islands. However, Vietnam insisted
using the Hoang Sa Islands and the Truong Sa Islands
(respectively referring to the Xisha Islands and the Nansha
Islands) as a way to assert its stance. And this violated China s
bottom line, as China had never admitted the existence of any
dispute in the Xisha Islands, nor had the consultations touch
upon those islands. Eventually, in the hope of breaking the long

deadlock and maximizing common interests, China agreed to

use a more ambiguous expression "the South China Sea", for
example "Parties in the South China Sea", "the freedom of
navigation in and overflight above the South China Sea" and
"code of conduct in the South China Sea". Description about
islands disputes were also vaguely rendered as "refraining from
action of inhabiting on the presently uninhabited islands, reefs,
shoals, cays, and other features", without specific mention to the
Nansha Islands. The DOC played a vital role in diffusing
disputes in the Nansha Islands and maintaining regional
stability, but its ambiguous renderings of features in dispute
sowed the seeds for turning the local territorial disputes to a
more generalized maritime issue. The concepts of disputes
over islands and maritime disputes became confusingly
mixed up. Driven by other factors, disputes over portions of the
Nansha Islands and delimitation of their surrounding waters
gradually ballooned into an overall South China Sea issue.
Shortly after the Cold War, the US remained committed to its
previous policy of not taking sides on the legitimacy of
territorial claims, emphasizing that the disputes should be
peacefully resolved, and that the freedom of navigation in the
South China Sea should be maintained. As Asia was not the

focal point of the USs global policy at that time, the

occasional heating up of disputes over the Nansha Islands did
not move the US to change its neutral stance. It stressed that
parties concerned should settle territorial disputes through
peaceful means. [xii]
A Decade with Tensions Simmering under the Surface
In nearly ten years after the introduction of the DOC, China was
the only keen abider of the document. It refrained from taking
actions that might escalate the dispute in the South China Sea,
and kept pushing for peace and cooperation and joint
development in disputed areas. By contrast, Vietnam, Malaysia,
the Philippines and some other ASEAN countries were halfhearted about the DOC. They kept on transforming and
expanding occupied islands, reinforcing their administrative
management of them, and accelerated the development of oil
and gas in surrounding waters. They also made occasional
arrests of Chinese fishermen working in these waters. One
common efforts of these countries is to solidify their illegal
occupation and extend the territorial dispute to the maritime
sphere. What they were trying to do was more of denying the
existence of the disputes than shelving them. This continuously
enraged the Chinese public and media, eliciting sustained

attention.
Vietnam was the most active violator of the DOC. For example,
in April 2003, it held a commemoration to celebrate the 28th
anniversary of the "Liberation of the Nansha Islands". In June, it
signed a secret pact with Indonesia on the delimitation of
continental shelf under the South China Sea. In April 2004, it
organized the first commercial tour to the Nansha Islands. In
early 2005, it published a revised map of Vietnam, which
included China's Xisha and Nansha Islands into its Khanh Hoa
Province. In early 2006, Vietnam and Malaysia set up a navy
hot-line to coordinate resource development and settlement of
their disputes about the Chinese islands. In April, it started
another bidding round for oil blocks in surrounding waters, and
announced cooperation with a third party on building natural gas
transmission pipelines in the Nansha Islands. In May 2007, it
conducted an extensive geological survey in surrounding waters
using a charted foreign surveying ship; a month later, it held
elections of "National Assembly representatives" on some of the
occupied Nansha islands.
In April 2003, Malaysia sent four flotillas totaling 11 surveying
vessels to the waters around Nantong Reef (Louisa Reef) to
conduct prospecting operations; in May, it organized an

international maritime challenge in waters around Danwan Reef

and approved for the first time commercial tours to Yuya Shoal
organized by travel agencies. In November 2004, it published
stamps showing a Malaysian map with newly included Nansha
islands. In August 2008, Malaysia's Defense Minister landed on
Danwan Reef with some 80 journalists to declare "sovereignty".
In April 2003, the Philippines celebrated the 25th anniversary of
the establishment of Kalayaan Municipality on Zhongye Island.
In June 2006, it started to renovate and upgrade the air strip and
other facilities on the island. In March 2008, it set up satellite
communications facilities on some of the occupied islands and
shoals.
But it must be admitted that despite a continuing tug-of-war in
the South China Sea, the general situation was under control
before 2009. Soon thereafter, things became more complicated,
mostly due to an official deadline set by the UN Commission on
the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS), according to which
relevant states should submit claims over a continental shelf
extending the 200 nautical miles from its territorial sea by May
15, 2009. An even greater factor is the introduction of the
American Asia-Pacific rebalancing strategy.
Shortly after taking office in January 2009, the Obama

administration signaled that it would correct the Bush

administration's misplaced foreign policy by shifting the US's
strategic priority to the Asia-Pacific region, which obviously
contributed to the confidence of the other claimants in the South
China Sea to challenge China.
Between January and February 2009, the Philippines' House of
Representatives and Senate adopted the Territorial Sea Baselines
Bill, which claims China's Huangyan Island and some islands
and reefs in the Nansha Islands as Philippine territory. On May
6, choosing to ignore the outstanding territorial and maritime
delimitation disputes in these waters, Vietnam and Malaysia
jointly submitted to the CLCS information on the outer limits of
the continental shelf beyond 200 nautical miles in the South
China Sea. On May 7, Vietnam separately submitted to the
CLCS information on the outer limits of the continental shelf
beyond 200 nautical miles, claiming sovereignty over China's
Xisha and Nansha Islands. Under such circumstances, China had
no choice but to submit to the CLCS the preliminary survey
findings on the outer limits of its continental shelf beyond 200
nautical miles, in order to prevent further undermining of its
own interests.
Meanwhile, US started to have frictions with China in the South

China Sea. 2009 alone saw at least five confrontational incidents

between US and Chinese ships, with the USNS Impeccable
incident being the most conspicuous.
The year of 2010 witnessed a faster shifting in the US policy on
the South China Sea issue, which showed an inclination to
take sides. At the ministerial meeting of the ASEAN
Regional Forum held in Hanoi, Vietnam on July 23, 2010, US
Secretary of State Hillary Clinton spoke on the South China Sea
issue, stating that the United States has a national interest in
freedom of navigation, open access to Asias maritime
commons, and respect for international law in the South China
Sea, and emphasized that claimants should pursue their
territorial claims and accompanying rights to maritime space in
accordance with the Convention. Later Clinton wrote in her
memoir: "That was a carefully chosen phrase, answering the
earlier Chinese assertion that its expansive territorial claims in
the area constituted a 'core interest'." [xiii] Clinton continued to
make a series of remarks on the Obama administration s AsiaPacific policy and the South China Sea issue on other occasions.
Meanwhile, the US has beefed up its presence and enhanced
military exercise efforts in the region.
On the other hand, the Chinese side continued its diplomatic

efforts, in order to maintain stability in the South China Sea and

diffuse tensions with ASEAN countries. China achieved some
progress for its painstaking efforts to seek to resolve disputes via
peaceful talks. At the ASEAN-China Ministerial Meeting (10+1)
held in Bali, Indonesia in July 2011, the Guidelines to
Implement the DOC was adopted by China and ASEAN
countries. China reached some understanding with the
Philippine and Vietnam through bilateral negotiations. Yet these
efforts were not enough to offset USs Asia-Pacific rebalance
strategy, and claimants like the Philippines and Vietnam, in turn,
didnt display much restraint.
They began to step up their reclamation efforts on the
encroached islands and reefs and frequently conduct military
exercise with the US near the South China Sea. Some countries
even intended to group-up against China, taking a series of
provocative actions in disregard of China's concern. In March
2011, the Philippines military disclosed plans to invest 230
million USD in the renovation of the barracks and the airports
on the South China Sea islands. In June and July, the Philippines
and Vietnam conducted a series of joint exercises with other
foreign powers in the disputed waters. Looking to strengthen the
Philippines' territorial and maritime claims in this region,

Aquino III ordered the official use of the "West Philippines Sea"
to replace the internationally standardized geographical name of
"South China Sea", and such move even temporarily gained
some US official acknowledgement. , and to some extent, it
gained official recognition from the US. In March 2012, the
Philippines and Vietnam reached an agreement on joint military
exercise and maritime border patrol in the South China Sea. In
April, Vietnam dispatched several monks to some temples on
South China Sea islands.
These provocative activities by some ASEAN member countries
and the USs intervention have been closely watched and
widely reported in China, evoking strong repercussions among
the public. Under the doubling-down pressure of policy
sustainability and public opinion, Chinas restraint policy is
approaching to its brink.
Tensions as Result of Wrestling among Multiple Players
In April 2012, the Philippine Navy made a provocative arrest of
Chinese fishermen working in the Huangyan Island waters in
what was later known as the Huangyan Island Incident.
Arguably this became the "last straw on the camel's back" in the
fragile stability in the South China Sea, and it tested the bottom
line of China's policy and patience.

On April 10, 2012, Philippine warships launched a surprise raid

on twelve Chinese fishing vessels working in the lagoon,
disturbing and harassing their operations, and even forcibly
boarding one vessel and arresting the fishermen. Almost
instantly, images of the arrested Chinese fishermen being
stripped to the waist and exposed to the scorching sun on the
deck made headlines on print and digital media in China,
triggering off an outcry among the Chinese general public.
China was thus forced to take countermeasures, making urgent
diplomatic representations to the Philippines, and sending
marine surveillance ships and fishing administrative ships to the
waters around Huangyan Island. Both sides engaged in a tense
standoff till June 3, when all the Philippine ships had left the
lagoon at the island. To prevent further moves by the
Philippines, China sent marine surveillance ship for long-term
deployment in the waters surrounding Huangyan Island, putting
the Island under its control.
As if the Huangyan Island Incident was not bad enough for
tensions, Vietnam adopted its domestic Maritime Law on June
21, in an attempt to legalize its territorial claims in the South
China Sea. [xiv] On the day of its adoption, China's then Vice
Minister of Foreign Affairs Zhang Zhijun summoned the

Vietnamese Ambassador in China Nguyen Van Tho to protest

against this move. On the same day, China announced its longplanned establishment of Sansha, a prefecture-level city, on
Yongxing Island (Woody Island) in the Xisha Islands. Its
jurisdiction covers the Xisha, Zhongsha and Nansha Islands and
surrounding waters. Relevant administrative, jurisdictional and
military arrangements were made in the following months.
On January 22, 2013, the Philippines initiated an arbitral
proceedings against China at the International Tribunal for the
Law of the Sea. Shortly after this announcement, China's
Foreign Ministry made multiple official responses: "The
Philippines and the Arbitral Tribunal have abused relevant
procedures and forced ahead with the arbitration, disregarding
the fact that the subject matter of the arbitration involves
territorial sovereignty and maritime delimitation and related
matters, deliberately evading the declaration on optional
exceptions made by China in 2006 under Article 298 of the UN
Convention on the Law of the Sea", stating "China does not
accept the arbitration initiated by the Philippines" and therefore
"will not participate in the proceedings".
Obviously, China disagrees with the Philippines which applied
for arbitration on account that its consultations and negotiations

with China reached an impasse. The fact is that ever since the
Huangyan Incident, the Philippines refused to have any serious
dialogue with China, let alone negotiations, nor did they consult
the other DOC parties. As far as arbitration is concerned, China
already made a declaration on optional exceptions in 2006 under
Article 298 of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea. Since
the Arbitration Court jurisdiction concerns sovereignty, historic
rights and entitlement, China is exempt from the arbitration.
There is no provision in the convention to enforce an adverse
award on China.
The subsequent Renai Shoal Incident and Drilling Platform
981 Standoff further aggravated the situation. As its landing
craft aground at Ren'ai Shoal was disintegrating, the Philippines
kept looking for opportunities to start construction projects to
get the shoal under its control. China has kept a watchful eye on
the activities. In March 2014, China discovered that some
Philippine warships were transporting supplies to Ren'ai Shoal
and immediately intercepted them, which lead to a standoff
between both sides. The Philippines incited a storm of media
coverage of the incident, trying to elicit global attention and the
USs intervention.
In May 2014, a drilling operation by the HYSY 981 rig was

completed inside the contiguous zone of China's Xisha Islands.

The drilling was performed 17 nautical miles from the south of
Zhongjian Island (Triton Island) from May 2 to August 15,
during which it was harassed by hundreds of vessels sent by the
Vietnamese government, resulting in intensified situation with
multiple chases and even collisions between the China Coast
Guard flotilla and the Vietnamese law enforcement vessels.
In 2013, in view of the changing situation in the South China
Sea, and to meet the civil and defense needs on the islands and
to defend its sovereignty, China launched reclamation projects
on its controlled Nansha islands. As all of these islands are far
away from the international navigation routes, there was no
question of these projects having any impact on the freedom of
navigation. But the US and the Philippines kept accusing China
and hyping the issue. In response to the concerns, China's
Foreign Ministry spokesperson Hua Chunying made a detailed
explanation at a press conference held on April 9, 2015: The
Chinese government has been carrying out maintenance and
construction work on some of the garrisoned Nansha islands and
reefs with the main purposes of optimizing their functions,
improving the living and working conditions of personnel
stationed there, better safeguarding territorial sovereignty and

maritime rights and interests, as well as better performing

China's international responsibility and obligation in maritime
search and rescue, disaster prevention and mitigation, marine
science and research, meteorological observation, environmental
protection, navigation safety, fishery production service and
other areas. The relevant construction, which is well within
China's sovereign responsibility. It does not impact or target any
country. [xv] It is recently reported that a series of projects are
underway to construct facilities that can provide public service,
like lighthouses, automatic weather stations, marine observation
centers and marine research institutes. Five lighthouses for
navigation safety have been built, and four of them have been
put into use.
Chinas actions have not been fully understood by its
neighbors who expressed concerns. The US also stepped up its
intervention, buzzing over Chinas island reclamation projects
using rhetoric like reaching too far and too fast and
islands militarization to pile pressure on China, and even
sending ships to sail near the Nansha and Xisha Islands. All
these were perceived in China as serious security challenges.
From the perspective of many Chinese people, the US is the
invisible hand behind the rising tension in the South China Sea.

First, the US is increasingly targeting at China as it steps up its

Asia-Pacific rebalance strategy. In 2013, the US announced to
reinforce its military presence in the Asia-Pacific region by
deploying 60% of its fleet and 60% of its overseas air force to
the region by 2020. [xvi]Also, the US military has purported to
be threatened by Chinas anti-access and area denial
efforts, and actively promoted some operational concepts like
Air-Sea Battle, with China as a main target. These moves have
undoubtedly further complicated and intensified the situation in
the South China Sea and in the Asia-Pacific region as a whole.
Many Chinese scholars start to suspect that the US may be
creating illusionary threats and crises in the region which can
turn into a self-fulfilling prophesy.
Since 2014, the US has made clearer responses to China in the
South China Sea, in postures of direct intervention in the
disputes and often in favor of other claimants, especially its own
allies.
On February 5, 2014, US Assistant Secretary of State for East
Asian and Pacific Affairs Daniel Russel said at a congressional
hearing that China was lack of clarity with regard to its South
China Sea claims has created uncertainty, insecurity and
instability in the region.[xvii] He also urged China to clarify

its nine-dash line claim. This was the first explicit and official
comment made by the US to challenge China on the South
China Sea issue. And obviously the US was well aware that, as
the Nansha Islands dispute was still unsettled, any attempt to
clarify the dash line or maritime claims would only lead to an
escalation of tensions. In the same month, US Chief of Naval
Operations (CNO), Admiral Jonathan Greenert announced US's
support for the Philippines in the event of a China-Philippines
conflict. [xviii] This is the toughest stance expressed by the US
in the China-Philippine dispute. At the Post Ministerial
Conference of the ASEAN Foreign Ministers' Meeting in
Naypyidaw in August 2014, US Secretary of State John Kerry
directly called for a moratorium on land reclamation, building
on disputed islands, and actions that might further escalate
disputes.
The US started to opt for a cost-imposing strategy against
China, meaning to make it more costly for China to take any
actions in the South China Sea by resorting to political,
diplomatic, public opinion and military means, so as to force
China to pull back without inciting arms confrontation.[xix] In
2015, the US released three strategic security documents, titled
Forward, Engaged and Ready: A Cooperative Strategy for 21st

Century Seapower, National Security Strategy, National Military

Strategy

and

Asia-Pacific

Maritime

Security

Strategy,

respectively, all of which talked about the South China Sea issue
at fairly great length, and asserted that the US would make
China pay the price.
From the Chinese perspective, as well as undermining the US
credibility as a potential mediator, the US's dramatically altered
policy on the South China Sea has heightened China's fears that
its interests would be further undermined, thus inspiring its
determination and measures to defend them.
Echoing its policy readjustments, the US has accelerated
provocative and coercive actions that are clearly targeted at
China. For example, the USs surveillance at the Nansha
Islands and its surrounding waters have intensified. The number
of sorties flown by the US planes to conduct close-in
reconnaissance at the South China Sea Islands has increased
from about 260 in 2009 to over 1,200 in 2014. [xx] Also, as a
way to flex its muscle and assert freedom of navigation, the US
keeps sending ships to sail within 12 nautical miles of the
Nansha Islands or even the non-disputed Xisha Islands. On
October 27, 2015, the USS Lassen navigated within 12 nautical
miles of Zhubi Reef (Subi Reef). On January 30, 2016, the USS

Curtis Wilbur trespassed Chinas territorial waters near

Zhongjian Island. Quite different from its usual practice, the US
media began to buzz over these events. US Pacific Command
commander Harry Harris even openly declared to take more
sophisticated and wide-ranging activities in the future, and send
warships to the South China Sea about twice a quarter. [xxi]
Other deterrent actions taken by the US include the followings:
In July 2015, the new commander of the US Pacific Fleet
Admiral Scott Swift joined the surveillance mission on board
the ASW P-8A Poseidon to conduct close-in reconnaissance at
the South China Sea; on November 5, US Secretary of Defense
Ashton Carter cruised on the USS Roosevelt, and when he
began to deliver a speech on board, the carrier was churning
through the disputed waters about 150-200 nautical miles south
of the Nansha Islands and about 70 nautical miles north of
Malaysia; on November 8 and 9, two US B-52 strategic
bombers flew near the Chinese islands under construction; and
during his visit to the Philippines on April 15, 2016, Carter
landed aboard the aircraft carrier USS John C. Stennis and
joined a patrol in the South China Sea. US warships and planes
also frequently conducted innocent passage through
Chinas territorial waters and airspace.

The US has also sought to strengthen its alliance system and

forces network surrounding the South China Sea. Since the
implementation of the Asia-Pacific rebalance strategy, the US
has been stepping up deployment of forces around the South
China Sea rim, including the Australian port of Darwin, the
Changi Naval Base in Singapore, the Philippines and Malaysia.
The US is also enhancing cooperation with Malaysia, Indonesia
and Vietnam to conduct intelligence gathering and enhance
maritime domain awareness capabilities in the region, and
expanding military support to some claimants in the dispute like
the

Philippines

and

Vietnam,

to

help

improve

their

reconnaissance, patrol control and anti-access capacity. In

March 2016, the US and the Philippines announced at their sixth
annual Bilateral Security Dialogue that the US forces were
allowed to use five Philippine military bases. In April 2016, the
US and the Philippines conducted again the Shoulder-toShoulder exercises in the South China Sea, with more targeted
items like retaking over islands, oil rig defense, etc., obviously
aiming at disputes in the South China Sea.
The USs military deployment in the South China Sea has
further flared up tensions in the region, giving the disputes in the
South China Sea larger than real role on the international

strategic chessboard. The apparent China-US rivalry is

seemingly taking over other disputes in the region and starts to
occupy center stage. Looking back at the post-Cold War era, we
can see that nearly all the contentions and conflicts involved or
even engineered by the US, some with complications lingering
till today. The Chinese are thus prompted to ask a question: what
is the US playing at in the South China Sea this time?
Conclusion
It can be seen from the above narrative, the situation in the
South China Sea came to the state of where we are today is the
result of the entangling effect of the actions and reactions along
multiple lines. There is also the influence of the changes in the
international and regional security environment. The elements
that pushed the spiraling twists and turns include not only
sovereignty, resources and strategic security considerations, but
also tangible interests. There is also the problem of information
dis-link and historical and institutional memory loss. Moreover,
the guessing game about each others strategic intentions and
policy objectives is also playing a role. The US as a power from
outside the region has played a major role by coming into the
issue and adjusting its policies towards the region since 2009.
So now, whats next, what will happen in the South China

Sea? The US is trying to find out what Chinas next move will
be. On the part of China, suspicion is rising about the US s
intention. Obviously, there is a risk of escalation of tension and
danger of miscalculations at strategic level.
Chinas pursuit in the South China Sea has been consistently
maintained. That is to safeguard national territorial integrity and
maintain regional peace and tranquility. To observe China, one
should never lose sight of the historical dimension. Though
China is growing into a strong country, the painful memory of
history is not long gone. The Chinese people have not forgotten
that the country stumbled into the 20th century with its capital
under the occupation of the imperialists armies, and for over a
century before and after, China suffered the humiliation of
foreign invasion and aggression. That is why the Chinese people
and government are very sensitive about anything that is related
to territorial integrity and would never allow such recurrence
even if its just an inch of land. This is something the outside
world needs to keep in mind when looking at China and trying
to understand Chinas behavior. Admittedly, there is no major
external threat that can endanger Chinas survival or
development in todays world. China adheres to the path of
peaceful development and it dedicates to promoting world

peace, development and cooperation. Its belief and commitment

are firm and unchanged.
In his speech at the Opening Ceremony of the Fifth Meeting of
the CICA Ministers of Foreign Affairs on April 28 2016, the
Chinese President Xi Jinping stated: Let me stress that China is
committed to maintaining peace and stability in the South China
Sea. We firmly stand by our sovereignty and rights and interests
in the South China Sea, and remain committed to resolving
disputes

peacefully

through

friendly

consultation

and

negotiation with countries directly concerned.[xxii] From the

consultations the Chinese Foreign Minister Wang Yi held in
recent months with his counterpart among ASEAN countries,
one could also see that Chinas proposition of dual-track
approach, meaning disputes be resolved peacefully through
negotiation between the parties directly concerned and China
ASEAN countries work together to maintain peace and stability
in the South China Sea, have been well received and supported.
ASEAN start to realize the importance of keeping the situation
under control and return to the track of dialogue.
So, to be specific, Chinas policy objectives in the South China
Sea could be read through following angles.
First, Chinas fundamental policy objective for the South

China Sea is to protect the security of its sovereignty and

maritime rights. Tactically, China has been coping with all
motions by refraining from proactive motions, which means to
act with restraint, and to take countermeasures when provoked.
The Chinese people will not allow any further infringement of
the countrys sovereignty and rights concerning land features
in the South China Sea, and therefore hold high expectations
towards the government to protect its national interests. As for
the current status quo of some of the Nansha islands and reefs
under other countries occupation, China will not give up its
sovereignty stance. However, considering that China has
significantly increased its capacity to control the situation and to
prevent any further loss, it is highly advisable that as long as no
new major threat looms large, China should continue to uphold
the policy of shelving the disputes and seeking joint
development, and to take in store the reality in the field. The
outcome of the arbitration initiated by the Philippines should not
shake Chinas fundamental policy lines.
Second, Chinas policy on the South China Sea also concerns
the freedom and safety of navigation. Being an international
pathway of strategic importance, the South China Sea has the
busiest commercial shipping routes, allowing 40 percent of the

worlds ocean freight to pass through. The freedom and safety

of navigation in the area are indispensable to all major
economies, China included. As the biggest benefactor of the
pathway, China relies on those routes for 70 to 80 percent of its
trade and energy supplies. The pathway also serves as an
important passage for the Chinese navy to sail to the wider sea.
Third, the common denominator of China and its neighbors in
the South China Sea is regional peace and stability. China does
not have an agenda or motive to seek hegemony in the region.
The very reason that China exercises restraint and keep the
disputes and differences under control is exactly for the sake of
maintaining peace in the general environment. In this regard,
China should continue to make efforts in the following aspects:
to provide and share more information with others for better
understanding; to offer more public goods for the well-being and
safety of all; to complete the code of conduct with ASEAN
members for a rule based regional order. From a long-term
perspective, as the biggest coastal country in the South China
Sea, China should keep the ability not only to defend itself but
also to maintain peace in the South China Sea, and to gain a
good position for seeking a negotiated settlement.
Fourth, China and the US share common strategic interests in

maintaining the freedom and safety of navigation, and

promoting stability and prosperity in the South China Sea area.
China and the US and are not disputing parties to each other.
Therefore, the two countries should avoid the trap of security
dilemma and misunderstandings by engaging in dialogues and
clarifying each others intentions. China and the US need and
should be able to work towards cooperation. As China is
growing into a maritime power, the wider seas and oceans in the
world are increasingly important to its development as well as
its global cooperation. Chinas vision will surely go beyond
the South China Sea. Therefore, any speculations on its
intentions based on conventional land power mentalities may
not be accurate.
The future direction of trend would very much depend on the
perceptions and choices of the parties involved. If they choose
to cooperate, they may all win. If they choose to confront each
other, they may only head for impasse or even conflict and no
one can benefit totally.

Ms FU Ying is Chairperson of Foreign Affairs Committee of

Chinas National Peoples Congress; Chairperson of
Academic Committee of Chinas Institute of International

Strategy, CASS; and Specially Invited Vice Chairperson of

China Center for International Economic Exchanges. Mr. WU
Shicun is Ph.D Senior Research fellow and President of the
National Institute of the South China Sea Studies.
[i] Chinas discovery of the Nansha Islands dates back to the
Han Dynasty (206 B.C.220 A.D). During the Tang and Song
dynasties

(7th-13th

century),

Chinas

knowledge

and

development of the islands increased substantially. The Ming

dynasty (1368-1644) exercised jurisdiction over the islands, and
since then, Chinas official maps have included the Nansha
Islands.
[ii]In 1939, Japan circled out a heptagon area (at 7-12N;
111136'-11730' E) in the Nansha Islands and the surrounding
waters, which included Taiping Island, Nanzi Island and Beizi
Island, collectively known as the Xinnan Islands. They then
were under the jurisdiction of Kaohsiung City, and of the Office
of the Governor-General.
[iii] The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People s Republic
of China and the Party Documents Research Office of the CPC
Central Committee, Zhou Enlai on Diplomacy, Central Party
Literature Press, 1990. pp. 38-46.
[iv] Xinhua news release, The Peoples Republic of China

Government Solemnly Declares Chinese Sovereignty over the

Nansha Islands Inviolable, Peoples Daily, May 30, 1956,
front page.
[v] Before 1974, all note verbales and announcements by the
Vietnamese government and all Vietnamese publications and
official maps recognized the Xisha and Nansha Islands as
Chinese territory. For instance, on September 4, 1958, the
Chinese government issued the Declaration on China s
Territorial Sea, which specified that the Xisha and Nansha
Islands are Chinese territory, and Chinas sovereignty extends
12 nautical miles from their baselines. Shortly after this, on
September 14, the Democratic Republic of Vietnam President
Pham Van Dong delivered a note verbale to China s premier
Zhou Enlai, to confirm Vietnams recognition and
acknowledgement of Chinas declaration, and its full
respect for Chinas sovereignty over its territorial waters on
September 14.
[vi] A. V. H. Hartendorp, History of Industry and Trade of
Phillipines: the Magsaysay Administration, Manila: Philippine
Education Co., 1961, p.217. See also Xiao Xiqing, A History of
China-Philippines Diplomatic Relations, Taipei Academic
Press, 1995, p. 831.

[vii] In July 1992, Chinas then Foreign Minister Qian Qichen

exchanged views with six of his counterparts from ASEAN
countries at the Dialogue following the 25th ASEAN Ministerial
Meeting, reaffirming Chinas proposal for setting aside
dispute and pursuing joint development and Chinas
intention to seek settlement of disputes with countries concerned
when conditions were ripe.
[viii] ASEAN, 1998 Ha Noi Plan of ActionHa Noi, December
15,1998.
[ix] Department of Policy Planning of the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs of the People's Republic of China, China Foreign
Affairs, Beijing: World Affairs Press, 2000, p. 659.
[x]Ge Hongliang. ASEAN and the South China Sea Issue,
International Study Reference, Vol. 11, 2013, pp. 5-6.
[xi] ASEAN, 2002 Joint Communique of 35th ASEAN Minister
Meeting, Bandar Seri Begawan , July 29-30, 2002.
[xii]Nguyen Hong Thao, The 2002 Decalration on the
Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea: A Note , Ocean
Development &International Law, 34:3-4, pp. 282-284. The
Declaration on the Conduct of Parties on the South China Sea,
the official website of Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the
Peoples

Republic

of

China,

http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjb_673085/zzjg_...,

accessed

April 11, 2016.

[xiii] US Department of State Daily Briefing, May 10, 1995.
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/dpb/, accessed April 11, 2016.
[xiv] Speech of Hillary Rodham Clinton, Vietnam, July 23,
2010, http:/ / www.state. gov/ secretary/ rm/2010/07/145095.
Htm, accessed April 11, 2016 Hillary Rodham Clinton, Hard
Choices, Simon & Schuster, 2014, p.79.
[xv]The Law of the Sea of Vietnam mainly consist the following
elements: first, providing for the baseline, the internal waters,
the territorial sea, the contiguous zone, the exclusive economic
zone, the continental shelf, islands, the Paracel and Spratly
archipelagos and other archipelagos under the sovereignty,
sovereign

rights

and

jurisdiction

of

Vietnam;

second,

emphasizing that Vietnamese agencies, organizations and

citizens have the responsibility to safeguard the sovereignty,
sovereign rights and jurisdiction of Vietnam over its maritime
zones, islands and archipelagos; third, providing that the State
exercises full and absolute sovereignty over the territorial sea in
conformity with the 1982 United Nations Convention on the
Law of the Sea, and the baseline used for measuring the breadth
of Vietnams territorial sea is the straight baseline already

publicized by the Government. The concept of archipelagos

which is seldom used by continental countries is specially
stressed here; forth, emphasizing the development of maritime
economy and expand international and regional cooperation;
and fifth, clarifying the roles of the Vietnamese sea patrol and
surveillance forces.
[xvi] Chinas Ministry of Foreign Affairs: Chinas
Reclamation Efforts on Part of its Nansha Islands are
Legitimate and Legal, Xinhuanet.com, April 9, 2015,
http://news.xinhuanet.com/2015-04/09/c_11149...,

accessed

April 11, 2016.

[xvii] In Shangri-La Dialogue held on 3 June, 2012, the US
Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta officially proposed the
American rebalance strategy, aiming to reinforce the US s
military presence in the Asia-Pacific region by deploying 60%
of its warships to the region. His successor, Secretary of Defense
Chuck Hagel, reiterated this goal on 1 June 2013, and
announced the two 60% deployment, which is to deploy 60% of
its warships and 60% of its overseas air force to the AsiaPacific region by 2020.
[xviii] Speech of Daniel R. Russel, Washington. DC, February
5,

2014,

http://www.state.gov/p/eap/rls/rm/2014/02/221293.htm access
ed April 11, 2016,
[xix]Jonathan W. Greenert, Chief of Naval Operations, 13
February

2014,

http://www.navy.mil/navydata/people/cno/Gree...,

accessed

April 11, 2016.

[xx]The challenge of responding to maritime coercion.
Retrieved

from

http://www.cnas.org/sites/default/files/publ...,

accessed April 11, 2016.

[xxi]The US Conducts Frequent Close-in Surveillance Missions
to Chinas Three Major Construction Projects in the South
China

Sea,

People's

Daily,

July

3,

2015.

http://military.people.com.cn/n/2015/0703/c1..., accessed April

11, 2016.
[xxii] Xi Jinping, Jointly Create a Better Future of Peace and
Prosperity for Asia Through Dialogues and Consensus , 28
April, 2016, http://id.china-embassy.org/eng/xwdt/t1359296.htm
, accessed 1 May, 2016.