Technical Bulletin:

Anchor Selection for Monolithic Linings

When considering the cost of refractory linings, including materials, labor and downtime, investing in
proper anchorage is a relatively small expense with a huge potential return. Harbison-Walker
Refractories Company offers a wide variety of anchoring products. However, in both Cement and Lime
processes, there are several application variables to consider before selecting the best anchors. These
include: the process conditions such as chemical attack; vessel temperature and geometry; lining
thickness; monolithic installation type; and where in the vessel the material will be located. Anchors
used in Cement and Lime applications are either metallic or ceramic, or a combination of both. But with
so many options and combinations available, making the best selection can be difficult.
THE WRONG WAY
Making the wrong anchor selection can be quite
costly and could result in premature or catastrophic
failure of the refractory lining. Refractory failures
can endanger the integrity of the vessel by exposing
the shell or structure to conditions and temperatures
beyond their design limits. The failure shown in Figure 1 could have been avoided by proper selection
of products and anchorage for this application.
THE RIGHT WAY
Optimizing the selection of refractory products and
anchorage, as shown in Figure 2, results in a well
supported refractory lining. In this case, the
materials and anchorage are well suited to the
operating conditions resulting in outstanding
refractory performance.

Figure 1. Example of end result when improper

selections are made in anchorage and refractory
material for the operating conditions.

WHAT ANCHORS ARE RIGHT FOR MY

APPLICATION?
With all of the process variables and design issues
to consider, the daunting task of anchor design must
include understanding of the following criteria:
Appropriate metallic alloy selection.
Conditions necessitating ceramic anchors.
Proper anchor pattern selection for the
application area, i.e. roofs versus walls.
Anchor design considerations based on
installation method, such as gunning and
shotcreting, pouring or ramming.
Please read on to find out what options are available
and to understand how and when to use them.

Figure 2. Improved refractory life utilizing ceramic

and wire anchors in cooler hot end bullnose.

VESSEL TEMPERATURE
Application temperature is usually the most important criteria for choosing between ceramic and
metallic anchors. For all areas where process temperatures approach or exceed 2000F (1090C),
H-W Refractories Cement and Lime group suggests incorporating ceramic anchors into the lining
design.
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METALLIC WIRE ANCHORS ALLOY SELECTION

Harbison-Walker Refractories uses 310SS alloy for most metallic anchor applications in the Cement and
Lime industries. To understand why 310SS is often the alloy of choice for wire anchors, one must first
understand temperature limits of the available stainless steel alloys, 304SS, 309SS and 310SS, as well
as the most common failure mechanisms. Three of the most prevalent failure modes for stainless steel
anchors are sigma phase formation, oxidation and sulfidation.
THE CASE FOR 310 SS
Steel manufactures use the chromium content as an indicator of the oxidation resistance of an alloy.
Increasing the nickel content of the alloy also improves the high temperature properties of a SS alloy.
Compared to 304 SS and 309 SS, 310 SS contains the highest amount of both chromium and nickel.
The effect of composition on maximum service temperature can be seen in Table 1 below.

Maximum Service Temperature

(Intermittent/Continuous)

Anchor Alloy

Chromium Content

Nickel Content

1500F (816C) / 1650F (899C)

304 SS

17.5% 19.5%

8.0% 10.5%

1800F (982C) / 2000F (1093C)

309 SS

19% - 21%

12% - 15%

1900F (1038C) / 2100F (1149C)

310 SS

24% - 26%

19% - 22%
Source: www.matweb.com

Table 1. Maximum Service Temperature versus Chromium and Nickel Content of Three Stainless Steel Alloys

In general, as chromium and nickel content increases, so does the temperature resistance. In most
cases, the maximum service temperature is dictated by a number of factors. Among those are tensile
strength and oxidation resistance. Tensile strength is shown in Table 2 below.
Tensile Strength of Three Stainless Steel Alloys (psi / MPa)
Temperature

304 SS

309 SS

310 SS

77F (25C)

90,000 / 620

90,000 / 620

89,500 / 615

1500F (816C)

23,000 / 160

28,500 / 195

30,300 / 210

1800F (982C)

No data

10,000 / 70

11,000 / 75
Source: Allegheny Ludlum

Table 2. Tensile Strength of Three Stainless Steel Alloys at Varied Temperatures

While the strength of all three alloys decreases significantly at elevated temperatures, the 310 SS
possesses the highest strength at 1500F (816C) and 1800F (982C). However, even though the 310
SS possesses the highest measured strength at 1800F (982C), the remaining strength is still only 12%
of its room temperature strength.
Oxidation resistance is also key to service temperature limits of stainless steels. In general, increased
chromium content improves the oxidation resistance of stainless steel because it promotes the formation
of a protective layer of chromic oxide under service conditions. For the 309 and 310 stainless steels,
Figure 3 illustrates the oxidation rate in terms of weight change at elevated temperatures. An increase in
weight indicates increased oxidation.
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Figure 3. Oxidation of 309 SS and 310 SS Measured by Weight Change

For temperatures exceeding 1800F (982C), the oxidation resistance of the 310 SS alloy is clearly
superior to the 309 SS as shown by the increased weight of the 309 SS. Compared to the other common
anchor alloys, the benefits of 310 SS alloy anchors are numerous, particularly for the conditions present in
Cement and Lime applications.
BENEFITS OF 310 SS
1.
2.
3.
4.

Rated for applications with continuous service up to 2100F (1149C).

Rated for intermittent service temperatures up to 1900F (1038C).
High hot strength.
High chrome content develops protective chromium scale to resist oxidation at elevated
temperatures.

WEAR MECHANISMS: SIGMA PHASE, OXIDATION AND SULFIDATION IN STAINLESS STEEL

All stainless steel anchors are susceptible to sigma phase formation; a non-magnetic, inter-metallic
material composed primarily of iron and chromium which leads to embrittlement. Most metallic anchors
fail due to the development of sigma phase, especially when combined with temperature cycling during
service. Sigma phase forms in austenitic stainless steels when exposed to temperatures between 1050F
(566C) - 1800F (982C). Temperatures near 1600F (871C) are optimal for sigma phase formation.
Sigma phase is believed to have little effect on properties as long as the material remains at elevated
temperatures. However, as application temperatures cycle, sigma phase causes loss of ductility and
brittleness at temperatures lower than approximately 1100F (593C).
Sigma phase formation is reversible, however, in anchoring applications, it is only partially reversible.
Each time the stainless steel anchor is exposed to temperature cycling, its oxidation resistance is
reduced, eventually causing failure. In applications where continuous service temperature is maintained,
sigma phase alone is not likely to cause a failure of the anchorage and refractories. Nonetheless,
increased embrittlement of the anchors, combined with other failure mechanisms, and stresses, may
eventually cause the anchors to fail and potentially result in the failure of the refractory lining.
Chromium is one of the constituents of sigma phase; however, its presence in stainless steel alloys is
necessary to improve other properties of the steel. Optimal chromium content, as well as nickel in
austenitic stainless steels improves corrosion resistance, resistance to oxidation, and increases hot
strengths compared to carbon steel alloys. All metals react with the atmosphere to form oxides and other

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compounds. Chromium in the alloy reacts with oxygen to form a thin layer or scale of chromic oxide on
the surface of the anchor. The chromic oxide layer effectively seals off the other metals in the alloy from
the atmosphere, preventing further oxidation, improving the high temperature properties of the alloy.
However, oxidation of stainless steel anchors
in refractory applications is a complicated
issue. Conditions can develop leading to the
rapid growth of the oxides of chromium, iron
and nickel, a process known as breakaway
oxidation. Figure 4 to the right, shows the
effect of severe oxidation and sigma phase on
metallic anchors. Note the heavy chromic
oxide scale and evidence of embrittlement of
the anchor remnants.

Figure 4. Chromic Oxide Scale and Sigma Phase.

Sulfur is often present in cement and lime applications as an impurity which can lead to sulfidation attack
of stainless steel anchors. Sulfidation of stainless steel is a complex process, highly dependent on the
relative levels of oxygen and sulfur, as well as the form of the sulfur, whether elemental vapor, oxide or
hydrogen sulfide. Chromium in stainless steel alloys forms stable oxides and sulfides. In the presence of
both oxygen and sulfur, the chromium usually combines with the oxygen to form the stable chromic oxide
(Cr2O3) layer. As previously stated, this protective layer forms a barrier against chemical attack, including
sulfidation. However, sulfidation attack can still occur if the chromic oxide layer spalls off or is damaged.
Under certain conditions, sulfur can transport across the chromic oxide scale to form internal chromium
sulfide phases. The tendency to form sulfides increases in alloys containing high amounts of nickel.
Nickel and nickel sulfide form a low temperature melting phase that can cause failures in metallic anchors.
EXTREME APPLICATION STRESSES: ALKALIES, CHLORIDES AND/OR SULFIDES
High temperatures combined with exposure to corrosive atmospheres can necessitate the use of special
alloys. In applications where the anchorage is exposed to high temperatures, as well as sulfur and/or
alkali chloride attack, special alloys may be required. One particular material containing a solid solution of
nickel-cobalt-chromium-silicon, is known for its resistance to sulfidation and alkali chloride attack in both
reducing and oxidizing atmospheres.

Figure 5. Metallic Anchor Exhibiting Sulfide Crack and

Embrittlement

Figure 6. Remnant of Metallic Anchor Exhibiting Sulfide

Attack

In service, sulfur and chlorine, if present, can volatilize and combine to form alkali salts and corrosive
sulfides attacking the refractories and the metallic anchors. This can result in anchor failures similar to
those shown in the photographs, Figures 5 and 6, above.
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In special alloys, with the chromium content greater than 25% and the nickel content exceeding 30%, the
iron content is low. This prevents the formation of sigma phase at elevated temperatures seen in
stainless steel alloys. However, these alloys are expensive and should be limited to problematic areas
where ceramic and metallic anchorage is not possible. Suggested applications include burner pipes, nose
ring anchoring systems and other areas where thin walls, high temperatures and/or severe thermochemical attack are present.
TEMPERATURE PROFILE SELECTING THE RIGHT SIZE ANCHOR AND MATERIAL
H-W Refractories Cement and Lime group has established guidelines regarding anchor length versus
lining thickness. The following graph, Figure 7, illustrates some of the principles behind those guidelines,
showing the temperature profiles of three 10 (25.4 cm) refractory linings in a 2000F (1093C)
application. In this example, a 60% alumina high density, low cement castable has been used for all the
configurations. In the dual component linings, an insulating gunning castable has been chosen for the
back-up. In one case, the dense hot face lining is 6 (15.2 cm) thick with a back-up of 4 (10.2 cm) and in
the other the hot face lining is 7 (17.8 cm) thick with a back-up of 3 (7.6 cm).

Figure 7. Thermal Profile of Refractory Linings Illustrating Internal Refractory Temperatures

The temperature limit for 310 SS in intermittent applications, 1900F (1038C), has been included on the
graph, as well as 80% and 60% of the lining thickness measured from the cold face of the lining. These
depths were chosen to illustrate the recommended anchor lengths for Cement and Lime applications.
Additionally, the temperature ranges for sigma phase formation and embrittlement are shown.
This example demonstrates the effect of insulating back-up on shell temperature and internal refractory
temperature. Insulation reduces the shell temperature, holding the heat inside the vessel. This
improves the efficiency of the process and also increases the internal temperature of the refractory
lining.
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When designing anchorage remember that the operating temperatures provided often represent predicted normal values and may not take into consideration temperature excursions due to upset
conditions. It is advisable to design linings and anchorage with a margin of safety.
The thermal conductivity of the metallic wire anchor is much higher, roughly six times that of the ceramic
refractories. In the examples above, a metallic anchor exposed to approximately 1900F (1038C) at
80% of the lining thickness conducts heat deeper into the lining compared to the refractory materials.
This heat sink effect results in the anchor temperature being much hotter at any given depth compared
to the surrounding refractory. At 60% of the total lining thickness, the hot end of the metallic anchor is
exposed to lower temperatures. However, note the sigma phase formation range. In dual linings, more
of the metallic anchor will be exposed to temperatures favorable to sigma phase formation. In the case
of the lining with 4 (10.2 cm) of back up insulation, the interface between the insulation and the working
lining is approximately 1600F (871C), the temperature where sigma phase formation is the most
severe. In applications similar to the one depicted, ceramic anchors are recommended, often with wire
anchors in between. The ceramic anchors extend through the entire lining thickness, while the wire
anchors should only extend to 60% of the lining thickness, due to the internal temperature
conditions described above.
It should be noted the example in Figure 7 is based on a complete lining thickness, with no wear taken
into account. As the refractories wear, the thermal profile also changes, increasing the internal
temperature of the anchors. The increase in exposure temperatures will increase the rate of anchor
deterioration, yet another reason to design linings and anchorage with a safety margin.
GENERAL LENGTH RECOMMENDATIONS FOR METALLIC ANCHORS
When using metallic anchors for applications below 2000F (1093C), H-W Refractories Cement & Lime
group recommends lengths up to 80% of the total monolithic lining. For most dual component
linings, H-W L-Clips are used in conjunction with the proper Y or V wire anchors shown below in Figure
10. The H-W L-Clips afford the lining flexibility at the interface between hard face lining and the back-up
lining. This is because the anchor is not welded to the clip, but snaps onto the slotted end of the clip.
Anchors that are welded to the shell of a vessel form a rigid framework for a single component lining.
The L-Clip is welded at the foot to the shell to form the framework for the insulating back-up. The V type
anchor forms the framework for the hard face, while the flexible connection between the two allows
stress relief between the two components of the lining should they expand or contract at different rates.
1. Metallic wire anchors are available in
several sizes, alloys and designs.
Harbison-Walker Cement and Lime
Group requires the alloy stamp on
every metallic anchor as shown in
Figure 8.
a. 1-A Series Anchors, (6.3
mm) wire, are generally
used for single component
linings less than or equal to
4 (11.4 cm) thickness.
b. 3-A series anchors,
5/16 (7.9 mm) wire, are
used for single component
linings greater than
4 (11.4 cm) thickness.
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Note the
alloy stamp.

Figure 8. Look for the Alloy Stamp on Each Anchor and Clip

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2. Metallic wire anchors may be welded directly to the vessel for single component linings or
may be combined with clip designs for two component linings.
a. When welding the anchor foot to the vessel shell care must be taken not to
overheat the anchor, causing embrittlement.
b. Keep the weld at least (6.4mm) away from any vertical bends as welding
changes the structure of the metal and could weaken the bend of the anchor. See
Figure 9, below.

Figure 9. Weld Details for Anchors and Clips Commonly Used in Cement and Lime

3. All two component linings will use either 3-A or 2-A series wire anchors with 1-L or 2-L series
L-clips with T-bar, depending on total lining thickness.
a. 3-A series, 5/16 (7.9 mm) wire anchors, are generally used in dual component
linings, except when the hot face lining is proportionally thin compared to the
back-up lining.
b. 2-A series, (6.2 mm) wire anchors, are generally used for proportionally thin
hot face linings.
4. When using L-clips in conjunction with metallic anchors, the V-anchors are attached after the
back-up lining is applied. Figure 10 shows how the design of the L-clip indicates the proper
back-up lining depth, as well as attachment of the V-anchor to the L-clip.

Wire Anchor
and L-clip.

Depth of
back-up
lining.

T-BAR

Figure 10. Example of Wire V Anchor and H-W L-clip with T-bar for use with two component linings.

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CERAMIC ANCHORS
When application temperatures exceed 2000F (1093C), H-W Refractories Cement & Lime group
recommends the use of ceramic anchors, generally in CORAL BP, although other options exist that can
be investigated for certain problematic areas. CORAL BP is a burned, high alumina, phosphate bonded
refractory brick with excellent hot strength and abrasion resistance. Because it is a ceramic product, the
maximum service temperature is well above that of stainless steel or most other alloys.
CORAL BP anchors are manufactured in many configurations. For cement and lime applications, RAS
configurations work well due to their shape. During installation, monolithic refractories conform to the
contours of their shape. As the monolithic sets or develops strength, the ceramic anchor becomes part
of the lining. C-Clips are used to attach the anchors to the vessel. This allows some flexibility in the
anchorage to give rather than break.
When choosing ceramic anchors:
1. Harbison-Walker generally recommends
CORAL BP quality ceramic anchors due to the
superior physical properties of this brand,
particularly hot strength.
2. Choose RAS series ceramic anchors, as
shown in Figure 11, with C-Clips attached to
the vessel shell.
3. C-Clips should be CCH series, 3/8 (9.5 mm)
thick 304 SS*.
4. Install C-Clips so the anchors will be installed
in the same direction as gas flow through the
vessel.
Figure 11. RAS Anchors in CORAL BP with CCH C-Clip

*Note: The C-Clip alloy of choice is usually 304 SS. This is because the clip, made from 3/8 (9.5 mm)
thick steel, is installed next to the shell where the temperatures are much lower than the internal
refractories. At the shell, the less costly 304 SS alloy retains its strength and is typically not exposed to
temperatures where oxidation or sigma phase formation will occur. For severe service conditions, 310
SS alloy is also available.
When ceramic anchors are installed using
C-Clips, Figure 12, there will be a space
between the top of the anchor and the
C-Clip. A shim, usually of wood or plastic,
should be used in this space to help hold
the ceramic anchor in place. The C-Clip
should then be filled with foam or covered
in some other manner to keep any
refractory material from filling this void.
Duct tape or plastic wrap may also be used
as a seal around the C-Clip and ceramic
anchor prior to monolithic installation. The
ceramic anchor itself should also be
covered with plastic during installation of
any back-up lining and then removed prior
to wear face installation.
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Figure 12. Weld Detail for C-Clips Showing Void Between Brick and Clip

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SELECTING COMBINATIONS
Combining ceramic and metallic anchors is recommended for high strength support systems, in
applications subject to high temperatures and chemical attack. Applications often requiring combined
anchorage include calciner ducts, kiln inlets and risers, firing hoods, TAD connections, and hot zones of
cooler walls, roofs and bullnoses.
1. Apply to dual lining systems with
high temperature exposure.
2. Use in areas subject to excessive
mechanical stresses or flexing.
3. Use Wire Anchors welded to shell
or combine with L-Clips.
4. When combined with ceramic
anchors, limit total wire length to
60% of the wear face lining
thickness
Figure 13. Dual Lining Anchor Configuration Showing Castable
Anchored with Ceramic and Wire Anchors and L-Clip.

SELECTING THE RIGHT ANCHOR PATTERN

Even after the anchors have been chosen; whether wire, ceramic or combined; it is extremely important
to choose the correct anchor pattern and spacing. Proper spacing, orientation and installation optimize
the support provided by the anchorage for the refractory lining. Insufficient anchorage, with too much
separation between the anchors, risks inadequate load distribution and could lead to anchor failure.
Spacing recommendations for anchor combinations vary depending on the installation method,
application, wear face lining thickness, loading and orientation. However, the following general
guidelines may be applied.
WIRE ANCHOR PATTERNS
1. Wear face linings 6 (15.2 cm)
a. For vertical walls, sloped floors
and overhead generally use
10 (25.4 cm) centers as
shown in Figure 14.
b. Note the orientation of the
anchors at 45 from vertical and
90 from the adjacent anchor.
c. Typically used for applications
<2000F (1019C).
d. Includes riser connections to
cyclones, swirl entry to cyclones,
floor riser connections to
cyclones and cones and straight
run sections of meal pipes.
Figure 14. Example of 10x10 (25.4x25.4 cm) Wire Anchor Pattern

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2. Wear face linings <6(15.2 cm)

a. For vertical walls, sloped floors and
overhead generally use 8(20.3 cm)
centers, similar to Figure 15.
b. Again, note the orientation of the
anchors relative to each other.
c. Typically used for application
<2000F (1019C).
d. Includes riser connections to
cyclones, swirl entry to cyclones,
floor riser connections to
cyclones and cones and straight
run sections of meal pipes.

Figure 15. Example of 8x8(20.3x20.3cm) Wire

Anchor Pattern

3. Examples of other wire anchor applications:

a. Flat floors with <6(15.2 cm) wear face linings generally require 10(25.4 cm) centers
b. Flat floors with 6(15.2 cm) wear face linings generally require 12(30.5 cm) centers.
c. For other applications, such as meal pipes, burners, etc. contact your Harbison-Walker
Technical representative for recommendations.
CERAMIC AND COMBINATION ANCHOR PATTERNS
1. Vibration Casting and Pumping
a. For vertical walls in coolers, kiln inlets,
firing hoods or sloped floors in ducts and
risers, stagger ceramic and metallic
anchors in horizontal rows on 15(38.1 cm)
centers and vertical rows on 7(19.0 cm)
centers.
b. Note the orientation of the wire anchors
relative to one another and the adjacent
ceramic anchors in Figure 16.
c. For flat ceilings, such as closed cooler
roofs, ceramic anchors or combinations of
ceramic and metallic anchors are
recommended to be staggered on 12(30.5
cm) centers, both horizontally and vertically
as shown in Figure 17.
d. Ceramic anchor C-Clips should be oriented
with the C profile in the direction of the
gas flow so any vertical movement in the
lining or ceramic anchor is not restricted.

Figure 16. Example of 15x7.5(38.1x19.0cm)

Anchor Pattern

Figure 17. Example of 12x12(30.5x30.5 cm)

Anchor Pattern

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2. Gunning or Shotcreting
a. For vertical walls in coolers, kiln inlets,
firing hoods or sloped floors in ducts
and risers, arched ceilings, such as
firing hoods, TAD or Calciner roofs,
stagger horizontal rows of ceramic and
metallic anchors on 18(45.7 cm)
centers and vertical rows on 9(22.9
cm) centers as shown in Figure 18.
b. For flat ceilings, similar to casting, it is
recommended to use 12(30.5 cm)
centers.
c. Ceramic anchor C-Clips should be
oriented with the C profile in the
direction of the gas flow so any vertical
movement in the lining or ceramic
anchor is not restricted.
Figure 18. Example of 18x9(45.7x22.9 cm) Anchor Pattern

When questions arise regarding material selection, from products to anchorage and best installation
practices, your H-W Refractories Sales representative and Technical Marketing Specialists are available
to assist with technical solutions to meet your specific needs.

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