Parallel Processing and

Concurrent Processes

Learning Objectives

After completing this chapter, you should be able to

describe:
The critical difference between processes and
processors, and their connection
The differences among common configurations of
multiprocessing systems
The significance of a critical region in process
synchronization
The basic concepts of process synchronization
software: test-and-set, WAIT and SIGNAL, and
semaphores

Understanding Operating Systems, Sixth Edition

Learning Objectives (cont'd.)

The need for process cooperation when several
processes work together
How several processors, executing a single job,
cooperate
The similarities and differences between processes
and threads
The significance of concurrent programming
languages and their applications

Understanding Operating Systems, Sixth Edition

What Is Parallel Processing?

Parallel processing
Multiprocessing
Two or more processors operate in unison
Two or more CPUs execute instructions
simultaneously
Processor Manager
Coordinates activity of each processor
Synchronizes interaction among CPUs

Understanding Operating Systems, Sixth Edition

What Is Parallel Processing? (cont'd.)

Parallel processing development
Enhances throughput
Increases computing power

Benefits
Increased reliability
More than one CPU
If one processor fails, others take over
Not simple to implement

Faster processing
Instructions processed in parallel two or more at a time
Understanding Operating Systems, Sixth Edition

What Is Parallel Processing? (cont'd.)

Faster instruction processing methods
CPU allocated to each program or job
CPU allocated to each working set or parts of it
Individual instructions subdivided
Each subdivision processed simultaneously
Concurrent programming

Two major challenges

Connecting processors into configurations
Orchestrating processor interaction
Synchronization is key

Understanding Operating Systems, Sixth Edition

What Is Parallel Processing? (cont'd.)

Understanding Operating Systems, Sixth Edition

Evolution of Multiprocessors
Developed for high-end midrange and mainframe
computers
Each additional CPU treated as additional resource

Today hardware costs reduced

Multiprocessor systems available on all systems

Multiprocessing occurs at three levels

Job level
Process level
Thread level
Each requires different synchronization frequency
Understanding Operating Systems, Sixth Edition

Evolution of Multiprocessors (cont'd.)

Understanding Operating Systems, Sixth Edition

Introduction to Multi-Core Processors

Multi-core processing
Several processors placed on single chip

Problems
Heat and current leakage (tunneling)

Solution
Single chip with two processor cores in same space
Allows two sets of simultaneous calculations
80 or more cores on single chip

Two cores each run more slowly than single core chip

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Multicore Era
Goal: to reach exascale computing
Motivation for Multicore Architectures
Limitation of performance improvement
Power wall (high power consumption and heat dissipation)
Memory wall (gap between processor speed and memory speed)
Frequency wall (high penalty for wrong branch prediction due to
deep pipelines with out-of-order execution)

For a uni-processor
Increase frequency by 20%
- Will increase power by more than 50%
- But increase performance by only 13%
Multicores with simple cores
decrease frequency, power consumption, and improve
performance

The Rise of Multicores

2001
, POWER4, IBM, 2 Cores
2005, Ultra SPARC T1
, Sun, 8 Cores
2008
, Core i7, Intel, 2/ 4/ 6 Cores
2012, Tesla GPGPU, Nvidia, 10 Cores
2012, Am2045, Ambric, a 336-core Massively
Parallel Processor Array (MPPA)
2014, Adapteva Epiphany, a many-core
processor architecture with up to 4096
processors on-chip

Top500.org
Started in 1993
Detects trends in high-performance computing (HPC)
Every 2 years sites operating the 500 most powerful
computer systems is resealed
How to rank the computer systems?
- Linpack benchmark (performance measure based
on floating point computing power, FLOPS)
Presented at the International Supercomputing
Conference
http://top500.org/

Typical Multiprocessing Configurations

Multiple processor configuration impacts
systems
Three types
Master/slave
Loosely coupled
Symmetric

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Master/Slave Configuration
Asymmetric multiprocessing system
Single-processor system
Additional slave processors
Each managed by primary master processor

Master processor responsibilities

Manages entire system

Maintains all processor status
Performs storage management activities
Schedules work for other processors
Executes all control programs

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Master/Slave Configuration (cont'd.)

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Master/Slave Configuration (cont'd.)

Advantages
Simplicity

Disadvantages
Reliability
No higher than single processor system

Potentially poor resources usage

Increases number of interrupts

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Loosely Coupled Configuration

Several complete computer systems
Each with own resources
Maintains commands and I/O management tables

Independent single-processing difference

Each processor
Communicates and cooperates with others
Has global tables

Several requirements and policies for job scheduling

Single processor failure
Others continue work independently
Difficult to detect
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Loosely Coupled Configuration (cont'd.)

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Symmetric Configuration
Decentralized processor scheduling
Each processor is same type

Advantages (over loosely coupled configuration)

More reliable
Uses resources effectively
Can balance loads well
Can degrade gracefully in failure situation

Most difficult to implement

Requires well synchronized processes
Avoids races and deadlocks
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Symmetric Configuration (cont'd.)

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Symmetric Configuration (cont'd.)

Decentralized process scheduling
Single operating system copy
Global table listing

Interrupt processing
Update corresponding process list
Run another process

More conflicts
Several processors access same resource at same
time Race condition

Process synchronization
Algorithms resolving conflicts between processors
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Process Synchronization Software

Successful process synchronization
Lock up used resource
Protect from other processes until released

Only when resource is released

Waiting process is allowed to use resource

Mistakes in synchronization can result in:

Starvation
Leave job waiting indefinitely

Deadlock
If key resource is being used
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Process Synchronization Software

(cont'd.)
Critical region
Part of a program
Critical region must complete execution
Other processes must wait before accessing critical
region resources

Processes within critical region

Cannot be interleaved
Threatens integrity of operation

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Process Synchronization Software

(cont'd.)
Synchronization
Implemented as lock-and-key arrangement:
Process determines key availability
Process obtains key
Puts key in lock
Makes it unavailable to other processes

Types of locking mechanisms

Test-and-set
WAIT and SIGNAL
Semaphores
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Test-and-Set
Indivisible machine instruction
Executed in single machine cycle
If key available: set to unavailable

Actual key
Single bit in storage location: zero (free) or one (busy)

Before process enters critical region

Tests condition code using TS instruction
No other process in region
Process proceeds
Condition code changed from zero to one
P1 exits: code reset to zero, allowing others to enter
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Test-and-Set (cont'd.)
Advantages
Simple procedure to implement
Works well for small number of processes

Drawbacks
Starvation
Many processes waiting to enter a critical region
Processes gain access in arbitrary fashion

Busy waiting
Waiting processes remain in unproductive, resourceconsuming wait loops
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WAIT and SIGNAL

Modification of test-and-set
Designed to remove busy waiting

Two new mutually exclusive operations

WAIT and SIGNAL
Part of process schedulers operations

WAIT
Activated when process encounters busy condition
code

SIGNAL
Activated when process exits critical region and
condition code set to free
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Semaphores
Nonnegative integer variable
Flag
Signals if and when resource is free
Resource can be used by a process

Two operations of semaphore

P (proberen means to test)
V (verhogen means to increment)

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Semaphores (cont'd.)

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Semaphores (cont'd.)
Let s be a semaphore variable
V(s): s: = s + 1
Fetch, increment, store sequence

P(s): If s > 0, then s: = s 1

Test, fetch, decrement, store sequence

s = 0 implies busy critical region

Process calling on P operation must wait until s > 0

Waiting job of choice processed next

Depends on process scheduler algorithm

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Semaphores (cont'd.)

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Semaphores (cont'd.)
P and V operations on semaphore s
Enforce mutual exclusion concept

Semaphore called mutex (MUTual EXclusion)

P(mutex): if mutex > 0 then mutex: = mutex 1
V(mutex): mutex: = mutex + 1

Critical region
Ensures parallel processes modify shared data only
while in critical region

Parallel computations
Mutual exclusion explicitly stated and maintained

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Process Cooperation
Several processes work together to complete
common task
Each case requires
Mutual exclusion and synchronization

Absence of mutual exclusion and synchronization

Results in problems

Examples
Producers and consumers problem
Readers and writers problem

Each case implemented using semaphores

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Producers and Consumers

One process produces data
Another process later consumes data
Example: CPU and line printer buffer
Delay producer: buffer full
Delay consumer: buffer empty
Implemented by two semaphores
Number of full positions
Number of empty positions

Mutex
Third semaphore: ensures mutual exclusion
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Producers and Consumers (cont'd.)

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Producers and Consumers (cont'd.)

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Producers and Consumers (cont'd.)

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Producers and Consumers (cont'd.)

Producers and Consumers Algorithm
empty: = n
full: = 0
mutex: = 1
COBEGIN
repeat until no more data PRODUCER
repeat until buffer is empty
CONSUMER
COEND

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Readers and Writers

Two process types need to access shared resource
Example: file or database

Example: airline reservation system

Implemented using two semaphores
Ensures mutual exclusion between readers and writers

Resource given to all readers

Provided no writers are processing (W2 = 0)

Resource given to a writer

Provided no readers are reading (R2 = 0) and no
writers writing (W2 = 0)
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Concurrent Programming
Concurrent processing system
One job uses several processors
Executes sets of instructions in parallel

Requires programming language and computer

system support

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Applications of Concurrent
Programming
A = 3 * B * C + 4 / (D + E) **(F G)

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Applications of Concurrent
Programming (cont'd.)
A = 3 * B * C + 4 / (D + E) ** (F G)

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Applications of Concurrent
Programming (cont'd.)
Two types of parallelism
Explicit parallelism
Requires programmer intervention
Explicitly state parallel executable instructions

Disadvantages
Time-consuming coding
Missed opportunities for parallel processing
Errors
Parallel processing mistakenly indicated

Programs difficult to modify

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Applications of Concurrent
Programming (cont'd.)
Implicit parallelism
Compiler automatically detects parallel instructions
Advantages
Solves explicit parallelism problems
Complexity dramatically reduced

Working with array operations within loops

Performing matrix multiplication
Conducting parallel searches in databases
Sorting or merging file

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Threads and Concurrent Programming

Threads
Small unit within process
Scheduled and executed

Minimizes overhead
Swapping process between main memory and
secondary storage

Each active process thread

Processor registers, program counter, stack and
status

Shares data area and resources allocated to its

process
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Thread States

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Thread States (cont'd.)

Operating system support
Creating new threads
Setting up thread
Ready to execute

Delaying or putting threads to sleep

Specified amount of time

Blocking or suspending threads

Those waiting for I/O completion

Setting threads to WAIT state

Until specific event occurs
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Thread States (cont'd.)

Operating system support (cont'd.)
Scheduling thread execution
Synchronizing thread execution
Using semaphores, events, or conditional variables

Terminating thread
Releasing its resources

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Thread Control Block

Information about current status and characteristics
of thread

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Summary
Multiprocessing
Single-processor systems
Interacting processes obtain control of CPU at different
times

Systems with two or more CPUs

Control synchronized by processor manager
Processor communication and cooperation

System configuration
Master/slave, loosely coupled, symmetric

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Summary (cont'd.)
Multiprocessing system success
Synchronization of resources

Mutual exclusion
Prevents deadlock
Maintained with test-and-set, WAIT and SIGNAL, and
semaphores (P, V, and mutex)

Synchronize processes using hardware and

software mechanisms

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Summary (cont'd.)
Avoid typical problems of synchronization
Missed waiting customers
Synchronization of producers and consumers
Mutual exclusion of readers and writers

Concurrent processing innovations

Threads and multi-core processors
Requires modifications to operating systems

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