NEDIANS INN A PROJECT OF STUDY EXCELLENCE

CHEMISTRY I CHAPTER 2

THE THREE STATES OF MATTER GASES,

LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS
MATTER:
Matter is defined as anything which occupies space and has mass.

STATES OF MATTER:
There are three states of matter which are easily recognized through their properties:
Gas
Liquid
Solid

Gas:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

A gas has no shape of its own; rather it takes the shape of its container.
It has no definite volume.
It can be compressed or squeezed into smaller volume.
A gas diffuses, that is it distributes itself throughout a vessel.
Density of gaseous state is less as compared to all other states.

Liquid:
1.
2.
3.
4.

A liquid has no definite shape; it takes the shape of its container.

It however occupies a definite volume of its own.
It is compressed to a negligible extent even by high pressures.
The density of liquid is less than that of solids but greater than gases.

Solid:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

A solid possesses definite shape.

It also has a definite volume.
Like a liquid, it is not compressed or squeezed appreciably by high pressures.
The diffusion in solids is negligible.
The density of solids is greater than that of any other state.

Reason: How same substance can exist in different states?

The same substance, say water, can exist in all the three states, for example, as solid ice, liquid water
and the gaseous steam. Despite the same chemical composition, water shows different behaviour in
three different states. The only conclusion which can be drawn, is that the particles which make up the
three states of matter for any given substance differ only in the manner in which they are arranged and
they are not different in kind.

KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY:

The theory which deals with the way in which the arrangement of particles of a substance determines
the properties that substance will possess, and particularly the state in which it is likely to be found
under a given set of conditions is known as the kinetic theory.

Reason: Why does it called kinetic molecular theory?

The Kinetic theory is so named because it deals with that property of the particles which is so crucial in
understanding the three states of matter namely the motion of the particles. Because the particles are in

BY ENGR. NAVEED KHAN

CONTACT: 0332-3919193

1|P a g e

NEDIANS INN A PROJECT OF STUDY EXCELLENCE

CHEMISTRY I CHAPTER 2

constant motion, they possess kinetic energy which tends to keep the particles well-spaced out in any
substance.

POSTULATES OF KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY OF GASES:

1. The gaseous state is the one in which the molecules are widely separated from one another but
having negligible volume. The gases are easy to compress due to large empty spaces.
2. The gas molecules are in continuous motion, travelling in straight paths between collisions, but
in random directions. The average distance between collisions is the mean free path.
3. These collisions are perfectly elastic (result in no loss of energy).
4. Gas pressure is the result of the collision of gas molecules with the walls of the container
5. In an ideal gas, there are no attractive or repulsive forces between molecules. Thus each
molecule acts quite independently of the others.
6. The average kinetic energy of gas molecules depends upon the absolute temperature. At any
1
given temperature, the molecules of all gases have the same average kinetic energy (2 mv2).

KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY OF LIQUIDS:

For a liquid, the kinetic theory suggests that the particles of a liquid are fairly randomly arranged (as in
gas), but consists of 'clusters' in which they are very close together. This makes liquid have a definite
volume, but since the-particles are still fairly free to move, it does not have any definite shape of its
own.

KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY OF SOLIDS:

For a solid, the kinetic theory postulates that the molecules are closely packed so that the forces of
attraction between the molecules arc very strong and free movement of particles cannot take place.
Thus in a solid the particles are arranged in a fixed pattern and they form a lattice of vibrating masses.
This makes a solid have a definite shape.

Reason: Why we begin our study with gaseous state?

We select to begin our study of matter with the gaseous state because:
1. It is the simplest to study
2. It can be readily converted into the condensed states -liquid and solid; hence many of our
conclusions concerning gases apply directly to these states.

BEHAVIOUR OF GASES:
Diffusibility:
The distribution or spreading of gas molecules throughout the vessel is known as the diffusion. Unlike
liquids or solids, the gases diffuse very rapidly.
A drop of perfume, for instance, slowly evaporates out the fragrant gas announces the presence of
wearer. It is due to the diffusions of perfume through the air.

In Terms of KMT:
In terms of kinetic theory, diffusion is explained as follows. The molecules of a gas are widely separated
and there are large empty spaces due to which they are free to move. Due to this free movement the
molecules of gases intermingle and spread out easily throughout the vessel.

Effusion:
The opposite of diffusions is effusion in which a gas passes through the pores or tiny holes in the vessel,
for example, the air effuses from the tire as a result of which the tire loses pressure gradually.

BY ENGR. NAVEED KHAN

CONTACT: 0332-3919193

2|P a g e

NEDIANS INN A PROJECT OF STUDY EXCELLENCE

CHEMISTRY I CHAPTER 2

Compressibility:
In contrast to liquids or solids, all the gases are easily compressed or squeezed.

In Terms of KMT:
In terms of 'kinetic theory', gases are easily compressed due to large empty spaces. By applying
pressure, the molecules come closer. Air, for instance is squeezed into automobile tires.

Expansibility :
Increasing volume is called expansibility. Gases expand without limit and occupy any available space.
When the tire is punctured, the air rushes out. It is the reverse of compressibility - the expansibility,
thus volumes of gases are highly affected by the changes in pressure. [Volume is measured in cubic
decimetres, dm3 or cubic centimetres, cm3. [1 dm3 = 1000 cm3].

PRESSURE:
When a gas is confined in a closed container, it exerts pressure on the walls of the container which is
due to the collisions of gas molecules with the walls. Gas pressure may be defined as the force exerted
by the gas molecules per unit area of the walls of container.
Pressure = force/area
Pressure may be measured in
psi (pounds per square inch, lb/in2)
Kilograms per square metre (Kg/m2)
newtons per square metre (N/m2 or Pascal, Pa)
The S.I. unit is Pascals.
1 Pascal = N/m2 = {kg.m/sec2}/m2 = kg./m.sec2
Normal atmospheric pressure:
At sea level, normal atmospheric pressure at 273 K (0C) is expressed as:
14.7 psi =760 mm of Hg = 760 torr = 1 atm = 76 cm of Hg

GAS LAWS:

BOYLES LAW
CHARLESS LAW
AVOGADROS LAW
GRAHAMS LAW OF DIFFUSION
DALTONS LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURES

BOYLE'S LAW:
Robert Boyle studied the effect of pressure changes on the volume of the gases and formulated a law
which is known as BOYLE'S LAW.
It states that:
The volume of a given mass of a gas is inversely proportional to the pressure exerted on it at a given
temperature.
This relation is known as Boyles Law. According to this law, at constant temperature if Pressure is
doubled, volume will be reduced to half, if the pressure is reduced to half, volume will be doubled.

In Terms of Kinetic Theory:

Boyle's law can be explained in terms of kinetic theory as follows:
If the volume of a gas is decreased at constant temperature, the average velocity of gas molecules
remains constant, so they collide more frequently with the walls of smaller vessel. The more frequent
collisions cause higher pressure.

BY ENGR. NAVEED KHAN

CONTACT: 0332-3919193

3|P a g e

NEDIANS INN A PROJECT OF STUDY EXCELLENCE

CHEMISTRY I CHAPTER 2

In terms of molecules, it can be explained as: the molecules come closer to each other on applying
pressure and hence it results in the reduction of volume.

G r a p h i c a l R e p r e s e n t a t i o n : The volume of a gas is plotted against the total pressure;

parabolic curve is obtained showing the decrease in volume with increasing pressure. While a graph of

volume with 1/P is a straight line.

Mathematically,
V1/P (T is constant)
1
V=k x
P
PV=K
In other words, the product of pressure and volume of a given gas at constant temperature is always
constant.
If P1 and V1 are initial pressure and volume, P2 and V2 are changed pressure and volume, then
according to Boyles Law:
P1V1=K ; P2V2=K
i.e. P1V1=P2V2
This is called the mathematical form of Boyles Law.

Limitation:
It is not applicable on very high pressures.

CHARLESS LAW:
Changes of volumes of gases due to changes of temperature at constant pressure were studied by
Charles (1746-1823). He formulated a law known as CHARLESS LAW.
It states that:
The volume of a given mass of a gas increases or decreases by 1/273 times of its original volume at 0C
for every degree rise and fall of temperature at a given pressure.
It is also stated as:
The volume of a given mass of a gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature at a given
pressure.

In Terms of Kinetic Molecular Theory:

In terms of kinetic theory, Charles's law can be explained as follows: A decrease in temperature,
decreases the average kinetic energy of the gas molecules, that is, average molecular velocity decreases.
At constant pressure, the decrease velocity causes sample of gas to Shrink and occupy a smaller volume.

BY ENGR. NAVEED KHAN

CONTACT: 0332-3919193

4|P a g e

NEDIANS INN A PROJECT OF STUDY EXCELLENCE

CHEMISTRY I CHAPTER 2

Mathematically,
This law can be represented as:
(P is constant)
V=KT OR
=K
T
In other words, the ratio of volume of a given mass of a gas to its absolute temperature is always
constant.
If V1, V2 are initial and changed volumes; T1, T2 are initial and changed temperatures, then according to
this law:
V1 V2
=
= K
T1 T2
This is the mathematical expression of Charless Law.
ABSOLUTE

Graphical Representation:

When the volume of the gas is plotted against the temperature, a straight line is obtained. If this straight
line is extra plotted, it will be seen that it intercepts the temperature axis at-273.16C.
The volume of a gas would theoretically be zero at -273.16C. In fact this temperature has never been
achieved for any gas. All the gases condense to liquid at a temperature above this point, so that gas
behaviour can no longer be observed. The temperature of -273.16C is referred to as the Absolute zero
or zero degree of the absolute scale (Kelvin scale). At absolute zero, the volume of gases is considered to
be zero and all the motion ceases to exist.

Limitation:
It is not applicable at very low temperatures.

AVOGADRO'S LAW:
In 1811, Amadeo Avogadro advanced a brilliant hypothesis regarding the relationship between the
volume and the number of molecules of a gas. This hypothesis, now called Avogadro's law which states:
"Equal volumes of all gases at the same temperature and pressure contain the same number of
molecules". Thus the volume of a gas is directly proportional to the number of molecules of the gas at
constant temperature and pressure.

Mathematically,
(at constant temperature and pressure)

BY ENGR. NAVEED KHAN

CONTACT: 0332-3919193

5|P a g e

NEDIANS INN A PROJECT OF STUDY EXCELLENCE

CHEMISTRY I CHAPTER 2

V=Kn
or
= K
n
If V1, V2 are initial and changed volumes; n1, n2 are initial and changed number of molecules, then
according to this law:
V1 V2
=
= K
n1 n2
Where 'n' is the number of molecules of a gas. Thus 1 dm3 of oxygen contains the same number of
molecules as 1dm3 of hydrogen or of any other gas, provided the volumes are measured under the same
conditions.
Based on Avogadro's law, 22.4dm3 of any gas at S.T.P. (standard temperature is 273K and standard
pressure is 1 atmosphere) constitutes 1 mole of that gas; 22.4dm3 at STP is called the molar gas volume.

Advantage:
Avogadro's law enables us to determine the relative molecular mass of gases.

The General Gas Equation or Equation Of State:

Boyles law, Charless law and Avogadros law may be combined together to give a general relation
between the volume, pressure, temperature and number of moles of a gas.
1
According to Boyles law: V P
(T is constant)
According to Charless law: V Tabsolute
(P is constant)
According to Boyles law: V n
(T and P constant)
Combining these laws, we get:
1
VPxTxn
1

V=R x P x t x n
Where R is a constant of proportionality and is called gas constant.
. PV=nRT
This is known as the ideal gas equation or equation of state because when we specify the four variables
- pressure, temperature, volume and number of moles, we define the state for a gas.
For 1 mole of a gas, n = 1 therefore PV = RT.
PV
= R
T
P1V1
If pressure changes to P1 and temperature to T1 then volume also changes to V1. Then T1 = R
Similarly,
P1V1

P2V2

P2V2
T2

= R
PnVn

.: T1 = T2 . . = Tn = R
This relationship is used to solve problems regarding changes of volumes gases due to the changes in
the pressure and temperature.

The value of R (The gas constant):

(i)When P is expressed in atmospheres, V in litres or dm3
P=1 atm
V= 22.4 dm3
n=1
T=273 K or A
1 atm x 22.4 dm3
.: R =
1 mole x 273 K
= 0.0821 atm dm3 mol-1 K-1

BY ENGR. NAVEED KHAN

R = PV/nT

CONTACT: 0332-3919193

6|P a g e

NEDIANS INN A PROJECT OF STUDY EXCELLENCE

CHEMISTRY I CHAPTER 2

(ii)When P is expressed in newtons per square metre, V in

cubic metres:
R = PV/nT
P=101300 Nm-2
V= 0.0224 m3 (since 1 dm3 = 10-3 m3)
n=1
T=273 K or A
101300 Nm2 x 0.0224 m3
.:
R =
1 mole x 273 K
= 8.3143 N m mol-1 K-1
= 8.3143 J mol-1 K-1

DIFFUSION:
Diffusion means mixing up of molecules of different gases moving in opposite directions. We know that
gas molecules arc constantly moving in haphazard direction. Therefore, when two gases are placed
separated by a porous membrane, they diffuse through the membrane and intermingle with each other.

GRAHAM'S LAW OF DIFFUSION:

Graham (1881) established a quantitative relationship between the rates of diffusion of gases and their
densities and is termed as Graham's law of diffusion.
This law states that:
"Rate of diffusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of the density of that gas
provided the pressure and temperature are the same for the two gases".

Mathematically,
r

d
Where r is the rate of diffusion and d the density of gas.
If d1 and d2 are the densities of two gases, then:
1
k
r1
or r1 =
d1

Similarly,
1
r2
or r2 =
d2

r1

d1
k

d2

d2

Hence,
=
r2
d1
Since the density of a gas is proportional to its molecular mass
M1
M2
i.e. d1 =
&
d2 =
V
V
We can write it as:
r1
M2
= (M1)
r2

DALTON'S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURES:

When two or more gases which do not react chemically, are mixed in the same container, each gas will
exert the same pressure as it would exert if it alone occupied the volume containing the mixed gases.
This portion of the total pressure of a mixture is known as the partial pressure. Based on this behaviour
of gases, John Dalton formulated a law in 1801 which is known, as the Dalton's law of partial pressures.
It is stated as:
The total pressure of a mixture of gases is the sum of the partial pressures of the gases in the mixture".
Mathematically, P
=
P1
+
P2
+
P3
.
Where P is the total pressure of the mixture of gases and p1, p2 and p3 are the partial pressures of
gases in the mixture
Partial pressure of a gas in a mixture can be calculated by the following equation:

BY ENGR. NAVEED KHAN

CONTACT: 0332-3919193

7|P a g e

NEDIANS INN A PROJECT OF STUDY EXCELLENCE

CHEMISTRY I CHAPTER 2

Partial Pressure of a gas Moles of the gas

=
Total Pressure
Total moles

n(gas)

Thus, P(gas) = P(total)x n(total)

In Terms Of Kinetic Theory:

In terms of kinetic theory, Dalton's law can be explained as follows: In a non-reactive mixture, each gas
exerts a separate pressure on the container because of collisions of its molecules with the walls of
container. Thus the total pressure in the container is caused by the sum of all the collisions.

Application:
This law applies most commonly to the case of a gas collected over water. For example, suppose 100
cm3 of an insoluble gas are collected over water at a pressure of 745 torr and at 15C. If it is saturated
with water vapour, the pressure of the dry gas is (745-13) torr, since the vapour pressure of water at
15C is 13 torr. Thus
The pressure of moist gas = Pressure of dry gas + pressure of water vapour
The pressure of dry gas = Pressure of moist gas - pressure of water vapour
= 745 torr 13 torr = 732 torr
Now using gas equation, we can calculate the volume of dry gas at S.T.P.

IDEAL GASES:
An ideal gas is one whose behaviour can be predicted precisely on the basis of kinetic molecular theory
and gas laws.

Significant Properties of An Ideal Gas: (Faulty Assumptions

of KMT)
1. The molecules do not attract each other.
2. Molecules occupy no space.

Cause of Deviation from Ideality:

The main cause of deviation of the real gases from the Ideality, is the presence of intermolecular forces
like Vander Waals forces between their molecules.

LIQUEFACTION:
The change of state from gaseous to liquid state is called liquefaction. Gases are liquefied at low
temperatures.

In Terms of KMT:
According to the kinetic theory, at lower temperatures, the kinetic energy of molecules is less, and the
slower moving molecules become subject to inter molecular attractions. At a sufficiently low
temperature the attractive forces are capable of holding the molecules to one another and the gas
changes to liquid.

LIQUID STATE:
The liquid state is the intermediate between gaseous and the solid state. In liquids, the kinetic energy of
the molecules is sufficiently high enough to keep the molecules close together. Like gases, liquid
molecules are able to move and thus flow and diffuse. However, due to more compact nature, liquids
are not compressed to any noticeable extent. The intermolecular distance in liquids is much less than
that of the gases.

BY ENGR. NAVEED KHAN

CONTACT: 0332-3919193

8|P a g e

NEDIANS INN A PROJECT OF STUDY EXCELLENCE

CHEMISTRY I CHAPTER 2

BEHAVIOUR OF LIQUIDS:
The extended kinetic molecular model accounts for most of the properties of liquids.

Diffuslbility:
Like gases, liquids diffuse. One liquid may diffuse into another e.g a drop of a dye or any coloured
solution diffuses through water. Diffusions in liquids is much slower than that of gases.
In terms of molecular model, the diffusion of liquids can be explained as: the freedom of liquid
molecules permit diffusion to take place but the closeness of molecules and resulting large no. of
collisions cause diffusion to be slow.

Compressibility:
Though the liquids are not absolutely incompressible, but they may be compressed to a little extent by
the high pressures. This fact leads to their use in hydraulic brake systems.
In terms of molecular model, the compressibility of liquids can be explained as follows: The liquid
molecules due to their closeness Roll over one another. Owing to very little space the liquid molecules
cannot be pushed close by pressure. Very high pressures are required for squeezing a liquid.

Expansion and Contraction:

A liquid normally expands on heating and contracts on cooling (as does mercury or alcohol in
thermometers).
The molecular model explains this behaviour as follows: On heating, the kinetic energy and so the
velocity of molecules increases. As a result, the volume taken by each molecule increases on heating. It
results in the expansion. Contraction may similarly be explained.

VISCOSITY:
Viscosity of a liquid is its property by virtue of which it tends to oppose the relative motion b/w two
adjacent layers. Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow.
Different liquids have different rates of flow. Some liquids like honey, mobil oil etc. flow slowly and are
called viscous liquids, while gasoline, ether etc. which flow quickly are called less viscous.

Reason of Viscosity:
Intermolecular attractions are responsible for the viscosity.

Factors Affecting t he Viscosity:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Intermolecular forces
Temperature

Shape of particles
Size of particles
Intermolecular forces: VISCOSITY is directly proportional to Intermolecular forces. Liquids with
stronger intermolecular attraction have greater velocities. Ethyl alcohol (C2H5OH) is more viscous than
ether (C2H5.O. C2H5) because there are hydrogen bonds among alcohol molecules.
Temperature: Increase in Temperature decreases Intermolecular forces and hence decreases viscosity
(2% per C). It is due to the increase in average kinetic energy which increases the fluidity of liquid.
Shape of particles: Liquids with regular shaped particles are less viscous.
Size of particles: Viscosity is directly proportional to the size of particles of a liquid. Liquids with larger
molecules have greater viscosities.
Unit:
The viscosity is expressed in poises (1 poise=1 gm/cm) or Its multiples centipoises and millipoises. The
S.I. unit is Newton Seconds per square metre

BY ENGR. NAVEED KHAN

CONTACT: 0332-3919193

9|P a g e

NEDIANS INN A PROJECT OF STUDY EXCELLENCE

CHEMISTRY I CHAPTER 2

N.s.m-2
1 poise
= 10-1 N.s.m-2
1 centipoise = 10-3 N.s.m-2

SURFACE TENSION ( ):
The cohesive forces between liquid molecules are responsible for the phenomenon known as surface
tension. The molecules at the surface do not have other like molecules on all sides of them and
consequently they cohere more strongly downwards. It is designated by . The dimensions of surface
tension are dynes/cm or ergs/cm2 (numerically the values in both the units are equal).
Hence the surface tension may be regarded as the force per unit length or energy per unit area of the
surface of liquid.
Reason: the surface tension of water is higher than most of the organic liquids because there is stronger
intermolecular attraction in water (Hydrogen bonds).
Reason: the surface tension tends to reduce the surface area of the liquids. For this reason, a freely
falling drop of liquid is spherical, since sphere has the smallest ratio of surface area to volume.

Factors Affecting Surface Tension:

1. Intermolecular forces
2. Temperature
Intermolecular forces: Greater intermolecular forces cause high value of surface tension.
Temperature: Increase in Temperature decreases Intermolecular forces and hence decreases Surface
tension.

COHESIVE FORCES:
The forces of attraction b/w similar particles of liquid are called cohesive forces or cohesion.

ADHESIVE FORCES:
The forces of attraction b/w a liquid and another surface, such as glass, are called adhesive forces or
adhesion.

CAPILLARY ACTION:
The rise and fall of a liquid in capillary tube is referred to as the 'capillary action.
Capillary action of liquids is due to their surface tension. The surface area to volume ratio of a capillary
of small bore is much smaller than the container in which liquid is placed.
If a capillary tube is placed in a liquid which wets the wall of container, the surface area of liquid is
decreased by the rising in the tube because of surface tension. Such liquids (as water) rise in capillary
tube until the upward force due to surface tension is just balanced by downward gravitational pull.
The level of non-wetting liquid (such as mercury) in capillary tube will fall below the level of liquid in
surrounding space.

VAPOUR PRESSURE:
It is defined as the pressure exerted by the vapours when they are in equilibrium with the liquid phase.
It is constant at constant temperature. The vapour pressure is independent of the amount of liquid
present. For example the vapour pressure of water at 20C is 17.5 torr.
UNIT:
Its units are same as that of ordinary pressure. i.e. pascals,atm, torr, mm of Hg etc.

Factors Affecting Vapour Pressure :

1. Nature of liquid
2. Temperature
3. Intermolecular forces

BY ENGR. NAVEED KHAN

CONTACT: 0332-3919193

10 | P a g e

NEDIANS INN A PROJECT OF STUDY EXCELLENCE

CHEMISTRY I CHAPTER 2

The liquids that evaporate readily have greater vapour pressures. A liquid that
evaporates readily is said to be volatile.
For Example: Gasoline evaporates quite readily without boiling and hence known as a volatile liquid.
Temperature: Vapour pressure increases with the increase in temperature.

Nature of liquid:

Liquids with weak intermolecular forces have higher vapour pressures

while liquids with stronger intermolecular forces have lower vapour pressures.

Intermolecular forces:
EVAPORATION:

The conversion of a liquid molecules at the surface into vapours without boiling is called evaporation.

Explanation of Evaporation and Vapour Pressure in Terms of

Kinetic Theory:
Evaporation occurs when some molecules at the surface acquire sufficient energy to escape into the gas
phase, lowering the average kinetic energy of remaining molecules. Hence the temperature of
remaining liquid falls down. Thus it is said that evaporation is a cooling process.

BOILING:
The temperature at which the vapour pressure of a liquid equals the outside pressure is known as
boiling point. If the pressure outside is the atmospheric pressure (760 torr) then the boiling point is
referred to as the normal boiling point.
Explanation: when a liquid is heated its evaporation becomes rapid and hence vapour pressure
increases. As we go on increasing temperature, a point is
reached when the vapour pressure becomes equal to the
atmospheric pressure. At this point the bubbles of vapour
form easily and rise to the surface.
Reason: The boiling point of liquids varies with the outside
pressure. In mountainous regions, the boiling point of water
will be below 100C because the atmospheric pressure is
below 760 torr. Thus in such regions of high altitude, foods
take longer to cook because of the low boiling temperatures.
In the pressure cookers food cook more rapidly because of
the higher boiling temperatures.

VACUUM DISTILLATION:
Certain liquids tend to decompose at their boiling point temperatures. Such liquids are distilled at low
temperatures under reduced pressure. By lowering the pressure, boiling point of liquid is reduced and
their decomposition is prevented.
For example: Glycerine boils at 290C at 760 torr but it decomposes at this temperature. If pressure is
reduced to 50 torr, it boils at 210C and can easily be distilled without decomposition.

SOLID STATE
A solid state is that state of matter in which atoms, molecules or ions are held together by strong
attractive forces. Due to strong attractive interatomic, molecular or ionic forces, the particles
constituting the solid cannot move, however, they possess some vibrational energy at even near
absolute zero.

BEHAVIOUR OF SOLIDS:
Compared with the other two states of matter i.e. gases and liquids, the solids have highest degree of
order. This orderliness accounts for many behaviour of solids. Some of these are:

BY ENGR. NAVEED KHAN

CONTACT: 0332-3919193

11 | P a g e

NEDIANS INN A PROJECT OF STUDY EXCELLENCE

CHEMISTRY I CHAPTER 2

Compressibility:
The compressibility of solids is nearly zero. In terms of kinetic theory, the particles of solids are so
tightly bound together that only slight unfilled space is left, hence density of solids is much higher than
gases and liquids, so they can withstand considerable external stress.

Deformity:
Solids are deformed or shattered by high pressure. This is because when some particles are dislocated
the force of attraction is so strong that the rearranged atoms are held equally well to their new
neighbours.

Diffusibility:
In terms of kinetic theory, there is no translational movement of molecules in solid, but nevertheless
particles are vibrating at their mean positions. This vibrational motion is responsible for diffusion in
solids.

Melting:
Solids on heating melt at a particular temperature.
In terms of kinetic theory when solids are heated vibrational energy of their particles increases; until at
melting point some particles are vibrating with sufficient energy to overcome the forces holding them,
hence they become mobile i.e. solids fuse.

Sublimation:
There are some solids substances, as camphor, iodine, solid CO2, naphthalene etc. which change directly
to vapour on heating without passing through liquid phase. This phenomenon is called sublimation.
In terms of kinetic theory, the intermolecular force in such solids is less than ordinary solids, hence high
energy molecules at solid surface overcome the attractive forces and directly pass into vapours.

CLASSIFICATION OF SOLIDS:
(i)

(ii)

Crystalline
Amorphous

Crystalline Solids:
Crystalline solids have characteristic geometrical shape due to highly ordered three dimensional
arrangement of particles. They arc bounded by plane surfaces called faces, which intersect each other at
particular angles.
The reason for the formation of regular pattern or crystal is that atoms or ions or molecules tend to
arrange themselves in positions of maximum attraction or in positions of minimum energy. Examples:
sugar, alum, metals, diamonds etc.

Amorphous Solids:
These are the solids which do not have a definite shape. The word amorphous means "without form".
The particles of such solids have a random i.e. non-repetitive three dimensional arrangements. If a
substance in liquid state is cooled rapidly the particles are unable to arrange themselves in an orderly
fashion hence an amorphous solid results. Examples are: glass, plastic, rubber.

The difference between crystalline and amorphous solids:

CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS

AMORPHOUS SOLIDS

GEOMETRY
Particles of crystalline solids are arranged in an Particles of amorphous solids are not arranged in

BY ENGR. NAVEED KHAN

CONTACT: 0332-3919193

12 | P a g e

NEDIANS INN A PROJECT OF STUDY EXCELLENCE

CHEMISTRY I CHAPTER 2

orderly three dimensional network called crystal a definite pattern, hence they do not have a
lattice, hence they have definite shape.
definite shape.
MELTING POINT
Crystalline solids have sharp melting point, this is Amorphous solids melt over a wide range of
because attractive forces between particles are long temperature i.e. they do not have sharp melting
range and uniform. These forces breakdown at the point, because the intermolecular forces vary
same instant, at melting point.
from place to place.
CLEAVAGE AND CLEAVAGE PLANE
The breakage of a big crystal into smaller crystals of Amorphous solids do not break down at fixed
identical shape is called cleavage. Crystals cleavage cleavage planes.
along particular direction, the plane which contains
the direction of cleavage is called cleavage plane.

ANISOTROPY AND ISOTROPY

Physical properties of crystals such as electrical
conductivity, refractive index etc. are different in
different direction. This property is called
anisotropy. For example graphite can conduct
electricity parallel to its plane of layers but not
perpendicular to it.

Amorphous solids are isotropic i.e. their physical

properties are same in all directions.

SYMMETRY
When crystalline solids are rotated about an axis,
their appearance does not change i.e. they possess
symmetry.

Amorphous solids are not symmetrical.

TYPES OF CRYSTALS:
Crystals are classified in the following four types:

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

Atomic crystals
Ionic crystals
Covalent crystals

Molecular crystals
This classification is based on the nature of forces or bonding between the atoms, ions or molecules
constituting the crystal.

Atomic Crystals:
Examples of such crystals are metals, hence they are also called metallic crystals. They consist of atoms
packed and held together by metallic bond.
In metals, the valency electrons move freely in crystal lattice and are said to form an electron gas, in
which positive ions are immersed.
Such crystals are characterised by:
(a) Lustre
(b) High melting point
(c) Electrical and thermal conductivity
(d) Malleability (drawing into sheets)
(e) Ductility (drawn into wires).

Ionic Crystals:
Such crystals consist of positively and negatively charged ions held together by electrostatic forces of
attraction. Individual ions have no identity.

BY ENGR. NAVEED KHAN

CONTACT: 0332-3919193

13 | P a g e

NEDIANS INN A PROJECT OF STUDY EXCELLENCE

CHEMISTRY I CHAPTER 2

They are characterized by:

(a) High melting point
(b) Conduction of electricity in fused state; as well as in solution form,
(c) Brittleness and hardness
(d) Indefinite growth of crystal, until it is broken or is stopped from growing.

Covalent Crystals:
Such crystals consist of atoms held together by covalent bonds. Covalent bonds are very strong. They
require large amount of energy to break them.
Examples: Graphite, diamond, silica and carborundum.

Reason:
In diamond each carbon atom is joined to four other carbon atoms at an angle of 190, called
tetrahedral angle. Due to close packing of atoms and large number of covalent bonds, diamond is very
hard and has high melting point.

Reason:
In graphite each carbon atom is joined to three other carbon atoms at an angle of 120forming layers of
hexagons. Adjacent layers are held together by weak Vander wad's forces. Due to space between layers
graphite is soft and layers easily slide over one another so graphite has greasy texture. Graphite
conducts electricity in the plane of layers, as each carbon has one free electron.
Covalent crystals are characterized by:
(a) High melting point
(b) Low density
(c) High refractive index

Molecular Crystals:
Such crystals are composed of molecules such as ice, I2, CO2. The molecules are held together either by
the following forces:
a) Hydrogen bonding (which is an electrostatic force of attraction between partially positive
hydrogen atom of one molecule and an electronegative atom of other molecule).
b) Weak Vander Waals forces (which arise due to attraction between atomic nuclei of one
molecule and electron of other molecule)
Molecular crystals are characterized by:
(a) Low melting point
(b) Non-conduction of heat and electricity

ISOMORPHISM
When two substances have same crystal structure, they are said to be isomorphous and phenomenon is
called isomorphism.

For example:
NaF and MgO both form cubic crystals hence are isomorphous. Other examples are:
CaCO3 and NaNO3
Trigonal crystals
ZnSO4 and NiSO4
Orthorhombic crystals

Isomorphic substances have following properties:

(i)
(ii)

They have different physical and chemical properties.

When their solutions are mixed, they form mixed crystals.

BY ENGR. NAVEED KHAN

CONTACT: 0332-3919193

14 | P a g e

NEDIANS INN A PROJECT OF STUDY EXCELLENCE

(iii)

CHEMISTRY I CHAPTER 2

They show property of over growth; i.e. if crystal of one substance is added in saturated
solution of other substance, the crystals of latter begin to grow over the former in similar
pattern.

(iv) They have same empirical formula

Pairs
NaF and MgO
NaNO3 and CaCO3
ZnSO4 and NiSO4

Ratio in atoms
1:1
1:1:3
1:1:4

POLYMORPHISM:
A substance under different conditions can form more than one type of crystal. The substance which
can exist in more than one crystalline form is called Polymorphous and the phenomenon is known as
Polymorphism.
For example, CaC03exists in nature in two crystalline form
(i)
Calcite, which is trigonal
(ii)
Aragonite, which is orthorhombic

UNIT CELL:
The basic structural unit which when repeated in three dimensions generates the crystal structure is
called a unit cell.

Dimensions/parameters of a unit cell:

A unit cell has a definite geometric shape and hence is identified on the basis of:
length of its edges, denoted by letters, a, b and c
Angle between the edges, represented by letters , and .
The length and angles of a unit cel1 are collectively known as cell dimensions or cell parameters.

THE CRYSTAL SYSTEMS:

Based on the difference in shapes and dimensions of unit cells, all the known crystals have been
classified into seven groups called crystal systems. The seven crystal systems are as follows:
(i)
Cubic system: In cubic system, all axes are of equal length and all angles are of 90i.e.
a=b=c
= = = 90
Examples: NaCl, ZnS and diamond.
(ii)
Tetragonal system: It has two axes of equal length, the third is different. All angles are of
90 i.e.
a=bc
= = = 90
Examples: SnO2(white), BaSO4.4H2O
(iii)
Orthorhombic system: In this system, all three axes are of different length; but all angles
are of 90 i.e.
abc
= = = 90
Examples: FeSO4.7H2O, ZnSO4.7H2O, KNO3
(iv)
Trigonal or rhombohedral system: It has three axes of equal length. All angles are equal
but more than 90 and less than 120 i.e.
a=b=c
= = = 90 (Angles >90< 120)
Examples: Calcite, KNO3, AgNO3, and ice.
(v)
Hexagonal system: In this system, two axes are of equal length but the third is different.
Two angles are of 90 and the third is 120 i.e.

BY ENGR. NAVEED KHAN

CONTACT: 0332-3919193

15 | P a g e

NEDIANS INN A PROJECT OF STUDY EXCELLENCE

(vi)

(vii)

CHEMISTRY I CHAPTER 2

a=bc
= = 90
= 120
Examples: Graphite, snowflakes and quartz (SiO2)
Mono clinic system: It has all three axes of unequal lengths. One of the axis is at right angle
to the other two i.e.
abc
= = 90
90
Examples: CuSO4.5H20, Na2CO3.10H2O, cane sugar.
Triclinic system:-In this system all axes are of different lengths and angles are also different.
abc
90
Examples: CuSO4.5H2O, K2Cr2O7

MELTING POINT:
When a pure crystalline solid is heated, a temperature is reached where it changes sharply into liquid.
This is melting point of solid.
Melting point is defined as that temperature at which there is equilibrium between solid and liquid
phases.

Melting point is affected by:

(a) Impurity: Pure substances have sharp melting point. Moreover impurities lower the melting point.
Hence melting point is used as criteria of purity of solids.
(b) Pressure: Those substances which expand on melting, have a rise in melting point when pressure is
increased.
Melting point of ice decreases on applying pressure because ice is the solid whose volume decreases on
melting.

The Latent Heat of Fusion:

The amount of heat required to convert 1 gm of solid into liquid at its melting point is called latent heat
of fusion.

The Latent Heat of Evaporation:

The amount of heat required to convert 1 gm of liquid into vapours at its boiling point is called latent
heat of evaporation.

BY ENGR. NAVEED KHAN

CONTACT: 0332-3919193

16 | P a g e