391 F.

3d 25

John E. COX III, Plaintiff, Appellant,

v.
John HAINEY, Defendant, Appellee.
No. 04-1761.

United States Court of Appeals, First Circuit.

Submitted November 4, 2004.
Decided December 1, 2004.

COPYRIGHT MATERIAL OMITTED Timothy E. Zerillo and Timothy

Zerillo Law Offices, LLC on brief for appellant.
G. Steven Rowe, Attorney General, and William R. Fisher, Assistant
Attorney General, on brief for appellee.
Before SELYA, Circuit Judge, STAHL, Senior Circuit Judge, and
LYNCH, Circuit Judge.
SELYA, Circuit Judge.

In this case, the district court entered summary judgment in favor of defendantappellee John Hainey, a state trooper, on a false arrest claim under 42 U.S.C.
1983. Plaintiff-appellant John E. Cox III assigns error to the court's
determination that qualified immunity shielded Hainey from suit. After careful
perscrutation of an oddly configured factual record (including consideration of
how, if at all, an officer's pre-arrest consultation with a prosecutor affects the
qualified immunity calculus), we affirm the district court's order.
I. BACKGROUND

On an appeal from a summary judgment order, an appellate court is held to the

same ground rules that bound the trial court in the proceedings below: it must
"construe the record and all reasonable inferences from it in favor of the
nonmovant." Perez v. Volvo Car Corp., 247 F.3d 303, 310 (1st Cir.2001). We
rehearse the facts with this construct in mind. Because the reasonableness of
Trooper Hainey's conclusion that he had probable cause to make an arrest is the

axis of this appeal, we concentrate on the information available to him at the

time of the arrest.
3

Our saga starts in Norway, Maine. Members of the Norway police department
arrested Joseph Cox, the appellant's fifteen-year-old son, for alleged
involvement in a series of snowmobile thefts that occurred during the winter of
2000-2001. In the course of the ensuing investigation, an informant volunteered
that Joseph had sold drugs to high school students. The informant expressed a
willingness to participate in a controlled buy, and the local gendarmes arranged
a sting. The Maine State Police were asked to assist.

On April 28, 2001 all dates are in that year unless otherwise indicated the
informant, fitted with an electronic listening device, drove to the appellant's
residence in Woodstock, Maine. Hainey and a local police officer followed in a
second vehicle. Once there, the informant went inside and purchased four
tablets of Roxicodone (a non-time-released version of Oxycontin) from Joseph
Cox. Hainey, who listened to the conversation by transmitter, overheard Joseph
tell the informant that his father recently had returned from a "drug run" to
North Carolina and that he could have his father procure "an eighth of
marijuana" for future purchase.

Based on what he knew to that point, Hainey obtained a warrant to search the
Cox home for scheduled drugs, drug paraphernalia, and kindred items related to
furnishing or trafficking in drugs. Hainey and other officers conducted the
search on the morning of May 9. In Joseph's bedroom, they found two
Roxicodone tablets and drug paraphernalia. In the kitchen, they found a triplebeam scale with marijuana residue, a bottle containing sixty-five Roxicodone
tablets, and an empty Roxicodone bottle. The appellant was present during the
search. He told the officers that the Roxicodone had been legally prescribed for
his back condition, that he never had provided pills to his son or to anyone else
(but, rather, had kept them on his person at all times except while sleeping),
and that he had called his pharmacist on April 21 because he was concerned
that a few of his pills were missing.

Later that morning, Trooper Hainey consulted with Richard Beauchesne, an

assistant district attorney. The two reviewed the evidence obtained during the
search; discussed whether that evidence, together with the information
previously known to Hainey, amounted to probable cause to arrest the
appellant; and agreed that it did. Hainey then made the arrest. The appellant
was booked and released on bail that day. The bail bond indicated that his
arrest had been for aggravated furnishing of a schedule W drug.1 See
Me.Rev.Stat. Ann. tit. 17-A, 1105-C(1)(A)(1), 1106. After some jockeying,

see supra note 1, the assistant attorney general assigned to the case determined
that he would not issue a complaint.
7

Once all charges had been dropped, the appellant filed suit in a Maine state
court against various officers and entities. He alleged, under 42 U.S.C. 1983,
that the named defendants had violated his constitutional rights and, in the
bargain, had committed a variety of tortious acts. The defendants removed the
case to the United States District Court for the District of Maine. See 28 U.S.C.
1331, 1441, 1446.

The sole count relevant to this appeal charges that Hainey violated the
appellant's Fourth Amendment rights by arresting him without probable cause
(for simplicity's sake, we eschew any reference to other defendants and claims).
When Hainey moved for summary judgment on that count, the district court
referred the matter to a magistrate judge. See 28 U.S.C. 636(b)(1)(B);
Fed.R.Civ.P. 72(b). The magistrate judge recommended that the count proceed
to trial.

Hainey lodged a timely objection to the recommendation. Upon de novo

review, see Fed.R.Civ.P. 72(b), the district court rejected the magistrate judge's
view and found Hainey entitled to qualified immunity on the ground that an
objectively reasonable police officer could have understood that there was
probable cause to arrest the appellant. Cox v. Me. State Police, 324 F.Supp.2d
128, 135 (D.Me.2004). Accordingly, the court granted summary judgment in
Hainey's favor. Id. at 130. This appeal followed.
II. ANALYSIS

10

The appellant asseverates that Hainey was not entitled to qualified immunity
and, therefore, that the district court erred in granting summary judgment. After
limning the standard of review and the doctrinal hereditaments appurtenant to
qualified immunity, we proceed to determine whether Hainey was deserving of
sanctuary.

A. Standard of Review.
11

We afford plenary review to the district court's disposition of a summary

judgment motion. Garside v. Osco Drug, Inc., 895 F.2d 46, 48 (1st Cir.1990).
We will affirm a grant of summary judgment as long as the record demonstrates
"that there is no genuine issue as to any material fact and that the moving party
is entitled to a judgment as a matter of law." Fed.R.Civ.P. 56(c). In conducting

this tamisage, we "utiliz[e] the same criteria as the trial court," drawing all
reasonable inferences from the record in the nonmovant's favor. Acosta v. Ames
Dep't Stores, Inc., 386 F.3d 5, 8 (1st Cir.2004). A decision to affirm a summary
judgment order may be grounded on any rationale revealed by the record,
whether or not the lower court employed that rationale. Houlton Citizens'
Coalition v. Town of Houlton, 175 F.3d 178, 184 (1st Cir.1999).
12

In this instance, the appellant abjures any claim that a trialworthy factual
dispute exists. He nonetheless insists that the undisputed facts do not sustain the
qualified immunity defense and, thus, as a matter of law, do not entitle Hainey
to summary judgment. This posture is important because, in the absence of a
genuine issue of material fact, a defendant's right to qualified immunity presents
a question of law. Rivera v. Murphy, 979 F.2d 259, 261 (1st Cir.1992).

B. The Legal Landscape.

13

Before plunging into the qualified immunity inquiry, we deem it useful to

marshal the general principles that steer that inquiry. The appellant sues under
42 U.S.C. 1983, which imposes liability upon an individual who, acting under
color of state law, deprives a person of federally guaranteed rights. CamiloRobles v. Hoyos, 151 F.3d 1, 5 (1st Cir.1998). Withal, a public actor's liability
under section 1983 "is not absolute: the doctrine of qualified immunity provides
a safe harbor for a wide range of mistaken judgments." Hatch v. Dep't for
Children, Youth & Their Families, 274 F.3d 12, 19 (1st Cir.2001); see also
Anderson v. Creighton, 483 U.S. 635, 641, 107 S.Ct. 3034, 97 L.Ed.2d 523
(1987). This strain of immunity aspires to "balance [the] desire to compensate
those whose rights are infringed by state actors with an equally compelling
desire to shield public servants from undue interference with the performance of
their duties and from threats of liability which, though unfounded, may
nevertheless be unbearably disruptive." Buenrostro v. Collazo, 973 F.2d 39, 42
(1st Cir.1992). In that way, the doctrine of qualified immunity protects public
officials from civil liability "insofar as their conduct does not violate clearly
established statutory or constitutional rights of which a reasonable person
would have known." Harlow v. Fitzgerald, 457 U.S. 800, 818, 102 S.Ct. 2727,
73 L.Ed.2d 396 (1982).

14

Qualified immunity serves not only as a defense to liability but also as "an
entitlement not to stand trial or face the other burdens of litigation." Mitchell v.
Forsyth, 472 U.S. 511, 526, 105 S.Ct. 2806, 86 L.Ed.2d 411 (1985). Seen in
this light, many of the benefits of qualified immunity are squandered if an
action is incorrectly allowed to proceed to trial. It follows that the applicability
vel non of the qualified immunity doctrine should be determined at the earliest

practicable stage in the case. Hunter v. Bryant, 502 U.S. 224, 227, 112 S.Ct.
534, 116 L.Ed.2d 589 (1991) (per curiam).
15

The Supreme Court has set up a sequential analysis for determining whether a
defendant violated clearly established rights of which a reasonable person
would have known. See Saucier v. Katz, 533 U.S. 194, 201-06, 121 S.Ct. 2151,
150 L.Ed.2d 272 (2001). This court has construed that framework to consist of
three inquiries: "(i) whether the plaintiff's allegations, if true, establish a
constitutional violation; (ii) whether the constitutional right at issue was clearly
established at the time of the putative violation; and (iii) whether a reasonable
officer, situated similarly to the defendant, would have understood the
challenged act or omission to contravene the discerned constitutional right."
Limone v. Condon, 372 F.3d 39, 44 (1st Cir.2004). Under ordinary
circumstances, the development of the doctrine of qualified immunity is best
served by approaching these inquiries in the aforestated sequence. See Saucier,
533 U.S. at 201, 121 S.Ct. 2151; Wilson v. Layne, 526 U.S. 603, 609, 119 S.Ct.
1692, 143 L.Ed.2d 818 (1999). We proceed accordingly.

C. Qualified Immunity.
16

We have noted that the first variable in our algorithm whether the plaintiff
has alleged facts that show that the defendant's conduct violated a constitutional
right should be treated as a "threshold question." Limone, 372 F.3d at 44.
Here, the appellant premises his section 1983 claim on an allegation that the
facts and circumstances known to Hainey at the time of the arrest did not give
rise to a reasonable likelihood that he (the appellant) had furnished Roxicodone
to his son or any other minor and, therefore, that the arrest transgressed the
Fourth Amendment. The first prong of the qualified immunity analysis operates
at a high level of generality, and Hainey, based on Cox's allegations, concedes
this prong. See Appellee's Br. at 11-12 ("Cox alleged conduct that amounts to a
violation of a constitutional right-the Fourth Amendment right to remain free of
an arrest unless there is probable cause. Accordingly, he has satisfied the first
part of this court's qualified immunity inquiry.").

17

We accept this concession. The Fourth Amendment undoubtedly recognizes the

right to be free from unreasonable seizures of the person. See, e.g., Beck v.
Ohio, 379 U.S. 89, 91, 85 S.Ct. 223, 13 L.Ed.2d 142 (1964). Hence, the
undisputed facts, construed in the light most favorable to the appellant, make
out a colorable claim of constitutional dimension. No more is exigible to satisfy
the first part of the tripartite inquiry.

18

We can be equally quick in executing the second step of the qualified immunity

pavane. As said, Cox alleges that Hainey arrested him with insufficient
information to constitute probable cause. The right to be free from arrest
without constitutionally adequate probable cause is clearly established. See
Wagenmann v. Adams, 829 F.2d 196, 209 (1st Cir.1987). That satisfies the
second part of the tripartite inquiry.
19

Even though the right to be free from an arrest without probable cause is clearly
established, a further hurdle remains. In Anderson, the Supreme Court clarified
the qualified immunity analysis by explaining that, although it was firmly
established that warrantless searches, not subject to any recognized exception,
violate the Fourth Amendment, more was needed before qualified immunity
could be deemed irrelevant. 483 U.S. at 640-41, 107 S.Ct. 3034. The court
below was required to determine whether the defendant had confronted
particular circumstances in which the application of general principles did not
yield a certain answer and, if that were the case, to determine whether the
defendant had responded reasonably to that idiosyncratic fact pattern. See id. In
short, to set aside the buckler of qualified immunity "the right the official is
alleged to have violated must have been `clearly established' in a more
particularized, and hence more relevant, sense." Id. at 640, 107 S.Ct. 3034.

20

This guidance is pertinent here. In settings that invite balancing tests, it is often
the case that the first two prongs of the qualified immunity inquiry do not
satisfy Anderson's requirement of heightened specificity. This is particularly
true of alleged false arrests, given the fact-dependent nature of the probable
cause determination. No two probable cause equations are exactly alike and,
therefore, in most of these situations precedent will take a court only so far.
Thus, such cases frequently turn on the third prong of the qualified immunity
inquiry, which channels the analysis from abstract principles to the specific
facts of a given case. See Limone, 372 F.3d at 48; Hatch, 274 F.3d at 24. Under
that prong, a defendant "is entitled to immunity if a reasonable officer could
have believed that probable cause existed to arrest." Rivera, 979 F.2d at 263.
We turn to that requirement.

21

Probable cause exists "when the arresting officer, acting upon apparently
trustworthy information, reasonably concludes that a crime has been (or is
about to be) committed and that the putative arrestee likely is one of the
perpetrators." Acosta, 386 F.3d at 9. The test is objective in nature, United
States v. Figueroa, 818 F.2d 1020, 1023 (1st Cir.1987), and the proof must be
such as to give rise to a reasonable likelihood that the putative arrestee
committed the suspected crime, Valente v. Wallace, 332 F.3d 30, 32 (1st
Cir.2003).

22

Qualified immunity, however, requires a somewhat lesser showing. For that

purpose, the operative inquiry is not whether the defendant's actions actually
abridged some constitutional right, see Quintero de Quintero v. Aponte-Roque,
974 F.2d 226, 228 (1st Cir.1992), but, rather, whether those actions were
obviously inconsistent with that right, see Camilo-Robles v. Zapata, 175 F.3d
41, 43 (1st Cir.1999). Thus, in the case of a warrantless arrest, if the presence
of probable cause is arguable or subject to legitimate question, qualified
immunity will attach. See Ricci v. Urso, 974 F.2d 5, 7 (1st Cir.1992).

23

This is as it should be: after all, "the reasonableness standards underlying the
probable cause and qualified immunity inquiries are not coterminous."
Iacobucci v. Boulter, 193 F.3d 14, 23 (1st Cir.1999). The qualified immunity
doctrine is designed to afford officials an added measure of protection against
civil liability. To achieve that goal, the doctrine eschews a line that separates
the constitutional from the unconstitutional and instead draws a line that
separates unconstitutional but objectively reasonable acts from obviously
unconstitutional acts. See Zapata, 175 F.3d at 43. When properly drawn, that
line "provides ample protection to all but the plainly incompetent or those who
knowingly violate the law." Malley v. Briggs, 475 U.S. 335, 341, 106 S.Ct.
1092, 89 L.Ed.2d 271 (1986). It follows that this suit may go forward only if
the unlawfulness of the arrest would have been apparent to an objectively
reasonable officer standing in Hainey's shoes. See Anderson, 483 U.S. at 640,
107 S.Ct. 3034; Limone, 372 F.3d at 44.

24

We now consider what Hainey knew and when he knew it. The point of our
inquiry is to determine whether, at the time of the arrest, an objectively
reasonable officer could have concluded that the salmagundi of facts added up
to probable cause.

25

Hainey had reason to believe, from Joseph Cox's comments, that the appellant
was likely involved in furnishing marijuana to his son (and possibly to others).
The discovery of the triple-beam scale in the family kitchen tended both to
corroborate the teenager's remarks and to confirm Hainey's understanding. The
trooper knew that the Roxicodone tablets found during the search had been
prescribed for the appellant and were, by his own admission, in his nearly
exclusive control. But Hainey also had reason to doubt the appellant's claim
that he was scrupulous in guarding the pills; after all, the search disclosed two
Roxicodone bottles (one empty and one full) in the kitchen and two loose
tablets in Joseph Cox's bedroom. Hainey's knowledge that Joseph Cox had
obtained and sold four other Roxicodone tablets to the informant cut in the
same direction.

26

Given Joseph's indication that his father was willing to supply marijuana to
minors, the presence of Roxicodone and drug paraphernalia (the scale) in plain
view in the kitchen of the appellant's home, and Joseph's actual possession of
Roxicodone, it was objectively reasonable for Hainey to infer that the appellant
had furnished those pills to his minor son.2 Though Hainey's judgment call may
walk a thin line between probable cause and mere suspicion, it cannot be
shrugged off as plainly incompetent.

27

To cinch matters, Hainey took the precaution of reviewing the known facts with
the local prosecutor. This consultation, and the assistant district attorney's
agreement with Hainey's preliminary assessment that probable cause existed,
buttress the conclusion that Hainey's actions were objectively reasonable.
Although the existence vel non of probable cause is arguable we regard that
question as very close, but see no need to decide it definitively it simply
cannot be said, on this record, that probable cause clearly was lacking at the
time of the arrest. See Topp v. Wolkowski, 994 F.2d 45, 48 (1st Cir.1993).
Qualified immunity therefore attaches.

28

The appellant resists this conclusion on four grounds. We find none of them
persuasive.

29

The appellant's first line of attack is that the search yielded no evidence that he
had furnished Roxicodone to his minor son. This ignores the fact that police
officers are allowed "to draw on their own experience and specialized training
to make inferences from and deductions about the cumulative information
available to them." United States v. Arvizu, 534 U.S. 266, 273, 122 S.Ct. 744,
151 L.Ed.2d 740 (2002). While Hainey lacked direct evidence as to how Joseph
Cox procured the four Roxicodone tablets sold to the informant and the two
discovered in his bedroom, the totality of the circumstances supported a
plausible inference that he obtained them from his father.

30

To be sure, alternative inferences could have been derived from the evidence
available to Hainey. But the availability of alternative inferences does not
prevent a finding of probable cause so long as the inference upon which the
officer relies is reasonable. As we have said, "[t]he probable cause standard
does not require the officers' conclusion to be ironclad, or even highly
probable.... [It] need only be reasonable." United States v. Winchenbach, 197
F.3d 548, 555-56 (1st Cir.1999). Consequently, when conflicting inferences are
available to resolve the issue of probable cause and both of them are plausible,
"it does not matter which inference is correct." Acosta, 386 F.3d at 9.

31

The appellant's second demurrer takes issue with the use of marijuana-related

31

The appellant's second demurrer takes issue with the use of marijuana-related
evidence to support the conclusion that he was involved in furnishing
Roxicodone to his minor son. The appellant asserts that consideration of this
evidence impermissibly reduced the probable cause requirement to a standard
compatible with arrest for a lesser violation.

32

To put this assertion in perspective, it is important to understand that Hainey

has not argued that the evidence at least supported probable cause to arrest for a
marijuana violation. See Cox, 324 F.Supp.2d at 131 n. 3. While a "related
crimes" defense might have been available to Hainey, see, e.g., Sheehy v. Town
of Plymouth, 191 F.3d 15, 19-20 (1st Cir.1999) (outlining the parameters of this
defense), the absence of any argument to that effect makes this a non-issue. See
Santiago v. Fenton, 891 F.2d 373, 387 (1st Cir.1989). Here, then, Hainey must
be held to the requirement of arguable probable cause with respect to the crime
for which he actually arrested the appellant, namely, a violation of
Me.Rev.Stat. Ann. tit. 17-A, 1105-C(1)(A)(1), 1106.

33

This does not mean, however, that the marijuana-related evidence has no
bearing on the decisional calculus. Joseph's comments about the drug run and
his ability to obtain marijuana from his father are part of the totality of the
circumstances. So too is the presence of the scale. These pieces of evidence
tend to make more plausible the trooper's inference about the appellant's role in
the furnishing of Roxicodone. Cf. Brinegar v. United States, 338 U.S. 160, 175,
69 S.Ct. 1302, 93 L.Ed. 1879 (1949) (observing that the inferred probabilities
undergirding probable cause "are the factual and practical considerations of
everyday life on which reasonable and prudent men, not legal technicians, act").
Thus, we reject the appellant's suggestion that this evidence should have been
excluded from the probable cause determination.

34

The appellant next argues that the foundation for Hainey's probable cause
determination was inadequate because he had no evidence that the appellant
possessed the mens rea required to commit the charged crime. This sally takes
us to the language of the relevant statutes. The Maine Criminal Code provides
in pertinent part that "a person is guilty of unlawful furnishing of a scheduled
drug if the person intentionally or knowingly furnishes what the person knows
or believes to be a scheduled drug, which is in fact a scheduled drug."
Me.Rev.Stat. Ann. tit. 17-A, 1106(1-A). A companion statute renders that
crime aggravated if "[t]he person furnishes a scheduled drug to a child who is
in fact less than 18 years of age and the drug is ... [a] schedule W drug." Id.
1105-C(1)(A).3 The Code sheds light on the meaning of the mens rea
components needed for commission of these crimes. "A person acts
intentionally with respect to a result of his conduct when it is his conscious
object to cause such a result." Id. 35(1)(A). By like token, "[a] person acts

knowingly with respect to a result of his conduct when he is aware that it is

practically certain that his conduct will cause such a result." Id. 35(2)(A).
35

Given these guideposts and the information available to Hainey at the time of
the arrest, we do not believe it should have been apparent to him that the mens
rea component was altogether lacking. On this record, an objectively
reasonable officer could have believed that there was probable cause to support
an arrest for aggravated furnishing based on circumstantial evidence that the
appellant's actions were intentional (because Joseph's statement about his
ability to procure marijuana from his father, made in the course of a
Roxicodone transaction, tended to suggest that the appellant was consciously
abetting his son's drug-trafficking activities). Although this inference is
somewhat attenuated, the practical restraints on police in the field are greater
with respect to ascertaining intent and, therefore, the latitude accorded to
officers considering the probable cause issue in the context of mens rea crimes
must be correspondingly great. See Paff v. Kaltenbach, 204 F.3d 425, 437 (3d
Cir.2000) (emphasizing that police must make judgment calls in determining a
suspect's state of mind).

36

That brings us to the appellant's final objection to the lower court's qualified
immunity ruling. This objection calumnizes the court's consideration of
Hainey's consultation with the assistant district attorney (who, upon reviewing
the evidence that Hainey presented to him, opined that it satisfied the probable
cause requirement). In mounting this objection, the appellant submits that a
police officer should not be able to insulate himself from liability for an
erroneous determination simply because he obtained a prosecutor's blessing to
arrest upon evidence that did not establish probable cause.

37

We agree with the appellant's premise that a wave of the prosecutor's wand
cannot magically transform an unreasonable probable cause determination into
a reasonable one. That is not to say, however, that a reviewing court must throw
out the baby with the bath water. There is a middle ground: the fact of the
consultation and the purport of the advice obtained should be factored into the
totality of the circumstances and considered in determining the officer's
entitlement to qualified immunity.

38

Whether advice obtained from a prosecutor prior to making an arrest fits into
the totality of circumstances that appropriately inform the qualified immunity
determination is a question of first impression in this circuit. In Suboh v. Dist.
Atty's Office of Suffolk Dist., 298 F.3d 81 (1st Cir.2002), we noted the question
but had no occasion to answer it. See id. at 97. In dictum, we implied that if an
officer seeks counsel from a prosecutor anent the legality of an intended action

and furnishes the latter the known information material to that decision, the
officer's reliance on emergent advice might be relevant, for qualified immunity
purposes, to the reasonableness of his later conduct. See id.
39

Other courts, however, have spoken authoritatively to the issue. The Seventh
Circuit recently recognized that pre-arrest consultation with a prosecutor may
lend reasonableness to an officer's conclusion that probable cause exists and,
thus, may help to establish qualified immunity. Kijonka v. Seitzinger, 363 F.3d
645, 648 (7th Cir.2004). Similarly, the Eighth Circuit has held that such advice
can assist in "show[ing] the reasonableness of the action taken" and, thus, assist
in determining the existence vel non of qualified immunity. E-Z Mart Stores,
Inc. v. Kirksey, 885 F.2d 476, 478 (8th Cir.1989). The Ninth and Fourth
Circuits also have recognized that a pre-seizure consultation with a prosecutor
is a factor to be considered in determining an officer's entitlement to qualified
immunity. See Dixon v. Wallowa County, 336 F.3d 1013, 1019 (9th Cir.2003);
Wadkins v. Arnold, 214 F.3d 535, 542 (4th Cir.2000). The Tenth Circuit has
substantially adopted this reasoning, acknowledging the relevance of a
prosecutor's advice for qualified immunity purposes, at least where the officer's
duty is unclear. See Lavicky v. Burnett, 758 F.2d 468, 476 (10th Cir.1985).

40

We agree with our sister circuits and with the implication of the Suboh dictum
that there is some room in the qualified immunity calculus for considering both
the fact of a pre-arrest consultation and the purport of the advice received. As a
matter of practice, the incorporation of these factors into the totality of the
circumstances is consistent with an inquiry into the objective legal
reasonableness of an officer's belief that probable cause supported an arrest. It
stands to reason that if an officer makes a full presentation of the known facts
to a competent prosecutor and receives a green light, the officer would have
stronger reason to believe that probable cause existed. And as a matter of
policy, it makes eminently good sense, when time and circumstances permit, to
encourage officers to obtain an informed opinion before charging ahead and
making an arrest in uncertain circumstances. See Kijonka, 363 F.3d at 648.
Although we acknowledge the possibility of collusion between police and
prosecutors, we do not believe that possibility warrants a general rule
foreclosing reliance on a prosecutor's advice.4

41

We caution, however, that the mere fact that an officer secures a favorable prearrest opinion from a friendly prosecutor does not automatically guarantee that
qualified immunity will follow. Rather, that consultation comprises only one
factor, among many, that enters into the totality of the circumstances relevant to
the qualified immunity analysis. See Wadkins, 214 F.3d at 542. The primary
focus continues to be the evidence about the suspect and the suspected crime

that is within the officer's ken.

42

In considering the relevance of an officer's pre-arrest consultation with a

prosecutor, a reviewing court must determine whether the officer's reliance on
the prosecutor's advice was objectively reasonable.5 Reliance would not satisfy
this standard if an objectively reasonable officer would have cause to believe
that the prosecutor's advice was flawed, off point, or otherwise untrustworthy.
Cf. Groh v. Ramirez, 540 U.S. 551, 124 S.Ct. 1284, 1293-94, 157 L.Ed.2d 1068
(2004) (holding that qualified immunity could not shield an officer from
liability for actions predicated upon an obviously deficient arrest warrant). Law
enforcement officers have an independent duty to exercise their professional
judgment and can be brought to book for objectively unreasonable mistakes
regardless of whether another government official (say, a prosecutor or a
magistrate) happens to compound the error. See Malley, 475 U.S. at 340-41,
106 S.Ct. 1092.

43

The officer's own role is also pertinent. If he knowingly withholds material

facts from the prosecutor, his reliance on the latter's opinion would not be
reasonable. Dixon, 336 F.3d at 1019; Hollingsworth v. Hill, 110 F.3d 733, 741
(10th Cir.1997).

44

In this case, the advice that Hainey received from the assistant district attorney
was of the kind that an objectively reasonable officer would be free to consider
reliable. The undisputed facts indicate that the two reviewed the available
evidence fully and had a frank discussion about it. This discussion culminated
in the prosecutor's statement that he believed Hainey had probable cause to
arrest the appellant. And, finally, there is nothing to suggest that the prosecutor
was operating in bad faith. We conclude, therefore, that an objectively
reasonable officer would have taken the prosecutor's opinion into account in
deciding whether to make the arrest. Thus, the district court appropriately
considered that opinion in assessing the objective reasonableness of Hainey's
actions and, ultimately, in granting him qualified immunity.
III. CONCLUSION

45

We need go no further. We conclude that an objectively reasonable officer,

standing in Hainey's shoes, could have believed that probable cause existed to
arrest the appellant for the crime of aggravated furnishing of a schedule W
drug. Accordingly, the district court did not err in ruling that Hainey was
entitled to qualified immunity with respect to the appellant's claim under
section 1983.

46

Affirmed.

Notes:
1

The appellant's brief makes several references to another crime: aggravated

trafficking of a scheduled drug in violation of Me.Rev.Stat. Ann. tit. 17-A,
1103. Though the appellant was later charged with that offense by an assistant
attorney general, the record indicates that Hainey never made any
recommendation to that effect. Thus, for purposes of our qualified immunity
analysis, we consider only the reasonableness of Hainey's decision to arrest the
appellant for aggravated furnishing of a scheduled drug

Although the appellant told Hainey that he had never shared the pills with his
son or anyone else and that he had mentioned to a pharmacist that some of his
pills might be missing, Hainey had no obligation to give credence to these selfserving statements. A reasonable police officer is not required to credit a
suspect's storySee Brady v. Dill, 187 F.3d 104, 112 (1st Cir.1999); Criss v. City
of Kent, 867 F.2d 259, 263 (6th Cir.1988); see also Acosta, 386 F.3d at 11
(noting that police have no responsibility to investigate potential defenses
before making a probable cause determination).

In this case, no one disputes that Roxicodone is and was a schedule W drug
under Maine law

Of course, prosecutors work hand in glove with law enforcement officers, so a

prosecutor's advice, under the best of circumstances, cannot carry the same
presumption of reliability that accompanies the detached scrutiny of a neutral
magistrateSee United States v. Leon, 468 U.S. 897, 913-14, 104 S.Ct. 3405, 82
L.Ed.2d 677 (1984). But that lessened deference is no reason to treat a
prosecutor's counsel as worthless. Prosecutors are public officials and officers
of the court. Moreover, when giving legal advice to the police, they have only
qualified immunity. Burns v. Reed, 500 U.S. 478, 496, 111 S.Ct. 1934, 114
L.Ed.2d 547 (1991). "[T]he absence of absolute immunity for the act of giving
legal advice may cause prosecutors to consider their advice more carefully...."
Id. at 495, 111 S.Ct. 1934. In view of these realities, we refuse to endorse a rule
that a prosecutor's stake in law enforcement renders his or her advice inherently
unreliable.

This inquiry remains focused on objective reasonableness and should not be

transformed into an investigation of the officer's subjective good faithSee
Crawford-El v. Britton, 523 U.S. 574, 587-88, 118 S.Ct. 1584, 140 L.Ed.2d 759
(1998); Tremblay v. McClellan, 350 F.3d 195, 199 (1st Cir.2003). Whether a

pre-arrest consultation actually boosted the officer's confidence in his or her

probable cause determination is beside the point.