A Study of Fractional Schrodinger Equations

Derivation and its Properties

by

Syeda Ayesha Ali

Supervised by
Maam Saima Riasat

Department of Mathematical Sciences

Fatima Jinnah Women University
Rawalpindi, Pakistan
2016

Contents

Fundamental Concepts
1.1
1.2

Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A Historical Review of the Schrodinger Equation and Fractional Schrodinger Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. 10

The Path Integral approach to Quantum Mechanics

2.1
2.2
2.3

2.4

14

The path integral formalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Feynmans Path Integral Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Obtaining the Schrodinger Equation from the Path Integral
Formalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Time Independent Schrodinger Equation . . . . . . . . . . . .

Fractional Schrodinger Equation

3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6

Feynman path integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The free particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The path integral over the Levy paths . . . . . . . . . .
Fractional Schrodinger Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Time-Independent Fractional Schrodinger equation .
Characteristics of Fractional Schrodinger Equation .

. 15
. 17

. 22
. 24

26
. . . . . . . . 26
. . . . . . . . 27
. . . . . . . . 28
. . . . . . . . 30
. . . . . . . . 32
. . . . . . . . 33

Properties of Fractional Schrodinger Equation

4.1
4.2

4.3
4.4

4.5

The Hermiticity of the fractional Hamilton operator . . . . . . .

The parity conservation law for the fractional quantum mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fractional Bohr atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Spectrum of 1D fractional oscillator in semi-classical approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Current Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

35
. 35

. 36
. 38

. 42
. 44

Chapter 1
Fundamental Concepts

1.1

Preliminaries

In this chapter we discuss some basic denitions and concepts related to Fractional Schrodinger
Equation.
Fractional Calculus is a branch of mathematical analysis that studies the possibility of
taking real number powers or complex number powers of the dierentiation operator and the
integration operator.Fractional dierential equations (also known as extraordinary dierential
equations) are a generalization of dierential equations through the application of fractional
calculus.

1.1.1

The Fractional Integral

For an arbitrary positive real number , one denes the Fractional Integral of order

J f (t) =

1
( )

Zt

(t

v)

f (v)dv; t > 0;

2 R+

>0:

(1.1)

Where R+ is the set of positive real numbers.

1.1.2

The Fractional Derivatives

The Fractional Derivative of order

> 0 and m

1<

m, where m is a positive integer :

D f (t) = Dm J m

D f (t) =

1.1.3

Levy process

A Lvy process or Lvy

8
>
>
>
<

dm
dtm

>
>
>
:

2
4

1
(m

Zt

f (t)
(t v) +1

dm
dtm f (t);

f (t)
3

dv 5 ; m
=m

(1.2)
1<

9
>
>
>
<m =
>
>
>
;

(1.3)

-stable radom process, dened by the French mathematician Paul

Lvy, is a stochastic process that has independent, stationary increments.Physically, it gives

us the motion of a point whose successive displacements are random and independent and
statistically identical over dierent time intervals of the same length. In other words, a Lvy
process is a continuous-time analog of a random walk.Each
has a stability index

called the Levy index,0 <

-stable probability distribution

2:

The examples of Lvy processes include Brownian motion and the Poisson process. When
= 2 the Levy

stable distribution is transformed to the well-known Gaussian probability

distribution,Also the Levy motion is transformed to the Brownian motion. All proper Lvy
processes have discontinuous paths,except the Brownian motion with drift.

1.1.4

Brownian Motion

Brownian motion is a stochastic process whose increments are independent, stationary and
normal, and whose sample paths are continuous.Independent increments means that increments
corresponding to time intervals that do not overlap are independent. Physically, Brownian
motion is the irregular motion of small particles suspended in a liquid or a gas, caused by the
bombardment of the particles by molecules of the medium. It was rst observed by Robert
Brown in 1827. Wiener Process denes the mathematical model for the Brownian Motion.[1]

1.1.5

Action

In physics, action is a quantity used to describe the dynamics of a physical system. It is

a mathematical functional which takes the trajectory, also called path, of the system as its
argument and has a real number as its result. Generally, the action assigns dierent values to
5

dierent paths. Action has the dimensions of [energy].[time] or [momentum] [length], and its
SI unit is joule-second.
The action is usually represented as an integral over time, taken along the path of the system
between the initial time and the nal time of the evolution of the system.
S [!
r (t)] =

t2

t1

L !
r (t); !
r (t); t dt

(1.4)

where the endpoints of the evolution are xed and dened as x1 = x(t1 ) and x2 = x(t2 ):The
integrand L is called the Lagrangian which is obtained as the dierence of kinetic (T(t)) and
potential (V (t)) energies along the curve x(t).
L !
r (t); !
r (t); t

1.1.6

= T (t)

1 !
V (t) = m r_ 2
2

V (!
r)

(1.5)

Principle of least action

The principle of least action is one of the basic principles of classical physics. According to the
principle of least action,one can nd the true dynamical path of a system between an initial and
nal point in a given time by considering all possible paths that the system could conceivably
take then computing the action (a functional of the trajectory) for each one of these paths
and selecting one that makes the action locally stationary (traditionally called "least"). True
trajectories are those that have least action.
Mathematically the principle is

S=0
where

(1.6)

means a small change. In words this reads:

The path taken by the system between times t1 and t2 is the one for which the action is
stationary (no change) to rst order.
In applications the statement and denition of action are taken together:
Z

t2

t1

L r(t); !
r (t); t dt = 0

(1.7)

1.1.7

Braket notation

The Dirac Bra-Ket notation is a convenient way to describe quantum states of particles. We
dene the symbol
j

to represent a quantum state. This is called a ket. It indicates that a system is in a state

The ket can also be interpreted as the initial state in some transition or event.
The bra represents the nal state. It is represented as
h

In mathematics, Bra-Ket notation is used to represent vectors and linear functionals .The
scalar product, or action of a linear functional on a vector in a complex vector space, is denoted
by

The above overlap expression gives the probability amplitude for the state
into the state

to collapse

: The notation was introduced in 1939 by Paul Dirac and is also known as Dirac

notation.

1.1.8

Hermitian Operator

^ is said to be Hermitian if it is equal to is adjoint A

^y
An operator A
A^ = A^y or h

1.1.9

A^

i =

A^

(1.8)

Scaler Product of two functions

In case of function spaces, a vector element is given by a complex function and the scaler
product by integrals,that is, the scaler product of two functions

(x) and (x) is given by

( ; )=

(x) (x)dx

(1.9)

If this integral diverges,the scaler product does not exist.

1.1.10

Parity Operator

The space reection about the origin of the coordinate sysytem is called an inversion or a parity
operation. The parity operator is dened by its action on the ketsj !
r i of the position space
P^ j !
r =j

!
r i; h!
r j P^ y = h !
r j

(1.10)

such that
P^ (!
r)= ( !
r)

1.1.11

(1.11)

Parity Conservation Law

Parity Conservation Law states that the parity of the total wave function describing a system
of elementary particles should be conserved. Parity conservation law requires the assignment
of an intrinsic parity to each particle. It is conserved in strong and
electromagnetic interactions, however it is not conserved in weak interactions.
Mathematically, the parity will be conserved if the parity operator commutes with the
systems Hamiltonian
h
i
^ P^ = 0
H;

1.1.12

(1.12)

Fourier Transform

Fourier transform is very useful in nding the solution of real- or complex-valued functions. In
order to derive the Fractional Schrodinger Equation, We make use of the following denition of
Fourier Transform
1
(~r; t) =
(2 ~)3

pr

dpei ~ '(~
p; t)

(1.13)

' (~
p; t) =

1.1.13

dre

i pr
~

(~r; t)

(1.14)

Beta function

The Beta function, also called the Euler integral of the rst kind, is a special function dened
by

B (u; v) =

!u

!)v

(1

d!; (Re(u) > 0; Re(v) > 0)

(1.15)

1.1.14

Bohr-Sommerfeld Quantization Rule

The Bohr-Sommerfeld quantization is used to determine the allowed quantized states of a

system by performing a classical analysis of the motion and then insisting, that in order to
avoid destructive interference, there are exactly an integral number of de Broglie wavelengths
around the orbit or one period of the classical motion. Mathematically, Let q be the coordinate
of the particle and p be its momentum, then

n=

nh =

dq

dq
1
=
h=p
h

pdq

pdq n = 1; 2; 3; :::::

motion.

1.1.15

Modication of Bohr-Sommerfeld Quantization Rule

where h is the Plancks constant and

(1.16)

means the integral over one period of the classical

Bohr-Sommereld Quantization Rule is modied for Fractional Oscillator as follows

2 } n+

1
2

pdx

(1.17)

1.1.16

Ehrenfest Theorem

The Ehrenfest theorem is a special case of a more general relation between the expectation
of any quantum mechanical operator and the expectation of the commutator of that operator
with the Hamiltonian of the system
d
1
hF i =
h[F; H]i +
dt
i}

@F
@t

(1.18)

where F is some Quantum Mechanical operator and hF i is its expectation value.

1.2

A Historical Review of the Schrodinger Equation and Fractional Schrodinger Equation

One of the cornerstones of quantum mechanics is the Schrdinger equation, which describes
what a system of quantum objects such as atoms and subatomic particles will do in the future
based on its current state. Fractional Schrodinger Equation is a modication of Schrodinger
Equation and it considers the quantum particles having fractional order. Quantum mechanics
is the science of the very small particles. It consists of body of scientic principles that explains
the behaviour of matter and its interactions with energy on the level of atomic and subatomic
particles. The word quantum is used because it means the minimum amount of any physical
entity involved in an interaction and certain characteristics of matter consider only discrete values.However, there are some quantities which have continuous values. In Quantum Mechanics,
We come across the wave-particle duality that is the fact that every elementary particle exhibits
the properties of not only particles, but also waves. This phenomenon is described by a wave
equation, known as the Schrodinger Equation.Solutions to the Schrodinger Equation explains
the wave behaviour.
We give a brief history of the advancement of the Quantum Mechanics and the improvement
of the Schrodinger Equation.
1900(Max Planck):In 1900 Max Planck made a scholarly discovery in Quantum Mechanics. He said that light must be emitted and absorbed in discrete amounts i-e light consists of

10

discrete packets of energy which are called quanta.

E = hv = }!
where h is Plancks constant (6.63 x 10
electromagnetic wave and } = h=2 = 1:06

34

10

J.s), v is the frequency, E is energy of an

34

J:s

1905 (Albert Einstein): The following vital advancements in quantum mechanics were
the work of Albert Einstein. He utilized Plancks idea of the quantum to clarify certain properties of the photoelectric eect which is an experimentally observed phenomenon in which when
radiation falls on the metal surface,selectrons are transmitted from these surfaces.
The energy of the quantum correspondes to the frequency, thus the energy of the electron
relies on upon the frequency.Einstein gave the following relation as a result of his work

E = pc
The above relation exists for any massless particle photon for instance and we know that ! =
ck exists for a light wave. So plancks relation becomes
E = }! ) pc = } (ck) ) p = }k
1909(Rutherford):Rutherford retracted Thomsons model in 1911 with his famous gold
foil experiment in which states that the atom has a tiny, heavy nucleus. Rutherford designed
an experiment to use the alpha particles that are emitted by a radioactive element.
1913(Bohr):In 1911 Rutherford established the structure of the atomic nucleus. He assumed, on the basis of experimental evidence obtained from the scattering of alpha particles
by the nuclei of gold atoms, that every atom consists of a dense, positively charged nucleus,
surrounded by negatively charged electrons that revolve around the nucleus as planets revolve
around the sun.Thus an atom, as described by Rutherford, is unstable. This di culty led the
Danish physicist Niels Bohr, in 1913 to postulate that in an atom the classical theory does not
hold and that electrons move in xed orbits.
1924(de Broglie):In 1924 de Broglie suggested that the wave-particle duality occur in

11

matter.
Let us consider momentum of a photon
p=

hv
h
=
c

We can genaralize this relation to any material particle with non-zero rest mass Hence we can
!

say that each particle of momentum p behaves as a group of waves (matter waves) whose
!
wavelength and wave vector k are governed by the speed and mass of the particle.
=

h ! !
p
; k =
p
}

This relation is known as de Broglie relation. As E=}!, the larger E and p are, the larger
is the value of ! and k. As } is so small so even for small E and p that are typical of a photon
! and k are very large, so any particle will have very large ! and k values with large energy
and momentum values in comparism. This is the reason behind why we can not observe the
wave behaviour of the macroscopic object.
1925(Heisenberg): In 1927,A German physicist Werner Heisenberg came up with the uncertainity principle which is one of the basic principles in Quantum Mechanics.The uncertainty
principle says that the position (x) and the momentum (p) of a particle cannot be measured
with absolute precision at the same time. The more accurately we know one of these values,
the less accurately we know the other one. Mathematically, it can be dened as
r p>

h
2

where r is the position and p is the particles momentum.

1926( Schrodinger): The wave particle duality urged the Austrian physicist Erwin Schrdinger
to construct an equation which would dene the wave properties of a particle.The Schrdinger
mathematical statement was originated for the hydrogen atom and it gave conclusions in signicant concurrence with prior quantum hypothesis.
Schrodinger after many experiments showed that the the matrix mechanics introduced by
Heisenberg and the wave Mechanics are the dierent interpretations of the same theory, known
12

as the Quantum Mechanics. They share the same conceptual basis however the mathematical
models used to represent them are totally dierent.Even if we consider the hydrogen atom which
is the simplest particle, the mathematics of both interpretations is quite complex.
Quantum mechanics describes the atom purely through the mathematical quantities envolved in the system under consideration, a rough Physical explaination of the structure of
atom considered now a days can be given.The nucleus is surrounded by stationary waves that
appear in layers around the nucleus. A complete stationary wave is like an orbit enclosing the
nucleus.Now the probability that tells the existence of electron at a single point in a given time
is obtained by taking the absolute square of the amplitude of the wave, thus the exact location
of the electron at agiven time can not be determined.
1999 (Laskin) : In 1999, Nick Laskin came up with the Fractional Schrodinger Equation.
He obtained it by the extension of the Feynman path integral, from the Brownian-like to Lvylike quantum mechanical paths. The term fractional Schrdinger equation was given by Nick
Laskin. A path integral over the Lvy-like quantum-mechanical paths rgives the generalization
of quantum mechanics. As the Schrdinger equation is derived from the Feynman path integral,
the fractional Schrdinger equation is derived from the path integral over Lvy trajectories .The
Lvy process is characterized by the Lvy index , 0 <
Equation is of

order. When we consider

2, thus the Fractional Schrodinger

= 2 the Lvy process becomes the process of

Brownian motion.[2]

13

Chapter 2

The Path Integral approach to Quantum Mechanics

A Historical Review of Path Integral Formulation of Quantum Mechanics

The path integral formulation of quantum mechanics is a depiction of quantum hypothesis
which sums up the action principle of quantum mechanics. It replaces the established idea of
a solitary, unique direction for a system with a sum, or functional integral, over an innity of
conceivable directions to process a quantum amplitude.
The essential thought of the path integral formulation can be followed back to Norbert
Wiener, who presented the Wiener basic for taking care of issues in diusion and Brownian
movement.
In 1933, Dirac mentioned the objective fact that the action assumes a focal part in classical
mechanics (he considered the Lagrangian formulation of classical mechanics to be more principal
than the Hamiltonian one), yet that it appeared to have no essential part in quantum mechanics
as it was known at the time.
In 1948, Feynman added to Diracs proposal, and succeeded in determining a third denition of quantum mechanics, in view of the way that the propagator can be composed as over
every single conceivable way (not only the classical one) between the initial and nal positions.
S

Every trajectory contributes ei } to the propagator where S is the classical action taken along
the path. So while Dirac considered just the classical path, Feynman demonstrated that all
paths contribute. Hence it could be said that the quantum molecule takes all paths, and the
amplitudes for every path add as per the standard quantum mechanical rule for summing up

14

amplitudes.

2.1

The path integral formalism

2.1.1

The double slit experiment

Consider a source S of monoenergetic particles, for example electrons that are placed at position
A. The ux of electrons is measured on a screen C placed in front of the source.Introduce a
third slit having two slits in between the two of them. The two slits can be opened or closed.
Consider opening the rst slit and keeping the second one closed, we encounter a ux F1 .Then
let the second slit be opened and the rst one is remained closed,we encounter a ux F2 . In
the case where we keep the both slits opened, we encounter a ux F.
If we consider the uxes at C in the three cases in classical physics, the uxes at C are
expected to satisfy the relation F = F1 + F2 . In reality, we observe F = F1 + F2 + Fint , and
the structure of Fint represents the interference between two waves passing respectively through
1 and 2.
When we try to locate the electron, We see that the electron posesses a point-like structure.
Now in order to mark its path, We place detectors at both slits and set a very weak ux so
that the probability of hitting both detectors at 1 and 2 becomes negligible. Through this
setting, We see that the electron either passes through 1 or 2. Making use of the Copenhagen
interpretation, We detemine F as a probability density that means in order to determine the
position of an electron, We compute the amplitude

for the wave behaviour of electron and

then nd its position by computing its probability density j j2 by Borns rule.

Probability(r)=jamplitude(r)j2

15

2.1.2

An intuitive approach to the path integral formalism

The double slit experiment provides us with two possibilities for the path of electrons from point
A to point C. In Quantum Mechanics, we genaralize the concept of double slit experiment by
the addition screens and drilling more and more holes through them, generalizing the result of
the double slit experiment by the superposition principle.
Schematically:
With two slits: we know that

If we open a third slit, the superposition principle still applies

1 ; r2 ;
Imagine then adding an intermediate screen D with N holes at positions rD
D
N :The possible trajectories are now labelled by r i and
rD
D

= 1; 2; 3; that is by the slit they

went through at D and by the slit they went through at B.

Applying the superposition principle

N
P

i=1 =1;2;3

i
rD
;

(2.1)

taking the ideal limit where N ! 1 and the holes ll all of D. The sum
integral over rD .
=

=1;2;3

becomes now an

drD (rD ; )

(2.2)

D is an imaginary device. We can continue adding more and more ctious screens D1 ; D2 ;
DM which leads us to

=1;2;3

drD1 ; drD2 ;

drDM

(rD1 ; rD2 ;

rDM ; )

(2.3)

Precisely, the way the paths are covered through time also matters (t ! (r(t); s(t))). We
then arrive at a formal representation of the probability amplitude as a sum over all possible
trajectories:

All trajectories fr(t);s(t)g

16

(frg)

(2.4)

2.1.3

The path integral formulation

We want to describe the motion from position xi at time ti to position xf at time tf with a
quantum probability amplitude K(xf ; tf ; xi ; ti ) given by
P

K(xf ; tf ; xi ; ti ) =

All trajectories fx(t);y(t)g

(f g)

(2.5)

where f gis the set of all trajectories satisfying x(ti ) = xi ; x(tf ) = xf :

We want classical trajectories to describe the motion in the formal limit } ! 0.
other words, we want classical physics to be resurrected in the } ! 0 limit.

In

} has the

dimensionality [Energy] [T ime]: That is also the dimensionality of the action S which describes
the classical trajectories via the principle of least action.
One can associate a value of S[ ] to each trajectory. The classical trajectoriesare given by
the stationary points of S[ ] ( S [ ] = 0).
It is thus natural to guess: [ ] = f (S[} ]) , with f such that the classical trajectory is selected
in the formal limit } ! 0. The specic choice
[ ] = ei

S[ ]
}

(2.6)

implying
K(xf ; tf ; xi ; ti ) = ei

S[ ]
}

(2.7)

[4]

2.2

Feynmans Path Integral Formulation

The Hamiltonian for a particle which is moving in one dimensiononly is written as

H=

p2
+ V (u)
2m

(2.8)

The eigenstates of the position operator u

^ satisfy the following equalities:
1-Operating on the position eigemfunction with the position operator in coordinate space

17

returns the position eigenvalue times the original position eigenfunction.

u
^ j ui = u j ui

(2.9)

2-The delta function is dened as

hu0 j ui =

u0

(2.10)

du j uihu j= 1

(2.11)

3-The completeness condition is dened as

Z

Using the Bra-ket notation, Initial and nal states are dened as
j

A = hu0 j

(T )i =j u0 i

(0)i =j ui and j

(T )i

K u0 ; T ; u; 0 = hu0 j e

(2.12)

iHT

j ui

(2.13)

The above equation gives us the kernel of the system from (u; 0) to (u0 ; T ) :(The kernel
describes the probability amplitude for a particle to move from one position to another position
in a given time or with a specic energy and momentum). H represents the Hamiltonian of
the system. In order to obtain an expression for the probability amplitude, We will consider all
possible paths between initial and nal positions and then take summation over them.
we can write
e

iHT

=e

A = hu0 j e

iH(T t1 )

iH(T t1 )

iHt1

iHt1

j ui

(2.14)

We can insert a factor 1 in the form of a sum over the position eigenstates which leads to

18

A = hu0 j e

iH(T t1 )

du1 j u1 ihu1 je
|
{z
}

iHt1

j ui

=1

A=

du1 K u0 ; T ; u1 ; t1 K (u1 ; t1 ; u; 0)

(2.15)

The above formula sums up the the quantum mechanical rule for combining amplitudes
that says if a process can occur a number of ways, the amplitudes for each of these ways add.
A particle, in propagating from u to u0 must be somewhere at an intermediate time t1 , lets say
that intermediate position is q1 , we compute the amplitude for propagation via the point q1
and integrate over all possible intermediate positions. This result is similar to Youngs double
slit experiment, where the amplitudes for passing through each of the two slits combine and
interfere.
We can repeat the division of the time interval T upto a large number N of time intervals
of duration

T
N.

Then the propagator becomes

A = hu0 j e

iH

j ui = hu0 j e|

iH

iH

{z

iH

N times

} j ui

(2.16)

We can again insert a complete set of states between each exponential that gives us
A = hu0 j e

iH

du1

du

duN

j uN

1 hu

du1

1 ihuN

je

iH

duN

je

j uN

iH

duN

1 ihuN 1

1 KuN ;uN

j uN

2 ihuN

hdu2 j u2 ihu2 j e

iH

(2.17)

je

KuN

iH

1 ;uN

j uN

2i

hu1 j e

Ku2 ;u1 Ku1 ;u0

iH

j ui

(2.18)

(2.19)

where we have dened u0 = u; uN = u0 . (Note that these initial and nal positions are not
integrated over.) This expression says that the amplitude is the integral of the amplitude of all
N-legged paths.

19

du1 j u1 ihu1 j

The propagator for one sub-interval is Kuj+1 ;uj = huj+1 j e

exponential, since

iH

j uj i. We can expand the

is small

Kuj+1 ;uj = huj+1 j

huj+1 j uj i

1 2
H
2

iH

i huj+1 j H j uj i + o

j uj i

(2.20)

(2.21)

The rst term is a delta function, which we can write

huj+1 j uj i = (uj+1

uj ) =

dpj ipj(uj+1
e
2

uj )

(2.22)

In the second term of (2:20), we can insert a factor 1 in the form of an integral over
momentum eigenstates between H and jqj i ; this gives
=

i huj+1 j

dpj
2

p^2
+ V (^
u)
2m

dpj
j pj ihpj j uj i
2

!
p2j
+ V (uj+1 ) huj+1 j pj ihpj j uj i
2m
dpj
2

!
p2j
+ V (uj+1 ) eipj (uj+1
2m

(2.23)

uj )

(2.24)

using the property hu j pi = exp ipu:

writing V (qj ) where qj = 12 (qj + qj+1 )

Combining ( ) and ( ), the sub-interval propagator is

Kqj+1 ;qj =

dpj ipj (qj+1

e
2
Z

qj )

dpj ipj (qj+1

e
2

qj )

!
p2j
+ V (qj ) + o
2m

i H(pj ;qj )

1+o

There are N such factors in the amplitude. Combining them, and writing qj =

20

(2.25)
(qj+1 qj )

,we

get
Apath =

NQ1
j=0

NP1
dpj
exp i
(pj q_j
2
j=0

H (pj ; qj ))

where we have neglected a multiplicative factor of the form 1 + o

(2.26)
2

, which will tend

toward one in the continuum limit. Then the propagator becomes(())

K=

NQ1

dqj

j=1

dq1

NQ1
j=0

dqN

1 Apath

NP1
dpj
exp i
(pj q_j
2
j=0

H (pj ; q_j ))

(2.27)

Note that there is one momentum integral for each interval (N total), while there is one
position integral for each intermediate position (N - 1 total). If N ! 1, this approximates an
integral over all functions p(t), q(t). We adopt the following notation:
Z

RT
Dp (t) Dq (t) exp i dt (pq_

H (p; q))

(2.28)

This result is known as the phase-space path integral. The integral is viewed as over all
functions p(t) and over all functions q(t) where q(0) = q, q(T) =q0 : As
H=

p2
+ V (q)
2m

We can rewrite th expression in () as

K=

NQ1

dqj exp i

j=1

NP1

V (qj )

j=0

NQ1
j=0

NP1
dpj
exp i
pj q_j
2
j=0

p2j
2m

(2.29)

The p integrals are all Gaussian, and they are uncoupled. One such integral is
Z

dp i
e
2

pq_

p2
2m

m
i mq_2
exp
2 i
2

(2.30)

The propagator becomes

K=

NQ1
j=1

dqj exp i

NP1

V (qj )

j=0

NQ1
j=0

21

i mq_j2
m
exp
2 i
2

(2.31)

m
=
2 i

N
2

NQ1

dqj exp i

j=1

NP1
j=0

mq_j2
2

V (qj )

(2.32)

we can write this in the more compact form

K=

Dq (t) eiS[q(t)]

(2.33)

[3]

2.3

Obtaining the Schrodinger Equation from the Path Integral

Formalism

Let us begin by assuming that the elapsed time t is so small, that we may approximate the
s

path integral with a single "time slice" of that length. In this case, the kernel is just ei } , and
the action is just its average over the time interval times is length.

S=

m(rf r)2
2 t

1
(rf + r; t)
2

(2.34)

The kernel now becomes

K(rf; tf : r; t) =

"
#
im (rf r)2
m
exp
exp
2 i} t
2} t

so that the wave function

(xf ; tf ) =

#
im (rf r)2
(rf ; t + t) =
dr exp
exp
2} t
1
Now we introduce the variable, = rf

(rf ; t + t) =

m
2 i} t

1
1

d exp

1
(rf + r) ; t
2

(2.35)

(r; t)

(2.36)

(xf ; t + t) is

"

R1

i
V
}

i
V
}

1
(rf + r; t)
2

r; so that the integral becomes,

im 2
2} t

i
V (rf ; t) t
}

"

(rf ; t)

(rf ; t)
1 @ 2 (rf ; t)
+
@rf
2
@rf2

The problem has been reduced to the evaluation of Gaussian integrals. Using the formulas,

22

ar2

dr e

1
1

dr re

ar2

=0

1
ar2

dr r e

1
=
2a

we obtain
(rf ; t + t) = 1

i
V (rf ; t) t
}

"

#
i} @ 2 (rf ; t)
t
(rf ; t) +
2m
@rf2

We now multiply out the right-hand side and retain only terms that are rst order in t.
This gives us
(rf ; t + t) =

i} @ 2 (rf ; t)
t
2m
@x2f

(rf ; t) +

i
V (rf ; t)
}

(rf ; t) t

(2.37)

Rearranging, we get
i}

(rf ; t + t)
t

(rf ; t)

}2 @ 2 (rf ; t)
+ V (rf ; t)
2m
@rf2

(rf ; t)

Finally, taking the limit, t ! 0 and renaming rf to r.

i} (r; t + t)
t!0
t

lim

(r; t)

}2 @ 2 (r; t)
+ V (r; t)
2m @x2

(r; t)

We nally arrive at the familiar Schrdinger equation

i}

(r; t)
=
@t

}2 @ 2 (r; t)
+ V (r; t)
2m @x2

[8]

23

(r; t)

(2.38)

2.4

The Time Independent Schrodinger Equation

t) = V^ (r) :In this case the

Let us consider the special case of time-independent potentials: V(r;
Hamiltonian operator will also be time independent, and hence the schrodinger equation will
have solutions that are seperable that is solutions that consist of a product of two functions,
one depending only on !
r and the other only on time:
(!
r ) f (t)

(r; t) =

(!
r ) f (t) ; we obtain

Subsituting () () and dividing both sides by

i}

1 df (t)
=
f (t) dt

1
(!
r)

(2.39)

}2 2 !
r ( r ) + V^ (!
r)
2m

(!
r)

Since the left-hand side depends only on time and the right-hand side depends only on
!
r ;both sides must be equal to a constant;this constant, which we denote by E, has the dimensions of energy.We can therefore break () into seperate equations, one depending on time
only,
i}

df (t)
= Ef (t)
dt

and the other on the space variable !

r
}2 2 ^ !
r +V (r)
2m

(!
r ) = E (!
r)

This equation is known as the time-independent Schrodinger equation for a particle of mass
m moving in a time-independent potential V^ (r) :
The solutions to () can be written as f(t) = e
(r; t) =

iEt=} ;hence

(!
r )e

the state () becomes

iEt=}

This particular solution of the Schrodinger equation() for a time-independent potential

iscalled a stationary state.Why is this state called stationary? The reason is obvious: the

24

probability density is stationary, i-e it does not depend on time

2
j (!
r ; t)j =

(!
r )e

25

iEt=}

2
= j (!
r )j

Chapter 3
Fractional Schrodinger Equation

3.1

Feynman path integral

Consider the motion of a particle betweem two points, let us say point ra at an initial time ta
and a nal point rb at time tb . The trajectory (path) r(t) of the particle is dened by the points
r(ta ) = ra and r(tb ) = rb .
According to Feynman, we can write the kernel in the form
K (rb tb j ra ta ) =

rb

Dr ( ) exp

ra

i
S (r)
}

(3.1)

where K(rb tb jra ta )is the quantum mechanical amplitude that describes the motion of the
particle from the point a to the point b.The above kernel comprises of all the possible trajectories
that a particle could take between points a and b and it considers an equal contribution from
each trajectory. Here S(r) represents the classical action which is taken as a functional of
trajectory r( ) of the particle:
S( )=

xb

xa

here V (r, t) is the potential energy and

Z

r(tb )=rb

r(ta )=ra

Dr ( )

= lim

N !1

mr_ 2
2
R r(tb )=rb
r(ta )=ra

2 i}
m

26

V (r ( ) ; )

Dr( )
1
2

(3.2)

is dened as follows

1 NQ1
1 j=1

2 i}
m

1
2

drj

(3.3)

Consider the equation

(rb ; tb ) =

1
1

dra K (rb tb j ra ta )

(ra ; ta )

(3.4)

The above equation nds the wave function at a position rb and time tb by taking the
product of kernel of system and the wave function at an initial time and position

(ra ; ta ) .

This equation gives the evolution of the quantum mechanical system in a given time interval.

3.2

The free particle

The potential energy of a free particle is zero, Hence subsituting V (x) = 0 in Equation (3.1),
We obtain the quantum-mechanical amplitude K (0) (rb tb j ra ta ) for a free particle.
K

(0)

(rb tb j ra ta ) =

r(tb )=rb

i
}

Dr ( ) exp

r(ta )=ra

tb

ta

m r_ 2
2

(3.5)

Using Eqs.(3.2)-(3.3), we get

(0)

(rb tb j ra ta ) = lim

N !1

1
2

2 i}
m

1 NQ1
1 j=1

1
2

2 i}
m

drj

N
Q

exp

j=1

im
(rj
2}

rj

2
1)

(3.6)

Introducing the denite integral

Z

dre(

ar2 +br)

b2

e 4a

(3.7)

The right most term of equation (3.6) is calculated as follows

2 i}
m

1
2

1
1

dr1 exp

im
(r2
2}

r1 ) + (r1

ra )

2 i}2
m

1
2

exp

im
(r2
2}2

ra )2
(3.8)

Multiplying the above result with the factor given below

2 i}
m

1
2

exp

im
(r3
2}

r2 )2

and integrating again, this time over r2 . The result of integration is similar to that of
27

Eq.(3.8), except that (r2 -ra )2 is replaced by (r3 -ra )2 and the expression 2 is replaced by 3 .
Finally, the equation takes the form
1
2

2 i}3
m

exp

im
(r3
2}3

ra )2

In this way a recursion procedure is established which after N - 1 steps gives

1
2

2 i}N
m

exp

im
(ra
2}N

r0 )2

(3.9)

Since N = tb -ta , so the nal result after N -1 steps becomes

(0)

2 i} (tb
m

(rb tb j ra ta ) =

1
2

ta )

exp

im (rb
2} (tb

ra )2
ta )

(3.10)

The Feynman kernel K (0) (xb tb j xa ta ) given by Eq.(3.10 ) can be written in terms of fourier
transform as:s
K

3.3

(0)

(rb tb j ra ta ) =

2 }

dp exp i

p (rb

ra )

p2 (tb ta )
2m}

(3.11)

The path integral over the Levy paths

Eq.(3.10) gives us the kernel for order 2. We can generalize the above equation for order
(0)
KL (rb tb

j ra ta ) =

1
2 }

dp exp i

p (rb

ra )
}

D jpj (tb
}

ta )

as

(3.12)

where D represents the fractional quantum diusion coe cientwhose physical dimension
is
[D ] = erg 1
Here

cm

is the Levy index, and we consider 1 <

sec

(3.13)

2.

In the phase space representation,the path integral of the particle is written as follows

28

r(tb )=rb

Dr ( )

r(ta )=ra

exp i

p1 (r1 ra )
}

here again

Z
i

Dp ( )

(tb ta )
.
N

= lim

N !1

jp1 j
}

N
i P
pj (rj
} j=1

rj

1)

Taking the limit where N ! 1,

KL (rb tb j ra ta ) =

dr1

pN (rb

drN

(2 })

rN

1)

dp1

dpN

jpN j
}

(3.14)

Then the kernel KL (rb tb j ra ta ) takes the form

N !1

exp

exp i

KL (rb tb j ra ta ) = lim

r(tb )=rb

Dr ( )

r(ta )=ra

where the path integral

R r(tb )=rb
r(ta )=ra

dr1

drN

exp

(2 })N

N
P

i
D
}

j=1

jpj j

dp1

dpN

N
i P
V (rj ; j )
} j=1

(3.15)

!0
Dp ( ) exp

i
}

tb

d [p ( ) r_ ( )

H (p ( ) ; r ( ) ; )]

ta

R
Dr ( ) Dp ( )

(3.16)
is given by Eq.(3.14 ), r_ denotes the

time derivative, H represents the Hamiltonian

H (p; r) = D jpj + V (r) ;

1<

(3.17)

Using the replacement p ! p( ), r! r( ) and {p( ), r( )} describes the particle trajectory

in phase space.Now if we introduce action S (p, r) for the trajectory p(t), r(t) in phase space,the
exponential term in Eq.(3.16) takes the form
S (p; r) =

tb

d (p ( ) r_ ( )

H (p ( ) ; r ( ) ; ))

(3.18)

ta

All possible trajectories in Eqs.(3.14), (3.15) satisfy the boundary condition r(tb ) = ra ,
r(ta ) = ra because the position coordinates r0 and rN in (3.14) are xed at their initial and
nal points, r0 = ra and rN = rb , We note that in Eq.(3.14), We have one more pj -integrals
29

than xj -integrals. th while reason behind this is that as x0 and xN are taken as xed points
and the xj -integrals are taken for j = 1, ...,N-1, there exists one pj -integral for each increment
rj

rj

3.4

for j = 1, ...,N.[5]

Fractional Schrodinger Equation

Consider the fractional Quantum mechanical amplitude for a quantum particle which is moving
with potential V(r)

KL (rb tb j ra ta ) =

r(tb )=rb

Dr ( )

r(ta )=ra

Dp ( ) exp

i
}

tb

d [p ( ) r_ ( )

H (p ( ) ; r ( ) ; )]

ta

(3.19)

The above Kernal tells us about the evolution of quantum mechanical system with respect
to time.Using the above equation for kernel, We can describe the evolution of the system in
terms of wave function as follows
(rb ; tb ) =
Here

1
1

dra K (rb tb j ra ta )

(ra ; ta )

(ra ; ta ) denotes the initial state of the wave function and

(rb ; tb ) denotes the nal

We want to nd the dierential equation for the wave function

(r; t) : For this purpose,

state.

consider a special wave function in which the time diers only by an innitesimal interval
from initial time

(r; t + ) =

1
1

dr0 KL r; t + j r0 ; t

r0 ; t

Putting the value of Kernal KL (r; t + j r0 ; t) using equation (3.19); we obtain

(r; t + ) =

dr0

1
(2 })3

1
1

dp exp

i
p r0
}

exp

i
D
}

jpj

Feynmans approximation for the potential energy of a particle is stated as

30

i
}

R t+
t

t+

V (r) d

(3.20)
d V (r ( ) ; ) '

r0 ; t

r+r0
2 ;t

:Subsituting this value, we get

Z

(r; t + ) =

dr

1
(2 })3

dp exp

i
p r0
}

exp

i
D
}

r + r0
;t
2

i
V
}

jpj

r0 ; t

Expanding left hand side using the power series and using the exponential power series on
the right hand side, the above equation take the form
@ (r; t)
=
(r; t)+
@t

1
dr
(2 })3
0

i
p r0
}

dp exp

i
D
}

jpj

i
r + r0
V
;t
}
2
(3.21)

The wave functions in space (r, t) and momentum '(p, t) representations are related each
to other by the 3D Fourier transforms.Using the denitions of fourier transform and fourier
inverse transform
1
(r; t) =
(2 })3

1
' (p; t) =
(2 })3

px
dp e(i } )'(p;t)

dr e(

(3.22)

i px
(r;t)
} )

(3.23)

with 3D generalization of the fractional quantum Riesz derivative

2

Here

@2
@r2

1
(r; t) =
(2 })3

d3 p exp i

}2

introduced by

px
jpj ' (p; t)
}

(3.24)

is the Laplacian.Making use of the above equations, we get

(r; t) +

@ (r; t)
=
@t

This will be true to order

i}

if

(r; t)

D
}

}2

(r; t)

i
V (r; t)
}

(r; t)

(r; t) satises the fractional dierential equation

@ (r; t)
=D
@t

}2

(r; t) + V (r; t)

(r; t)

This is the fractional Schrodinger equation for a fractional quantum particle.[6]

31

(3.25)

r0

3.5

Time-Independent Fractional Schrodinger equation

Let us consider a special case in which the system has a stationary environment. This implies
that the potential energy of the particle is independent of time, that is U(r; t) ! U (r). Hence
we use the schrodinger equation with time independent Hamiltonian to describe the system.
Consider the fractional schrodinger equation with time-independent U(r) :
i}

(r; t)
=H
@t

(r; t)

(3.26)

Using method of Seperation of variables, assume the solution of the form

(r; t) =
where

(r) and

(t) represent two functions -one depends upon r and the other only on

time t. Put the value of

(r; t) in (3:26) ;we get

@ (t)
=
@t

i} (r)
Since

(r) (t) 6= 0

^ (r)
(t) H

(r; t) 6= 0, dividing the above equation by

i}

(r)

(3.27)

(r; t)

^ (r) (r)
_ (t)
H
=
(t)
(r)

Note that the left-hand side of the resulting equation depends entirely on t where the right
hand side depends only on r. So both variables are independent, the equation can only be true
if either side consists of a constant.Let this constant be E.Then equation (3:29) is divided into
two equations-one stands for the temporal part and other for the spatial part of the system
i}
H

@ (t)
= E (t)
@t
E

(r) = E

(r)

(3.28)
(3.29)

The above equations represent the characteristic equations for the eigenfunctions of the
energy operator and of the Hamiltonian respectively.

32

Using (3:30)
m+

E
=0 )m=
i}
E

where

(t) =

0e

E
}

i( E
t
})

stands for a constant.Subsituting the value of

(r; t) =
=

(r)

(t) in Equation(3.27), We get

(t)

E
(r) e i( } )t

or
(r; t) =
where

i
(r) e ( } )Et

(r) satises
H

}2

(r) = E (r)

(r) + V (r) (r) = E (r)

1<

(3.30)

The equation (3.32 ) is the time-independent (or stationary) fractional Schrodinger equation.
The above equation shows that the energy of the system is constant or we say that the state
has a denite energy. The probability to nd a particle at r is given by the absolute square of
the wave function j

j2 . Considering Eq.(35) we can denote it by j j2 :As

is independent of

time, it implies that the probability of nding the particle at any position also does not depend
on time. Hence the system is in a stationary state where stationary implies that we nd no
variation in the probabilities as a function of time.

3.6

Characteristics of Fractional Schrodinger Equation

The fractional Schrodinger Equation is given by

i}

@ (r; t)
=D
@t

}2

33

(r; t) + V (r; t)

(r; t)

(3.31)

where r is the 3-dimensional position vector,

@
represtands for the wavefunction. i} @t

sents the energy operator (i is the imaginary unit and } is the reduced plancks constant) :It is
a partial dierential equation with rst order in time and

order in space. It can be written

in the operator form as

i}

@
=H
@t

where H denotes the fractional Hamiltonian Operator

}2

H =D

(r; t) + V (r; t)

(r; t)

(3.32)

Introducing the momentum operator p=i}r; We get the Hamiltonian in the momentum
representation
H (p; r) = D jpj + V (r)
The index

(3.33)

in the fractional Schrodinger equation is the Levy index. 1<

fractional Schrodinger equation considers a space derivative of order

2:Thus the

instead of the second

order derivative in the Standard Schrodinger equation. Thus the fractional Schrodinger equation
is a fractional dierential equation. At

=2, fractional Schrodinger equation is transformed

into the Schrodinger equation or in other words, the Levy motion is transformed into Brownian
motion.
We can write the fractional Schrodinger Equation for the quantum system described by the
Fractional Hamiltonian (3:34) in the Kernal form as

i}

@
KL (rb tb j ra ta ) = D
@t

}2

KL (rb tb j ra ta ) + V (r; t) KL (rb tb j ra ta )

where tb > ta .

34

(3.34)

Chapter 4
Properties of Fractional Schrodinger Equation

4.1

The Hermiticity of the fractional Hamilton operator

In quantum mechanics,the scaler product of fractional Hamiltonian H is dened as

R1

( ; )=

dr

(r; t) (r; t)

(4.1)

We want to prove the hermiticity of hamiltonian H .So using the denition of the quantum
Riesz fractional derivative given by Eq.( ) we see that there exists the integration-by parts
formula
2

R1

dr

(r; t)

R1
1
(r; t) =
dr
(2 })3 1

(r; t)

d3 p exp i

px
jpj
}

(p; t)

Using denition of fourier transform by Equation()

}2

R1

dr

}2

dr

Similarly
2

R1

(r; t) jpj

(r; t)

R1
1
dr
(r; t) (r; t) =
(2 })3 1

R1

dr

35

(r; t) jpj

(r; t)

(4.2)

d3 p exp i

px
jpj
}

(p; t)

(4.3)

(r; t)

Eq(4:2) and Eq(4:3) implies that

}2

}2

(4.4)

Consider the operator form of Fractional Schrodinger Equation

i}

@
=H
@t

E =

R1

dr

(r; t) H

(r; t)

(4.5)

Using Equation(4:4), We obtain

E =

R1

dr H + (r; t)

(r; t) = E

As a physical consequence, the energy of the system is real.Thus, the fractional Hamiltonian
H is the Hermitian or self-adjoint operator in the space with the scalar product dened by
Eq(4:1)

H+ ;

= ( ;H

(4.6)

[7]

4.2

The parity conservation law for the fractional quantum mechanics

Consider the Quantum Riesz Fractional derivative from Equation() and rewrite it using the
fourier transform
}2
We can write

(r; t) = jpj

(r; t)

which is known as the basis state

(r; t) in the form of the function exp i px
}

of momentum. They represent particles that have exactly specied momentum.

}2

n px o
n px o
exp i
= jpj exp i
}
}

This depicts that the function exp i px

}

(4.7)

is the eigenfunction of the 3D quantum Riesz

36

}2

fractional operator

Note that the operator

and the eigenvalue is jpj :

}2

is symmetrized fractional derivative which means that

}2

}2

(4.8)

In view of the property (4.8), the fractional Hamiltonian H (see, for instance Eq.()) stays
invariant under reversal change.

Reversal, or to be exact, spatial reversal comprises in the

concurrent change in indication of each of the three spatial coordinates

r!

r; that is

x!

x;

y!

y;

z!

(4.9)

The inverse symmetry indicates that P

and the fractional
Denote the reversal operator by P.
Hamiltonian H are infact the same,

or we can write it as

P^ H = H P^

(4.10)

h
i
^ P^ = 0
H;

(4.11)

We see that the Hamiltonian and the parity operator have simultaneous eigenstates ant we
can ascertain that the parity of an isolated system is a constant of the motion.Hence Equations
(4:10)and (4:11) express the Parity Conservation Law that states if the state of a closed
fractional quantum mechanical system has a given parity, then this parity is conserved.
We can divide the wave functions of quantum mechanical states with a well dened eigen into two classes
value of the operator P
1. Functions which are not changed when acted upon by the parity operator
P^
the eigenstate

!
r)=

+(

+(

is said to be even state

37

!
r)=

!
r)

+(

2. Functions which change sign when acted upon by the parity operator
P^
the eigenstate

4.3

(!
r)=

( !
r)=

(!
r)

is said to be odd state.

Fractional Bohr atom

Let V (r) is the potential energy of the hydrogenlike atom given by

Ze2
jrj

V (r) =

(4.12)

where e is the electron charge and Z is the atomic nimber of the hydrogenlike atom so Ze is
the nuclear charge of the hydrogenlike atom, we come to the following eigenvalue problem for
fractional hydrogenlike atom
D

}2

Ze2
(r) = E (r)
jrj

(r)

we know that the total energy is given by

E = K:E + P:E = Ekin + V
Ekin = D jpj

and V =

Ze2
jrj

(4.13)

Using the Virial theorem which states that if the potential energy is a homogeneous function
of the co-ordinates and the system consists of N-particles, there exists a simple relation between
the average values of the kinetic and potential energies.
E kin =

Now consider a function of time f whose average value is given by

1
f = lim
T !1 T

38

f (t) dt

4.3.1

Energy spectrum of the fractional hydrogenlike atom:

In order to evaluate the energy spectrum of the fractional hydrogenlike atom,let us take a look
at the Niels Bohr postulates
1-The angular momentum L=me vr is an integer multiple of }
me vr = n}
So for an electron moving in circular orbits restricted by the requirement that the angular
momentum is an integral multiple of },that is, for circular orbits of radius an , the electron
momentum is restricted by
pan = n}

n = 1; 2; 3;

2-Electrons can make discontinuous transitions from one allowed orbit to another,absorbing
or emitting electromagnetic radiation with a frequency ! determined by the energy dierence
of the levels according to the Plancks relation
E = E2

or

E1

= }!

E2

!=

E1
}

An atom may absorb radiation by having its electrons make a transition to a higher energy
orbit.
Using the rst Bohrs rst postulate
E kin =

Putting values of E kin and V

D jpj =

n}
an

39

Ze2
an

D (n}) an1
n =

an = n

=q

qan 1
} D
1

q
} D

an
1

D
q

an = a0 n

(4.14)

The above equation gives us the radius of the fracional Bohr orbits.Here a0 is the fractional
Bohr radius (the radius of the lowest, n = 1, Bohr orbit) dened as,
1

D }
Ze2

a0 =

In order to nd the total average energy E;We make use of equation()

V

E kin =

E kin =

Ze2
jrj

As
E = Ekin + V

Ze2
jrj

Ze2
jrj

Ze2
jrj

Ze2
jrj

E = (1

E = (1

) E kin

(4.15)

The energy levels of the fractional hydrogen-like atom is given by subsituting value of E kin
= (1

= (1

)D

)D

40

n}
an
n}
a0 n

= (1
En =

)D n
1) E0 n

n}
a0

1<

(4.16)

where E0 is the binding energy of the electron in the most minimal Bohr circle, that is, the
energy required to place it in a state with E = 0 comparing to n=1 ,
n}
a0

E0 = D

(4.17)

Putting value of a0 in the above equation, we have

"

E0 = D

E0 = D
The energy (

1)E

(n})

"

Ze2
D } 2

Ze2
D }

1
1

1
1

(4.18)

can be considered as a speculation of the Rydberg constant of stan-

dard Quantum Mechanics.

If we put

= 0 in equation ()

E0 =

"

e2 2m
4}2

1
2 1

As at

Ry =

me4
2}2

= 2; D =

1
2m

(4.19)

where Ry is the Rydberg unit of energy closely related to the Rydberg constant. It corresponds to the energy of the photon whose wave number is the Rydberg constant that is the
ionization energy of the hydrogen atom.
The frequency of the radiation ! associated with the transition, say, for example from k !
n, is, according to the second Bohr postulate[2]
!=

E2

E1
}

41

4.4

1) E0 k

E1 =

1) E0 n

!=
!=

E2 =

1) E0 k

1) E0
1
}
n

+(
}

1) E0 n

1
k

(k > n)

(4.20)

Spectrum of 1D fractional oscillator in semi-classical approximation

For a fractional oscillator, We consider Hamiltonian of the form

H

}2

=D

Here r is the 3D vector,

+ q 2 jrj

@2
@r2

1<

2;

1<

represents the Laplacian, the operator

2
}2

is the

Quantum Riez Fractional derivative as dened by equation() and q is a constant with physical
dimension found as
H

= erg 1

= 10

cm

sec

J 2 sec2 cm

cm

sec

J sec cm

10

+ q 2 (cm)

+ q 2 (cm)

J + q 2 (cm)
1

q = erg 2 cm

In order to nd the spectrum of the 1D fractional oscillator, lets denote the total energy as
E
E = D jpj + q 2 jrj

42

then

1
D

jpj =

q jxj

when momentum p=0, the range of the classical motion is

1

E
q2

jxj

Using the Bohr-Sommerfeld quantization rule,We have

2 } n+
where the notation
1

and xm =

E
q2

xRm
H
= pdx = 4 pdx =

1
2

xRm

4
D

1=

q 2 jxj

dx

(4.21)

means the integral over one complete period of the classical motion

is the turning point of classical motion. In order to nd the value of integral

on the right hand side of Equation () ; lets consider a new variable y given by
E
q2

y=x

xRm

1=

q jxj

xRm

dx

1=

E
q2

)x=y
xRm

q 2 jxj

dx

q jyj
1

q 2=

E
q2

E
q2

dx = dy

1
+1 R

dy

dy 1

1=

E
q2

1=

1=

As this integral can be transformed into the form of Beta function given by Eq.(1:15) ;Subsituting
z = y ) dz = y
R1

1 dy

dy 1

1=

1 R1

dz z

z)1= =

(1

1 1
; +1

Now Eq.() takes the form

2 } n+

1
2

=
D

1=

q 2=

43

+1

1 1
; +1

(4.22)

1
q 2= A
+1

1=

} D
En = @
2B 1 ;

n+

1
2

(4.23)

This equation gives the energy spectrum of the fractional oscillator.It is transformed into
standard quantum mechanical oscillator at

= 2 and

= 2:

We note that at
=1

(4.24)

Eq.() gives the equidistant energy spectrum. When 1 <

given by Eq.() takes place for

= 2 and

2 and 1 <

2 the condition

= 2 only which implies that only standard quantum

mechanical oscillator has equidistant energy spectrum.

4.5

Current Density

The conservation law of fractional quantum mechanical probability has been established by
D.A.Tayurskii and Yu.V. Lysogorski, It is stated as
@p (r; t)
+ rj (r; t) = 0
@t
where
p (r; t) =

(r; t)

(r; t)

is the quantum mechanical probability density and the vector j(r; t) can be called by the fractional probability current density vector or simply the current density or even the particle
density ux.
j (r; t) =
where r =

D }h
i

(r; t)

}2

r (r; t)

(r; t)

}2

i
(r; t)

(4.25)

@
@r

In order to prove that the Current density obeys the conservation law of fractional quantum
mechanical probability, Consider the fractional schrodinger Equation (Eq: ()) and multiply it

44

from left by
i}

(r; t)
(r; t)

@ (r; t)
=D
@t

}2

(r; t)

Multiply the complex conjugate of Eq() by

i}

(r; t)

(r; t)
=D
@t

(r; t) V (r; t)

(r; t)

(4.26)

(r; t)

}2

(r; t)

(r; t) +

(r; t) +

(r; t) V (r; t)

(r; t)

(4.27)

Subtracting equation () from (), We obtain

@
@t

d r(

(r; t)

D
(r; t)) =
i}

d3 r

(r; t)

}2

(r; t)

}2

(r; t)

(r; t)
(4.28)

We can rewrite the above equation as

@p (r; t)
+ rj (r; t) = 0
@t
Hence the probability current density is conserved.
We can write the vector j in momentum representation as
j=D

p^2

where p= }i r:When we put

p^

=2, D =

(^
p )2

1
2m

p^

1<

(4.29)

then Eq () and Eq. () are transformed into the

equations of the standard quantum Mechanics. Hence Eq () and Eq. () are the fractional
generalization of the well-known equations for probability current density vector of standard
quantum mechanics.

4.5.1

Velocity operator

Consider the velocity operator

v^ =

d
r^
dt

45

here
r is the operator of coordinate.Using the Ehrenfest Theorem, we get
d
i
r^ = [Ha ; r] +
dt
}

@r
@t

As the operator r is time independent, so that its derivative is zero and we can ignore the
last term.
d
i
r^ = [Ha ; r]
dt
}

v^ =

i
(Ha r
}

rH )

(4.30)

We can generalize Eq.() for any function f(^

p) of the momentum operator
f (^
p) r

rf (^
p) =

i}

@f
@p

Using this in Eq () ;we get the equation for the velocity operator
v^ =

@H
= D
@p

p^2

p^

(4.31)

Subsituting value of v
in Eq.()
j=

( v^

v^ ) ;

[7]

46

1<

(4.32)

Bibliography
[1] http://math.arizona.edu/~tgk/529/section2.pdf
[2] /www.particleadventure.org/other/history/quantumt.html
[3] R.MacKenzie,Path

Integral

Methods

and

Applications,(Universite

de

Montreal,Montreal, QC H3C 3J7 Canada)

[4] R. Rattazzi,The Path Integral approach to Quantum Mechanics,(May 25, 2009).
[5] N.Laskin,Levy Flights over Quantum Paths,Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences,New York University,251 Mercer Street, NY 10012
[6] N. Laskin, Fractional quantum mechanics and Levy path integrals, Phys. lett. A 268 (2000)
298305.
[7] N. Laskin, Phys. Rev. E 66, 056108 (2002).
[8] http://wiki.physics.fsu.edu/wiki/index.php/Feynman_Path_Integrals

47