Polymer capacitor

This article is about the polymer electrolytic capacitors

with conducting polymer as electrolyte. For the polymer capacitors with insulating polymer as dielectric,
see lm capacitor.
A polymer capacitor, or more accurately a polymer

Polymer e-caps are available in rectangular surfacemounted device (SMD) chip style or in cylindrical SMDs
(V-chips) style or as radial leaded versions (single-ended).
Polymer capacitors are characterized by low internal
equivalent series resistances (ESR) and high ripple current ratings. Their electrical parameters have similar
temperature dependence, reliability and service life compared to solid Ta-caps, but much better temperature independence and a longer service life than Al-caps with liquid electrolytes. In general polymer e-caps have a higher
leakage current rating than others.
Polymer e-caps are mainly used as power supplies of integrated electronic circuits as buer, bypass and decoupling capacitors, especially in devices with at or compact design. Thus they compete with multi-layer ceramic
chip (MLCC) capacitors, with higher capacitance values.
They display no microphonic eect.

Rectangular-shaped polymer aluminum (black) and tantalum

(brown) electrolytic chip capacitors

1 History
Aluminum capacitors (Al-caps) with liquid electrolytes
were invented in 1896 by Charles Pollak.
Tantalum e-caps (Ta-caps) with solid manganese dioxide (MnO2 ) electrolytes were invented by Bell Laboratories in the early 1950s, as a miniaturized and more reliable low-voltage support capacitor to complement the
newly invented transistor.[1][2] The rst Ta-caps with solid
MnO2 electrolytes had 10 times better conductivity and
a higher ripple current load than earlier types of liquid ecaps. Additionally, unlike standard e-caps, the equivalent
series resistance (ESR) of Ta-caps is stable in varying
temperatures.

During the 1970s the increasing digitization of electronic

circuits came with decreasing operating voltages and inCylindrical (wound) polymer Al-caps
creasing switching frequencies and ripple current loads.
This had consequences for power supplies and their eelectrolytic capacitor, is an electrolytic capacitor (e-cap)
caps. Capacitors with lower ESR and lower equivalent
with a solid electrolyte made of a conductive polymer.
series inductance (ESL) for bypass and decoupling caThe three dierent types are:
pacitors used in power supply lines were needed.[3]
A breakthrough came in 1973, with the discovery by Heeger and Wudl of an organic conductor, the charge-transfer salt TCNQ.[4] TCNQ (7,7,8,8 Polymer Al-cap
tetracyanoquinodimethane or N-n-butyl isoquinolinium
Hybrid polymer/liquid e-cap
in combination with TTF (Tetrathiafulvalene)) is a chain
molecule of almost perfect one-dimensional structure that
A fourth type, polymer niobium e-caps, are not in pro- has 10-fold better conductivity along the chains than does
duction.
MnO2 and has 100-fold better conductivity than liquid
Polymer Ta-cap

2 APPLICATION BASICS
Conducting polymers were invented by Heeger,
MacDiarmid and Shirakawa in 1975,[8] including
polypyrrole (PPy) [9] or PEDOT.[10] These lowered ESR
by a factor of 100 to 500 versus TCNQ, approaching the
conductivity of metals.
In 1988 the rst polymer electrolyte e-cap, APYCAP with PPy polymer electrolyte, was launched by
Nitsuko.[11] The product was not successful, in part because it was not available in SMD congurations.

Conductivities of some electrolytes

electrolytes.

In 1991 Panasonic launched its SP-Cap,[12] a polymer

Al-cap. These used polymer electrolytes to achieve ESR
values that were directly comparable to ceramic multilayer capacitors (MLCCs). They were less expensive than
Ta-caps and with their at design were useful in compact
devices such as laptops and cell phones.
Ta-caps with PPy polymer electrolyte followed three
years later. In 1993 NEC introduced its SMD devices, called NeoCap. In 1997 Sanyo followed with its
POSCAP polymer Ta-caps.
Kemet presented a new conductive polymer for polymer Ta-caps at the 1999 Carts conference.[13] This capacitor used the conductive polymer PEDT (Poly(3,4ethylenedioxythiophene)), also known as PEDOT (trade
name Baytron).[14]
Two years later at the 2001 APEC Conference, Kemet
introduced PEDOT polymer Al-caps.[15] Its AO-Cap series included SMD capacitors with stacked anode in D
size with heights from 1.0 to 4.0 mm, competing with
Panasonic.
Around the millennium hybrid polymer capacitors were
developed, which add a liquid electrolyte to the polymer
electrolyte.[16][17] The liquid electrolyte provides oxygen
that allows self-healing processes to reduce the leakage
current in damaged devices. In 2001, NIC launched a
hybrid polymer e-cap at a lower price and with lower leakage current. As of 2015 hybrid polymer capacitors were
available from multiple manufacturers.

OS-CON capacitors with solid TCNQ electrolyte had a typical

lilac insulation sleeve

The rst Al-cap to use TTF-TCNQ was the OS-CON

series oered in 1983 by Sanyo. These were wound,
cylindrical capacitors with 10x increased electrolyte conductivity compared with MnO2.[5][6][7] These capacitors were used in devices for applications that required
the lowest possible ESR or highest possible ripple current. One OS-CON e-cap could replace three more
bulky wet e-caps or two Ta-caps. By 1995, the Sanyo
OS-CON became the preferred decoupling capacitor for
Pentium processor-based personal computers.

2 Application basics
2.1 Role of ESR, ESL and capacitance
The predominant application set for e-caps and polymer
capacitors is power supplies. They cause behind the rectifying smoothing of the rectied AC voltage or interference suppression and buer or stabilize the DC voltage at
a sudden power demand of the subsequent circuit. They
are called backup-, bypass- or decoupling capacitors.[18]
In addition to the size, the capacitance, the impedance Z,
the ESR and the inductance ESL oer important electrical characteristics.

The Sanyo OS-CON e-cap product line was sold in 2010 The change to digital electronic equipment led to the deto Panasonic. Panasonic then replaced the TCNQ salt velopment of switching power supplies with higher frewith a conducting polymer under the same brand.
quencies and on-board DC/DC converter, lower supply

3.1

Anodic oxidation

Basic principle of anodic oxidation (forming), in which, by applying a voltage with a current source, an oxide layer is formed
on a metallic anode

For a sudden power demand of a subsequent circuit, the supply

voltage drops by ESL, ESR and capacitance charge loss

voltages and higher supply currents. Decoupling capacitors needed lower ESR values, which at that time could
only be realized with larger case sizes or much more expensive solid Ta-caps.

Polymer Ta-caps use high purity sintered tantalum

powder as an anode with tantalum pentoxide
(Ta2 O5 ) as the dielectric.
Polymer Al-caps use a high purity and electrochemically roughened aluminum foil as an anode with
aluminum oxide (Al2 O3 ) as the dielectric.

ESRs inuence on integrated circuit function is that under a sudden power demand, the supply voltage drops:

Conductive plates

U = ESR I
For example:[3]

Given a supply voltage of 3 V, with a tolerance of 10%

(200 mV) and supply current of a maximum of 10 A, a
sudden power demand drops the voltage by:
ESR = U / I = 0.3 V / 10 A = 30 milliohms.

Dielectric

This means that the ESR in a CPU power supply must be

less than 30 m, otherwise the circuit malfunctions.

Electrolytic capacitors

Main article: Electrolytic capacitor

3.1

Anodic oxidation

Electrolytic capacitors use a chemical feature of some

special metals, earlier called valve metals that by anodic
oxidation form an insulating oxide layer. By applying a
positive voltage to the anode, an oxide barrier layer with
a thickness corresponding to the applied voltage forms.
This oxide layer acts as the dielectric in an e-cap. The
cathode must conform to the oxide surface. This is accomplished by the electrolyte, which acts as the cathode.

A dielectric material is placed between two conducting plates

(electrodes), each of area A and with a separation of d.

Every e-cap in principle forms a plate capacitor whose

capacitance is an increasing function of the electrode area
A, the permittivity and the thinner the dielectric (d).

C =

A
d

Capacitance is proportional to the product of the area of

one plate multiplied by the permittivity and divided by
the dielectric thickness.

This thickness is in the range of nanometers per volt.

Etched or sintered anodes have a higher surface area compared to a smooth surface of the same areal dimension.
The capacitance value, depending on the rated voltage,
The main dierence between the polymer capacitor fam- increases by a factor of up to 200 for liquid Al-caps and
ilies is the anode material and its oxide:
solid Ta-caps.[20][21][22]

ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS

Because the forming voltage denes the oxide thickness,

the voltage proof can be produced simply for the desired
rated value. Therefore, the volume of a capacitor is dened by the product of capacitance and voltage, the socalled CV product.
Comparing the dielectric constants of tantalum and aluminum oxides, Ta2 O5 has permittivity approximately 3fold higher than Al2 O3 . Ta-caps therefore theoretically
can be smaller than Al-caps with the same capacitance
and rated voltage. Ta-cap oxide layers are much thicker
than the rated voltage requires. This is done for safety
reasons to avoid shorts from eld crystallization,[23] but
reduces the size advantage.

3.2

Electrolytes

The most important electrical property of an electrolyte

is its electrical conductivity. The electrolyte forms the
counter electrode of the e-cap, the cathode. The roughened structures of the anode surface continue in the structure of the oxide layer, the dielectric. The cathode must
adapt precisely to the roughened structure. With a liquid, as in the conventional wet e-caps this is easy to
achieve. In polymer e-caps in which a solid conductive
polymer forms the electrolyte, this is much more dicult
to achieve, because its conductivity comes by a chemical process of polymerization. However, the benets of
a solid polymer electrolyte, the signicantly lower ESR
and the low temperature dependence of the electrical paStructural formula of TCNQ
rameters, in many cases justify the additional production
steps and higher costs.
electrolyte contribute capacitance. The precursors of the
polymer must consist of small base materials that can
3.2.1 Conducting salt TCNQ electrolyte
penetrate the smallest pores. The size of the precursors
implicitly limit the size of the pores in the aluminum
The original Samsung TCNQ e-caps with TCNQ as elec- anode foils or tantalum powder. The rate of polymertrolyte were not polymer capacitors, unlike the modied ization must be controlled for capacitor manufacturing.
Panasonic devices marketed under the same name[24] that Too rapid polymerization does not lead to complete anuse a conductive polymer electrolyte (PPy).[25]
ode coverage, while too slow polymerization increases
production costs. The oxide must not chemically or mechanically attack either the precursors, the polymer or its
3.2.2 Polymer electrolyte
residues. The electrolyte must have high stability over a
wide temperature range and a long interval. The polymer
Polymers are formed by a chemical reaction, lm is the capacitors counter electrode and protects the
polymerization. In this reaction monomers are continu- dielectric against external inuences such as direct conously attached to a growing polymer strand.[26] Usually tact with graphite in the cathode.
polymers are electrical insulators or semiconductors. In
[27]
or
e-caps, conductive polymers are employed. Conductivity Polymer e-caps employ either polypyrrole (PPy)
[28][29]
polythiophene
(PEDOTor
PEDT).
is provided by conjugated double bonds that permit free
movement of charge carriers in the doped state. The
charge carriers are electron holes. Conducting polymer
3.2.3 Polypyrrole PPy
conductivity is nearly comparable with metallic conductors. The polymers must be oxidatively or reductively Polypyrrole (PPy) is a conducting polymer formed by
doped.
oxidative polymerization of pyrrole. A suitable oxidizA polymer electrolyte must be able to penetrate the an- ing agent is iron (III) chloride (FeCl3). Water, methanol,
odes nest crevices to form a complete, homogeneous ethanol, acetonitrile and other polar solvents may be used
layer, because only anode oxide sections covered by the for PPy synthesis.[31] As a solid conducting polymer elec-

3.2

Electrolytes

Structural formula of polypyrrole, doped with p-Toluenesulfonic

acid

Pyrrole can be polymerized electrochemically to control the rate

of polymerizion.[30]

Structural formula of PEDOT

trolyte it achieves conductivity up to 100 S/m. Polypyrrole was the rst conductive polymer used in polymer ecaps and the rst in polymer Al-caps, followed by polymer Ta-caps.
In situ polymerization of PPy features a slow rate of polymerization. When pyrrole is mixed with the desired oxidizing agents at room temperature, polymerization begins
immediately. Thus polypyrrole begins to form before the
chemical solution enters the anodes pores. The polymerization rate can be controlled by cryogenic cooling or
electrochemical polymerization. The cooling method is
delicate and is unfavorable for mass production. In electrochemical polymerization an auxiliary electrode layer
has to be applied on the dielectric and connected to the
anode.[29] For this purpose, ionic dopants are added to
the polymer, forming a conductive surface layer during
the rst impregnation. During subsequent impregnations,
the in-situ polymerization can be time-controlled by the
current ow after applying a voltage between the anode
and cathode.[32] Both methods are complex and require
repetitive polymerization steps that increase manufacturing costs.

Structural formula of PEDOT:PSS

transparency in its conducting state, non-toxicity, stability

up to 280 C and conductivity up to 500 S/m.[29] Its heat
resistance allows polymer capacitors to be manufactured
that withstand the higher temperatures required for leadfree soldering. These capacitors also have better ESR
The polypyrrole electrolyte has two fundamental disad- values.[29]
vantages. It is toxic and becomes unstable at the temperPre-polymerized dispersions of PEDOT allow the anodes
atures required for lead-free soldering.[29]
to be dipped and dried at room temperature. Sodium
polystyrene sulfonate (PSS) is dissolved in water with
PEDOT precursors.[34] The complete polymer layer is
3.2.4 Polythiopene PEDOT and PEDOT:PSS
then composed of pre-polymerized particles from the disare known as PEDOT: PSS
Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene), abbreviated PEDOT persion. These dispersions
[35]
and Clevius),[36] protecting
(trade
names
Baytron
P
[28]
or PEDT
is a conducting polymer based on 3,4[37][38]
ethylenedioxythiophene or EDOT monomer. PEDOT PEDOTs valuable properties.
is polarized by the oxidation of EDOT with catalytic PEDOT:PSS dispersions are available in dierent variamounts of iron (III) sulfate. The re-oxidation of iron is ants. High capacitance capacitors with roughened alugiven by Sodium persulfate.[33] Its advantages are optical minum anode foils or ne-grained tantalum powders can

PACKAGING

use small particle sizes. The average size of these parti- 5 Packaging
cles is about 30 nm, small enough to penetrate the nest
anode capillaries. Another variant oers larger particles
5.1 Rectangular style
leading to a relatively thick polymer layer to envelop and
protect rectangular Ta and Al polymer capacitors against
In the early 1990s polymer Ta-caps coincided with the
mechanical and electrical stress.[29][36]
emergence of at devices such as mobile phones and lapPEDOT:PSS polymer Al-caps reach voltages of 200 V[39] tops using SMD assembly technology. The rectanguand 250 V.[40] Leakage current values are signicantly lar base surface achieves the maximum mounting space,
lower than for polymer capacitors having in-situ poly- which is not possible with round base surfaces. The sinmerized layers. This approach oers better ESR values, tered cell can be manufactured so that the nished comhigher temperature stability, lower leakage current and ponent has a desired height, typically the height of other
ease of manufacture, requiring only three immersions,[34] components. Typical heights range from about 0.8 to 4
signicantly reducing costs.
mm.
3.2.5

Hybrid electrolyte

Hybrid polymer Al-caps coat the anode with a conductive polymer and add a liquid electrolyte. The liquid connects the polymer layers covering the dielectric and the
cathode. The liquid electrolyte supplies oxygen for selfhealing processes, which restores the oxide layer and reduces the leakage current, so that values common to conventional wet e-caps can be achieved. The safety margin for the oxide thickness for a desired rated voltage can
be reduced.

5.1.1 Ta-caps
Polymer Ta-caps are Ta-caps in which the electrolyte
is a conductive polymer instead of MnO2 . Ta-caps are
manufactured from a powder of relatively pure elemental
tantalum metal.[42][43][44]

The powder is compressed around a tantalum wire, the

anode connection, to form a pellet. This pellet/wire
combination is vacuum sintered at 1200 to 1800 C, making it mechanically strong. During sintering, the powder
takes on a sponge-like structure, with all the particles conThe detrimental eects of the liquid electrolyte on ESR necting as a monolithic spatial lattice. The result is highly
and temperature characteristics are relatively minor. Ap- porous, oering a large surface area.
propriate organic electrolytes and good sealing allow a
The dielectric layer is formed covering the tantalum partilong service life.[17][41]
cle surfaces via anodization or forming. The pellet is submerged into a weak solution of acid and DC voltage is applied, creating the oxide layer. After the oxide layer is im4 Types
pregnated with the polymer precursors, they are polymerized. This polymerized pellet now is successively dipped
Based on the used anode metal and the combination of a into conducting graphite and then silver to provide a good
polymer electrolyte together with a liquid electrolyte, the connection to the conducting polymer. These layers form
three dierent types are:
the cathode connection. The capacitive cell then is generally molded by a synthetic resin.
Polymer Ta-cap
Polymer Al-cap
Hybrid polymer Al-cap
These types or families are produced in two dierent
styles:
Rectangular SMD chip, usually molded with a plastic case, available with sintered tantalum anode or
with stacked aluminum anode foils and

Basic construction of a polymer tantalum capacitor

Layer structure of a polymer tantalum capacitor with
graphit/silver cathode connection
Basic cross-section of a rectangular polymer tantalum chip capacitor
Rectangular polymer tantalum chip capacitor

SMD cylinder with a wound cell in a metal case, ei- Next multiple anode blocks are connected in parallel in
ther V-chips style or radial leaded versions (single- one case, to further reduce the ESR value and lower
ended)
ESL. Polymer Ta-caps have ESR values approximately
1/10 that of MnO2 Ta-caps. Three parallel capacitors
Styles of polymer electrolytic capacitors
with an ESR of 60 m each have a resulting ESR of 20
m.[45][46] In this construction up to six anodes in one de Rectangular
vice are connected. Multi-anode polymer Ta-caps have
Cylindrical
ESR values in the single-digit milliohm range.

5.2

Cylindrical (radial) style

The disadvantage of polymer Ta-caps is the higher leakage current, higher by a factor of 10 higher compared to
MnO2 Ta-caps. Polymer SMD Ta-caps are available up
to a size of 7.3 x 4.3 x 4.3 mm (length x width x height)
with a capacity of 1000 F at 2.5 V. They cover temperature ranges from 55 C to +125 C and are available in
rated voltage values from 2.5 to 63 V.
5.1.2

Lowering ESR and ESL

7
.
These enhancements bring Ta-caps ever closer to MLCC
capacitors.
5.1.3 Al-caps
Rectangular polymer Al-caps have one or more layered
aluminum anode foils and a conductive polymer electrolyte. The layered anode foils are at one side contact
each other. After the dielectric is created and polymerized, it is successively dipped into conducting graphite
and then silver to connect to the conducting polymer and
then to the cathode. The capacitive cell then generally is
molded by a synthetic resin.
Basic construction of a polymer aluminum capacitor
with layered anode stripes
Layer structure
Cross-section
Assembled device
The layered anode foils are parallel-connected single capacitors, reducing ESR and ESL and allowing them to
operate at higher frequencies.
These Al-caps are available in the D"-case form factor
with 7,3x4,3 mm and heights of 24 mm. They provide
a competitive alternative to Ta-caps.[48]

Comparing the two chip capacitor types shows that the

dierent permittivities of aluminum oxide and tantalum
pentoxide have little impact on specic capacity due to
Multi-anode construction: sintered tantalum anodes are condierent safety margins in oxide layers. Ta-caps use an
nected in parallel, reducing both ESR and ESL.
oxide layer thickness that corresponds to approximately
four times the rated voltage, while the polymer Al-caps
Lowering ESR and ESL remains a major research and dehave about twice the rated voltage.
velopment objective. Directions include low ohmic polymer electrolytes and parallel connection of conventional
capacitor cells in one case.
5.2 Cylindrical (radial) style
ESL can be reduced by shortening the internal leads, by
asymmetric sintering of the anode lead since ESL is a
positive function of the lead length. This technique is
called face-down construction. The lower ESL shifts
the resonance to higher frequencies, which handle the
faster load changes of digital circuits with higher switching frequencies.[47]

Face-down construction: the internal current path is shortened,

which reduces parasitic impedance, shifting the resonance to
higher frequencies.

Cylindrical polymer Al-caps use liquid electrolytes. They

are available only with aluminum as the anode material.
They are intended for larger capacitance values compared
to rectangular polymer capacitors. Due to their design,
they may vary in height on a given surface mounting area
so that larger capacitance values can be achieved by a
taller case without increasing the mounting surface. This
is primarily useful for printed circuit boards without a
height limit.
Cylindrical capacitors are made of two rolled up aluminum foils, an etched and formed anode and a cathode foil that are mechanically separated by a separator
and wound together. The winding is impregnated with
the polymer precursors, which are then polymerized to
form the conductive polymer as a layer between the dielectric and the cathode foil, electrically connecting both

6 COMPARISON

layers. The winding is built into an aluminum case and lm, isolating, but not healing, the defect. In hybrid polysealed with rubber. For the SMD version (Vertical chip= mer capacitors liquid can ow to the defect, delivering
V-chip) the case is provided with a bottom plate.
oxygen and healing the dielectric by generating new oxides, decreasing the leakage current. Hybrid polymer Al
capacitors have a much lower leakage current than non5.2.1 Polymer aluminum
hybrids.
These capacitors use a solid polymer electrolyte as the
dielectric. They are less expensive than polymer Ta-caps
for a given CV. They are available up to a size of 10x13 6 Comparison
mm (diameter x height) with a CV value of 3900 F/2.5
V[49] They can cover temperature ranges from 55 C to 6.1 Benchmarks
+125 C and are available in nominal voltage values from
2.5 to 200 V.[39]
The polymer electrolyte, the anode materials, together
Unlike wet Al e-caps the cases of polymer Al capacitors with design dierences led to multiple polymer e-cap
dont have a vent (notch) in the bottom of the case, since families with dierent specications.
a short circuit does not form gas, which would increase (As of April 2015)
pressure in the case.
Design principles of cylindrical polymer aluminum 6.2 Electrical parameters
capacitors
Electrical properties of polymer capacitors can best be
Winding of an aluminum electrolytic capacitor
compared, using consistent capacitance, rated voltage
and dimensions. The leakage current is signicant, be Cross-sectional view of a wound polymer aluminum cause it is higher than that of e-caps with non-polymer
capacitor
electrolytes. The respective values of Ta-caps with MnO2
Cylindrical polymer aluminum capacitors with electrolyte and wet Al e-caps are included.
wound cell in cylindrical metal case, in radial leaded 1) Manufacturer, Series, Capacitance/Rated voltage, 2)
(single-ended) and SMD style (V-chip)
rectangular style (Chip), 3) cylindrical style, 4) Leakage
current, calculated for a capacitor with 100 F/10 V,
5.2.2

Hybrid polymer Al-caps

(As of June 2015)

6.3 Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages against wet e-caps:
articulately lower ESR values.
articulately higher ripple current capability
articulately lower temperature depending characteristics
no evaporation of electrolyte, longer service life
no burning or exploding in case of shorts
Cross-sectional view

Disadvantages against wet e-caps:

Hybrid polymer capacitors are available only in the cylin more expensive
drical style. The anode and cathode foils are separated
by a spacer, leaded in the radial (single-ended) design or
higher leakage current
with a base plate in the SMD version (V-chip). The sepa damageable by transients and higher voltages spikes
rator is impregnated with a liquid electrolyte as in a conventional wet Al-cap. The liquid electrolyte delivers the
oxygen that is necessary for defect self-healing.
Advantages of hybrid polymer Al-caps:
The current that ows through a defect results in selective
less expensive
heating, which normally destroys the overlying polymer

7.3

Rated and category voltage

lower leakage current

impassible against transients
Disadvantage of hybrid polymer e-caps:
limited service life due to evaporation
Advantages against MLCCs:
no voltage dependent capacitance
no microphonic
Typical capacitance capacitor as a function of temperature for
a polymer Al e-cap and two liquid Al e-caps

higher capacitance values

Electrical characteristics

7.1

Series-equivalent circuit

R leakage
R ESR

L ESL

C
Series-equivalent circuit model of an electrolytic capacitor

Capacitor electrical characteristics are harmonized by the

international generic specication IEC 60384-1. In this
standard, characteristics are described by an idealized
series-equivalent circuit with electrical components that
model all ohmic losses, capacitive and inductive parameters:

a broader variability over frequency and temperature

ranges than polymer capacitors.
The standardized measuring condition for polymer Alcaps is an AC measuring method with 0.5 V at a frequency of 100/120 Hz and a temperature of 20 C. For
polymer Ta-caps a DC bias voltage of 1.1 to 1.5 V for
types with a rated voltage 2.5 V, or 2.1 to 2.5 V for
types with a rated voltage of >2.5 V, may be applied during the measurement to avoid reverse voltage.
The capacitance measured at the frequency of 1 kHz is
about 10% less than the 100/120 Hz value. Therefore,
the capacitance values are not directly comparable and
dier from those of lm capacitors or ceramic capacitors,
whose capacitance is measured at 1 kHz or higher.
The basic unit of capacitance is the microfarad (F). The
value specied in manufacturer data sheets is called the
rated capacitance CR or nominal capacitance CN. It is
given according to IEC 60063 in values corresponding to
the E series. These values are specied with a tolerance
in accordance with IEC 60062, preventing overlaps.
The actual measured capacitance value must be within the
tolerance limits.

C, capacitance
RESR, the equivalent series resistance which sum- 7.3 Rated and category voltage
marizes all ohmic losses, usually abbreviated as
ESR
Referring to IEC 60384-1, the allowed operating voltage
for polymer e-caps is called the rated voltage UR". The
LESL, the equivalent series inductance which is rated voltage UR is the maximum DC voltage or peak
the eective self-inductance, usually abbreviated as pulse voltage that may be applied continuously at any temESL.
perature within the rated temperature range TR.
R , the resistance representing the leakage current The voltage proof of e-caps decreases with increasing
temperature. Some applications require a higher temperature range. Lowering the voltage applied at a higher
7.2 Rated capacitance, standard values temperature maintains safety margins. For some capacitor types, IEC species a temperature derated voltage
and tolerances
for a higher temperature, the category voltage UC". The
Capacitance depends on frequency and temperature. category voltage is the maximum DC voltage or peak
Electrolytic capacitors with liquid electrolytes show pulse voltage that may be applied continuously to a capac-

10

7 ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS
higher than surge voltage. Transients may destroy the
components.[51][52]
Hybrid Al-caps are relatively insensitive to short-term,
transient voltages higher than surge voltage, if the frequency and the energy content of the transients are
low.[17][41] This ability depends on rated voltage and component size. Low energy transient voltages lead to a voltage limitation similar to a zener diode.[54] An unambiguous and general specication of tolerable transients or
peak voltages is not possible. Transient voltage use cases
must be individually assessed.

7.7 Reverse voltage

Relation between rated voltage UR and category voltage UC and
rated temperature TR and category temperature TC

Polymer e-caps are polarized and generally require the

anode voltage to be positive relative to the cathode voltage. Nevertheless, they can withstand a reverse voltage
itor at any temperature within the category temperature for limited cycles.[55][56] A reverse voltage applied for too
range TC. The relation between voltage and temperature long leads to short-circuit and destruction.
is given in the gure at right.
Applying a higher than specied voltage may destroy an
e-cap. Applying a lower voltage may have a positive in- 7.8 Impedance and ESR
uence. A lower applied voltage can extend hybrid Alcaps lifetimes.[20] Lowering the voltage applied increases See also: Electrolytic capacitor Impedance, and
the reliability and reduces the expected failure rate of Ta- Electrolytic capacitor ESR and dissipation factor tan
caps.[50]
The impedance is the complex ratio of the voltage to the
current in an AC circuit and expresses as AC resistance
7.4 Rated and category temperature
both magnitude and phase at a particular frequency. In
data sheets only the impedance magnitude |Z| is specied.
The relation between rated temperature TR and rated Regarding the IEC 60384-1 standard, the impedance valvoltage UR as well as higher category temperature TC and ues are measured and specied at 100 kHz.
derated category voltage UC is given in gure at right.
In the special case of resonance, in which the both reactive resistances XC and XL have the same value (XC=XL),
impedance will be determined by only ESR, which totals
7.5 Surge voltage
all resistive losses. At 100 kHz impedance and ESR have
nearly the same value for polymer e-caps with capaciPolymer e-cap oxid layers are formed for safety reasons
tance values in the F range. With frequencies above the
at higher than the rated voltage, called a surge voltage, for
resonance, impedance increases again due to ESL, turna limited number of cycles.
ing the capacitor into an inductor.
The surge voltage indicates the maximum peak voltage
Impedance and ESR, as shown in the curves, depends on
value that may be applied to capacitors for a limited numthe electrolyte. The curves show the progressively lower
[20]
ber of cycles. The surge voltage is standardized in IEC
impedance and ESR values of wet Al, MnO2 tantalum,
60384-1.
Al /TCNQ and tantalum polymer e-caps. The curve of
For polymer Al-caps the surge voltage is 1.15 times the a ceramic Class 2 MLCC capacitor, with still lower Z
rated voltage. For Ta-caps the surge voltage can be 1.3 and ESR values is also shown, but whose capacitance is
times the rated voltage, rounded o to the nearest volt.
voltage-dependent.
The surge voltage may inuence the capacitors failure An advantage of polymer over Al-caps with liquid elecrate.[51][52][53]
trolyte is low temperature dependence and almost linear
ESR curve over the specied temperature range. This
applies to all three polymer e-cap types. Impedance and
7.6 Transient voltage
ESR are also dependent on design and materials. Cylindrical e-caps have higher inductance resonant frequency
Transients are fast, high voltage spikes. Al-caps and than rectangular e-caps. This eect is amplied by multiTa-caps cannot withstand transients or peak voltages anode construction, in which individual inductances are

7.10

Current surge, peak or pulse current

11
discharge current through the decoupling or smoothing
capacitor.[57]
Ripple currents generates heat inside the capacitor body.
This dissipation power loss PL is caused by ESR and is
the squared value of the eective (RMS) ripple current
IR.
2
P L = IR
ESR

Typical impedance characteristics over the frequency range for

100 F e-caps compared with a 100 F ceramic Class 2 - MLCC
- capacitor.

This internally generated heat, above the ambient temperature and other external heat sources, leads to a temperature dierential of T over the ambient. This heat has to
be distributed as thermal losses Pth over the capacitors
surface A against the thermal resistance to the ambient.
Pth = T A
This heat is distributed by thermal radiation, convection
and thermal conduction. The temperature must not exceed the maximum specied temperature.

Typical curve of the ESR as a function of temperature for polymer capacitors and wet Al e-caps

The ripple current for polymer e-caps is specied as an

eective value at 100 kHz at upper category temperature. Polymer capacitors ESR stability over the frequency range allows the 100 kHz-value to apply across
the frequency range. Typically, the specied value for
maximum ripple current in datasheets is calculated for a
core temperature dierential of 20 C. Use of polymer
capacitors at higher temperature reduces the ripple current.

Non-sinusoidal ripple currents have to be analyzed and

separated into their individual sinusoidal frequencies by
reduced by their parallel connection[45][46] and the face- means of Fourier analysis and summarized by squared
down technique.[47]
addition.[58]

7.9

Ripple current

IR =

i1 2 + i2 2 + i3 2 + in 2

In polymer Ta-caps the heat generated by the ripple

current inuences reliability.[59][60][61][62] Exceeding the
limit can result in catastrophic failures with short circuits
and burning components.
Ripple current heat aects the lifetimes of all three polymer e-cap types.[57][63]

7.10 Current surge, peak or pulse current

The superimposed (DC biased) AC ripple current ow across the
smoothing capacitor C1 of a power supply causes internal heat
generation corresponding to the capacitors ESR.

Polymer Ta-caps are sensitive to peak or pulse

currents.[51][52] Solid Ta-caps that are exposed to
surge, peak or pulse currents, for example, in highly
A ripple current is the root mean square (RMS) value inductive circuits, require voltage derating. If possible
of a superimposed AC current of any frequency and any the voltage prole should be a ramp turn-on, as this
waveform of the current curve for continuous operation reduces the peak current.
within the specied temperature range. It arises mainly in Polymer Al-caps have no restrictions on current surge,
power supplies (including switched-mode power supplies) peak or pulse currents. However, the summarized curafter rectifying an AC voltage and ows as charge and rents must not exceed the specied ripple current.

12

7.11 Leakage current

RELIABILITY AND LIFETIME

so that the hybrids achieve the same values as wet Al or

Ta-caps.[17][57]

7.12 Dielectric absorption (soakage)

Main article: Dielectric absorption
Dielectric absorption occurs when a capacitor charged
for a long time discharges only incompletely. Although
an ideal capacitor would reach zero volts after discharge,
real capacitors develop a small voltage from time-delayed
dipole discharging, a phenomenon that is also called
dielectric relaxation, soakage or battery action.
No gures for dielectric absorption are available for polymer capacitors.
The general leakage current behavior of electrolytic capacitors
depend on the kind of electrolyte

8 Reliability and lifetime

The DC leakage current (DCL) is a unique characteristic for e-caps. It is the DC current that ows when a DC
voltage of correct polarity is applied. This current is rep- 8.1 Reliability (failure rate)
resented by the resistor Rleak in parallel with the capacitor in the series-equivalent circuit of e-caps. The main Main article: Reliability engineering
causes of DCL for solid polymer capacitors are points of Reliability is a property that indicates how consistently
electrical dielectric breakdown after soldering, unwanted
conductive paths due to impurities or to poor anodization
and for rectangular types, dielectric bypass due to excess
MnO2 , due to moisture paths or cathode conductors (carbon, silver).[64]
Datasheet leakage current specication is given by multiplication of the rated capacitance value CR with the value
of the rated voltage UR together with an added gure,
measured after 2 or 5 minutes:

ILeak = 0.01

A
UR CR + 3 A
VF

Bathtub curve with times of early failures, random failures

and wear-out failures. The time of random failures is the time
of constant failure rate

Leakage current in solid polymer e-caps generally drops

fast but then remains steady. The value depends on the
voltage applied, temperature, measuring time and mois- a component performs its function over a time interval.
ture allowed by case sealing conditions.
It is subject to a stochastic process and can be described
Polymer e-caps have relatively high leakage current val- qualitatively and quantitatively, but is not directly meaues. In solid polymer e-caps this cannot be reduced by surable. Eurance tests reveal the failure rate. Reliability
healing in the sense of generating new oxide, because normally is shown as a bathtub curve an(gure on right)
under normal conditions solid electrolytes cannot deliver d is divided into three areas: early failures, constant ranoxygen for forming processes. Annealing of dielectric dom failures and wear out failures. Failure rates are the
defects can only be carried out through local overheat- sum of short circuit, open circuit and degradation failures
ing and polymer evaporation. The leakage current values (exceeding electrical parameters). For Ta-caps the failfor polymer e-caps are between 0.2 CRUR to 0.04 CRUR. ure rate is inuenced by the circuit series resistor, which
Thus the value of the leakage current for polymer capac- is not required for Al-caps.
itors is higher than for wet aluminum and MnO2 Ta- Billions of test unit-hours are needed to verify acceptable
caps.
failure rates. This requires about a million units tested
This higher leakage current disadvantage is avoided by over a long period.[65] Test failure rates are often comhybrid Al-caps. Their liquid electrolyte provides the oxy- plemented with feedback from large users (eld failure
gen that is necessary for the reforming of oxide defects, rate), which mostly lowers failure rate estimates.

8.2

Lifetime, service life

13

For historical reasons the failure rate units of Ta-caps and

Al-caps are dierent. For Al-caps the reliability prediction is generally expressed in a failure rate , with the unit
Failures In Time (FIT) at standard operating conditions
40 C and 0.5 UR during the period of constant random
failures. This is the number of failures that can be expected in one billion (109 ) component-hours of operation
(e.g., 1000 components for 1 million hours, or 1 million
components for 1000 hours which is 1 ppm/1000 hours)
at standard operating conditions. This failure rate model
implicitly assumes that failures are random. Individual
components fail at random times but at a predictable rate.
The reciprocal value of FIT is Mean Time Between Failure (MTBF).

to 20 FIT. These reliability levels are comparable with

other electronic components and achieve safe operation
for decades under normal conditions.

For Ta-caps the failure rate FT" is specied with the

unit n % failures per 1000 hours at 85 C, U = UR and
a circuit resistance of 0.1 /V. This is the failure percentage that can be expected in 1000 hours of operation at
much more demanding operational conditions compared
with the FIT model. The failure rates "" and FT" depend on operating conditions including temperature, voltage applied and environmental factors such as humidity,
shocks or vibrations and capacitance.[50] Failure rates are
an increasing function of temperature and applied voltage.

Polymer Ta-caps and Al-caps do have a lifetime specication. The polymer electrolyte has a small conductivity deterioration by thermal polymer degradation. The electrical conductivity decreases as a function of time, in agreement with a granular metal type structure, in which aging
is due to polymer grain shrinkage.[63]

Solid tantalum and wet Al-caps failure rates can be

recalculated with acceleration factors standardized for
industrial[66] or military[67] contexts. The latter is established in industry and often used for industrial applications. However, for polymer aluminum and Ta-caps no
acceleration factors had been published as of 2015. An
example of a recalculation from a Ta-cap failure rate FTa
into a failure rate therefore only can be given by comparing standard capacitors. Example:

8.2 Lifetime, service life

The lifetime, service life, load life or useful life of e-caps
is a special characteristic of liquid e-caps, especially liquid Al-caps whose liquid electrolyte can evaporate, leading to wear-out failures. MnO2 Ta-caps have no wear-out
mechanism so that the failure rate is constant up to the
point all capacitors have failed. They dont have a lifetime specication like liquid Al-caps.

The useful life (load life, service life) is tested with a

time accelerating endurance test according to IEC 6038424/25/26[68] with rated voltage at the upper category
temperature. Passing the test requires no total failures
(short circuit, open circuit) and degradation failures and
capacitance loss by less than 20% and increased ESR and
impedance by more than a factor of 2 compared to the initial value. These limits for degradation failures are much
closer than for wet Al-caps. That means that lifetime behavior is much more stable than for wet Al-caps.

The lifetime for maximum voltage and temperature is

specied in similar terms to the liquid electrolytic e-caps,
but uses less stressful operational conditions that lead to
much longer operational lifetimes.[69][70][71] Polymer caA failure rate FTa = 0.1%/1000 h at 85 C and U= UR pacitor lifetimes for dierent operational conditions can
shall be recalculated into a failure rate at 40 C and U be estimated by:
= 0,5 UR.
T0 TA
The following acceleration factors from MIL-HDBK
Lx = LSpec 10 20
217F are used:

FU = voltage acceleration factor, for U = 0,5

UR is FU = 0.1
FT = temperature acceleration factor, for T =
40 C is FT = 0.1
FR = acceleration factor for the series resistance RV, at the same value it is = 1
It follows
= FTa x FU x FT x FR
= (0.001/1000 h) x 0.1 x 0.1 x 1 =
0.00001/1000 h = 1109 /h = 1 FIT

Lx = lifetime to be estimated
LSpec = specied lifetime
T0 = upper category temperature
TA = temperature of the e-cap case or ambient temperature near the capacitor
This rule characterizes the change of thermic polymer reaction speeds within the specied degradation limits. According to this formula the theoretical expected service
life of a 2000 h/105 C polymer capacitor, operated at
65 C, can be calculated (estimated) with 200,000 hours
or more than 20 years.

For liquid hybrids, the 20-degree rule does not apply. The
As of 2015 the published failure rate gures for polymer expected life of these hybrid e-caps can be calculated ustantalum and polymer Al-caps are in the range of 0.5 ing the 10-degree rule.

14
8.2.1

10 COMMERCIAL INFORMATION
Field crystallization

8.2.2 Self-healing

Polymer capacitors are reliable at the same level as other

electronic components with low failure rates. However, all Ta-caps have a unique failure mode called eld
crystallization.[72] Field crystallization is the major reason for degradation and catastrophic failures of solid Tacaps.[73] More than 90% of (rare) Ta-cap failures are
caused by short circuits or leakage current due to this failure mode.[74]

Polymer Al-caps exhibit the same self-healing mechanism as polymer Ta-caps. After application of a voltage
at weakened spots in the oxide a localized higher leakage
current is formed, which leads to localized polymer heating, whereby the polymer either oxidizes and becomes
highly resistive or evaporates. Hybrids show this selfhealing mechanism. Faulty spots not covered with a polymer lm allow liquid electrolyte to deliver oxygen to build
up new oxide.

The oxide lm must be formed in an amorphous structure. Changing the amorphous structure into a crystallized structure increases conductivity reportedly 1000
times along with an enlarged oxide volume.[23][75]

9 Standards
Electronic component and related technology standardization follow rules given by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC),[79] a non-prot, nongovernmental international standards organization.[80][81]
The denition of the characteristics and the procedure
of the test methods for capacitors for use in electronic
equipment are set out in the generic specication:
IEC/EN 60384-1Fixed capacitors for use in electronic equipment
The tests and requirements to be met by aluminum and
Ta-caps for use in electronic equipment for approval as
standardized types are set out in the sectional specications:

After application of a voltage at weakened spots in the oxide a

localized higher leakage current is formed, which leads to a local
heating of the polymer, whereby the polymer either oxidized and
becomes highly resistive or evaporates.

IEC/EN 60384-24Surface mount xed Ta-caps

with conductive polymer solid electrolyte
IEC/EN 60384-25Surface mount xed aluminium
e-caps with conductive polymer solid electrolyte

IEC/EN 60384-26Fixed aluminium e-caps with

Field crystallization followed by a dielectric breakdown is
conductive polymer solid electrolytec
characterized by a sudden rise in leakage current, within
a few milliseconds, from nano-ampere to ampere magnitude in low-impedance circuits. Increasing current 10 Commercial information
ow can produce an avalanche eect, rapidly spreading through the metal/oxide. This can result in damage
ranging from small, burned areas on the oxide to zigzag 10.1 Capacitor symbol
burned streaks covering large areas of the pellet or complete oxidation of the metal.[76][77] If the current source is Electrolytic capacitor symbols
unlimited, eld crystallization may cause a short circuit.
However, if the current source is limited, in Ta-caps with
solid MnO2 electrolyte a self-healing process takes place, 10.2 Polarity marking
reoxidizing MnO2 into insulating Mn2 O.
Polarity marking
In polymer Ta-caps combustion is not a risk. Field crystallization may occur, but the polymer layer is selectively
heated and burned away by the leakage current, so that 10.3 Imprinted markings
the faulty point is isolated. Without the polymer material, the leakage current cant accelerate. The faulty area Polymer e-caps, given sucient space, have coded imprinted markings to indicate:
no longer contributes to the capacitance.

15
manufacturers name or trademark
manufacturers type designation
polarity
rated capacitance
tolerance on rated capacitance
rated voltage
climatic category or rated temperature
year and month (or week) of manufacture
For small capacitors no marking is possible.
The code of the markings vary by manufacturer.

10.4

Technological competition

[3] Mosley, Larry E. (2006-04-03). Capacitor Impedance

Needs For Future Microprocessors. Orlando, FL: Intel
Corporation CARTS USA.
[4] Wudl, F. (1984). From organic metals to superconductors: managing conduction electrons in organic
solids. Accounts of Chemical Research 17 (6): 227232.
doi:10.1021/ar00102a005.
[5] Niwa, Shinichi; Taketani, Yutaka (June 1996).
Development of new series of aluminium solid
capacitors with organic Semiconductive electrolyte
(OS-CON)". Journal of Power Sources 60 (2): 165171.
[6] Kuch. Investigation of charge transfer complexes:
TCNQ-TTF" (PDF).
[7] OS-CON Technical Book Ver. 15 (PDF). Sanyo. 2007.
[8] About the Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2000, Advanced Information (PDF). October 10, 2000.
[9] Zhang, Y. K.; Lin, J.; Chen, Y. Polymer Aluminum
Electrolytic Capacitors with Chemically-Polymerized
Polypyrrole (PPy) as Cathode Materials Part I. Eect of
Monomer Concentration and Oxidant on Electrical Properties of the Capacitors (PDF).

ESR and ESL characteristics are converging to those of

MLCC capacitors. Conversely, the specic capacitance
of Class 2-MLCC capacitors is approaching that of tantalum chip capacitors.[82][83] Other characteristics favor
one or another type.[84][85] e.g., Al-Polymer e-caps versus [10] Merker, U.; Wussow, K.; Lvenich, W.; Starck, H. C.
New Conducting Polymer Dispersions for Solid ElecMLCC: Panasonic,[86] MLCC versus Polymer and wet
trolyte Capacitors (PDF).
[87][88]
e-caps:Murata,
Al-Polymer e-caps versus wet e[18]
[16]
caps: NCC
NIC
andTa-Polymer e-caps against [11] APYCAP Series, Function Polymer Capacitor. Nitstandard solid Ta-MnO2 e-caps: |publisher=Kemet[89]
suko. 1988.

10.5

Manufacturers and products

As of July 2015

11

See also

Aluminum electrolytic capacitor

Electrolytic capacitor
Niobium capacitor
SAL electrolytic capacitor
Tantalum capacitor
Capacitor types

12

References

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panasonic.com. Retrieved 22 October 2015.
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[19] Stevens, J.L.; Geiculescu, A.C. Strange, Dielectric Aluminum Oxides: Nano-Structural Features and Composites (PDF). |rst3= missing |last3= in Authors list (help)

[1] Taylor, R. L.; Haring, H. E. (November 1956). A metal

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[20] Albertsen, A. Keep your distance Voltage Proof of

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[21] Specications for Etched Foil for Anode, Low Voltage

(PDF). KDK.

16

12

[22] Horacek, I.; Zednicek, T.; Zednicek, S.; Karnik, T.;

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13 External links

18

14

14
14.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Polymer capacitor Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymer_capacitor?oldid=722858451 Contributors: Pol098, Bgwhite, Gaius

Cornelius, Chris the speller, Lfstevens, KenShirri, Mild Bill Hiccup, Niceguyedc, Elcap, Addbot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Vladislav
Pogorelov, Ripchip Bot, John of Reading, Checkingfax, Access Denied, Sbmeirow, NTox, Mikhail Ryazanov, Frietjes, BG19bot, BattyBot, ChrisGualtieri, RuiGSa, Ceramic123, Monkbot, JamesP, Bel017, OUYALING and Anonymous: 14

14.2

Images

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