Bipolar transistor biasing

Bipolar transistor ampliers must be properly biased to back results in thermal runaway.[1] There are several apoperate correctly. In circuits made with individual de- proaches to mitigate bipolar transistor thermal runaway.
vices (discrete circuits), biasing networks consisting of For example,
resistors are commonly employed. Much more elaborate
biasing arrangements are used in integrated circuits, for
Negative feedback can be built into the biasing cirexample, bandgap voltage references and current mirrors.
cuit so that increased collector current leads to decreased base current. Hence, the increasing collecThe operating point of a device, also known as bias point,
tor current throttles its source.
quiescent point, or Q-point, is the point on the output characteristics that shows the DC collectoremitter voltage
Heat sinks can be used that carry away extra heat and
(V ) and the collector current (I ) with no input signal
prevent the baseemitter temperature from rising.
applied. The term is normally used in connection with
devices such as transistors.
The transistor can be biased so that its collector is
normally less than half of the power supply voltage,
which implies that collectoremitter power dissipation is at its maximum value. Runaway is then im1 Bias circuit requirements
possible because increasing collector current leads
to a decrease in dissipated power; this notion is
1.1 Signal requirements for class-A ampliknown as the half-voltage principle.

ers

The circuits below primarily demonstrate the use of negFor analog operation of a class-A amplier, the Q-point ative feedback to prevent thermal runaway.
is placed so the transistor stays in active mode (does not
shift to operation in the saturation region or cut-o region) when input is applied. For digital operation, the
Q-point is placed so the transistor does the contrary 2 Types of bias circuit for class-A
switches from the on (saturation) to the o (cuto)
ampliers
state. Often, the Q-point is established near the center
of the active region of a transistor characteristic to allow
The following discussion treats ve common biasing cirsimilar signal swings in positive and negative directions.
cuits used with class-A bipolar transistor ampliers:
The Q-point should be stable; in particular, it should be
insensitive to variations in transistor parameters (for ex1. Fixed bias
ample, should not shift if transistor is replaced by another
of the same type), variations in temperature, variations in
2. Collector-to-base bias
power supply voltage and so forth. The circuit must also
be practical; both easily implemented and cost-eective.
3. Fixed bias with emitter resistor
4. Voltage divider bias or potential divider

1.2

Thermal considerations

5. Emitter bias

At constant current, the voltage across the emitterbase

junction VBE of a bipolar transistor decreases 2 mV
(silicon) and 1.8mV (germanium) for each 1 C rise in
temperature (reference being 25 C). By the EbersMoll
model, if the baseemitter voltage VBE is held constant
and the temperature rises, the current through the base
emitter diode IB will increase, and thus the collector
current IC will also increase. Depending on the bias
point, the power dissipated in the transistor may also increase, which will further increase its temperature and
exacerbate the problem. This deleterious positive feed-

2.1 Fixed bias (base bias)

This form of biasing is also called base bias. In the example image on the right, the single power source (for
example, a battery) is used for both collector and base of
a transistor, although separate batteries can also be used.
In the given circuit,
V = IBRB + V
1

2 TYPES OF BIAS CIRCUIT FOR CLASS-A AMPLIFIERS

A very small number of components are required.
Demerits:
The collector current does not remain constant with
variation in temperature or power supply voltage.
Therefore the operating point is unstable.
Changes in V will change IB and thus cause IE to
change. This in turn will alter the gain of the stage.
When the transistor is replaced with another one,
considerable change in the value of can be expected. Due to this change the operating point will
shift.

Fixed bias (Base bias)

Therefore,
IB = (V V )/RB
For a given transistor, V does not vary signicantly during use. As V is of xed value, on selection of RB, the
base current IB is xed. Therefore this type is called xed
bias type of circuit.
Also for given circuit,
V = ICRC + V
Therefore,

For small-signal transistors (e.g., not power transistors) with relatively high values of (i.e., between
100 and 200), this conguration will be prone to
thermal runaway. In particular, the stability factor,
which is a measure of the change in collector current with changes in reverse saturation current, is
approximately +1. To ensure absolute stability of
the amplier, a stability factor of less than 25 is preferred, and so small-signal transistors have large stability factors.
Usage:
Due to the above inherent drawbacks, xed bias is rarely
used in linear circuits (i.e., those circuits which use the
transistor as a current source). Instead, it is often used
in circuits where transistor is used as a switch. However,
one application of xed bias is to achieve crude automatic
gain control in the transistor by feeding the base resistor
from a DC signal derived from the AC output of a later
stage.

2.2 Collector feedback bias

This conguration employs negative feedback to prevent

thermal runaway and stabilize the operating point. In this
form of biasing, the base resistor RB is connected to the
The common-emitter current gain of a transistor is an imcollector instead of connecting it to the DC source Vcc .
portant parameter in circuit design, and is specied on the
So any thermal runaway will induce a voltage drop across
data sheet for a particular transistor. It is denoted as on
the RC resistor that will throttle the transistors base curthis page.
rent.
Because
From Kirchhos voltage law, the voltage VRb across the
base resistor Rb is
IC = IB
V = V ICRC

we can obtain IC as well. In this manner, operating point

given as (V ,IC) can be set for given transistor.
VRb = Vcc
Merits:

across drop VoltageRc

z }| {
(Ic + Ib )Rc

base at Voltage

z}|{
Vbe

By the EbersMoll model, Ic = Ib , and so

It is simple to shift the operating point anywhere in

Ic
the active region by merely changing the base resisz}|{
VRb = Vcc ( Ib +Ib )Rc Vbe = Vcc Ib (+1)Rc Vbe .
tor (RB).

2.3

Fixed bias with emitter resistor

Ic = Ib =

(Vcc Vbe )
(Vcc Vbe )

Rb + Rc + Rc
Rc

which is the case when

Rc Rb .
As -value is xed (and generally unknown) for a
given transistor, this relation can be satised either
by keeping Rc fairly large or making Rb very low.
If Rc is large, a high Vcc is necessary, which
increases cost as well as precautions necessary
while handling.
Collector-to-base bias

From Ohms law, the base current Ib = VRb /Rb , and so

VRb

z}|{
Ib Rb = Vcc Ib ( + 1)Rc Vbe .

If Rb is low, the reverse bias of the collector

base region is small, which limits the range of
collector voltage swing that leaves the transistor in active mode.
The resistor Rb causes an AC feedback, reducing
the voltage gain of the amplier. This undesirable
eect is a trade-o for greater Q-point stability.

Hence, the base current Ib is

Usage: The negative feedback also increases the input
impedance of the amplier as seen from the base, which
Vcc Vbe
Ib =
can be advantageous. Due to the gain reduction from
Rb + ( + 1)Rc
feedback, this biasing form is used only when the tradeIf Vbe is held constant and temperature increases, then the o for stability is warranted.
collector current Ic increases. However, a larger Ic causes
the voltage drop across resistor Rc to increase, which in
turn reduces the voltage VRb across the base resistor Rb . 2.3 Fixed bias with emitter resistor
A lower base-resistor voltage drop reduces the base current Ib , which results in less collector current Ic . Be- The xed bias circuit is modied by attaching an external
cause an increase in collector current with temperature is resistor to the emitter. This resistor introduces negative
feedback that stabilizes the Q-point. From Kirchhos
opposed, the operating point is kept stable.
voltage law, the voltage across the base resistor is
Merits:
Circuit stabilizes the operating point against variations in temperature and (i.e. replacement of transistor).

VRb = VCC Ie Re Vbe

Circuit stabilizes the operating point (as a fraction From Ohms law, the base current is
of Vcc ) against variations in Vcc .
Demerits:
Ib =

VRb
Rb

Although small changes in are OK, large changes

in will greatly change the operating point. Rb must
be chosen once is known fairly accurately (per- The way feedback controls the bias point is as follows.
haps within ~ 25%), yet the variability of between If V is held constant and temperature increases, emitter
current increases. However, a larger I increases the emitidentical parts is often larger than this.
ter voltage V = IR, which in turn reduces the voltage
In this circuit, to keep Ic independent of , the fol- VR across the base resistor. A lower base-resistor voltlowing condition must be met:
age drop reduces the base current, which results in less

2 TYPES OF BIAS CIRCUIT FOR CLASS-A AMPLIFIERS

As -value is xed for a given transistor, this relation
can be satised either by keeping RE very large, or
making RB very low.
If RE is of large value, high VCC is necessary.
This increases cost as well as precautions necessary while handling.
If RB is low, a separate low voltage supply
should be used in the base circuit. Using two
supplies of dierent voltages is impractical.
In addition to the above, RE causes ac feedback
which reduces the voltage gain of the amplier.
Usage:
The feedback also increases the input impedance of the
amplier when seen from the base, which can be advantageous. Due to the above disadvantages, this type of biasing circuit is used only with careful consideration of the
trade-os involved.
Collector-Stabilized Biasing

Fixed bias with emitter resistor

collector current because I = IB. Collector current and

emitter current are related by I = I with 1, so the
increase in emitter current with temperature is opposed,
and the operating point is kept stable.

2.4 Voltage divider biasing

Similarly, if the transistor is replaced by another, there

may be a change in IC (corresponding to change in value, for example). By similar process as above, the
change is negated and operating point kept stable.
For the given circuit,

IB =

VCC Vbe
RB + ( + 1)RE

Merits:
The circuit has the tendency to stabilize operating point
against changes in temperature and -value.
Demerits:
In this circuit, to keep IC independent of the following condition must be met:

IC = IB =

(VCC Vbe )
(VCC Vbe )

RB + ( + 1)RE
RE

which is approximately the case if

( + 1)RE RB

Voltage divider bias

The voltage divider is formed using external resistors R1

and R2 . The voltage across R2 forward biases the emitter junction. By proper selection of resistors R1 and R2 ,
the operating point of the transistor can be made independent of . In this circuit, the voltage divider holds the

2.4

Voltage divider biasing

5
If RE is of large value, high VCC is necessary.
This increases cost as well as precautions necessary while handling.

base voltage xed independent of base current provided

the divider current is large compared to the base current.
However, even with a xed base voltage, collector current
varies with temperature (for example) so an emitter resistor is added to stabilize the Q-point, similar to the above
circuits with emitter resistor.

If R1 || R2 is low, either R1 is low, or R2 is

low, or both are low. A low R1 raises VB
closer to VC, reducing the available swing in
collector voltage, and limiting how large RC
can be made without driving the transistor out
of active mode. A low R2 lowers V , reducing
the allowed collector current. Lowering both
resistor values draws more current from the
power supply and lowers the input resistance
of the amplier as seen from the base.

In this circuit the base voltage is given by:

R2
2
VB = voltage across R2 = Vcc (R1R+R
IB (RR11+R
2)
2)

2
Vcc (R1R+R
provided IB
2)
VB /R2 .

<< I2 =

AC as well as DC feedback is caused by RE, which

reduces the AC voltage gain of the amplier. A
method to avoid AC feedback while retaining DC
feedback is discussed below.

Also VB = Vbe + IE RE
For the given circuit,

IB =

VCC
1+R1 /R2

Vbe

( + 1)RE + R1 R2

Usage:
.

The circuits stability and merits as above make it widely

used for linear circuits.

Merits:
2.4.1 Voltage divider with AC bypass capacitor
Unlike above circuits, only one dc supply is necessary.
Operating point is almost independent of variation.
Operating point stabilized against shift in temperature.
Demerits:
In this circuit, to keep IC independent of the following condition must be met:

IC = IB =

VCC
1+R1 /R2

Vbe

( + 1)RE + R1 R2

VCC
1+R1 /R2

Vbe

RE

which is approximately the case if

( + 1)RE >> R1 R2
where R1 || R2 denotes the equivalent resistance of R1
and R2 connected in parallel.

Voltage divider with capacitor

As -value is xed for a given transistor, this relation The standard voltage divider circuit discussed above faces
can be satised either by keeping RE fairly large, or a drawback AC feedback caused by resistor RE reduces
making R1 ||R2 very low.
the gain. This can be avoided by placing a capacitor (CE)

CLASS-B AND AB AMPLIFIERS

in parallel with RE, as shown in circuit diagram. The re- 3 Class-B and AB ampliers
sult is that the DC operating point is well controlled, while
the AC-gain is much higher (approaching ), rather than
3.1 Signal requirements
the much lower (but predictable) value of Rc /Re without
the capacitor.
Class B and AB ampliers employ 2 active devices to
cover the complete 360 deg of input signal ow. Each
transistor is therefore biased to perform over approxi2.5 Emitter bias
mately 180 deg of the input signal. Class B bias is when
the collector current I with no signal is just conducting
(about 1% of maximum possible value). Class-AB bias
is when the collector current I is about 1/4 of maximum
possible value. The class-AB pushpull output amplier
circuit below could be the basis for a moderate-power audio amplier.

R1

R3

R4
Q3
Q4

Input
C1

D1
Q1

Q2

D2
R7

R2

R5

A practical amplier circuit

Emitter bias

When a split supply (dual power supply) is available, this

biasing circuit is the most eective, and provides zero
bias voltage at the emitter or collector for load. The
negative supply VEE is used to forward-bias the emitter
junction through RE. The positive supply VCC is used to
reverse-bias the collector junction. Only two resistors are
necessary for the common collector stage and four resistors for the common emitter or common base stage.
We know that,

Q5

R8

Q3 is a common emitter stage that provides amplication of the signal and the DC bias current through D1
and D2 to generate a bias voltage for the output devices.
The output pair are arranged in class-AB pushpull, also
called a complementary pair. The diodes D1 and D2 provide a small amount of constant voltage bias for the output pair, just biasing them into the conducting state so
that crossover distortion is minimized. That is, the diodes
push the output stage into class-AB mode (assuming that
the base-emitter drop of the output transistors is reduced
by heat dissipation).

VB VE = V

This design automatically stabilizes its operating point,

If RB is small enough, base voltage will be approximately since overall feedback internally operates from DC up
through the audio range and beyond. The use of xed
zero. Therefore emitter current is,
diode bias requires the diodes to be both electrically and
IE = (VEE V )/RE
thermally matched to the output transistors. If the outThe operating point is independent of if RE >> RB/ put transistors conduct too much, they can easily overheat
and destroy themselves, as the full current from the power
Merit:
supply is not limited at this stage.
Demerit:
A common solution to help stabilize the output device
This type can only be used when a split (dual) power sup- operating point is to include some emitter resistors, typiply is available.
cally an ohm or so. Calculating the values of the circuits

R6

7
resistors and capacitors is done based on the components
employed and the intended use of the amplier.

See also
Biasing (electronics)
Small signal model
Bipolar junction transistor
MOSFET

References

[1] A.S. Sedra and K.C. Smith (2004). Microelectronic Circuits (5th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
p. 397, Figure 5.17, and p.&nbsp;1245. ISBN 0-19514251-9.

Further reading
Patil, P.K.; Chitnis, M.M. (2005). Basic Electricity
and Semiconductor Devices. Phadke Prakashan.

External links
Bias from Sci-Tech Encyclopedia
Electrical Engineering Training Series: Types of
bias

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