The SCIENCE

and ENGINEERING
of MATERIALS
Second SI edition

Donald R. Askeland

Solutions manual
Solutions supplied by Paul Porgess and Ian Brown
Department of Polymers, Metals and Dental
Technology, Manchester Polytechnic

Chapman & Hall

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Solutions to Practice Problems

Chapter 1:

Introduction to Materials

Chapter 2:

Atomic Structure

Chapter 3:

Atomic Arrangement

11

Chapter 4:

Imperfections in the Atomic Arrangement

37

Chapter 5:

Atom Movement in Materials

50

Chapter 6:

Mechanical Testing and Properties

63

Chapter 7:

Deformation, Strain Hardening, and Annealing

81

Chapter 8:

Solidification and Grain Size Strengthening

92

Chapter 9:

Solidification and Solid Solution Strengthening

106

Chapter 10:

Solidification and Dispersion Strengthening

116

Chapter 11:

Dispersion Strengthening by Phase Transformation

and Heat Treatment

126

Chapter 12:

Ferrous Alloys

135

Chapter 13:

Non-Ferrous Alloys

151

Chapter 14:

Ceramic Materials

160

Chapter 15:

Polymers

174

Chapter 16:

Composite Materials

191

Chapter 17:

Electrical Conductivity

204

Chapter 18:

Dielectric and Magnetic Properties

218

Chapter 19:

Optical and Thermal Properties

229

Chapter 20:

Corrosion and Wear

247

Chapter 21

Failure - Origin, Detection, and Prevention

259

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS

1.

The Stealth aircraft is designed so that i t will not be detected by

radar. What physical property should the materials used in the Stealth
plane possess to meet this design requirement?
The materials should be capable of absorbing radiation having the
wavelength of radar.
In addition, the materials must also have a
good strength-to-weight ratio, appropriate corrosion resistance, and
other properties that typical aircraft should possess.

2.

Certain materials, such as tungsten carbide, are compounds consisting of

both metallic and non-metallic elements. To which category of "materials
does tungsten carbide belong?
Ceramic materials.

3.

From which category of materials would you select a material best suited
for building a vessel to contain liquid steel?
Ceramic materials, which often have high melting temperatures and
chemical resistance to liquid metals. However, the ceramic must be
chosen with care, because many ceramics will react with the metal.

4.

Consider a cement wall reinforced with steel bars.

Into which category
of materials would you place this reinforced concrete?
This is a composite material.

5.

Boron nitride (BN) and silicon carbide (SiC) are important materials in
abrasive grinding wheels.
In what category of materials do BN and SiC
belong? BN and SiC are in the form of small particles and "are often
embedded in a polymer to produce the grinding wheel. In what category of
materials does the entire wheel belong?
The BN and SiC are ceramic materials; because the ceramic particles
are embedded in a polymer, the entire wheel is a composite material.

6.

Silicon carbide (SiC) fibers are sometimes mixed with liquid aluminum.
After the mixture freezes, a fiber-reinforced composite results.
Would
you reinforce aluminum with high strength polyethylene fibers in the same
manner? Explain your answer.
No. The polyethylene fibers are a polymer material and consequently
have low melting and degradation temperatures.
Introducing liquid
aluminum at a temperature above 600 0 C will destroy the polymer
fibers.

7.

The nose of the space shuttle is composed of graphite (carbon).

this information, what type of material would graphite be?

Based on

The nose of the shuttle will experience extremely high temperatures

upon re-entering the atmosphere from orbit.
Protection therefore
requires a very high melting point material, such as a ceramic.
Graphite is sometimes considered to be a ceramic, although it is not
a combination of metallic and non-metallic elements.
8.

Suppose we would like to make a porous metal filter to keep the oil in
our automobile engine clean.
Which one of the metal processing
techniques listed in Table 1-3 might be used to produce these filters?
Powder metallurgy might be an excellent choice.
We can compact
spherical metal powder particles to a small degree and sinter just
long enough so the powder particles are joined together.
This will
leave interconnected voids between the particles that will allow
liquid oil to penetrate but will trap small solid impurities.

9.

Sintering is listed in Table 1-3 as a ceramic processing technique.

In
which one of the metal processing techniques would you expect sintering
also to be used?
Sintering is an integral portion of the powder metallurgy process,
joining the powder particles together,
reducing void space,
increasing density, and providing good mechanical properties after
the powder metallurgy part has been initially formed by compaction.

10.

Which of the three ceramic processing methods mentioned in Table 1-3 do

you think is used to produce glass bottles?
The bottles are normally produced by a "compaction" process, in
which the glob of hot, viscous glass is introduced into a die and
then formed, often using gas pressure.

11.

By which one of the four methods of producing composite materials listed

in Table 1-3 would you expect plywood to be made?
Plywood is produced by "joining"; the individual plies are joined by
adhesive bonding, or glueing.

12.

Injection molding to produce plastic parts most closely resembles which

one of the metals processing methods?
Injection molding is very similar to die casting, in which pressure
is used to force a molten material into a metal die to give the
desired shape.

13.

The Voyager is an experimental aircraft that flew around the world

non-stop on a single tank of fuel.
What type of material do you think
made up most of the aircraft?
Explain why this type of material was
selected.
The Voyager was produced primarily from composite materials,
including carbon fiber-epoxy and fiberglass materials.
These
materials provided both the exceptionally light weight and the high
strength and stiffness required.
2

14.

United Stages coinage, such as the quarter, appear silvery on the face,
but close inspection reveals a reddish color at the edges. Based on your
observations, to which one of the five categories of materials should
a quarter belong? Explain.
The coinage is a composite material composed of high nickel sheets
on the two flat surfaces surrounding a core sheet of high copper.
the high nickel provides good corrosion resistance and the
appropriate silvery appearance, while the high copper in the core
minimizes cost. The edge appears reddish because when the coins are
stamped from the original sheet, the copper core is partly revealed.

15.

Relays in electrical circuits open and close frequently, causing the

electrical contacts to wear.
MgO is a very hard, wear resistant
material.
Why would this material not be suitable for use as the
contacts in a relay?
The MgO is a ceramic material and consequently acts
insulator rather than as a conductor. Although it
also will never allow current to flow through the
the relay closes very rapidly, the brittle MgO
however this latter point is not very important
electrical properties.

16.

as an electrical
may not wear, it
relay.
Also, if
could fracture;
compared to the

What mechanical properties would you consider most important when

selecting a material to serve as a spring for an automobile suspension?
Explain.
The spring must have a high strength in order to support the
automobile;
i t must have a high modulus of elasticity so little
elastic deformation occurs;
it must have sufficient ductility so
that it can be formed in the first place; it should have reasonably
good resistance to corrosion, particularly to salt that might be
picked up from the highway during the winter.

17.

The devices used for memory in personal computers typically contain an

integrated circuit, electrical leads, a strong, non-conducting base, and
an insulating coating.
From what material should each of these four
basic components be made? Explain your selections.
The heart of the integrated circuit should be a semiconducting
material such as silicon or GaAs so that electrical signals can be
properly processed and information can be stored.
The electrical
leads must have a high electrical conductivity and might be made of
aluminum or gold.
Because the base must be both strong and
non-conducting, it should be made from a ceramic material. Finally,
the insulating coating could be made from either ceramic or polymer
material. Polymers are most often used.

18.

Automobile bumpers might be made from a polymer material.

recommend a
thermoplastic of a
thermosetting polymer
application? Explain.

Would you
for
this

A thermosetting polymer, due to its network structure, is expected

to be very brittle; even slight impacts of the bumper against
another car, the end of the garage, or flying rock or gravel could
cause it to break.
The thermoplastic polymer has better ductility
and impact resistance and consequently would be the better choice.
19.

Sometimes a nearly finished part is coined.

During coining, a force is
applied to deform the part into its final shape.
For which of the
following could this be done without danger of breaking the part - brass,
Al 2 0 3 , thermoplastic polymers, thermosetting polymers, silicon?
In order to be coined, the material must possess at least some
ductili ty.
Of the materials mentioned, Al 2 0 3 is a ceramic and is
very brittle, thermosetting polymers are brittle, and silicon is
brittle; none of these could easily be coined without a danger of
introducing cracks or even. fracture.
Both brass and thermoplastic
polymers have good ductility and can be deformed.

20.

A scrap metal processor would like to be able to identify different

materials quickly, without resorting to chemical analysis or lengthy
testing. Describe some possible testing techniques based on the physical
properties of materials.
He could separate copper-base alloys from other metals by color copper, brass, and bronze are yellow or red. A magnet could be used
to identify most iron and steel alloys - with only a few exceptions
these are magnetic while most other common alloys that a scrap yard
might encounter are not.
Austenitic stainless steels could be
separated from other stainless steels by the same method.
The
weight or density might also be used; aluminum and magnesium are
lightweight compared to iron, copper, or nickel.
Chapter 21 will
also describe a variety of non-destructive tests, some of which
might be easily adapted by a scrap metal processor.

Chapter 2
ATOMIC STRUCTURE

1.

Silicon, which has an atomic number of 14, is composed of three isotopes:

92.21% of the Si atoms contain 14 neutrons, 4.7% contain 15 neutrons and
3.09% contain 16 neutrons. Estimate the atomic mass of silicon.
MSi

(0.9221)(14 + 14) + (0.047)(15 + 14) + (0.0309)(16 + 14)

28.1099 g/mol

2.

Titanium, which has an atomic number of 22, is composed of five isotopes:

7.93% of the Ti atoms contain 24 neutrons, 7.28% contain 25 neutrons,
73.94% contain 26 neutrons, 5.51% contain 27 neutrons and 5.34% contain
28 neutrons. Estimate the atomic mass of titanium.
MTi

(0.0793)(24 + 22) + (0.0728)(25 + 22) + (0.7394)(26 + 22) +

(0.0551)(27 + 22) + (0.0534)(28 + 22)

3.

47.9305 g/mol

Bromine, which has an atomic number of 35 and an atomic mass of 79.909

g/mol, contains two isotopes - Br79 and Br8l. Determine the percentage of
each isotope of bromine.
Let "x" represent the fraction of the Br 79 isotopes and
represent the fraction of the Br 81 isotopes. Then
79.909
x

"x-l"

(x)(79) + (1 - x)(81) = 79x + 81 - 81x

- 79.909)/(81 - 79) = 0.5455

= (81

Therefore Br contains 54.55% Br79 and 45.45% Br8l.

4.

Silver, which has an atomic number of 47 and an atomic mass of 107.87

g/mol, contains two isotopes - Ag l07 and Ag l09 . Determine the percentage
of each isotope of silver.
Let "x" represent the fraction of AgI07 isotopes and "x-1" represent
the fraction of Agl09 isotopes. Then

107.87
(x)(107) + (1 - x)(109)
107x + 109 - 109x
x = (109 - 107.87)/(109 - 107) = 0.565

Therefore Ag contains 56.5% Ag l07 and 43.5% Ag l09 .

5.

Tin, with an atomic number of 50, has all of its inner energy levels
filled except the 4f level, which is empty.
From its electronic
structure, determine the expected valence of tin.
First let's sum the electrons in the first four energy shells:
lS2 =

2 electrons

2s 22p 6 =

8 electrons

3s23p63dl0
4s24p64dl04fO

18 electrons
18 electrons
46 electrons

There must be SO - 46 = 4 electrons in the outer energy shell:

5s 2Sp2= 4 electrons = valence of tin
6.

Mercury, with an atomic number of 80, has all of its inner energy levels
filled except the Sf and 5g levels, which are empty. From its electronic
structure, determine the expected valence of mercury.
First let's sum the electrons in the first five energy shells:
2 electrons
8 electrons
3s23p63dl0 = 18 electrons
4s24p64JO 4[4

32 electrons

5s25p6Sdl05f05g0 = 18 electrons
78 electrons
There must be 80 - 78

2 electrons in the outer energy shell:

2 electrons = valence of mercury

7.

Calculate the number of atoms in 100 grams of silver. Assuming that all
of the valence electrons can carry an electrical current, calculate the
number of these charge carriers per 100 grams.
(a)

The number of atoms in 100 grams of Ag can be calculated from

the molecular weight 107.87 g/mol and Avogadro's number:

number of atoms = (100 g)(6.02 x 10 23 atoms/mol) = 5.58 x 10 23 atoms

107.87 g/mol
(b)

From Table 2-2, we expect silver to have a valence of 1.

Therefore is all of the valence electrons can carry a current,
the number of valence electrons equals the number of atoms in
the 100 gram sample, or
number of charge carriers

5.58

10 23 electrons

8.

Suppose there are 8 x 1013 electrons in 100 grams of germanium that are
free to move and carry an electrical current.
(a) What fraction of the
total valence electrons are free to move?
(b) What fraction of the
covalent bonds must be broken? (On average, there is one covalent bond
per germanium atom and two electrons in each covalent bond. )
(a)

First let's calculate the total number of valence electrons,

using the molecular weight of 72.59 g/mole and the valence of
germanium, which is 4.

number of atoms

(100 g)(6.02 x 10
atoms/mol)
= ~--~~~~~~~~--------~
72.59 g/mol
23

8.293

number of valence electrons = (4 electrons/atom) (8.293

= 3.7317 x 1024electrons
8 x 10 13

fraction that move

(b)

10 24

= 2.41

10 23

10 23 atoms)

10- 11

Because on the average there is one covalent bond per Ge atom,

the number of covalent bonds in 100 g is 8.293 X 10 23 Since
each broken covalent bond frees two electrons, the number of
broken bonds is half the number of free electrons, or 4 x 10 13
bonds. The fraction of broken bonds is therefore
fraction

9.

3.317

13

4 X 10
= -----------

8.293

4.82 x 10- 11

10 23

Compare the number of a toms in one gram of uranium wi th the number of

atoms in one gram of boron.
Then, using the densities of each (See
Appendix A), calculate the number of atoms per cubic centimeter in
uranium and boron.
(a)

(b)

The molecular weights of uranium and boron are 238.03 g/mol

and 10.81 g/mol. In 1 gram of metal,
U atoms

(1 g)(6.02 x 10
atoms/mol)
= ~~~~~~~~~~~------~
238.03 g/mol

2.53

10 21

B atoms

(1 g)(6.02 x 1023 atoms/mol)

10.81 g/mol

5.57

10 22

23

The densities of uranium and boron are 19.05 Mg/m 3 and

2.3 Mg/m 3. The volumes of one gram of U and Bare
volume of U
volume of B
U atoms/cm

B atoms/cm

3
3

3
1 g / 19.05 Mg/m 3 = 5.25 x 10- 8 m
1 g / 2.3 Mg/m 3 = 4.35 x 10- 8 m3
(2.53 x 10 21 atoms) / 0.0525 cm 3 )
(5.57 x 1022 atoms) / 0.435 cm3 )

4.82 x 10 22
1. 28 x 1023

10.

Suppose you collect 5 x 1026 atoms of nickel.

Calculate the mass in
grams and volume in cubic centimeters represented by this number of
atoms. See Appendix A for the density.
The molecular weight and density of nickel are 58.71 g/mol and
8.902 Mg/m .
(5 x 1026 atoms) (58. 71 g/moU
mass
48.76 x 103 g
6.02 X 1023

11.

Calculate the volume in cubic centimeters occupied by one mol of gold.

See Appendix A for the necessary data.
The mass of 1 mol of gold is equal to its atom\c weight, or
196.97 g.
The density of gold is 19.302 Mg/m.
The volume of one
mol is therefore

12.

Suppose you have 15 mols of iron. Calculate the number of grams and the
volume in cubic centimeters occupied by the iron. See Appendix A for the
necessary data.
The mass of 15 mols of iron, which has an atomic weight of 55.847
g/mol is
mass = (15 mols) (55. 847 g/mol) = 837.7 g
The volume of 15 mols of iron which has a density of 7.87 Mg/m3, is
volume

13.

= (837.7

g) / (7.87 Mg/m3 ) (10- 6 cm3/m3 )

= 106.4

cm3

A decorative steel item having a surface area of 93750 mm2 is plated with
a layer of chromium 0.125 mm thick.
Calculate the number of atoms
required to produce the plating.
The number of atoms can be determined by calculating the volume of
chromium (Cr), then calculating the mass of chromium from its
density (7.19 Mg/m 3 ) , and finally calculating the number of atoms
from the atomic mass (51.996 g mol-i).
Volume

area x thickness

(93i~g cm2) (0'i~5)cm

11. 72 cm3
Mass

volume x density

= 84.26

Number of atoms
(

g
mass
= mass/mol

x number of atoms/mol

84.26 g _1)(6.02 x 1023 atoms mol-i)

51. 996 g mol
8

= 9.76

x 1023

14.

Examine the elements in the IVB and VIIIB columns of the periodic table.
As you go to a higher atomic number in each column (as from Ni to Pd to
Pt), how does the melting temperature change? Would you expect this,
based on the atomic structure?
IVB
Ti-1668
Zr-1852
Hf-2227

VB

VIB

VIIB

VIIIB

V-1900
Nb-2468
Ra-2996

Cr-1875
Mo-2610
W-3410

Mn-1244
Tc-2200
Re-3180

Fe-1538
Ru-2310
Os-2700

Co-1495
Rh-1963
Ir-2447

Ni-1453
Pd-1552
Pt-1769

For the elements listed, the melting temperature increases for each
column as the atomic number increases.
15.

Examine the elements in IA column of the periodic table. As you go to a

higher atomic number, how does the melting temperature change? Would you
expect this, based on the atomic structure? Is this behavior different
from what was observed in the elements in Problem 14? Can you explain
this difference?
H-gas
Li-180.7
Na-97.8
K-63.2
Rb-38.9
Cs-28.6
The melting temperature decreases as the atomic number increases;
is opposite the behavior noted in Problem 14.

16.

Determine the formulas of the compounds formed when each of the following
metals react with oxygen. (a) calcium, (b) aluminum, (c) germanium,
(d) potassium.
... 2s 2 p 4

CaO

(b)

AI: ...

3s2 p 1

4
0: ... 2s 2 p

Al 0

(c)

2
Ge: ... 4s 2 p

4
0: ... 2s 2 p

GeO

(d)

K: ... 4s1

0: ... 2s 2 p 4

K2 0

(a)

17.

this

Would

Ca: ... 4s 2

expect

you

elasticity?
The

0:

Al 2 0 3

or aluminum

2 3

to

have

the

higher

modulus

of

Explain.

ions

in

the

ceramic

Al 2 0 3

are

joined

primarily

by

the

particularly strong ionic bonds; aluminum atoms are joined by

metallic bonding, which is normally less strong. We would expect a
deeper energy trough in the alumina than in the aluminum, leading to
a higher modulus of elasticity for Al 20 3 . The actual values are
A1 20 3 : 380 GPa
aluminum:

69 GPa

18.

Would you expect silicon or nickel to have the higher coefficient of

thermal expansion? Explain.
Atoms in silicon are joined by covalent bonds, while atoms in nickel
are joined by metallic bonds.
We expect the covalent bonds to be
stronger, leading to a deeper energy trough, a high modulus of
elasticity, and a lower coefficient of thermal expansion in the
silicon than in the nickel. the actual values are:
silicon: 3 x 10- 6 / o C
nickel: 13 x 10-6 / o C

19.

The compound GaAs is an important semiconductor material in which the

atoms are joined by mixed ionic-covalent bonding.
What fraction of the
bonding is ionic?
The electronegativity of Ga is about 1.8 and the electronegativity
of As is about 2.2. From Equation 2-1, the fraction of bonding that
is covalent is
fcovalent

exp[(-0.25)(2.2 - 1.8)2] = exp [-0.04] = 0.961

The fraction of bonding that is ionic must be 0.039 or 3.9%.

20.

The compound InP is an important semiconductor material in which the

atoms are joined by mixed ionic-covalent boding.
I f the fraction of
covalent bonding is found to be 0.914, estimate the electronegativity of
indium.
Does your calculated value compare well with what you might
expect, based on Figure 2-3?
The electronegativity of P from Figure 2-3 is about 2.1.
Equation 2-1, letting E be the electronegativity of Indium,
fcovalent = 0.914 =
In(0.914) =
(2.1 - E)2=
2.1 - E
E

21.

From

exp[(-0.25)(2.1 - E) ]
-0.0899 = (-0.25)(2.1 - E)2
0.3596
0.6
1. 5

Would you expect bonding in the intermetallic compound Ca 2Mg to be

predominantly ionic or metallic? Explain.
The electronegativity of Ca is about 1. 1 and that of Mg is about
1. 3.
The electronegativities are relatively the same, so we would
expect that bonding might be predominantly metallic.

22.

The electronegativities of both nickel and copper are 1. 8.

Would you
expect bonding in the intermetallic compound Ni Mg to be more or less
metallic than in CuAI? Explain.
2
2

The electronegativities are Ni: 1.8, Mg: 1.3, Cu: 1.8, and
AI: 1.5. There is a greater difference in electronegativies between
Ni and Mg than there is between Cu and AI.
Therefore we would
expect bonding in CuAl 2to be more metallic than in Ni 2Mg.

10

Chapter 3
ATOMIC ARRANGEMENT

1.

How many lattice points are unique to the base-centered orthorhombic unit
cell?
(1/8)(8 corners) + (1/2) (2 faces)

2.

=2

points/cell

Why is there no base-centered tetragonal structure? Draw a lattice

this structure, then determine what the actual unit cell is.

for

As the sketch indicates, the

base centered tetragonal
structure could be redrawn
as a simple tetragonal
structure.

3.

Why is there no base-centered cubic structure? Draw a lattice

structure, then determine what the actual unit cell is.

for

this

As the sketch indicates, the

base-centered cubic structure
could be redrawn as a
simple tetragonal structure.

4.

A material has a cubic unit cell with one atom per lattice point.
If a 0

= 4.0786 A and

= 1. 442 A. determine the

= 2r = 2.884 ~ 4.0786
0

crystal structure.

For simple cubic, a

For BCC,
For FCC,

5.

a
a

= 3.33

4.0786

= 4r/Y2 = 4.079

9!

4.0786

4r/V3

Material is FCC!

A material has a cubic unit cell with one atom per lattice point.
a = 5.025 Aand r = 2.176 A, determine the crystal structure.
o

For simple cubic, a

For BCC,

For FCC,

= 2r

4.352

4r/V3

5.025

4r/Y2

6. 156

11

5.025
5.025

5.025

Material is BCC!

If

6.

Using the atomic radius data in Appendix B, calculate the packing

factor for crystalline polyethylene.
The lattice parameters for orthorhombic polyethylene are
a = 7.41 A, b = 4.94 Aand c = 2.55 A. The atomic radii are
o
0
0
rC = 0.77 Aand r H= 0.46 A. From example 3-22, there are 8 H
atoms and 4 C atoms per cell

PF

(4 C atoms) [4n(0.77)3/ 31 + 8 H atoms) [4n(0.46)3/ 31

(7.41}(4.94)(2.55)

0.117

The unusually low packing factor is due to the restrictions of

covalent bonding and partly to the use of the particular atomic
radii listed in the Appendix.
7.

The density of lead is 11.36 Mg/m3 , its atomic mass is 207.19 g/mol and
the crystal structure is FCC. Calculate (a) the lattice parameter and
(b) the atomic radius for lead.
(a)

Because lead is FCC, there are 4 atoms/unit cell and we can

calculate the lattice parameter from the density equation
(4 atoms/cell) (207. 19 x 10- 6

p = 11.36

(a )3 (6.02

x 1023 )

121. 18 x 10- 30
:. a
(b)

10-10 m = 4.9485

For FCC unit cells

r

8.

4.9485

= iZ

= (iZ)

a o/4

(4.9485) /4= 1.749

The density of tantalum is 16.6 Mg/m3 , its atomic mass is 180.95 g/mol
and the crystal structure is BCC. Calculate (a) the lattice parameter
and (b) the atomic radius for tantalum.
(a)

From the density equation, with 2 atoms per unit cell,

p

(2 atoms/cell) (180.95 x 10-6 Mg/mol)

= 16.6

(a )3 (6.02 x 1023 )

(ao )3 = 36.215 x 10-30

:. a

(b)

=3.3085

10- 10

= 3.3085 A

For BCC unit cells

r

= 13

a /4
o

= (13)

12

(3.3085)/4

1. 433

9.

How many unit cells are present in a cubic centimeter of face-centered

cubic nickel? The atomic radius of nickel is 1.243 A.
The lattice parameter and unit cell volume for FCC nickel are

= 4r/V2 = (4)(1.243)/12 = 3.5163 A

= (ao )3 = (3.5163)3 = 43.4768 A3 = 43.4768
3
-24
unit cells/cm = 1 / 43.4758 x 10
= 2.3 x
a

10.

Calculate (a) the volume and (b) the mass of one million unit cells of
body-centered cubic iron. The atomic radius of iron is 1.241 A.
The lattice parameter and unit cell volume for BCC iron are

= 4r/13 = (4)(1.241)/13 = 2.866 A

V = (a )3 = (2.866)3 = 23.541 A3 = 23.541
o

10- 24 cm3

(a)

The volume of one million unit cells is

(b)

The mass of one million unit cells can be obtained from the
density which is 7.87 Mg/m 3.
mass

11.

= pV =

(7.87 g/cm 3 )(23.541 x 10- 18 cm3 )

A material with a cubic structure has a density of 0.855 Mg/m 3, an atomic

mass of 39.09 g/mol, and a lattice parameter of 5.344 A.

If one atom is
located at each lattice point, determine the type of unit cell.
We would like to find "x", the number of atoms per unit cell, using
the density equation.
p

(x)(39.09 x 10- )
= 0.855 = --~~~--------~--------6

(5.344 x

10- 10 )3(6.02

x 10 23 )

.. x = 2 a toms/unit ce 11
.. BCC structure
12.

A material with a cubic structure has a density of 10.49 M$/m3, an atomic

mass of 107.868 g/mol, and a lattice parameter of 4.0862 A.

If one atom
is located at each lattice point, determine the type of unit cell.
We would like to find "x", the number of atoms per unit cell, using
the density equation.

= 10.49

-6

(x) (107.868 x 10 )
(4.0862 x 10- 1)3(6.02 x 10 23 )

.. x = 4 atoms/unit cell
.. FCC structure.

13

13.

Antimony has a hexagonal unit cell with a o = 4.307 A and Co = 11.273 X.

If its density is 6.697 Mg/m3 and its atomic mass is 121. 75 g/mol,
calculate the number of atoms per cell.

v = a o2c 0 cos30 = (4.307)2(11.273)cos30 =181.1 X3 = 181.1 x 10-30m3

We would like to find "x", the number of atoms per unit cell, using
the density equation.

P = 6.697 =

-6

(x) (121.75 x 10 )
(181.1 x 10-3)(6.02 x 1023 )

x = 6 atoms/unit cell
14.

One of the forms of plutonium has a face-centered orthorhombic structure,

with a = 3.159 X, b = 5.768 X, and c = 10.162 X. The density of Pu is
17.14 Mg/m3 and the atomic mass is 239.052 g/mol.
Determine (a) the
number of atoms per cell and (b) the number of atoms at each lattice
point.
(a)

From the density equation we can calculate the number of atoms

per cell "x".
p

= 17.14 =

:. X

(b)

15.

(x) (239.052 x 10- 6

----:.::..::.:.---=..:::..::..:..:....:..::.::.....::..::....=-:~------::-:,---

(3.159) (5. 768) (10. 162) (10- 30 ) (6. 023 x 10 23 )

= 8 a toms/unit ce 11

There are 4 lattice points/unit cell in the face-centered

orthorhombic crystal structure.
Therefore there must be 2
atoms per lattice point.

Prasiodymium has a special hexagonal structure with 4 atoms per uni t

cell; the lattice parameters are a = 3.6721 Aand c = 11.8326 X, while
o
the atomic radius is 1.8360 X. Calculate the packing factor of Pro
V
unit cell

Vatom
PF

(3.6721)3(11.8326)cos30 = 138.18
4nr 3/3

X3

= (4) (n) (1.8360)3/3 = 25.9243 X3

(4 atoms/cell) (25. 9243

138.18 X3 /ce11

14

X3/atom)

0.75

16.

Gadolinium has a HCP structure just below 12600 C with a = 3.6745 Aand
c = 5.825 A. Just above 12600 C, Gd transforms to a BCC structure with
a = 4.06 A. Calculate the percent volume change when Gd cools from the
BCC to the HCP structure.
Does the metal expand or contract during
cooling?
Below 12600 C:
Above 12600 C:

VHCP
VBCC

= (3.6745) 2 (5.8525)cos30 = 68.4335

= (4.06) 3 = 66.9234 03
A

93

Both unit cells contain 2 atoms, so we can directly compare the two
volumes.
%change
17.

66.9234 - 68.4335 x 100

66.9234

-2.26% expansion

Lanthanum has a FCC structure just below 865C with a = 5.337 A, but has
a BCC structure with a = 4.26 A just above 865C. Calculate the percent
volume change when La heats from the FCC to the BCC structure. Does the
metal expand or contract during heating?

VFCC
VBCC

Below 865C:
Above 865C:

= (5.337) 3 = 152.02 A93

= (4.26) 3 = 77.309 A93

But the FCC structure contains 4 atoms/cell while the BCC structure
contains only 2 atoms/cell. To compare the volume of equal numbers
of atoms, we should use two BCC cells.
152.02 - 2(77.309) x 100
152.02

%change

18.

-1.71% expansion

Lanthanum has a special HCP structure just below 325C and the FCC
structure just above 3250 C. At 3250 C, the lattice parameters for the HCP
structure are a = 3.779 A and c = 12.270 X;
the lattice parameter for
the FCC structure at this temperature is 5.303 X.
Lanthanum has a
density of 6.146 Mg/m3and an atomic mass of 138.9055 g/mol.
(a)
Calculate the number of atoms in the special HCP unit cell.
(b)
Calculate the percent volume change when the FCC form of La transforms to
the HCP structure on cooling. Does the metal expand or contract during
cooling?
(a)

The volume of the special HCP structure is

V

(3.779)2(12.270)cos30

6.146 Mg/m3 =

(b)

=4

(x)

= 151.75 A3= 151.75

(138. 9055 x

1(f6

Mg/moll

(151.75 x 10- 3)(6.02 x 1023 )

atoms/cell

X3

Below 325 0 C:

151. 75

Above 325 C:

(5.303)3

Both structures have

compared directly.

4 atoms/cell

%change

x 10- 30 m3

= 149.13 X3

149.13 - 151.75 x 100

149.13
15

so

the

volumes

-1.76% expansion

can

be

19.

At 1450o C, thorium changes from one type of cubic unit cell to a

different cubic cell, with a 0.5% decrease in volume during heating.
Below 1450oC, the lattice parameter is 5.187 X while the lattice
parameter of the higher temperature form is 4.11 X.
What is the ratio
between the number of atoms in the unit cell of the high-temperature from
the the number of atoms in the unit cell of the low-temperature form of
Th?

= (5.187)3 = 139.556 X3
3
Vhigh= (4.11)3 = 69.4265 X

v low

We really do not need to consider the 0.5% volume difference.

By
inspection of the volumes of the unit cells, it is apparent that the
high temperature form of thorium must contain half the number of
atoms as the low temperature form.
atoms in high T form
atoms in low T form
20.

a-Mn has a cubic structure with a

=2
8.931A and a density of 7.47 Mg/m 3

~-Mn has a different cubic structure with a o = 6.326 AOand a density of

7. 26 ~/m3.
-r-Mn has a tetragonal structure with a = 3.784 A and c =

9.40 X and a density of 7.21 Mg/m3

The atomic mass of manganese is
54.9380 g/mol.
(a) Calculate the number of atoms in each of the three
polymorphic forms of manganese.
(b) Assuming that the radius of the Mn
atom is 1.12 A in all three forms, calculate the packing factor for each
of the three unit cells.
(a)

a-Mn:
:. x

(b)

Mg/m3

(x)(54.938 x 10-6 )
(8.931 x 10-1 )3(6.02 x 1023 )

7.26 Mg/m3

(x) (54. 938 x 10- 6 )

(6.326 x 10- 1)3(6.02 x 1023 )

= 20

-r-Mn:

:. x

= 7.47

= 58

~-Mn:

:. x

7.21 Mg/m 3

(x)(54.938 x 10-6 )
(9.4)(3.784)2

= 10

The packing factors are approximately

vatom = ~nr3
3
4(n) (1. 12 x 10- 1)3 /3

5.8849 x 10- 30m3

PF(a-Mn) =

(58) (5. 8849 x 10-30 )

-'.....-....:....:---~-=---'(8.931 x 10-1)3

16

0.479

(10- 3) (6. 02 x 102~)

PF(/3-Mn) =

= 0.465

(6.326 x 10- 1 )3
(10)(5.8849 x 10-30

PF(7-Mn)

21.

20(5.8849 x 10- 3 )

-'---'-'---'--'~"--'-:=

(9.40)(3.784)2

10- 30

= O. 437

Determine the Miller indices for the directions in the cubic unit cell
shown in Figure 3-35

[221]
[101]
c: (1, 0, 1) - (0, 1, 0)
[1111
1, -1, 1
D: (3/4, 1, 0) - (1, 0, 213) = -1/4, 1, -2/3 = [3 12

A:
B:

22.

A:
C:
D:

0, 112, 1)

0, 3/4,

1, -1/2, 0

(0, 1, 1)

0, 1, 0)

(0, 1/3, 1)
(1/4, 1, 0)

-1, -2/3, 1

(0, 0, 0)

0, 1/4,

0)

114, 1, 0
1) = 0,

1/2, -1

[210]
[323]
[140]
[012]

Determine the Miller indices for the planes in the cubic unit cell shown
in Figure 3-37.
A:
B:

-1

l/y

= 1/2,
= 2,

x = "',
l/x
0,

y
l/y
1/y

= 0,
= 0,

x
l/x

= -1,

l/x = 0,

c:

24.

8]

Determine the Miller indices for the directions in the cubic unit cell
shown in Figure 3-36.
B:

23.

(1, 0, 0) - (0, 1, 1/2)

= 1, -1, -1/2
(0, 112, 1) - (1, 1/2, 0) = -1, 0, 1

= "',

1/x = 0,
l/x = 0,

= "',

z
liz

liz
liz

1
1

= 2/3
= 3/2

=3

y = -2/3, z = -1
l/y = -3/2,l/z
-1
l/y = -3, liz = -2

(121)

(003)

(032)

Determine the Miller indices for the planes in the cubic unit cell shown
in figure 3-38.

A:

B:

C:

= -1,
= -1,
= -3,

= 2,

l/x
l/x
l/x

= 3/4,
= 4/3,
= 4.

z
liz
liz

-1/2
-2
-6 (346)

= 1,
= 1,
= 2,

z
liz
liz

1/4
4
(128)
8

= -1,
= -1,

z
liz

114
(014)
4

l/y
l/y

l/x

1/2,l/y
1, l/y

x
l/x

01),

= 0,

l/y

17

25.

Determine the Miller indices for the directions in the hexagonal unit
cell in Figure 3-39. using the three-digit system.

A:
B:

c:
D:

26.

A:

c:

D:

-4. -8. 3
O. -1. -2

[210]
[483]
[012]
[121]

(0.
(1.
(0.
(1.

-1. 1) - (1. 1. II

-1. -2.

O. 1) -

(0.

1. O. 1
O. 2. 112

O. 0) -

(112.

o.

0)

1. 112) - (0. -1. 0)

112. -1.

1. 0)

[120]
O. 4. 1

1. -2.

[lOll
[04ll

[120]

Determine the Miller-Bravais indices for the planes in the hexagonal unit
cell in Figure 3-41.
A:

a
l/a

B:

C:

a
l/a

l/a

lIa
a

lIa
28.

2. 1. a
-1. -2. 3/4.
O. -112. -1
1. 2. -1

Determine the Miller indices for the directions in the hexagonal unit
cell in Figure 3-40. using the three-digit system.
B:

27.

(1. o. 0) - (-1. -1. 0)

(0. -1. 3/4) - (1. 1. 0)
(1. 1/2. 0) - (1. 1. II
(0. 1. 0) - (-1. -1. II

l/a

c = 1

00

=a

00

-2

-1/2

l/a

l/a

=-1
=-1

-1

-1

llc

l/a

=1

llc

=
-1

(1011)

00

lIc

(1101 )

(1210)

Determine the Mi ller-Bravai s indices for the planes in the hexagonal unit
cell in Figure 3-42.

A:

l/a

B:

a
l/a

c:

a
lIa
l/a

=
=a

00

1
1
1
1

a
l/a

l/a

00

a
l/a

1/a

l/a

a
l/a

00

a
a

00

a
a

18

a
l/a
l/a

3
3

= -1
-1

c
llc

= 1/3
=3
=

1/2

-1

-1

lIc

00

= 2/3

lie

3/2

llc

a
a

(0113)

(0112)

(0003)

29.

Sketch the following directions and planes within a cubic unit cell.
z

a. [112]

b. [310]

c. [111]

d. [101]

e. [041]

f.

crOll

h. (111)

1. (013)

J. (12ll k. (20ll

l. (120)

g.

(111)

[203]

x
z

/--=--+---7- y
x

30.

(201 )

Sketch the following directions and planes within a cubic unit cell.

[lID]

a. [123]

b.

d. [131]

e. [1211

f.

g. (220)

h. (301)

i. (112)

j. (011)

k.

(421)

l. (141)

1 2

3'3,1

c. [010]
[134]

x
z

(301)

31.

(220)

Draw the (111) plane and identify the six <110> directions
that plane in a cubic lattice.
z

~--+--+-y

19

[lOll

[101]

[011]

[OIl]

[lID]

[110]

that

lie

in

32.

Draw the (110) plane and identify the four directions of the
that lie in that plane in a cubic lattice.

form

<111>

[111]

611]

[111]

[111]

33.

How many planes of the form {131} are found in a cubic system? Would you
give the same answer if we used a tetragonal or orthorhombic system?
Explain.
For the cubic system. there are 12 unique planes of the form
or 24 planes if the negatives are included.
(13)
(131)

(311)

(113)

(131)
(311)

(13)
(131)
(311)

{131}.

(113)

(31)
(311)

In the tetragonal system. planes of the form {131} would only

include 2/3 of those listed above. giving 8 unique planes or 16
planes if the negatives are included.
(131)
(311)

(131 )
(311 )

(131)
(311)

(131)

(311)

In the orthorhombic system. only 4 unique planes. or 8

negatives are included. belong to planes of the form {131}.

if

the

How many planes of the form {123} are found in a cubic system? What
the indices of the planes of the form {123} in a tetragonal system?

are

(31)
34.

(131 )

(31)

(131)

In the cubic system. there are 24 planes of the form

planes if the negatives are included.
(23)
(132)
(213)
(231)
(312)
(321)

(123)
(132)
(213)
(231)
(312)
(321)

(123)
(32)
(213)
(231 )
(312)
(321)

(123)
(213)

(23)
(213)
20

or

48

(123)
(132)
(213)
(231)
(312)
(321)

In the tetragonal system. there are 8 unique planes

{123}. or 16 planes if the negatives are included.
(123)
(213)

{123}.

(23)
(213)

of

the

form

35.

How many directions of the form <123> are found in a cubic system? Would
you give the same answer if we used a tetragonal or orthorhombic system?
Explain.
In a cubic system there are 48 directions of
including the following plus their negatives.
[123]
[132]
[213]
[231]
[312]
[321]

[123]
[132]
[213]
[231]
[312]
[321]

[123]
[132]
[213]
[231]
[312]
[321]

the form

<123>,

[123]
[132]
[213]
[231]
[312]
[321]

In tetragonal systems, there are 16 directions of the form <123>,

including the following plus their negatives.
[123]
[213]

[123]
[213]

[123]
[213]

In orthorhombic systems, there are 8 directions of the form <123>,

including the following plus their negatives.
[123]
36.

[123]

How many directions of the form <221> are found in a cubic system? What
are the indices of the directions of the form <221> in a tetragonal
system?
There are 24 directions of the form <221>
including the following and their negatives.
[221]
[122]
[212]

[221]
[122]
[212]

[221]
[122]
[212]

in

cubic

systems,

[221]
[122]
[212]

In a tetragonal system, there are 8 directions of the form <221>,

including the following and their negatives.
[221]
37.

[221]

[221]

[221]

What are the indices of the planes of the form {412} in an orthorhombic
system?
Planes of the form {412} in orthorhombic
following 4 planes plus the 4 negatives.
(412)

38.

systems

include

the

(412)

What are the indices of the directions of the form <121>, in an

orthorhombic system?
Directions of the form <121> include the following 4 directions plus
the 4 negatives.
[121]

[121]

[121]

21

39.

Determine whether the [101] direction in a tetragonal unit cell with a

c/a ratio of 1.5 is perpendicular to the (101). plane.
If it is not
perpendicular, calculate the angle between the direction and the plane.
The sketch shows the [101] direction and (101) plane in a tetragonal
unit cell with a= 2 and c = 3 (giving a c/a ratio of 1.5).
The
second sketch shows the trace that the plane and direction make on
the (010) face of the cell.
z

tan(et/2)
et/2

1. 5/1. 0

1.5

56.30
112.60

CIt

Obviously the direction and

plane are not perpendicular
to one another, as they would
be in a cubic system.

40.

Determine whether the [110] direction in an orthorhombic unit cell with

a = 3 A, b = 4 A, and c = 5 Ais perpendicular to the (110) plane. If it
is not perpendicular, calculate the angle between the direction and the
plane.
z
The sketches show the plane and
direction in the unit cell and
a view of the (001) plane which
contains the trace of the plane
and direction.
tan(et/2)
et/2
IX

41.

2/1. 5

53.130
106.260

k--t--::::;r#-- Y

1. 3333
x

Draw the plane in a cubic system that passes through the coordinates I,
I, 0; 0, I, 1; and 0, 0, 1. What are the Hiller indices of this plane?
z

x
l/x

l/y

co

(101)

r----I+-+--

22

l/z

1
1

42.

Draw the plane in a cubic system that passes through the coordinates 1,
1, 0; 0, 0, 1; and 0, 1, O. What are the Miller indices of this plane?
z

x
l/x

=m y = 1
= ally = 1

z
liz

(all)
)-->',.--H'JIJ-- Y

43. Draw the plane in a cubic system that passes through the coordinates
1, 0, 1; 1/2, 0, 1; and 1, 1/2, O. What are the Miller indices of the
plane?
z

x
l/x

= m y = 1/2 z
= ally = 2 liz

1
1

(021)

Jr-+-+---;f- y

44.

Draw the plane in a cubic system that passes through the coordinates
1, 0, 0; 0, 0, 1; and 1/2, 1, 1/2. what are the Miller indices of this
plane?
z

x
l/x

1
1

y
lly

=m
a

liz

1
1

(010)
J----+hf-y

45.

In the four-digit system for finding the indices for a direction in HCP
unit cells, is [110] equal to a [1120]? Show this by constructing the
path from the tail to the head of the direction.
c
The sketch below shows the [110] Direction,
which is actually the negative a
axis.
Let's let the origin be one of the p5ints on
our [1120]direction,.
If we start at the
origin and move 1 lattice parameter in the
a direction, 1 lattice parameter in the a
direction, and -2 lattice parameters in th~
a direction, we have a second point on the
d~rection. This point and the origin form a
direction that also is the negative a
direction and is identical in direction t5
the [110] direction.
23

\-z
\

~ to]:[f

t2.0]

46.

In the four-digit system for finding the indices for a direction in HCP
unit cells, is the [100] equal to a [2110]7 Show this by constructing
the path from the tail to the head of the direction.
The [100] direction is the at direction.

Let's let the origin be one point on the

[2110] direction.
We move 2 lattice
parameters in the a l direction, -1 lattice
parameters

in

the

a2

direction,

and

-1

lattice parameter in the a 3 direction and

produce a point 3 lattice parameters along
the at direction. The [2110] direction also

lies on the at axis and is identical to the

-I

[110] direction.

r ---- #'

,'.z

-I'

~OOl" c%.iiol

47.

In the four-digit system for finding the indices for a direction in HCP
unit cells, is the [011] equal to a [1213]7 Show this by constructing
the path from the tail to the head of the direction.
The [011] direction is shown in the sketch and
lies in the plane formed by the a 2 and c
axes.
Let's let one point on the [1213]
direction lie at the origin we move -1
lattice parameter in the a 1 direction, 2
lattice parameters in the a 2 direction,

-1

lattice parameter in the a 3 direction, and 3

lattice parameters in the c direction. This
puts us at coordinates indicated by +3 in the
a 2 direction and +3 in the c direction and
gives a direction that is identical to the
[011].

,.,
1

,
I

}t--+:HlIIl-- - -

_._l.. - --- - .:
-I

0..

24

\~

48.

Is the [1210] direction in an HCP unit cell perpendicular to the (1210)

plane? Draw each and verify your answer.
First we need to construct the direction and
plane in the unit cell. We let the origin be
one point on [1210].
We move 1 lattice
parameter in the a 1 direction, -2 lattice

parameters in the aa direction and 1 lattice

parameter in the a 3 direction, giving a second
point that lies 3 lattice parameters in the
negative aa direction.
The [1210] direction
is the same as the negative aa axis.
The intercepts for the plane will be a 1 = 1;
a

= -1/2, a 3

= 1;

c = m.

ct.

The plane shown in

a
the sketch satisfies these four intercepts.
It shol!.1d be aeparent by simple inspection
that [1210] ~ (1210).

49.

Calculate the linear density of a line in the [111] direction in (a)

simple cubic, (b) body-centered cubic, and (cl face-centered cubic unit
cells, assuming a lattice parameter of 4.0 A in each case.
(al

In simple cubic, atoms are located at corners of the cube. If

we start at the origin and move in the [111] direction, or body
diagonal, we do not encounter another lattice point until
coordinates 1, 1, 1.
repeat distance

= iJao = (iJl(4

Al

= 6.9282

x 10-8 cm

linear density = l/repeat distance = 1.443 x 107 points/cm

(bl

When we start at the origin of BCC and move in the [111]

direction we encounter the body centered atom at 1/2. 1/2. 1/2.
repeat distance

= iJao/2 = (iJl(4

Al/2

= 3.4641

x 10-8 cm

linear density = l/repeat distance = 2.887 x 107 points/cm

(cl

In FCC, we again do not encounter a second lattice point until

coordinates 1, 1, 1, just as in simple cubic.
repeat distance
linear density

25

= 6.9282

= 1.443

x 10-8 cm

x 107 points/cm

50.

Calculate the linear density of a line in the [110] direction in (a)

simple cubic, (b) body-centered cubic, and (c) face-centered cubic unit
cells, assuming a lattice parameter of 4.0 X in each case.
(a)

As we move in a simple cubic structure from the origin along

the [110], or face diagonal, we do not encounter another
lattice point until coordinates 1, 1, O.
repeat distance = iZa

5.6569

= (iZ)(4 X)

linear density = l/repeat distance

(b)

linear density

107 points/cm

5.6569

= (iZ)(4 X)

= l/repeat

linear denSity

10- 8 cm

1.768 x 107 points/cm

distance

As we move along the [110] direction in

another lattice point at 1/2, 1/2, o.
repeat distance

51.

10-8 cm

In BCC, the situation is identical to that in simple cubic

along the [110] direction.
repeat distance = iZa

(c)

1.768

FCC,

we encounter

= iZa/2 = (iZ)(4 X)/2 = 2.8284 x 10-8 cm

= l/repeat distance = 3.536 x 107 points/cm

Calculate the packing fraction in the [111] direction in (a) simple cubic
(b) body-centered cubic, and (c) face-centered cubic unit cells.
In
which, if any, of these structures is the [111] direction a close-packed
direction?
(a)

Simple cubic:
Length iJa

(b)

BCC:

FCC:

= iJ(2r) = 3. 464r

= 2r

or PF

/ 3. 464r

0.577

There are four atomic radii along the [111]

Length
(c)

There are two atomic radii along the [111]

= iJ(4r/iJ) = 4r

or PF

= 4r

/ 4r

= 1.00

There are two atomic radii along the [111]

Length

= iJ(4riZ)

4.899r

or PF

= 2r

/ 4. 899r

= 0.408

The [111] direction is a close packed direction in the BCC structure

52.

Calculate the packing fraction in the [110] direction in (a)

simple
cubic,
(b)
body-centered cubic, and (c)
face-centered cubic unit
cells. In which, if any, of these structures is the [110] direction a
close-packed direction?
(a)

Simple cubic:
Length iZa o

(b)

BCC:

There are two atomic radii along the [110]

= iZ(2r) = 2. 828r

or PF

= 2r

/ 2. 828r

There are two atomic radii along the [110]

26

0.707

Length
(c)

FCC:

= iZ(4r/iJ) = 3.266r

or PF

= 2r

I 3.266r

= 0.612

There are four atomic radii along the [110]

Length

= iZ(4riZ) = 4.r

or PF

= 4r

I 4r

= 1.00

The [111] direction is a close packed direction in the FCC structure

53.

Calculate the packing fraction of a (111) plane in (a) a simple cubic,

(b) a body-centered cubic, and (c) a face-centered cubic unit cell. In
which, i f any, of these structures is the (111) plane a close-packed
plane?
Sketches of the atoms centered on the (111) plane in each unit cell
are shown.

11

(a)

Simple cubic: Only 1/6 of each corner atom is included in the

plane within the cell.
(iZa 12)(iJa liZ)

= 0.866a2 = 0.866(2r)2 = 3. 464r2

0 0 0

Aatoms = (3 corners) (1/6 atomlcorner)nr 2 = nr2/2

PFSC = [nr 212] 1 3.464r2 = 0.453
(b)

Body-Centred cubic:
(Note that the (111) plane does not pass
through the center atom! )
A

111

= 0.866(4r/iJ) = 4.619r 2

Aatoms
PF
(c)

= (3

= (nr 2 /2)

corners) (1/6)nr
I 4. 619r 2

= nr 212

= 0.34

Face-centered cubic:
(Note that the (111) plane also bisects
an atom along each of the three edges)
_'" 2
Alll = 0.866(4r/v2)

= 6.928

r2

2
Aatoms = [(3 corners)(1/6) + (3 edges)(1/2)]nr

PF

= 2nr2

I 6. 928r 2

= 2nr2

= 0.907

The (111) plane is a close packed plane in FCC unit cells.

27

54.

Calculate the packing fraction of a (110) plane in (a) a simple cubic,

(b) a body-centered cubic, and (c) a face-centered cubic unit cell. In
which, if any, of these structures is the (110) plane a close-packed
plane?

(a)

Simple cubic
A

110

""fio.'

= iZa Z = iZ(2r)z = 5. 657rZ

0

Aatoms = (4 corners)(1/4 atom/corner)nr = nr

PF = nrZ / 5.657rZ = 0.555

(b)

Body-centered cubic:
A

110

= iZa Z = iZ(4r~)Z = 7. 542rz

0

A
= [(4 corners)(1/4) + 1 centre]nr z = nrz
atoms
PF =2nr z / 7. 542rz = 0.833
(c)

Face-centered cubic:
Z

A110 = iZa o = iZ(4r/iZ)z = 11.314rz

Aatoms = [(4 corners)(1/4) + (2 edges) (1/2)]nrZ

2nr Z

PF = 2nr Z / 11.314rZ = 0.555

55.

Calculate the planar density on a (111) plane in (a) simple cubic, (b)
body-centered cubic, and (c) face-centered cubic unit cells assuming a
lattice parameter in each case of 4.0 A.
Referring to the sketches in problem 53.
A

111

(a)

= 0.866a Z = 0.866(4 x 10-8 )z = 13.856 x 10-16

0

Simple cubic: The number of atoms located on the

is (3 corners)(1/6 atom/corner) = 0.5 atom.
PO = 0.5 atom / 13.586 x 10-16

(b)

3.61

BCC:
The number of atoms located on the
corners)(1/6 atom/corner) = 0.5 atom
PO = 0.5 atom / 13.856 x 10-16 = 3.61

(c)

Cia

(111)

plane

1014 atoms/cmZ
(111)

plane is (3

1014 atoms/cmZ

FCC:
The number of atoms located on the (111) plane is (3'
corners) (1/6 atom/corner) + (3 edges)(1/2 atom/edge) = 2 atoms
PO = 2 atoms / 13.856 x 10-16 = 14.43

28

1414 atoms/cmZ

56.

Calculate the planar density of a (110) plane in (a) simple cubic, (b)
body-centered cubic, and (c) face-centered cubic unit cells assuming a
lattice parameter in each case of 4.0 A.
Referring to the sketches in problem 54:

= .f2a'2.0 = .f2(4

110

(a)

Simple cubic:

PD
(b)

BCC:

=1

x 10-8 )'2.

= 22.627

x 10-16 cm'2.

There is one atom located on the (110 plane)

atom / 22.627 x 10-16

= 4.42

There are two atoms located on the (110) plane.

PD = 2 atoms / 22.627 x 10-16 = 8.84

(c)

FCC:

101 ' atoms/cm'2.

X 101 ' atoms/cm'2.

Calculate the llnear densities in the [110] and [101] directions in a

face-centered tetragonal unit cell with a = 4.0 Aand 6 = 6.0 A.
(110):

The [110] passes through a face-centered lattice point

repeat distance

LD
[101]:

=1

/ repeat

LD

= (1/2) (.f2)a = (1/2)(.f2)(4) = 2.828

distance = 3.54 x 107 points/cm

=1

(1/2)(..4'2. + 6'2.)

/ repeat distance

= 2.774

= 3.6055

10-8 cm

and

A and

(101) planes
c = 6.0 A.

"in

There are (4 corners) (1/4) +(2 faces) (1/2) or two atoms

located on the (110) plane
A110

PD
(101):

x 107 points/cm

Calculate the planar densities in the (110)

face-centered tetragonal unit cell with a = 4.0
(110):

x 10-8

The [101] passes through a face-centered lattice point

repeat distance

58.

There are two atoms located on the (110) plane.

PD = 2 atoms / 22.627 x 10-16 = 8.84

57.

101 ' atoms/cm'2.

= .f2ac

= (.f2) (4) (6)

33.94 x 10-16 cm'2.

2 atoms / 33.94 x 10-16

5.89 X 1014 atoms/cm'2.

"

There are (4 corners)(1I4) + (2 faces)(1/2) or two atoms

located on the (101) plane
A101

PD

= a./a'2.

+ c'2.

= 28.84

= (4) (/4'2.

X 10-16

+ 6'2.

cm'2.

2 atoms/ 28.84 x 10-16

= 6.93

1014 atoms/cm'2.
29

(101)

59.

Calculate the linear densities in the [100], [010], [110] and [0011
directions of a base-centered orthorhombic unit cell with a = 3.0
b = 5.0 A, and c = B.O-A.

A,

[100]:
LD
[010]:
LD
[110]:

= l/repeat

repeat distance

= l/repeat

[001]:
LD
60.

=b =5

distance

= 2.0

10-8 cm

x 107 points/cm

There are two points along the [110]

(1/2)/a2 + b 2 = (1/2) ,h2 + 52

repeat distance
LD

= a = 3 x 10-8 cm
distance = 3.33 x 107 points/cm

repeat distance

2.9155

= l/repeat

10-8 cm

distance

repeat distance = c

= l/repeat

distance

= 3.43

x 107 points/cm

B X 10-8 cm

= 1.25

x 107 points/cm

Calculate the planar densities in the (100), (010), (110), and (00l)
planes of a base-centered orthorhombic unit cell with a = 3.0 A ,
b = 5.0 Aand c = B.O A.
(100):

There is one atom located on the plane

contribute)
\00

= bc = (5) (B)

1 atom /ti0 x 10 2
2.5 x 10 atoms/cm

There is one atom located on the plane (only corners

contribute)
A010

= ac

= (3) (B)

= 24 x 10-16 cm2

1 atom / 24 x 10-16
4.17 X 1014 atoms/cm2

PO
(110)

x 10-16 cm2

-16

PO
(010):

= 40

(only corners

~>.:

!l
.- . . . 8

,:,

'.,-'

,', .

There are two atoms located on the plane (corners and half
of each base centered atom contribute)
A

110

PO

~
~
= cVa- + b- = (B)"'3- + 5-

46.65 x 10-16 cm2

=2
=

atoms / 46.65 x 10-16

4.29 X 1014 atoms/cm2

30

(001) :

There are two atoms located on the plane (corners and one
base centered atom contribute)

= ab =

AOO1

= 15

x 10-16 cm2

2 atoms I 15 x 10-16
13.33 X 1014 atoms/cm2

PD
61.

(3) (5)

Calculate the interplanar spacing between the following planes in gold

(see Appendix A for the lattice parameter).
(a)

(12i)

(b)

(201

(c)

(li2)

The lattice parameter for gold is 4.0786

62.

(b)

(c)

(d)

A
0.890

= 4.0786 I /z2 + 02 + 12 = 1. 824

4.0786 I

201

~2

(~21)

112
321

+ 22 + 42

4.0786 I ~2 + 12 + 22

1. 665

4.0786 I /32 + 22 + 12

1. 090

The interplanar spacing between (231) planes is found to be 0.89 A.

Calculate the lattice parameter if the material has a cubic crystal
structure.
d

63.

(a)

(d)

231

a I /z2 + 32 + 12

= 0.89

or a

= 0.89V14 = 3.33 A

Show that the radius ratio for an atom or ion that just fits into a
tetrahedral interstitial site without disturbing the surrounding atoms or
ions is 0.225.
Let "R" be the radius of the normal atoms and "r" be the radius of
the interstitial site.
The atoms in a tetrahedron actually touch
one another along the face diagonal. Along the body diagonal or the
tetrahedral cube
2r + 2R
2r
rlR

64.

= v'3a = v'3VZR = v'6R

v'6R - 2R

= 0.4495R

= 0.225

Show that the radius ratio for an atom or ion that just fits into a
triangular interstitial site without disturbing the surrounding atoms or
ions is o. 155
cos30 = R I r (r + R)

= 0.866r + 0.866R
rlR = 0.134 I 0.866

0.866

0.155
31

65.

List the coordinates for all six of the octahedral sites that lie in a
BCC unit cell. How many of these sites belong uniquely to one BCC cell?
The six octahedral sites are the faces of the cube.
1/2,

1,

0
112, 1/2

1/2,

0,
1/2,

112,
1,

112

Each is shared with another

uniquely to one cell.
66.

112, O. 112
112, 112, 1

1/2

cell,

so

only

three

sites belong

Using the ionic radii given in Appendix B, determine the coordination

number expected for the following compounds.
(a)

FeO

(b)

CaO

SiC

(c)

(d)

PbS

(e)

BO

2 3

From Appendix B, we find the ionic radii.

67.

(a)

r Fe

0.74, rO

1. 32, rFe/rO

CN

=6

(b)

rCa

0.99, rO

.1. 32,

CN

(c)

r Si

0.42, rC

0.16, rC/rSi

0.38

CN

(d)

rpb

0.84, rS

1. 84, rpb/r S

0.46

CN

(e)

rB

0.23, rO

1. 32, rB/r O

0.17

CN

= 0.56
rCa/rO = 0.75

Using the ionic radii given in Appendix B, determine the coordination

number expected for the following compounds.
(a)

Al 0
2

(b)

no

(c)

MgO

(d)

SiO

(e)

CuZn

From Appendix B, we find the ionic radii:

68.

(a)

r AI

0.51,

rO

1. 32,

rAl/rO

0.39

CN

(b)

rn

0.68,

rO

1. 32,

rn/rO

0.52

CN

(c)

r Mg

0.66,

rO

1. 32,

rMlr o

0.50

CN

(d)

rCu

0.96, r
Zn

= 0.74,

rcu/rZn

0.77

CN

Based on the ionic radius ratio and the necessity for charge balance,
which of the cubic structures discussed in the text would you expect CdS
to possess?
From the ionic radii,
rCd

= 0.97,

rs

= 1.84,

rCd/rS

= 0.527

CN

=6

The two ions have equal but opposite charges, and with the
coordination number of 6, a sodium chloride structure seems likely.

32

69.

Based on the ionic radius ratio and the necessity for charge balance
which of the cubic structures discussed in the text would you expect CoO
to possess?
From the ionic radii,
rCo

= 0.72,

rO

= 1.32,

= 0.545

rCo/rO

CN

=6

The ions have equal but opposite charges and the coordination number
is six, making the sodium chloride structure a possibility.
70.

The compound NiO has the sodium chloride crystal structure. Based on the
(b)
the
data in Appendix B, calculate (a)
the lattice parameter,
density, and (c) the packing factor for NiO.
The ionic radii are r Ni
(a)

and rO

= 1.32

the ions touch along the [100] direction, so

= 2r Ni

ao
(b)

= 0.69

MNi

+ 2rO

= 58.71

= 2(0.69)

g/mol, MO

+ 2(1.32)

= 16

= 4.02 A

g/mol, and there are 4

nickel and 4 oxygen ions per unit cell.

p

(cl

PF

PF

71.

(4)(58.71) + (4)(16)
(4. 02 x 10- 8 )3(6. 02 x 10 23 )

= 7.64

g/cm3= 7.64 Mg/m3

4(4n/3)r Ni 3 + 4(4n/3)rO 3
(4.02)3
4(4n/3) (0. 69)3 + 4(4n/3)

(1.

32)3

(4.02)3

The compound Te0 2 has the fluorite structure. Determine (a) the number
of tellurian and oxygen ions in each unit cell,
(b)
the expected
the lattice
coordination number based on the radius ratio,
(c)
parameter, and (d) the packing factor for the compound.
(a)

From inspection of the fluorite crystal structure and the

formula of the compound, there must be 4 tellurium ions and 8
oxygen ions.

(b)

The ionic radii are

r Te

= 2.11,

rO

= 1.32,

rO/r Te

= 0.626

CN

=6

Note, however, that the expected coordination number is not

achieved by the fluorite crystal structure due to the
requirements of the charge balance.

33

(c)

The ions touch along the body diagonal. There are 4 tellurium
ionic radii and 4 oxygen ionic radii along the body diagonal,
al though not all of the positions are actually occupied by
ions. Therefore
v'3a

(d)

4r Te + 4rO

4(2.11) + 4(1.32)

13.72 I v'3

7.92

4(4nI3)r Te

PF

= 13.72

+ 8(4nI3)r o

(7.92)3
4(4nI3) (2. 11)3 + 8 (4nI3) (1. 32)3

PF

72.

0.472

(7.92)3

One of the forms of BeO has the zinc blende structure at high
(b)
the density,
temperatures Determine (a)
the lattice parameter,
and (c) the packing factor for the compound.
From Appendix B, r Be
and MO = 16 g/mol.
(a)

= 0.35

A,

= 1.32

ro

A,

= 9.01

MBe

g/mol,

The ions touch along the body diagonal of the zinc blende
unit cell. There are 4 beryllium and 4 oxygen ionic radii
along this distance.
v'3a
a

(b)

(c)

PF

o
o

4r Be + 4rO

= 4(0.35)

6.68 I v'3

= 3.857 A

4(1.32)

4(9.01) + 4(16)

6.68

2.896 g/cm3

(3.857) x 10- 6 )3(6.02 x 10 23 )

3

4(4nI3)r Be 3 + 4(4nI3)r o
(3.857)3

4(4nI3)(0.35)3 + 4(4nI3)(1.32)3

PF

73.

0.684

(3.857)3

Which of the cubic structures discussed in the text would you expect CsBr
to possess, based on its expected coordination?
Calculate (a)
the
lattice parameter,
(b) the packing factor, and (c) the density of the
compound.
From Appendix
rCs/rBr

(a)

B, rcs

= 1.67

1.

I 1.96

A and

r Br

= 0.852

CN

67

1. 96

A.

The ions touch along the body diagonal.

there are 2 Cs ionic
radii and 2 Br ionic radii along this distance.
v'3a
a

o
o

2rCs + 2r Br
7.26 I v'3

= 2(1.67)

= 4.1917 A

34

2(1.96)

= 7.26

(b)

There is one Cs ion and one Br ion per unit cell.

PF '"
PF

(4n/3)r Cs3 + (4n/3)r Br3

---=-=------==(4.1917)3

(4n/3)(1.67)3 + (4n/3)(1.96)3

132.91 g/mol and MBr

79.909 g/mol

132.91 + 79.909
'" 4.S g/cm3
(4.1917 x 10- 8 )3(6.02 x 1023 )

74.

0.693

(4.1917)3

4.S Mg/m3

Germanium has the diamond cubic structure with a lattice parameter of

5.6575 A.
Calculate the size of the germanium atom in the unit cell.
Does this best match up with germanium's atomic radius or ionic radius?
The atoms in diamond cubic touch along the body diagonal. there are
S atomic radii (although not all are actually occupied by atoms)
along this distance.
r

V3a o '" Sr

= V3a o /S = V3(5.6575)

/ S

= 1.2249 A

The atomic radius listed in Appendix B is 1. 225 A and the ionic

radius is 0.53 A.
It appears that we should use the atomic
rather than the ionic radius.
75.

Calculate the fraction of the [111] direction and the fraction of the
(111) plane actually covered by atoms in the diamond cubic cell.
There is space along the [111] direction for S atomic radii.
although only 2 atoms (4 atomic radii) are actually located along
this distance. Therefore
fraction [111]

= 4r/Sr = 0.50

The area of the (111) plane is 0.S66a 2

o

= Sr / V3
= O. S66(Sr
111

/ V3)2

In diamond cubic,

= lS.4747r 2

Only the corners and face-centered atoms lie on the (111) plane:
A
atoms

[(3 corners) (1/6) + (3 edges) (1/2)]nr 2

fraction (111) = 2nr2 / lS.4747r 2

35

= 0.34

= 2nr2

76.

Calculate the fraction of the [111] direction and the fraction of the
(111) plane actually covered by sodium ions in the NaCI unit cell.
Let's assume that the Na + ions are located at normal FCC lattice
points.
In the NaCI structure, ions touch along the edge of the
cell, or
ao

2r Na + 2r CI

= 2(0.97)

+ 2(1.81)

= 5.56

There are only two Na+ionic radii along the [111] direction of the
unit cell.
fraction

= 2r

/ V3a

= 2(0.97)

/ V3(5.56)

= 0.201

Note: The [111} also passes through a CI ions at the center of

the cell so the total fraction covered by ions is

The area of the (111) plane' is

A

= 0.866a 0 2 = 0.866(5.56)2 = 26.77

~a

ions

111

[(3 corners)(1/6) + (3 edges) (1/2)]rrr Na 2

= 2rr(0.97) 2 = 5.912

2rrrNa2
fraction
77.

X2

= 5.912

/ 26.77

92

= 0.221

How many oxygen and silicon ions are present in cristobalite? Using the
ionic radii in Appendix B, calculate (a)
the lattice parameter,
(b)
the packing factor, and (c) the density of cristobalite.
Silicon ions are located at face centered positions and at four
tetrahedral locations, giving 8 Si ions per cell.
There must
therefore be 16 0 ions per cell, since the formula is Si02.
(a)

The ionic radii are r Si = 0.42

and rO = 1.32

X.

The

ions touch along a body diagonal, with 8 silicon radii and

8 oxygen radii along that length.
V3a
(b)

PF
PF

(c)

= 8(rSi

+ rO)

= 8(0.42

+ 1.32)

13.92

= 8.037 A

(8 Si ions) [4rr(0.42)3/3 ] + (160 ions) [4rr( 1. 32)3/3 ]

(8.037)3

= 156.628

/ 519.1369

= 0.302

(8 Si ions)(28.08) + (16 0 ions) (16)

p = ~------~~--~--~--------~~
(8.037 X 10-8 )3 (6.02 X 1023 )

36

1. 538 g/cm3
1. 538 Mg/m3

Chapter 4
IMPERFECTIONS IN TIlE ATOMIC ARRANGEMENT
1.

Calculate, using the data in Appendix A, the c/a ratios for magnesium,
cadmium, rhenium and beryllium.
In which of these metals is slip
expected to occur easily on the basal planes? In which is slip expected
to occur on the prismatic planes?
Mg:
Cd:
Rh:

Be:

2.

c/a
c/a
c/a
c/a

5.209 / 3.2087
5.6181 / 2.9793
4.458 /2.760
3.5842/2.2858

1.623
1.886
1.615
1.568

basal plane slip

basal plane slip
prismatic plane slip
prismatic plane slip

Determine the Miller indices of the slip directions on the (111) plane in
an FCC unit cell.
[101]
[110]
[011]

3.

[101]
[110]

[011]

Determine the Miller indices of the slip directions on the (101) plane in
a BCC unit cell.
z

4.

Determine the Miller indices of the slip planes in FCC unit cells that
include the (110) slip direction.
(111)
(111)

37

5.

Determine the Miller indices of the {110} slip planes in Bee unit cells
that include the [111] slip direction.
(110)
(101)
(011)

6.

Does the [111] slip direction lie in the (112) slip plane in the BCC unit
cell? Show by suitable drawings .

~,

.
7.

(110)
(101)
(011)

Yes
Note that the direction drawn in the sketch is:
0, 0, 1/2, -1/2, 112, 0 = -1/2, -1/2, 112
or -I, -I, I, = [111]

Does the [111]slip direction lie in the (123) slip plane in the Bee unit
cell? Show by suitable drawings.
1:

No
Simple inspection reveals
does not lie in the plane.

8.

the direction

Using the three-digit form for indices in the HCP unit cell, determine
the slip directions
the (0111) slip plane.

[100]

9.

that

[100]

Using the thr~e-digit form for indices in the HCP unit cell, determine
the slip directions in the (1010) slip plane.

[010]

38

[010]

10.

Verify that \he planar density of the {112} planes in BCC iron is 9.94 x
10
atomslcm, as used in Example 4-3.
The (112) plane is shown in the cubic cell and is also isolated to
better illustrate the dimensions and atom locations.
The three
corners of tpe plane contribute a total of 1/2 atom to the plane;
one edge contributes 1/2 atoms to the plane;
and the center
contributes 1 atom to the plane.
atoms

= 1/2

+ 1/2 + 1

=2

atoms.

= (112) (2v'2a Hv'3a ) = v'6a

112

= 2.866 A
o
A
= v'6(2.866 x
112

PD

11.

112

=2

= 2. 012

10- 1)2

atoms I 2. 012

10-15 cm2

= 2. 012

10-19 m

= 9.94

10-15 cm2

1014 atoms/cm2

Determine the length of the Burger's vector in BCC tungsten.

3.1652
The

Burger's

vector

is

the

repeat

distance

rd 111

along

the

<111>

direction, which is half of the body diagonal.

b

111
2.7411

b
12.

rd

(1/2)v'3a
10- 10

(1/2) (v'3) (3.1652 x 10-10)

Compare the planar density and interplanar spacings for the Ull} and
{1l0} planes in FCC aluminum.
Based on your calculations, on which
planes would slip occur?
a

= 4.04958 A

For (110): atoms

A

110

PD

110

=2

v'2a

For (111) atoms

111

= (4 corners)(1/4) +
= (v'2a 0 )( (a0 ) = v'2a 0 2
=2
=

(2 edges) (1/2)

v'2(4. 04958 x 10- 1)2

= 8.625

(3 corners) (1/6) + (3 edges) (1/2)

(1/2)(v'3a 1v'2)(v'2a)
0

39

0.866a

1018 pOints/m2

=2

PD

111

= 2 / 0.866a0 2 = 2 / (0.866) (4. 04958)

= 14.083 X 10 18 points/m2

Slip will
density.
13.

occur on

the

(111)

x 10- 1 )2

planes due

to

the higher planar

When BCC iron is in the softest condition, the dislocation density is

about 106cm/cm3;
large amounts of deformation of the iron increase
the dislocation density to 10 12 cm/cm3.
How many grams of iron are
necessary to produce 1600 kilometers of dislocation in (a) soft iron and
(b) deformed iron?
Firstly, find the volume of iron containing
dislocation, and hence the mass of iron.

the

length

of

km = 1600 x 1000 m
x 1000 x 100 cm = 1.6 x 108 cm
density of iron, p = 7.87 Mg m3 = 7.87 g cm- 3
length of dislocation 1

14.

= 1600
= 1600

(a)

mass

[1.6 X 10 8 cm/10 6 cm cm- 3 ] [7.87 g cm- 3 ]

1259 g

(b)

mass

[1.6 x 10 8 cm/10 12 cm cm- 3 ] [7.87 g cm- 3 ] = 0.00126 g

The dislocation density in an aluminum sample is found to be 5 x

Calculate the total length of dislocations in 100 g of
10 7 cm/cm3.
aluminum (see Appendix A for the necessary data). How many kilometers of
dislocation are present in the sample?
p
1

2.669 g/cm3
(100 g)(5 x 107 cm cm3 )

1. 87

2.669 g/cm 3

109 cm

18730 km
15.

The circumference of the earth is roughly 38,600 kilometers.

If
dislocations totalling this length were placed into one cubic centimeter,
what would be the dislocation density?
Dislocation density

= length

of dislocations
volume

(38.600 km)(1000 m/km) (100 cm/m)

1 cm3

3.86

40

109 cm/cm3

16.

Suppose that a single crystal of an FCC metal is oriented so that the

[0011 direction is parallel to an applied stress of 20 HPa.
Calculate
the resolved shear stress acting on the (111) slip plane in the [110],
[011] and [101] slip directions. Which slip system(s) will become active
first?
~

= 54. 76cos

= 0.577

=~

cos ~ cos A

[110]: A = 90, cos A = 0

T = (20)(0)(0.577) = 0 HPa
[011]: A
T

[101]: A
T

45, cos A = 0.707

= (20)(0.707)(0.577) = 8.16

HPa

45, cos A = 0.707

= (20)(0.707)(0.577) = 8.16

HPa

Slip begins first on [011] and [101]; no slip occurs on [110].

17.

Suppose that a single crystal of an FCC metal is oriented so that the

[001] direction is parallel to the applied stress.
If the critical
resolved shear stress required for slip is 1.5 HPa, calculate the
magnitude of the _appliec!. stress reguired to cause slip to begin on the
(111) plane in [110], [011] and [101] slip directions.
~

= 54.76

[lio]: A
~

[011]: A
~

cos ~

= 90

= 0.577
cos A

= T/cos

=0

= 1.5/(0)(0.577) = ~

~ cos A

HPa

= 45, cos A = 0.707

= 1.5/(0.707)(0.577)

3.67 HPa

[101]: A = 45, cos A = 0.707

~ = 1.5/(0.707)(0.577)

= 3.67

HPa

Slip never occurs in the [110] direction.

18.

Suppose that a single crystal of a BCC metal is oriented so that the

[001] is parallel to an applied stress of 80 HPa. Calculate the resolved
shear stress acting on the (110), (011) and (101) planes in the [111]
slip directions. Which slip system(s) will become active first?

A = 54.76, cos A = 0.577

(110)

~
T

= 90,

cos ~

=~

=0

= (80)(0.577)(0) = 0

(010): ~ = 45, cos ~ = 0.707

T = (80)(0.577)(0.707)
(101): ~
T

= 45,

cos ~

= 0.707

cos ~ cos A

HPa
32.6 HPa

= (80)(0.577)(0.707) = 32.6

HPa

Slip begins first on the (011) and (101) slip planes.

41

19.

Suppose that a single crystal of a BCC metal is oriented so that the

[001] direction is parallel to the applied stress.
If the critical
resolved shear stress required for slip is 58.6 MPa, calculate _the
magnitude of the applied stress to cause slip to begin in the [1111
direction on the (110), (Olll and (10ll slip planes.
A = '54.76

= cos ~ cos A

(11)):

~ = 90, cos ~ = 0,
u = 58.6/(0.577)(0) = m MPa

(011):

~ = 45, cos ~ = 0.707,

u =-58.6/(0.577)(0.707)

(101):
20.

cos A = 0.577

143.6 MPa

~ = 45, cos ~ = 0.707,

u = 58.6/(0.577)(0.707) = 143.6 MPa

Suppose that a single crystal of an FCC metal is oriented so that the

[0011 direction is parallel to an applied stress.
When the applied
stress is 48 MPa, a dislocation on the (111) plane just begins to move in
the [011]direction. Calculate the critical resolved shear stress in this
material.
Based on this result, do you suspect that there are numerous
lattice imperfections in the metal?
cos ~
cos A

0.577
0.707

T = TCRSS
U cos ~ cos A
= 48(0.577)(0.707) = 19.6 MPa
Because TCRSS

0.34 - 0.69 MPa

there must be many lattice imperfections

difficult for the dislocations to move.
21.

which

make

it

more

Suppose that a single crystal of a BCC metal is oriented so that the

[001] direction is parallel to an applied stress.
When the applied
stress is 93 MPa, a dislocation on the (101) plane begins to move in the
[111] direction.
Calculate the critical resolved shear stress in this
material.
Based on this result, do you suspect that there are numerous
lattice imperfections in the metal?
cos A
cos ~
T = TCRSS

0.577
0.707

cos ~ cos A
93(0.707)(0.577) = 37.9 MPa

This is a typical value for the critical resolved shear stress in

BCC metals;
there are probably few lattice imperfections that are
capable of interfering with slip.

42

22.

Suppose a single crystal of a hexagonal~close packed metal is oriented so

that the [001] direction is parallel to an applied stress.
Can slip
occur in the basal plane? Can slip occur in the prismatic planes such as
(1010)? Explain your answer to both questions.
In the basal plane. A = 90; in the prismatic planes.
Consequently slip will not occur in either plane.

23.

+= 90.

FCC aluminum has a density of 2.695 Mg/m3 and a lattice parameter of

4.04958 A.
Calculate (a)
the fraction of the lattice points that
contain vacancies and (b)
the. total number of vacancies in a cubic
centimeter of aluminum.

Using the density equation.

2.695 x 106 /m3 =
(x atoms/cell) (26.981 g/mol)
g
(4.04958 x 10- 10 m)3(6.02 x 10 23 atoms/mol)
x

= 3.9933

Al atoms/cell

vacancies/cell
(a)
(b)

24.

=4

- 3.9933 = 0.0067 vacancies/cell

0.0067 vacancies/cell
fraction = 4.0000 lattice points/cell = 0.001675
vacancies/cm3 = (0.0067 vacancies/cell) =.1 x 1020 vacancies/cm3
(4.04958 x 10- 8 cm)3

HCP magnesium has a density of 1.735 Mg/m3 and lattice parameters of

a = 3.2087 A and c = 5.209 A . Calculate (a)
the average number of
o

atoms per lattice point in the unit cell and (b)

vacancies in a cubic centimeter of magnesium.

the total number of

Using the density equation:

1.735 x 106 =

(x atoms/cell) (24.312 g/mol)

(46.4455 x 10- 29 m3 )(6.02 x 10 23 atoms/mol)

x = 1.99535 Mg atoms/cell
(a)

average Mg atoms/lattice point

(b)

vacancies/cell

=2

- 1.99535

= 1.99535

= 0.00465
=1 x

vacancies/cm3 = ____0_._0_0_4_6_5_____
4.64455 x 10-24m3

43

/ 2

1026 m3

0.99767

25.

If one atom is missing

The lattice parameter of BCC caesium is 6.13 A.
from one out of 800 unit cells, calculate (a) the number of vacancies per
cubic centimeter and (b) the density of caesium.

= (1

(a)

vacancies/cm3

(b)

In 800 cells of a BCC metal, there are 1600 lattice points.

Since one atom is missing in 800 cells, the average number of
Cs atoms per cell is

vacancy / 8000 cells)

(6.13 x 1O-B cm )3

(1599 / 1600)(2 lattice points/cell)

p

26.

= 1.99875

= ~9875

atoms/cell) (132.91 g/mol)

(6.0849 x 10- B cm)3(6.02 x 1023 atoms/mol)

101B

Cs atoms/cell
1.9157 g/cm3

The lattice parameter of FCC strontium is 6.0849 A.

If one atom is
missing for each 1,500 strontium atoms, calculate (a) the density of
strontium and (b) the number of vacancies per gram.
(a)

The number of Sr atoms/cell is

(1499/1500)(4 lattice points/cell)
p

(b)

= 3.99733

Sr atoms/cell

(3.99733 atoms/cell) (87.62 g/mol)

-B
3
23
(6.0849 x 10
cm) (6.02 x 10
atoms/mol)

= 2.582

M /m3
g

vacancies/m3 = (1 vacancy/1500 atoms) (4 atoms/cell)

(6.0849 x 10- 10 m)3
0.11836 x 1026
1026 vacancies/m3 )
2.582 x 106 g/m 3

(0.11836

vacancies/gram

27.

5.43

4.552

101B

A BCC alloy of tungsten containing substitutional atoms of vanadium has a

density of 16.912 Mg/m3 with a lattice parameter of 3.1378
the fraction of vanadium atoms in the alloy
Let Fy be the fraction of Y atoms;

A.

Calculate

then (1 - fy) is the fraction of

tungsten atoms. The molecular weight of Y is 50.941 g/mol and that

of W is 183.85 g/mol. From the density equation
6
3
16.912 x 10 g/m
fy

(2

atoms/cell)[(~

)(50.941) + (1 - f y )(183.85)

(3.1378 x 10-10 m)3(6.02 x 1023 atoms/mol)

0.2

44

28.

An FCC alloy of co~per containing substitutional atoms of tin has a

density of 7.17 Mg/m and a lattice parameter of 3.903 A. Calculate the
fraction of tin atoms in the alloy.

Let fSn be the fraction of Sn atoms;

then

(1 -

fSn) is the fraction

of copper atoms.
The molecular weight of tin is 118.69 g/mol and
that of copper is 63.54 g/mol. From the density equation
(4 atoms/cell) [(fSn )(118.69) + (1 - f Sn )(63.65)
7.727 x 10 6 g/m 3 ; ------------~~~~------~~----------~-
(3.903 X 10- 10 m)3(6.02 x 10 23 atoms/mole)

29.

Suppose that when one-third of the atoms in RCP magnesium are replaced by
cadmium atoms, the lattice parameters of the alloy are a ; 3.133 A and
o
5.344 A. Calculate the expected density of the alloy.
c
o

MWMg ; 24.312 g/mol

Vcell; (3.133 x 10

m) (5.344 x 10

-10

m)cos30; 4.54274 x 10

(2 atoms/cell) [(0.667)(24.312) + (0.333)(112.4)

(4.54274 x 10- 29 m3 )(6.02 x 10 23 atoms/mol)

p ;

30.

MWCd ; 112.4 g/mol

-10

-29

= 3.924

Mg/m3

Body centered cubic iron has a lattice' parameter of 2.868 A after a

carbon atom enters one interstitial site in every twentieth unit cell.
Estimate (a) the density of the iron-carbon alloy and (b) the packing
factor for the structure, assuming r Fe = 1.241 Aand rC = 0.77 A.
(a)

When we use the density equation, we must add onto the usual 3
Fe atoms per cell a factor of 1/20 of a carbon atom per cell.
MW
Fe
p

(b)

= 55.847

g/mol

MWC

12 g/mol

(2 Fe/cell) (55. 847) + (1/20 C/cell)(12)

(2.868 x 10- 10 m)3(6.02 x 1023 atoms/mol)

7.907 Mg/m 3

In each unit cell, there are 2 Fe atoms and 0.05 C atoms.

PF

2(4/3)(n)(1.241 A)3 + (0.05)(4/3)(n)(0.77 A)3

(2.868 A)3

45

0.6828

31.

Carbon atoms enter interstitial positions in FCC nickel. producing a

lattice parameter of 3.5198 A and a density of 8.955 Mg/m3
Calculate
(a) the atomic fraction of carbon atoms in the nickel and (b) the number
of unit cells you would have to examine to find one carbon atom.
(a)

The unit cell will contain 4 nickel atoms and "x" carbon atoms.
From the density equation. using MWNi = 58.71 g/mol and
MWC

= 12

g/mol.

8.955 x 106
235.08

= (4

= 234.84

Ni atoms/cell)(58.71) + (x C atoms/cell) (12)

(3.5198 x 10- 10 m)3(6.02 x 10 23 atoms/mol)
+ 12x

or

fraction carbon atoms/cell

(b)

32.

= 0.2

carbon atom per cell

0.02 atoms/cell
4 Ni atoms/ cell

0.005

Since there is 0.02 carbon atoms/cell. then 1/0.02

cells would be required to find one carbon atom.

50 unit

Would you expect a Frenkel defect to change the lattice parameter or

density of MgO? Explain.
Yes; the misplaced ion will strain the lattice. causing the lattice
parameter to increase and therefore reducing the density.

33.

Suppose one Schottky defect occurred in every tenth unit cell of NaCI.
producing a lattice parameter of 5. 57A.I Calculate the density of the
sodium chloride.
Although normally there are 4 sodium ions and 4 chlorine ions per
cell. the Schottky defects in every tenth unit cell produce. on the
average. (39/40) (4) sodium ions and (39/40) (4) chloride ions per
cell.
MWNa
p

22.99 g/mol

(5.57

MWCI

= 35.453

g/mol

(39/40)(4)(22.99 + 35.453)
10- 10 m)3(6.02 x 10 23 ions/mol)

46

2.191 Mg/m3

34.

Suppose th3e lattice parameter of CsCI is 4.0185 A and the density is

4.285 Mg/m. Calculate the number of Schottky defects per unit cell.
Let "x" be the average number of Cs and CI ions in the unit cell.
MWCs
4.285

= 132.91
X

106

g/mol

MWCI

= 35.453

g/mol

= ____-'x:.c. :. :(1:.. :3c.2::c:.. . :. 9.:. 1::-+---=3.::.5.:.....4.:..5:...:3:....:)---=-=--_ __

(4.0185 x 10

10

m)3(6.02 x 1023 ions/mol)

0.99424 ions/cell

There should be 1 of each ion in the caesium chloride structure.

The number of Schottky defects is therefore
defects/cell
35.

=1

- 0.99424

= 0.00576

Suppose the (111) plane is parallel to the surface of an FCC metal.

is the coordination number for each atom at the surface?

What

At the surface, 6 atoms would touch a central atom at the surface, 3

more atoms from beneath the surface would contact the central atom,
but the other 3 atoms are not present.
Therefore the coordination
number would be 9.
36.

How many grains would be

The ASTM grain size number for a metal is 6.
observed per square inch in a photograph taken at a magnification of 100?
How many actual grains are present per square inch?
N

= 2n - 1 = 26 - 1 = 25 = 32

total grains
37.

grains at 100x

= 32(100)2 = 320,000

grains

Twelve grains per square inch are counted in a photograph taken at a

magnification of 500.
Calculate the ASTM grain size number.
Is this a
coarse, medium, or fine grain size?
At 100x, the number of grains N would be
N

In(300)

= 12(500/100)2 = 300 = 2n- 1

(n-l)(ln(2)

or

This is a fine grain size.

47

5.7038

= (n-1)(0.693)

or n

9.23

38.

Eighteen grains per square inch are counted in a photograph taken at a

magnifIcation of 75.
Calculate the ASTM grain size number.
Is this a
coarse, medium or fine grain size?
At 100x, the number of grains N would be

N = 18(75/100)2
In(10.125)

= 10.125 = 2n- 1

= (n-l)ln(2)

or

2.315

= (n-l)(0.693)

or

= 4.34

This is medium grain size.

39.

Figure 4-23 shows the microstructure of a material at a magnification

of 100. Estimate the ASTM grain size number.
From the photograph, there are approximately 7 grains/in2.

= 2n - 1

In(7)
40.

(n-l)ln(2)

or 1.95

(n-l)(0.693)

or n

Figure 4-24 shows the microstructure of a material at a magnification of

500. Estimate the ASTM grain size number.
There are approximately 25 grains/in2 at 500x.
N

In(625)
41.

3.8

Therefore at 100x

= 25 (500/100) 2 = 625 = 2n - 1

= (n-l)ln(2)

or 6.44

= (n-l)(0.693)

or n

10.3

Calculate the angle 9 of a small angle grain boundary in BCC iron when
the dislocations are 7500 A apart.
The lattice parameter for BCC iron is 2.866 A. The repeat distance
of Burger's vector is half of the body diagonal, or
b

= (1/2)(13)(2.866) = 2.482 A
= 2.482/7500 = 0.0003309
= 0.01896 or 9 = 0.038

sin(9/2)
9/2
42.

A small angle grain boundary is tilted 0.75 in FCC copper.

the average distance between the dislocations.

Calculate

The lattice parameter is 3.6151 A. The repeat distance of Burger's

vector is half of the face diagonal, or
b

= (1/2)(i2)(3.6151) = 2.556 A

If "x" is the distance between dislocations, then

sin(0.7512)

2. 556/x

0.006545

2.556/x
48

or

390

43.

Suppose that 2 Fe3 + ions are substituted for normal Fe2 + ions in FeO.
What other changes in the atom arrangement (creation of vacancies etc)
would be required to maintain the proper charge balance?
We must create a Fe 2 + vacancy.
The addition of two Fe 3 + ions
introduces a charge of +6; removal of the two Fe 2 + ions only removes
However. if three Fe 2 + ions are removed. then a
a charge of +4.
total of +6 charge is removed~+the charge is balanced. but a vacancy
is created where the third Fe ion was removed.

44.

Suppose an Fe 2+ ion is substituted for an Na+ ion in NaCl. Explain why

you would expect that the charge balance would be maintained by forming a
vacancy rather than by adding another Cl- ion to the lattice.
The large Cl- ion would be added as an interstitial ion and would
create a larger amount of lattice strain than would be caused by the
formation of a vacancy.

49

Chapter 5
ATOM MOVEMENT IN MATERIALS

1.

When a force is applied at 300C, each inch of a metal stretches at the

rate of 0.025 mmlmin; at 400C, the rate of stretching is 0.09375 mmlmin;
and at 500C, the rate is 0.25 mmlmin. Calculate (a) the activation
energy for the stretching process and (b) the constant co' What are the
units for each?
(a)

From the equation rate = coexp(-QlRT):

0.025 _ c oexp[-Q/(8. 314) (300 + 273)]
0.25 - c exp[ 01(8.314)(500 +2731)]
o

0.1 = exp [(-Q) (0.0002099 - 0.0001556)]

0.1 = exp [-Q(0.0000543)]
In(O.l) = -2.302585 =.-0.00005430
:. Q = 42,405 J/mol

0.025 = c oexp[-42,405/(8.314) (573)]

0.025 = c oexp(-8/9012792)
0.025 = c o (0.0001362)
c
2.

= 183.55 mmlminute

The fraction of the lattice points containing vacancies in copper is

2.24 x 10-15 at 100C but is 2.42 X 10-6 at 700C.
Calculate (a) the
activation energy required to form a vacanc~, (b) the fraction of the
lattice points that contain vacancies 5 C below the melting point
(l085C), and (c) the number of vacancies per unit cell 5C below the
melting point.
(a)

2.24 x 10-15
2.42 x 10- 6
9.256 x 10-10

_
-

exp!-Q/(8.314)(373)]
exp[-Q/(8.314)(973)]

= exp!-Q(0.0003224

- 0.0001236)]

In(9.256 x 10-19 ) = -20.80056 = -0.0001988Q

Q = 104,631 J/mol
(b)

To find the constant c

2.42

10- 6 = c

c
..

exp[-104,631)/(8.314) (973)]

exp(-12.934143 = c (2.42 x 10-6

0

1. 0

50

At 5C below the metling point, or 1080C, the fraction 'f' is

f

1.0 exp [-104,631/(8.314)(1353)]

1.0 exp(-9.3014908)
9. 12

(c)

10- 5 vacancies/ lattice point.

In FCC copper there are 4 lattice points/cell

(9.12 x 10-5 ) (4)

:. vacancies/cell

36.48 x 10-5
3.

The diffusion coefficient for Al in Al 0 is 7.48 x

2 3

10-23 m2 /s

at

1000C

and is 2.48 x 10-14 m2/s at 1500C. Calculate the activation energy

the diffusion constant D .
o
7.48 X 10-23
D o[exp -Q/(8.314)(1273)]
2.48 x 10-14
3.016 x 10- 9

Do[exp - Q/(8.314)(1773l]

= exp[-Q(0.0000944

x 0.0000678)]

= exp[-Q(0.0000266)]

= -19.619334 = -Q(0.0000266)

In(3.016 x 10- 9 )

= 737,569

Q
2.48 x 10-14

and

J/mol

= D Jxp[-737,569/(8.314)(1773)]

= Doexp(-50.036152)

2.48 x

4.

10- 14

= Do (1. 8602

x 10- 22 )

The diffusion coefficient for Ni in MgO is 1.23

and 1.45 x 10- 14 m2 /s at 1800C. Calculate the
the diffusion constant D .

10- 16

D J xp[-Q/(8.314)(1473)]

1.45 x 10- 14

Do exp[-Q/(8.314) (2073)]

1.23

8.427 x 10- 3

= exp[-Q(0.0000816

- 0.000058)]

= exp[-Q(0.0000236)]
In(8.4827 x 10- 3 )

= -4.7697 = -Q(0.0000236)

Q = 202, 107 J/mol

1.23 x 10-16

D exp[-202,107/(8.314)(1473)]
o

51

10- 16 m2 /s at 1200C
activation energy and

1.23 X 10-16 = (6.8036 x 10-8)D

:. DO

5.

= 1. 808

x 10

-8

o
2
m Is

Estimate the activation energy for self-diffusion in titanium.

From Figure 5-S the activation energy is approximately
314,000 J/mol because the melting point is 166SoC.

6.

293,000

Would you expect the activation energy for self-diffusion in

which has the covalent bond, to follow the curve in Figure 5-8?

silicon,
Explain.

No. We would expect a higher activation energy for silicon

the strong covalent bonds.
7.

to

due

to

Suypose a 0.1 mm thick wafer of germanium contains one8 gallium atom per
10 Ge atoms on one surface and 1000 Ga atoms per 10 Ge atoms at the
other surface.
Calculate lhe concentration gradient (a) in atomic
percent/m and (b) in atoms/m .m. The lattice parameter for Fe is 5. 66A.
(1 Ga/108 Ge)(100) = 0.000001 at % Ga
c2

(10 3 Ga/10 8 Ge)(100)

= 0.001

at % Ga

dc _ (0.000001 - 0.001)
dx (0.1)(10-3)
-9.999 at % Ga/m
(b)

Vcell

= (0.566 x

c2

1
2.2665

= 0.18132

0.441

10-21

1000
2.2665 x 10-21

10-27 m3

0.1

1021 Ga atoms/m3

441. 21 x 1021 Ge atoms/m3

(0.441 - 441.21) x 1021

8.

(l08 Ge) (0.18132 x 10-27 )

8 Ge atoms/cell
2.2665 X 10-21 m3

V(10 8 atoms)

10-9 )3

10-3

-4.408 x 10 27 atoms/m3 . m

One surface ~f an 0.5 mm thick wafer of germanium ~ontains 5 gallium

atoms per 10 Ge atoms. How many gallium atoms per 10 Ge atoms must be
in*t0duced at the other surface to give a concentration gradient of -2 x
10 atoms/m3.m? The lattice parameter for Ge is 5.66 A.
-28 3
) = 1. 8132 x 10
m
5
28
V(10S Ge atoms) = (0 ) (1. 8132 x 10- )
Vcell = (0.566 x 10

-9 3

2.2665
52

10-24 m3

512.2665 x 10-24
y/2.2665 x 10-24
[(y - 5)/2.2665 x 10- 24 )10.5
-2 X 1027 atoms/m3.m
(y -

5)

103

-2.2665

.. y = 2.7335 Ga atoms/lOs Ge atoms

9.

wm

A 0.01
thick foil of iron separates a gas 2fontaining ~ x 1028 H
H atoms/m.
If the
atoms/m from another chamber containing 6 x 10
system is operating at 1000C and the iron is FCC, calculate (a) the
concentration gradient of hydrogen through the foil and (b) the flux of
hydrogen atoms through the foil.

(a)

the concentration gradient is:

=6

x Hj32

Using D for H in FCC Fe at 1000C

= 1.07

fJ.x

(b)

atoms/ffi. m
X

10-8 m2s- 1.

The flux is:

-DfJ.c/fJ.x
- (1.07 x 10-8 )(-9.9999 x 1032 )
10.69 X 10 24 atoms/(m2 s)

10.

22
28
x 10 - 1 x 10
3
0.01 x 10-

= -9.9999

fJ.c

Nitrogen is held in a pressure chamber by a BCC iron foil only 0.2 mm

thick. The concentrgtion of 3nitrogen is 3 x 1026 atoms/m3 on one side of
the foil but 5 x 10 atoms/m on the other side. Calculate the flux of
nitrogen atoms through the foil at 750C.
'c/'x
= 5 x 1016 - 3 X lcf 6 = -1. 5 x 10 30 atoms/m.
3 m
u
u
0.2 x 10- 3
D for N in BCC Fe at 750C

5.784. x 10

-11

2-1
ms

- D fJ.c/fJ.x

.. J

- (5.784 x 10- 11 )(-1.5 x 1030 )

8.676
11.

1019 atoms/(m2 s)

the concent[ation gradient required .to produ~e a flux of

hydrogen atoms/m . s through a BCC iron fOll at 800 C.

Cat~ulate

10

D for C in BCC Fe at 800C

10 x 109 atoms/m2 /s
fJ.c/fJ.x

= -4.5095

= 2.217

= -(2.217

x 10-8 ) fJ.c/fJ.x

x 1017 atoms/m3.m

53

10-8 m2s- 1

10

12.

An FCC iron structure is to be manufactured that will allow no more

than
the
100 x 104 H atoms/m2 to pass through it in one minute at 950C.
composition of the hydrogen is 1 x 1026H atoms/m3 on one side of the foil
and 5 x 1023 H atoms/m3 on the other side.
Calculate (a) the
concentration gradient and (b)
the minimum thickness of the iron
required.
J

= 106

D for H in FCC Fe at
166.67

= 166.67 atoms/(m2 s)
950C = 9.09 x 10- 9 m2 /s

atoms/(m 2 minute)

= -(9.09

x 10-9 ) ~c

~x

~~ = -1. 8335 x 1012 atoms/m3 .m

= -9.95

~c

5 X 1023

-(9.95 x 10 25 )/(-1.8335 x 1012 )

1 X 1026

1025 atoms/m3

= 5.43

1013 m

:. minimum thickness is impr.actical.

13.

Determine the maximum allowable temperature that will produce a

less than 950 x 10 4 N atoms/(m2 s) through a BCC iron foil
the concentration gradient is -3 x 1024 atoms/m3 .m.
950

104 atoms/(m2 s) = -(0.0047 x 10-14 )exp [ - (8.314)

76571 (T) ] x (-3
950

(0.0047 x

10 4

10-4 )(3

of

1024 )

exp (- 9209.86/T)

x 10 24 )

In(6.7375 x 10- 12 )

flux
when

= -25.723319

-9209.86/T

:. T = 358 K = 85C

14.

Suppose a diffusion couple is produced between pure nickel and pure

copper at 1000C. Will the interface tend to move toward the pure nickel
or the pure copper side? Explain using suitable calculations.
For Ni diffusing in Cu
DNi

-4
[
242,265]
-4
(2.3 x 10 )exp - (8.314)(1273) = (2.3 x 10 )exp(-22.890343)

(2.3 x 10- 4 )(1.1451 x 10-1)

2.6338 x 10- 14 m2 /s
For Cu diffusing in Ni
DCu

= (0.65

x 10

-4

[
257, 328
]
)exp -(8.314)(1273)

54

(0.65 x 10- 4 )exp(-24.313576)

(0.65 x 10-4 )(2.7589 x 10- 11 )
1. 7932 x 10- 15 m2 /s
DNi > DCu

15.

:. more nickel will move towards the copper.

A carburizing process is done to a 0.15% C steel by introducing 1.1% C at

the surface at 1000C, where the iron is FCC.
Calculate the carbon
content at 0.1 mm, 0.5 mrn and 1 mm beneath the surface after 1 h.
D

= 0.23

x 10

1.1 - x
1. 1 - 0.5

-4

[
137,660
]
exp (8.314)(1273)

= erf

--:;::::=========
Y

2v15.1637 x 10-11 (3600)

erf (1159.68 y)
x

= 0.1

For y

1.1 - (0.95) erf (1159.68 y)

mm

= 0.1

x 10- 3 m

erf[(1159.68)(0.1 x 10- 3 )]

= erf

(0.11597)

= 0.1
~

= 1.1

= 0.5

For y

= 1.005%

- [(0.95)(0.1)]

mrn

0.5 x 10- 3 m

erf[(1159.60)(0.1 x 10- 3 )]
~

For y

= 1.1 = 1 mm = 1
x

[(0.95)(0.6)]

16.

= 1. 1

= erf (0.5798) = 0.6

= 0.53% C

x 10- 3 m

erf[(1159.68)(1 x 10- 3 )]
:. X

= erf

- [( O. 95) (0. 9)]

(1.1597)

= O. 245%

0.9

A carburizing process is done to a 0.0% C steel by introducing 1.0% C at

the surface. Calculate the carbon content 1 mm beneath the surface after

holding at 912C for 1 h if (a) the iron is FCC and (b) the iron is
Explain the difference that the structure makes.
(a)

DFCC

= 0.23

x 10

-4

[-137 660
]
exp (8.314i(1185)

(0.23 x 10- 4 ) exp (- 13.9727)

1.9654 x 10-11 m2 s-l

55

BCC.

1 - x

r=ci

.. x

(b)

= erf

= erf

(1.88)

= 0.02%

0.001
}
I
2 v1.9654 x 10-11 (3600)

= 0.98

DBCC = (0.011 x 10

-4

[
87,450
]
) exp -(8.3147)(1187)

(0.011 x 10- 4 ) exp(-8.8763)

1. 536 x 10- to m2 Is
1 - x
- = erf

1 - 0

= erf

(0.6724)

= 0.38%

:. X

0.001
}
2 ~.5364 x 10-1 (3600)
0.62

Diffusion occurs more rapidly in BCC iron due to the more open
crystal structure.
17.

We would like to produce 0.45% C at a distance

surface of a steel part by carburizing. If the
0.15% C and 1.2% C is introduced to the
carburizing take at 1100C. Assume the iron is
D

= 0.23

137,660
]
exp [ -(8.314)((1373)

1. 332 x 10-10
1.2 - 0.45
1.2 - 0.15
0.7143
:. t
18.

= 0.23

of 2.5 mm beneath the

steel originally contains
surface, how long will
FCC.

exp (-12.05945)

m2 /s

= erf

2.5

[
2

It. 332

10-3

x 10- 10 t

= erf(108.324/vt)

= 239475 = 6.65

hours

We would like to produce 0.3% C at a distance of 1.5 mm beneath the

surface of a steel part by carburizing. If the steel originally contains
0.10% C and 1.0% C is introduced to the surface, what carburizing
temperature is required if the treatment is to be accomplished in 0.33
hours? Assume the iron is FCC.

! = ~:t = 0.7778

-3

erf

[1. 5 x 10
2v'Dt

56

1. 5

0.8
.. 9.375

.. 8.8

10-7

10- 4

10-3

2v'Dt

= v'Dt

= Dt

.. D = (8.8 x 10-7 )/(0.33)(3600) = 7.398 x 10- 10 m2 /s

7.398 x 10-10

= 0.23

1~:10)

1600 K

19.

10- 4 exp [

= In

In [7.398 x
0.23 x 10
.. T

-~~~i:~~)]

(3.21 x 10-5 )

=-

10.3446

137660
8.314(T)

1328C

We would like to produce 0.2% C at a distance of 1 mm beneath the surface

of a 0.01% C steel part by carburizing. If we carburize at 975C for
10 h, how much carbon must we expose to the surface of the part? Assume
the steel is FCC during treatment.
137,660]
(0.23 x 10- 4 ) exp [
- (8.314)(1248)

(0.23 x 10- 4 ) exp (-13.26732)

3.979 x 10-11
t

(10) (3600)

x - 0.2
x - 0.01

m2 /s

= 36,000

1. 0 x 10

erf

0.4 (x - 0.001)

.. 0.6x

0.196

= 0.327%

= 0.4

.. x - 0.2

.. x

-3

[ 2 /c3.979 x 10- 11 )(36,000)

erf (0.42)

20.

= 0.4x

- 0.004

We would like to produce 0.12% N at a distance of 4 mm beneath the

surface of a steel containing 0.002% N by introducing 0.35% N to the
surface of the steel. How long would this nitriding require if it were
done at 700C? Assume the iron is BCC.
-4

76570
]
- (8.314)(973)
) exp (-9.46543)

D = (0.0047 x 10 ~4exp
:. D

(0.0047 x 10

57

0.35 - 0.12
0.35 - 0.002 = 0.661

J'Lt
.. Yl;

:. t

= 331. 42

0.7

2.2416

105 s

62.27 hours
21.

During nitriding of a BCC steel containing 0.005% N, 0.45% N is

introduced to the surface at 650C for 4 h.
Calculate the nitrogen
content at a distance of 2 mm beneath the surface of the steel.
D = (0.0047 x 10-4 ) exp

(-

76570
)
(8.314)(923)

(0.0047 x 10- 4 ) exp (-9.97808)

2.18 x 10-11 m2
t

S-l

4 x 3600 = 14,400 s

0.45 - x
0.45
0.005

erf (

= erf
0.45 - x

10-3

2 yf(2.18 x 10- 11 )(14,400)

(1.7848)

0.97

(0.97) (0. 445)

x = 0.018% N

22.

Calculate the nitriding temperature when a BCC steel containing 0.075% N

is exposed to 0.25% N for 18 h, producing 0.12% N at a distance of 8 mm
beneath the surface.
t

= (18)(3600) = 64,800

0.25 - 0.12
0.25 - 0.0075

s
3
erf (0.8 x 10- )
2m

0.7429

6
= erf (1. 5~3 x 10- )

.. 0.78

58

1. 5713 x 10- 6
Vi)

:. D

:. 4.0584 x 10 -12

=-

12

23.

= 790

10-12 m2 /s

(0.0047 x 10-4 ) exp [76,570]

- (8.314) (T)

In ( 4.0584 x 10- _ 4 )
0.0047 x 10
~ T

= 4.0584

11.659699

=-

76,570
8.314(T)

517C

Decarburization of a steel occurs when carbon diffuses from the steel to

the surface and enters the atmosphere. How long will it take for a 0.60%
C steel surface to decarburize below 0.10% C for a depth of 2 mm if the
FCC steel is held at 1250C in an atmosphere containing zero carbon?
D

137,660
(0.23 x 10- 4 ) exp [
- (8.314) (523)

(0.23 x 10- 4 ) exp (-10.8717)

4.3672 x 10- 10

o-

0.1
0 - 0.6

erf

m2 /s

x 10- 3

[2/4.3672 x 10- 1O (t)

.. 0.1667

erf [47.852 )
2v'Dt

.. 0.15 vt

= 47.852

:. t = 101,768 s = 28.27 hours

24.

Calculate the distance below the surface of 0.80% C steel that, after
exposure to air for 100 h at 1200C, is decarburized to 0.2% C or less.
The steel is FCC during this process.
D

= (0.23

x 10

-4

) exp

137660)
- (8.314)(1473)

0.23 x 10- 4 exp (-11.24075)

3.01948 x 10- 10 m2 /s
t

360,000 s

.. Dt = 0.0001087
and v'Dt

= 0.010426

oo-

= 0.25 = erf (2(0~010426)

0.2
0.8

.. 0.2

x
0.020852
59

.. 0.00417 m

=x

x = 4.17 mm
25.

A carburizing heat treatment of an FCC steel normally can be successfully

completed at 1250C in 2 h.
What
temperature were lowered to 1100C?
D1

-4

(0.23 x 10

) exp

time

would

be

necessary

if

the

(137,600)
- (8.314)(1523)

4.3672 X 10- 10 m2/s

D2

(0.23 x 10

.. D t

..2...2.
D

-4

) exp

(4.3672 x 10-10
(1.3316 x
.. t2
26.

(137,600)
- (8.314)(1373)

= 6.56

(2)

10- 10 )

hours

A nitriding heat treatment of a BCC steel normally requires 2 h at 600C.

What temperature would be required to reduce the heat treatment time to
1 h?
(0.0047 x 10- 4 ) exp (

= 1. 2316
t

10- 11 m2/s

=1

2 hr

(1.

2 -11
2.4632 x 10

:. D2

D t

76570
)
- (8.314) (873)

hr

2316 ~ 10

-11

(0.0047 x 10

)(2)
-4

) exp

In(2.4632 x 10- 11 ) = _ 9.8564 = _

0.0047 x 10- 4
.. T

934 K

661 0 C

60

= 2.4632

10-11 m2/s

(76570 )
- (8.314)T

76570
8.314(T)

27.

Suppose, during a diffusion bonding process used to join copper to

nickel, that bonding was 90% complete after 1 h at 800C. But at 900C,
only 5.9 min were required to obtain the same bonding. Assuming that the
rate of bonding is related only to diffusion, calculate the activation
energy for the process. Consulting Table 5-1, is it likely that bonding
is controlled primarily by diffusion of Cu into the nickel or by
diffusion of Ni into the copper? (Note that rate is the reciprocal of
time. )
1

Co exp [-01(8.314)(1073)]

3600

(5.9) (60)

Co exp [-Q/(8.34)(1173)

0.00027778
0.00282486

exp(- 0.000112Q)
exp(-0.0001025Q)

= exp(- 0.0000095Q)
0.098334 = - 2.31939 = - 0.0000095Q

0.098334
In
Q=

244,146 J/mol

This is close to the activation energy for the diffusion of nickel

in Cu.
28.

Suppose the grain size of copper doubles when the metal is held at 500C
for 5 h, but doubles at 800C in only 8 min.
Estimate the activation
energy for grain growth. Does this correlate with the activation energy
for self-diffusion of copper?
Should it?
(note that rate is the
reciprocal of time.)
We can set up two equations:
11(5) (3600)

1/(8)(60)

0.00005563
0.0020833
0.02667
In(0.02667)
:. Q

= 83,124

0
0

exp [-Q/(8.314)(773)]
exp [-Q/(8.314)(1073)]

exp(-0.0001556Q)
exp(-0.000112Q)
exp (-0.0000436Q)

= -3.624216 = -O.0000436Q
J/mol

It does not correlate. More likely, the rate of grain growth will
be related to the diffusion along grain boundaries, which has a
smaller activation energy.

61

29.

Suppose we would like to join

SiC

to

Si 3 N4 ,

by

diffusion

bonding

process. What problems might we have during the first step in the
bonding process? Can you think of any way that these problems might be
minimized? Would you expect that diffusion bonding of these materials
would take more or less time than if two metals were joined at the same
temperature?
Both are brittle so the first step - localized
cause fracture rather than deformation.

deformation

may

We could put a soft inter layer material between the two ceramic
surfaces that would deform during the first stage and simultaneously
will almost completely fill in the interface area.
More time, since ceramics generally have higher activation energies.
30.

Suppose we were to produce a silver contact for an electrical relay using

powder metallurgy. Sintering initially occurs very rapidly, but then
slows significantly at a later time.
Explain why the rate decreases
during the latter stages of the 'process.
Initially we would expect both surface and grain boundary
to predominate. As the pores reduce in size and perhaps
isolated, sintering will depend more on volume diffusion.
be slower due to the higher activation energy.

31.

diffusion
are even
This will

At 6SOC, the electrical conductivity of NaCl is 10-2 ohm- 1 m- 1 , at

420C, the electrical conductivity is 10- 6 ohm- 1m- 1 .
Which ion - Na or
Cl - do you expect is transferring the greater portion of the charge?
What is the activation energy for diffusion of this ion in NaCl?
Most of the charge will be carried by sodium - it is cation
expected to be smaller and more mobile.
10- 2

= exp [-Q/(S.314)(953)] = exp (-0.0001262Q)

10- 6

= exp

[-Q/(S.314)(693)]

10- 4

= exp

[(-0.0001262 + 0.0001735)Q]

= exp

and

is

(-0.0001735Q)

= exp

(0.0000473Q)

In(10 4 ) = 9.21034 = 0.0000473Q

:. Q
32.

= 194,722

J/mol

A balloon filled with helium deflates more rapidly than a balloon

with air. Explain.
Helium atoms are smaller
balloons more quickly.

62

and

can

diffuse

through

the

filled
polymer

Chapter 6
MECHANICAL TESTING AND PROPERTIES

1.

A 800 N force is applied to a 2.5 mm diameter copper wire having a yield

strength of 135 MPa and a tensile strength of 270 MPa.
Determine (a)
whether the wire will plastically deform and (b) whether the wire will
experience necking.

F
800
cr = So = 4.9087

2.

N
-2

mm

163 MPa

(a)

Wire will plastically deform.

(b)

Wire will not neck.

Calculate the maximum force that a 2.5 mm thick and 50 mm wide nickel
strip, having a yield strength of 310 MPa and a tensile strength of 430
MPa, can withstand with no plastic deformation.

cr

y -

S-y
o

310 x 125

= 387.5

kN

(ie) a force less than 387.5 kN can be

deformation.
3.

= Stress = 23000/60.13 = 382.49 = 1149

Strain

no

plastic

0.5/150

0.00333

GPa

The modulus of elasticity of nickel is 209 GPa. Determine the length of

the bar when a force of 6.82 kN is applied to a 12.5 mm x 7.5 mm bar
originally 900 mm long without causing plastic deformation.
209000

= 6820/9~.75
straln

0.00033807 = strain
.. 0.3133 mm

We would
having a
Can this
force of

x
900

=x

.. length of the bar

5.

with

A titanium bar 8.75 mm in diameter will stretch from a 150 mm length to a

150.5 mm length when a force of 23 kN is exerted. Calculate the modulus
of elasticity of the alloy.

E
4.

withstood

= 900.313

mm

like to plastically deform a 25 mm diameter bar of aluminum

yield strength of 170 MPa and a tensile strength of 270 MPa.
be accomplished using a forging machine that can exert a maximum
150 kN?
F

cr = So

= 170

N mm

-2

63

s o = 490.87
:. F = 170 x

mm2

= 83.45

490.87

kN < 150 kN

Yes, the forging machine has sufficient capacity.

6.

A landing gear must be capable of supporting one-third of an airplane

that weighs 200,000 Kg. Just to be safe, we would like the landing gear
to be able to support twice its maximum load.
Determine the minimum
cross-sectional area of the landing gear if it is made of a heat-treated
steel having a yield strength of 860 MPa and a tensile strength of 900
MPa.
Load to be supported = 2 x 200,000 = 133,333 kg/gear
~

= s- = 860
F

N mm

= 87.69

Kgf/mm

133,333
87.69
S
o
2
.. S = 1520 mm

7.

We would like to produce a copper plate that is 6.25 mm thick by a

rolling process. The yield strength is 240 MPa, the tensile strength is
380 MPa, and the modulus of elasticity is 127 GPa.
Calculate the
separation between the rolls that we should use, assuming that the rolls
do not deflect.
C

=E

240
127000 = 0.001889 mmlmm

..

- h
h

6.25 - h

.. 6.25

6.25 - h

.. 6.238 mm

(1 + 0.001889)

=h

o
Roll separation
8.

0.001889

0.001889 h

6.238 mm

We plan to stretch a steel bar until it has a final length of 1.8 m.

What length should the bar be before the forming stress is removed?
The
yield strength is 427 MPa, the tensile strength is 572 MPa, and the
modulus of elasticity is 210 GPa.
If - 10
427
I
= 210000 = 0.002035 mmlmm
o
If - 1.8 = 1.8 x 0.002035 = 0.003664

:. If

= 1. 8037

64

9.

A titanium bar 9.4 mm in diameter with a gauge length of 50 mm is pulled

in tension to failure. After, failure, the gauge length is 53.75 mm and
the diameter is 8.8 mm. Calculate the % elongation and % reduction in
area.
Lu - L
3.75
% Elongation
7.50%
LOx 100 =
x 100
o

-so-

So - Su
S
o

%Reduction in area

10.

69.3977 - 60.8212
69.3977
12.4%

The % elongation of a magnesium alloy is 12.5%. If a magnesium bar 600

mm long is pulled until it breaks, and if the deformation is uniform
during this process, what is the final length of the bar?
If necking
occurred during this process, would the final length be longer or shorter
than your calculation?
12.5% of 600 mm

= 75

:. Bar's final length

mm

= 675

mm

If necking occurred the final length would be shorter.

11.

The following data were collected from a standard 12.5 mm

specimen of magnesium:
Load
(kN)

o
5

10
15
20
22
23.9
26.4
27.2 (maximum)
26.4 (fracture)

diameter

test

Gauge Length
(mm)

50.045
50.090
50.135
50.175
50.195
50.350
51. 250
53.250
56.375

After fracture the gauge length is 56.125 mm and

mm. Plot the data and calculate (a) the 0.2%
tensile strength, (c) the modulus of elasticity,
(el the % reduction in area, (f) the engineering
(g) the true stress at fracture.

65

the diameter is 11.54

proof stress, (b) the
(d) the % elongation,
stress at fracture, and

300

400

Stress
I~ Po.

S tre ss
.M Po

300

200
200.
100
Problem 11

0002

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.002

Strain (mm/mm)

600

0.02

0.04

0.06

Strain(mm/mm)

300

Stress

Stress

M Po

M Po

400

200

Problem 12

100

200

100
Problem 13

0.002 0.02
0.04
Strain (mm/mm)

0.06

66

Problem 14

0.002 0.02
0.04
Strain(mm/mm)

0.06

122.72 mm

Stress/Nmm-2

Strain mm/mm

0
40.74
81. 49
122.23
162.97
179.27
194.75
215.13
221. 65
215.13

0
0.0009
0.0018
0.0027
0.0035
0.0039
0.007
0.025
0.065
O. 1275

(a)

0.2% offset yield strength

(b)

tensile strength

(c)

(d)

% elongation

= 221.65

= 191.5

N mm- 2

N mm- 2

81.49/0.0018
45272 MN m- 2
= 45.3 GPa
=

56.125 - 50 x 100
50

= 12.25%
(e)

% reduction in area

= rr/4(12.5)2
= i~2~~~

12.

(f)

fracture stress

(g)

true stress =

- rr/4(11.54)2

rr/4(12. 5) 2

x 100

x 100

= 114.8%

215.13 N mm- 2
26400

--~~~~

rr/4(11. 54)2

26400

-2

= 104.59 = 252 N mm

252 MPa

A standard 12.5 mm diameter tensile bar

is
machined
from
copper-nickel alloy; the results of a tensile test are described in
following table.
Load
(kN)

Gauge Length
(mm)

50.015
50.030
50.045
50.05
50.50
51. 30
57.00
68.70

10
15
17.6
26.4
35.2
48.4 (maximum)
39 :> (fracture)

67

a
the

After fracture, the gauge length is 67.95mm and the diameter is 9.05 mm.
Plot the data and calculate (a) the 0.2% proof stress, (b) the tensile
strength, (c) the modulus of elasticity, (d) the % elongation, (e) the %
reduction in area, (f) the engineering stress at fracture, and (g) the
true stress at fracture.
Stress/Nmm-2

Strain mmlmm

40.74
8~. 49
122.23
143.42
215.13
286.84
394.4
322.69

0.0003
0.0006
0.0009
0.001
0.01
0.026
0.014
0.374

(a)

0.2% proof stress

= 183

(b)

tensile strength

= 394.4

(c)

E - 0.0006 - 135816.7 MN m

(d)

% elongation

(e)

% elongation in area

_ 81. 49

N mm- 2

N mm- 2
-2

= 135.82 GPa

67.95 - 50 x 100
50

= nI4(12.5)2

35.9%
- nI4(9.05)2

n/4( 12.5)2

47.6%
(f)

fracture stress

(g)

true stress

322.69 N mm- 2

= __39_6_0_0__
n/4(9.05)2

68

615.6 N mm- 2

x 100

13.

A 25 mm diameter tensile bar is prepared from a silver alloy

in a tensile test with the following results.
Load

and

pulled

Gauge Length
(mm)

(kN)

50.0000
50.0613
50. 1227
50.1848
50.50
51. 35
52.90
53.40

50,000
100,000
150,000
175,000
200,000
225,000 (maximum)
231,000 (fracture)

StresslMPa

Strain mm/mm

101. 86
203. 72
305.58
356.51
407.44
458.37
470.59

0.001226
0.002454
0.003696
0.01
0.027
0.058
0.068

After fracture, the gauge length is 53.1 mm and the diameter is 24.25 mm.
Plot the data and calculate (a) the 0.2% offset yield strength, (b) the
tensile strength, (c) the modulus of elasticity, (d) the % elongation,
(e) the % reduction in area, (f) the engineering stress at fracture, and
(g) the true stress at fracture.
The load and gauge length are converted to stress and strain in
table above.
(a)

yield strength

320 MPa

(b)

tensile strength

= 470.59

(c)

(d)

%e

MPa

= 82,680
x 100 = 6.2%

305.58/0.003696
53.1 - 50.0
50.0
2

MPa

= (rr/4) (25) - (rr/4)(24.25)

(rr/4) (25)2

(e)

r~

(f)

fracture stress

(g)

true stress

= 470.59

82.68 GPa

x 100

MPa

= 231,OOO/(rr/4) (24. 25)2

69

5.19%

500.15 MPa

the

14.

A 15 mm diameter tensile bar of an aluminum alloy is pulled in a

test with the following results.
Load

tensile

Gauge Length
(mm)

(N)

60.0000
60.0469
60.0938
60.1407
60.210
60.300
60.600
61. 200
63.000
63.900

10,000
20,000
30,000
35,000
37,500
40,000
42,500
45,000 (maximum)
44,200 (fracture)

Stress/MPa

Stl'ain mm/mm

56.59
113.18
169.77
198.06
212.21
226.35
240.50
254.65
250.12

0.00078
0.00130
0.00235
0.0035
0.005
0.010
0.020
0.050
0.065

After fracture, the gauge length is 63.66 mm and the diameter is 14.5 mm.
Plot the data and calculate (a) the 0.2% offset yield strength, (b) the
tensile strength, (c) the modulus of elasticity, (d) the % elongation,
(e) the %reduction in area, (f) the stress at fracture, and (g) the true
stress at fracture.
The load and gauge length are converted to stress and strain in the
table above.
(a)

yield strength

(b)

tensile strength

(c)

(d)

%
e I onga ti on

(el

%RA

(f)

fracture stress

(g)

true stress

200 MPa
254.65 MPa

= 113.18/0.00130 = 87,060
= 63.6660-

MPa

87.06 GPa

60 x 100

2
= (n/4l(15) 2
- (n/4)(14.5)

6 . 1%
x 100

6.56%

(n/4) (15)2

= 250.12

MPa

= 44,200/(nI4)(14.5)2
70

267.7 MPa

15.

A three-point bend test is performed on a block of Al 20 3 that is 127

mm

long, 8.26 mm wide, and 6.35 mm tall and is resting on two supports 76.2
mm apart. A force of 1.6014 kN is required to break the ceramic.
Calculate the flexural strength in MPa.
3FL/2wh2

FS

= 3(1601.4)(76.2)
2(8.26)(6.35)2

FS

16.

= 549.9

mm- 2

= 549.9

MPa

A three-point bend test is performed on a block of silicon nitride that

is 100 mm long, 8 mm wide, and 6 mm tall and is resting on two supports
80 mm apart. The modulus of rupture is 896 MPa.
Calculate the force
required to break the test block in newtons.
3FL

FS=~~
896

3.F.80

F = 2.15 kN
17.

Suppose a stainless steel is to be selected as a valve in a system

designed to pump liquid helium at 4 K.
A severe impact may be observed
during opening and closing of the valve. Would you select a stainless
steel that has an FCC or a BCC structure? Explain.
FCC structure; because this crystal structure does
brittle transition.

18.

not

undergo

Fiberglass is made by introducing short glass fibers into a more ductile

polymer matrix. Would you expect the fiberglass to be notch sensitive or
insensitive in a series of impact tests? Explain
Notch insensitive: the short glass fibers already act like
in the polymer matrix.

19.

notches

A cylindrical tool steel specimen (Figure 6-17) which is 230 mm long and
12.5 mm in diameter is to be designed so that failure never occurs. What
is the maximum load than can be applied?
Endurance Limit

= 413.8

MPa

95.01.t.w
d3

413.8 x 1953
95.01 x 230

=w

36.98 kg

.. a load less than 36.98 kg will not cause fatigue failure.

71

20.

A cylindrical aluminum test specimen (Figure 6-17) which is 200 mm long

and 18.75 mm in diameter is to be designed so that failure does not occur
within ten million cycles. What is the maximum load that can be applied?

= 95.01 t w
stress = 33500

IT

1
x 145

= 224.14

MPa

to cause failure in 107 cycles

224.14 X (18.75)2
90.11 x 200

= w = 82

kg

Thus a load of less than 82 kg will not cause failure in 107 cycles.
21.

A cylindrical tool steel test specimen (Figure 6-17) which is 250 mm long
is to be subjected to a load of 6600 N. What is the minimum diameter of
the specimen if failure is never to occur?
d3= 95.01 x 6600 x 250
413.8 x 9.8306

= 38537

d = 33.78 mm
22.

A cylindrical aluminum test specimen (Figure 6-17) which is 250 mm in

length is to be subjected to a load of 20,000 N.
What is the minimum
diameter of the specimen if failure within one million cycles is to be
prevented?
Stress to cause failure in 106 cycles
d3
d

= 241.4

MPa

= 95.01

x 20,000 x 250
241. 4 x 9.8306

= 58.5

mm

(ie) minimum diameter to avoid failure in 106 cycles = 58.5 mm

23.

A cylindrical tool steel test specimen (Figure 6-17) which is 150mm long
and 9.4 mm in diameter is to have a fatigue life of 500,000 cycles. What
is the maximum allowable load?
Fatigue life

=5

x 105

Applied stress = 508.6 MPa

for failure at 5 x 10 5 cycles
IT

95.01

t w

d3

(9.4)3 x 508.6
95.01 x 150

=w

.. w = 29.64 kg
(ie)

Maximum allowable load

72

29.6 kg

24.

A cylindrical aluminum test specimen (Figure 6-17) which is 175 mm long

and 12.5 mm in diameter is rotating at 3000 rpm. If a load of 350 N is
applied to the specimen, how many hours of operation are expected before
failure?
0'

.. 0'

95.01. t. F
d3

95.01 x 175 x 350

303 N mm- 2

02.5)3 x 9.0306

303 MPa

No of cycles

= 105

105
:. Time to failure = 3000 minutes
25.

0.56 hours

and 37.5 mm in diameter is rotating at 60 rpm. If a load of 11.7

applied to the specimen, how many days of operation are expected
failure?

x 117000 x 250
(37.5)3 x 9.8306

= 95.01

--~----~~~~~~

536 MPa

kN is
before

536 MPa

No of cycles

.. Time to failure

300000
60 x 60 x 24

3.47 days

To avoid failure by fatigue, the maximum force that can be applied to the
end of a rotating cylindrical steel specimen which is 125 mm long and
6.25 mm in diameter is 66 N. Estimate the tensile strength of the steel.
Fatigue limlt

95.01 x 125 x 66
= ~~~~~~~~

Fatlgue iimit

= 1/2

(6.25)3 x 9.8036

:. tensile strength
27.

33.33 minutes

A cylindrical tool steel test specimen (Figure 6-17) which is 250 mm long

0'

26.

303 MPa

x tensile strength
2 x 95.01 x 125 x 66
= ------------(6.25)3 x 9.8036

707 MPa

Which of the following would you expect to show the temperature

dependence of the creep rate (e): e - T; e - r2; e - liT; or e - exp
(-ciT)? Explain your answer
exp(-c/T): diffusion determines the
temperature dependence of creep should
diffusion.

73

rate of
creep,
be the same as

so
that

the
for

28.

The following data are the results of a creep test performed on a

material. The original gauge length was 50 Mm. Calculate the creep rate
in XIh.
Length of Specimen

Time

(_)

(h)

50.5
50.95
51.15
51.50
52.30
53.05
53.80
54.50
55.00

5
200
500
1450
3450
5500
7500
8500
8950
II

Extension/mm

time (h)

0.5
0.95
1. 15
1. 50
2.3
3.05
3.8
4.5
5.0

1.0
1.9
2.3
3.0
4.6
6.1
7.6
9.0
rupture

5
200
500
1450
3450
5550
7500
8500
8750

&1

(53.8 - 50)/50

= 0.076 mm/mm

&2

(51.50 - 50)/50

= 7.6X
= 0.03 mm/mm

......,.......

.-

Ca.,

= 3X

:. creep rate

(7.6 - 3)/(7500 - 1450)

= 7.6

29.

10-4 X/hour

A 50 mm diameter bar of an iron-chromium-nickel alloy is subjected to a

load of 26.4 kN.
and (cl 1090C?
v

How many days will i t survive at (a) 980C, (b) 1040C,

= 26400/(W/4)!~0)2
= 13.445 N mm

(a)
(b)
(c)

at 980C rupture time = 10,000 hours = 416.7 days

at 1040C rupture time = 2,000 hours = 83.3 days
at 1090C rupture time = 300 hours = 12.5 days

74

30.

What is the maximum load that a 20 mm x 30

mm
bar
of
an
iron-chromium-nickel alloy can withstand at 870C without falling within
10 years?
Time

= (10)(365)(24) = 87,600

hours

The maximum stress at 870C for a 10 year life is

v = 20.7 MN m- 2 = 20.7 N mm- 2
F = vA = 20.7 x 20 x 30
124105 N
= 12.41 kN
31.

An iron-chromium-nickel alloy is to withstand a load of 11 kN at 1090C

for 15 years. What is the minimum diameter of the bar that is necessary?

Time = (15)(365)(24) = 131,400 hours

Maximum allowable stress at 1090C is
v = 2.76 MPa = 2.76 N mm- 2

A = v~

= 11000
= 3988 . 6
2.76

mm2

= ~3988.6/(n/4) = 71.26 mm
32.

Develop an equation of the form v = ct-n that will relate the applied
stress v to the rupture time for an iron-chromium-nickel alloy held at
760C. Using this equation, calculate the maximum load that a 25 mm
diameter bar of the alloy can withstand if it is to survive for 50 years.
(a)

From Figure 6-24, the stress is 110 MPa at 100 hours and 55 MPa
at 100,000 hours. The equatIon can be written and solved for n
and c:
In v

= In

In(llO)
4.7005
In(55)
4.0073

c - n In t
In(c) - n In(100)
In(c)
4.605 n
In(c) - n In(100,OOO)
In(c) - 11.5 n

(i) - (11) gives 0.6932

:. n

0.1

110
110

C(100)-o.t
0.6309 c
174.3

:. C

(b)

= 6.895

-(11 )

time = (50) (365) (2~J

438, 000 hou~~
= 174.3(438,000) . = 47.55 N mm
F = 47.55 x (n/4) (25)2 = 23.341 kN

75

(i)

33.

An iron-chromium-nickel alloy is to operate for 10,000 h under a load of

154 kN. What is the maximum operating temperature if the bar is 37.5
in diameter?
u

= 13.94

15400
1l/4(37.5)2

MPa

= 980C

:. maximum temperature
34.

mm

Suppose a stress of 138 MPa is applied to the heat-resistant alloy shown

in Figure 6-24(b).
(a) Determine the equation for the Arrhenius
relationship between the rupture time t f and the operating temperature
and (b) determine the rupture time if the alloy operates at 500C.
(a)

The Arrhenius equation is rate = coexp(-Q/RT).

Therefore we can use reciprocal time as our
graph at 138 MPa we can pick off two points:
t

10 4 hr l/t
10

= 0.0001

hr l/t = 0.1

h- 1 1/T

h- 1

l/T

rate.

= 10.4 X 10- 4 K- 1
= 7.9 x 10- 4 K- 1

From

= 961. 54 K
T = 1265.82

0.0001 _ Co exp[-Q/(8.314)(961.54)) _ exp(-0.000125Q)

- c exp[-Q/(8.314)(1265.82)) - exp(-O.00009SQ)
o

:. 0.001

exp [( -0.000125 + 0.000095 )Q]

In(O.OOl)
~

-6.907753

=Q

230,258.5 J/mol

0.0001

Co exp[-230, 258. 5/(8.314)(961.54)]

0.0001

Co exp(-28/803)

.. c

3.228 x

.. t1_
- (3.228)
f

(b)

= exp [-0. 00003Q]

= -0.00003Q

108
X

h- 1

10 8 ) exp

c (3.0974 x 10- 13 )
o

( _ 230,258.5)
(8.314)T

773 K

at 500C

8
)
t1f = (3 . 228 x 10 ) exp (230,258.5
- (8.314)773

t1f -_ 3.228

10 8 exp(-35.8283)

(3.228 x 108 )(2.754 x 10- 16 )

8.89 x 10- 8 h- 1
.. t f = 1. 1248583

76

107 h

the

35.

Suppose the heat-resistant alloy shown in Figure 6-24(b) is to survive

for a minimum of 20 years. Calculate the maximum temperature to which
the alloy can be heated if the stress is 138 MPa.
(Use the equation
developed in Problem 34. )
t = (20)(365)(24)

= 175.200

From the equation developed in Problem 34

t1

= 1/175.200 = (3.228

x 10 ) exp (-27696.3/T)

1.7682 x 10- 14 = exp (-27.69S.3)/T)

In(1.7682 x 10-14 ) = 31.666227 = -27.69S.3/T
T = 874.6 K = 601.6C
36.

A 12.5 mm diameter bar of tantalum alloy is originally 250 mm

After operating at 131S o C for 50 h, its length must be less than
mm. What is the maximum allowable load?
Creep ra t e

= 12.5

mm per 250 mm
50 h

long.
262.5

0.05 mm/mm
50 h
=

S~%h = 0.01% h- 1

From Figure 6-24(c). the maximum stress for this creep rate is 186 MPa
(1'

= 186 N mm- 2 =

F
(1l/4) (12. 5)2

:. F = 22825.6 N
37.

= 22.826

kN

A 30 mm diameter bar of tantalum alloy is originally 600 mm long.

It
operates at a load of 198 kN at 131S o C. Assuming it does not fail. what
is the length after 8 h?
198.000

= 280 MPa

(1l/4) (30)2

Creep rate = l%/hour

In 8 hours. the total creep will be 8%
If - 600
600
x 100
.. If
38.

=8

600 + 48 = 648 mm

A ductile cast iron bar is to operate at a stress of 28 MPa for

without failing. what is the maximum allowable temperature?

2500

For a stress of 28 MPa. the Larson-Miller parameter is about 36 .

.. 36
. 36
.. T

(T/I000)[36 + 0.78 In(2S00)]

(T/I000) (42.1)
8SSK=S82C

77

39.

A ductile cast iron bar is to operate at 600C for 10,000 h. If the

has a diameter of 18.75 mm what is the maximum allowable load?
(873/1000)[36 + 0.78 1n(10,OOO))
(873/1000)(43.184) = 37.7

Larson Miller parameter

(1'

40.

= 172

MPa

= (172.367)(n/4)(18.75)2
= 47593.5 N = 47.594 kN

A 3000 kg load is applied to a 10mm diameter

indentor, producing an
impression having a diameter of 2.2 mm on a steel plate.
Calculate the
Brinell hardness number of the steel, then estimate the tensile strength
and fatigue limit of the steel.
3000

BHN = _ _ _ _3_0_0_0-;:=:::;:::=:==;(n/2)(10)(10 -1(10)2 - (2.2)2)

tensile strength

5n(10 - "95.16)

= (3. 45)BHN = (3.45)(780)

endurance limit

41.

bar

= 2691 MPa

(1/2) tensile strength

(0.5)(2691)
1345 MPa

A 500 kg load is applied to a

10 mm diameter indentor,
impression on a steel plate having a tensile strength
Estimate the diameter of the impression.
BHN

780

producing an
of 520 MPa.

520
150.7
= 3.45 =

150; 7 = _ _ _--'5:....:0...::..0_--;::.:=:=~
(nl2) (10) (10 - /100 - n2 )

+ Aoo - n2

.. 10

:. Aoo - n2
100 -

n2

= 5001 (1l12) (10) (150.7)

0.2112

= 9.7888

= 95.82

D = 2.044 mm
42.

Estimate the Brinel1 hardness number of a steel having a tensile strength

of 937 MPa.
.
937
BHN ~3.45

43.

= 271.6

The fracture toughness of a materici1 is 45,000 psi inl12

.
fracture toughness expressed in MPa m1/ 2?
K Ic

= (45,000

psi in

1/2

What

'
.
1/2
)(0.006895 MPa/psi )(0; 0254 mlin)

= 49.4496 MPa. m1/2

78

is

the

44.

A Ni-Cr steel with a yield strength of 1640 MPa (Table 6-8) contains
internal flaws that may be as long as 0.025 mm. What is the maximum
allowable applied stress if these flaws are not to propagate? How does
this compare with the yield strength?
K = fcrV'all

= 50.33

MPa ml12
2.5 x 10- 5 m
a = 1. 25 X 10-5 m

where 2a

= 50.33/~.25

10- 5 n

= 8031

MPa

Because the allowable stress is much

strength, the flaws will not propagate.
45.

greater

than

yield

An aluminum-copper alloy with a yield strength of 325 MPa (Table 6-8)

contains surface flaws that are 0.0075 mm deep. What is the maximum
allowable applied stress if these flaws are not to propagate?
this compare with the yield strength?
K
~

46.

the

How does

h.

36.26 MFa. mIn = (J"

5 X 10-6 n
7470 MPa > yield strength and flaw will not propagate.

A ceramic has a fracture toughness of 2.75 MPa m1 / 2 and must experience

an applied stress of 100 MPa.
Calculate the size of the maximum
allowable (a) internal flaw and (bl surface flaw.
2.75 = 100 v'ai
0.0007562 = an
2.4 x 10-4 m = a if a surface flaw
and 4.8 x 10- 4 m

47.

if an internal flaw

A polymer material has a fracture toughness of 1.65 MPa m1 / 2

experience an applied stress of 30 MFa.
Calculate the
maximum allowable (a) internal flaw and (b) surface flaw.
1. 65 = 30 v'ai
0.003025 = an
9.63 x 10- 4 m

1.926
48.

= 2a

=a

10- 3 m

and must
size of the

if an internal flaw

= 2a

if a surface flaw

A titanium alloy (Table 6-8) contains internal flaws that

are 5 mm in
length. Will these flaws propagate if a stress of one-half the yield
strength is applied? Consider both a high strength and a low strength
alloy.

K crV'aIl = (0.5)(YS) vO.005 n = 0.06267(YS)

For high strength Ti, YS = 896 MPa

K = (0.06267)(896)

1/2

56.15 MPa m

79

> KIC

= 55

iO~ ~~~0:~~;~:~2~i~ ~~ ~:6~lW~

K IC = 98.9 MPa mi /2

The cracks may propagate in the high strength alloy but not
low strength alloy.
49.

in

A sIlicon nitride ceramic (Table 6-8) contains surface flaws that are
0.02 mm in length. Will these flaws propagate if a stress of one-half

the yield strength is applied?

K

~ x

(0.5)(551)

"'>

2. 186 MP

mi /2

5 MPa. mi

10-5 W

thus the flaws will not propagate.

80

the

Chapter 7
DEFORMATION, STRAIN HARDENING AND ANNEALING

1.

A 12.5 mm diameter bar with a gauge length of 50 mm is subjected to a

tensile test. When a force of 52.8 kN is applied, the specimen has a

diameter of 12.30 mm and a gauge length of 50.115 mm. When a force of
100 kN is applied, the diameter is 10.54 mm and the gauge length is 58.85
mm. (a) Determine the strain-hardening coefficient. (b) Would you
expect the metal to have the FCC structure? Explain.
(a)

= 52.8

~T1

kN/(n/4) (12.30 mm)2

= In(58.85150) = 0.16291

~T2

In(0.444)
In(1. 146)

InK + nln(0.003494)
InK + nln(0.16291)

0.948 = 3.843 n

2.

kN/mm2

100 kN/(n/4)(10.54 mm)2 = 1.146 kN/mm2

~T2

(b)

= 0.444

In(50.175150) = 0.003494

T1

11.033
11.991

InK - 5.651 n
InK = 1.841 n

= 0.25

the strain hardening coefficient of 0.25 is a little low for

the FCC metals listed in Table (1-1).

A copper-nickel alloy tensile bar, originally having a 12.5

and a 50 mm gauge length, has a strain-hardening

The bar falls at an engineering stress of 675 MPa;
the time of failure is 56.5 mm and its diameter is
occurred. Calculate the true stress on the bar
strain was 0.05.

= vAo = (615

x 106 Pa)(n/4) (0.0125 m)2 = 82800 N

= F/A = (82800

VT

mm diameter
coefficient of 0.48.
its gauge length at
11.76 mm; no necking
when the engineering

N)/(n/4) (0.01115 m)2

= 188.6 MPa

= In(lllo) = In(56.5150) = 0.1222

= 1(

0.48

188.6 = 1(0.1222)48 = 0.3646

I(

I(

= 2163 MPa

If the engineering strain is 0.05, then If = 52.5 mm

= In(lll

= In(52.5150) = 0.04879

T
0
v t = 2163(0.04819)48 = 507.5 MPa

81

3.

The Frank-Read source in Figure 7-3(e) has created four dislocation loops
from the original dislocation line. Estimate the total dislocation line
present in the photograph and determine the percent increase in the
length of dislocations produced by the deformation.
If the length of the original dislocation line is 1 mm on the
photograph, then we can estimate the
circumference
of
the
dislocation loops. The loops are not perfect circles, so we might
measure the smallest and largest diameters, then use the average.
first loop:

D
= 10 mm; Dlarge
small
circumference = 12.0'lr

14 mm D
average

second loop:

D
= 20 mm; Dlarge
small
circumference = 19.0'lr

18 mm D
average

19.0 mm

third loop:

Dsmall = 28 mm; D
large
circumference = 29.0'lr

30 mm D
average

29.0 mm

fourth loop:

Dsmall = -42 mm; Dlarge

circumference = 43.5'1r

45 mm D
average

43.5 mm

= 12.0

mm

Therefore in the photograph itself:

total length

=1

= 362.2

+ (12.0 + 19.0 + 29.0 + 43.5)'Ir

The magnification in the photograph is 30,000.

total length (actual)

= 362.2

/ 30,000

%increase
4.

5.

= (0.0109

Therefore

= 0.0109

The original dislocation line is 1 mm / 30,000

mm / 0.0000333 mm) x 100

mm

mm

= 0.0000333

mm

32,700%

Suppose we begin with a copper plate 75 mm thick.

Calculate the total
percent cold work i f (a) we reduce the plate-to 12.5 mm thick and (b) we
reduce the plate first to 25 mm, then later to 12.5 mm.

= 6~55

(a)

%CW

75 ;5 12 .5 x 100

(b)

%CW

83.3% (the intermediate step does not affect total CW).

x 100

83.3%

Suppose we begin with an aluminum bar 75 mm thick. Calculate the total

percent cold work if (a) we reduce the bar to a 12.5 mm diameter and (b)
we reduce the bar first to a 25 mm diameter, then later to a 12.5 mm
diameter.
(75)2 - 02.5)2
5625 - 156
(a) %CW
x 100 97.2%
X 100
5625
(75)2
(b)

%CW

97.2% (the intermediate step does not affect total CW).

82

6.

Calculate (a) the percent cold work and (b) the final properties i f we
reduce a 3105 aluminum plate from an original thickness of 50 mm to a
final thickness of 6.25 mm (See Figure 7-22).
(a)

50 - 6.25 x 100
50

%CW

87.5%
7.

tensile strength
yield strength
%elongation

667 MPa
450 MPa
0%

properties
of 25 mm

if

to

we
a

(Assuming no fracture. )

Calculate (a) the total percent cold work and (b) the final properties if
we reduce a copper plate from 37.5 mm to 25 mm to 18.75 mm to 15 mm in
three passes through a rolling mill. (See Figure 7-6. )
%CW

= 37.5

- 15 x 100
37.5

(b) tensile strength

yield strength
%elongati6n

60%
9.

tensile strength
210 MPa
yield strength
200 MPa
%elongation
2.5%
(Assuming no fracture during deformation. )

Calculate (a) the percent cold work and (b) the final
reduce a C-30% Zn brass bar from an original diameter
final diameter of 7 mm (See Figure 7-24).
(25)2 _ (7)2
(a) %CW =
x 100 = 92.2%
(25)2
(b)

8.

(b)

560 MPa
550 MPa
2%

We wish to produce a 3105 aluminum rod having a final yield strength of

at least 170 MPa and a final diameter of 5.625 mm.
Using Figure 7.23,
calculate the minimum original diameter required.
To obtain the yield strength, we need at least 50% cold work.
d 2 _ (5.625)2

%CW

= _0"--_--::-_----,-_
d 2

0.5d 2
o
10.

31. 64

x 100 = 50
d

= 7.95

mm

We wish to produce a Cu-30% Zn brass plate having a final % elongation of

at least 20% and a final thickness of 9.375 mm.
Using Figure 7.24,
calculate the maximum original thickness required.
We must use no more than 25% cold work.
t

%CW =
0.75t

- 9.375
t

x 100

9.375

25
0

= 12.5 mm

83

11.

We would like to produce a copper plate 6.25 mm thick having at least 10%
elongation and a 310 MPa yield strength. Is this possible? If so,
calculate (a) the required percent cold work and (b) the original
thickness of the plate. (See Figure 7-6. )
(a)

possible if the percent cold work is between 20 and 30 percent.

(b)

%CW

minimum

t
t

%CWmaximum

- 6.25
t

x 100

= 20%

x 100

= 30%

- 6.25
t

= 7.81

mm

= 8.93

mm

Any original thickness between 7.81 and 8.93 mm will work.

12.

We would like to produce a Cu-30% Zn wire 2.5 mm in diameter with at

least 20% elongation and a 400 MPa tensile strength. Is this possible?
If so, calculate (a) the required percent cold work and (b) the original
diameter of the wire. (See Figure 7-24. )
(a)

(b)

possible if the percent cold work is between 18 and 23 percent.

d 2 _ (2.5)2
%CW
= __o__~_____ x 100 = 18% do = 2.76 mm
minimum
d 2
o

d = 2.85 mm
o

d 2
o

Any diameter between 2.76 and 0.285 mm will work.

13.

We would like to produce a 3105 aluminum wire 1.25 mm in diameter with at

least 10% elongation and a 170 MPa tensile strength. Is this possible?
If so, calculate (a) the required percent cold work and (b) the original
diameter of the wire. (See Figure 7-23).
(a)

(b)
14.

To obtain at least 10% elongation, the cold work should be less

than 12%; however, to obtain at least 170 MPa tensile strength,
the cold work should be more than 33%. Consequently it is not
possible to do this.
Does not apply.

We would like to produce a Cu-30% Zn wire 5 mm in diameter having at

least 10% elongation and a 480 MPa tensile strength.
The original
diameter of the bar Is 100 mm. The maximum allowable cold work is -75%.
Describe the steps required, including percent cold work and intermediate
thicknesses. (See Figure 7-24. )
In order to obtain the desired properties, we need between 25 and 35
percent cold work. Therefore the intermediate diameter should be
d 2 _ (5)2

minimum: __i _______ x 100

d 2

= 25%

di

= 5.77

mm

d 2 _ (5)2

maximum: ....;::.i_-:-_ x 100

d 2
i

84

35%

d i .. 6.20 mm

Method 1: Cold work 75% from 100 mm to 50 mm; anneal; cold work 75%
from 50 to 25 mm; anneal; cold work 75% from 25 to 12.5 mm; anneal;
cold work 75% from 12.5 to 6.25 mm; anneal; cold work from 6.25 to
between 5.77 and 6.20 mm; anneal; cold work the final 25 to 35
percent to 5 mm.
Method 2: Hot work from 100 mm to between 0.577 and 6.20
work the final 25 to 35 percent to 5 mm.
15.

mm;

cold

We would like to produce a copper sheet 3.75 mm thick from an original

plate that is 45 mm thick. The final required properties include at
least a 345 MPa yield strength and 5% elongation. The maximum allowable
cold work per pass is 80%.
Describe the steps required, including
percent cold work and intermediate thicknesses. (See Figure 7-6. )
In order to obtain the desired properties, we need between 25 and 40
percent cold work. Therefore the intermediate thickness should be
minimum:

maximum:

t.

3.75

t.1
t.

3.75

t.

x 100

= 25%

t.

=5

x 100

= 40%

t.1

= 6.25

rom

mm

Method 1: Cold work 80% from 45 to 9 mm; anneal; cold work

mm to between 5 and 6.25 mm; anneal; cold work the final 25
to 3.75 mm.
Method 2: Hot work from 45 mm to between 5 and 6.25 mm;
the final 25 to 40% to 3.75 mm.

16.

from 9
to 40%

cold

work

A 5 rom titanium wire is passed through a 4.5 mm diameter die in a

wire-drawing process, producing a wire with a 400 MPa yield strength and
a 580 MPa tensile strength. If the modulus of elasticity of the titanium
is 112 GPa, calculate the diameter of the final wire product.

= u/E = 400

x 106 /112

109

= 0.00357

The stress is compressive as the wire passes through the 45 mm die;

the diameter of the wire increases elastically after deformation.
Therefore the sign of the strain should be negative.
-0.00357
4.5 ,.. d f
4.5

-0.00357

4.516 mm

85

17.

A 1.5 mm magnesium wire with a yield strength of 170 MPa is to be

produced by a wire-drawing process. If the modulus of elasticity of the
magnesium is 45.5 GPa calculate the necessary diameter of the opening in
the die.

= ~IE = 170

= 0.003736

x 10 6 /45.5 x 109

The stress is compressive as the wire passes through the die; the
diameter of the wire increases elastically after deformation.
Therefore the sign of the strain should be negative.
- 1. 5

= -o-d.---- = -0.003736

18.

- 1.5

= -0.003846do

= 1. 4944

mm

We plan to draw a 6.25 mm diameter Cu-30% Zn wire having a yield strength

of 70 MPa into a 5 mm diameter wire. (a) Using Figure 7-24, calculate
the draw force, assuming no friction.
(b) Will the drawn force cause
the drawn wire to break? (Prove by calculating the maximum force that
the drawn wire can withstand. )
(6.25)2 - (5)2
CW =
x 100
36%
(6.25)2
Final yield strength
(a)

(b)

Fdraw
F
~

= ~yAo

= 400

MPa

(70 MPa) (n/4) (6.25/1000 m)2

2147 N

= 400 = F/(n/4) (5/1000)2

= 7854 N

The wire will not break because the draw force is less than the
maximum force the drawn wire can withstand.
19.

A 3105 aluminum wire 2.5 mm in diameter is to be made having a tensile

strength of 170 MPa. Using Figure 7-23, determine (a) the original
diameter of the wire, (b) the required draw force, and (c) whether the
as-drawn wire will survive the drawing process.
(a)

We need 30% cold work to obtain the desired tensile strength

d 2
30%

(2.5)2

d 2

x 100

(b)

The yield strength before cold working is 56 MPa.

F

(c)

2.99 mm

(56 MPa) (n/4) (2. 99 x 10- 3 m)2

= 372

The yield strength after cold working 30% is 147 MPa.

F

= (20,000) (n/4) (2. 5/1000)2 = 720

Because the draw force is less than the maximum force that
wire can withstand, wire drawing is possible.
86

the

20.

Successful wire drawing requires that strain hardening

deformation; what other process(es) in Figure 7-4 might
strain hardening?

occur during
also require

Deep drawing.
21.

(a) From the data below, estimate recovery, recrystallisation, and grain
growth temperatures. (b) Recommend a suitable temperature for stress
relief heat treatment. (c)
Recommend a suitable temperature for a
hot-working process. (d) Estimate the melting temperature of the alloy.

Annealing
Temperature
(C)
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
2000

(a)

Electrical
Conductivity
(x 10 7 Q- 1 m- )

Yield
Strength
(MPa)

0.85
0.86
1. 08
1. 24
1. 25
1. 25
1. 26
1. 26
1. 26

Grain
Size
(mm)
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.0375
0.0375
0.0625
0.1625
0.375

830
830
830
830
620
580
565
550
545

Electrical conductivity begins to increase between 400

600C; yield strength and grain size both decrease between
and 1000C; grain size begins to increase between 1200 and
1400 C. Therefore
recovery temperature
recrystallization temperature
grain growth temperature

and
800

500C
900C
1300C

(b)

Stress relieve above the recovery temperature but below the

recrystallization temperature. A temperature of about 700C
might be appropriate.

(c)

hot-work above the recrystallization temperature but below the

grain growth temperature. A temperature of about 1100C might
be appropriate.

(d)

The recrystallization temperature is approximately

the absolute melting temperature of the metal:
T

Tmp

= 0.4Tmp (abs) = 900

= 2933

K = 2660C

87

+ 273

1173 K

0.4

times

22.

(a) From the data below, estimate the recovery, recrystallization, and
grain growth temperatures. (b) Recommend a suitable temperature for a
stress relief heat treatment. (c) Recommend a suitable temperature for
a hot-working process. (d) Estimate the melting temperature of the
alloy.

Annealing
Temperature
(oC)

Residual
Stresses
(MPa)

Yield
Strength
(MPa)

Grain
Size
(mm)

100
200

310
310
310
0
0
0
0
0

550
550
550
550
310
260
255
255

0.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.06
0.06
0.08
0.18

~O

400
500
600
700
800
(a)

Residual stresses are eliminated between 300 and 400C; yield

strength and grain size decrease between 400 and 500C; grain size
increases between 600 and 700C. therefore
recovery temperature
recrystallization temperature
grain growth temperature

(b)

Stress relieve above the recovery but below

temperature.
A stress relief temperature of
appropriate.

(c)

Hot-work above the recrystallization but below the irain growth

temperature. A hot-working temperature of about 550 C might be
appropriate.

(d)

Recrystallization occurs at about 0.4

temperature of the metal.
Tr
Tmp

23.

= 350C
450C
= 650C

= 0.4Tmp (abs) = 450

= 1808

+ 273

times

the

recrystallization
about 400C
is

absolute

melting

723 K

K = 1535C

Aluminum is often added to liquid steel, causing deoxidation by producing

tiny Al a0 3 inclusions which are dispersed uniformly throughout the steel
after solidification. What effects will the alumina particles have on
the recrystallized grain size and the temperature at which grain growth
will become a problem?
The aluminum oxide particles will produce a smaller grain size and
will increase the temperature required for grain growth to occur.

88

24.

From the photomicrographs in Figure 7-16, estimate the ASTM grain size
numbers and plot the grain size number versus the annealing temperature.
The approximate number of
photomicrograph at 75x is:
400C: N

26/in 2 @l 75x

per

14.6 = 2 n- 1
(n - 1)1n(2)
= (n - 1) (0. 693)

3/in2 @l 75x

(3)(75/100)2

(3) (75/100)2

1. 7

inch

each

= 4.9

= 1.8

@l100x

(n - 1)1n(2)
(n - 1)(0.693)

0.7/in 2 @l 75x

(0.7)(75/100)2

(0.7) (75/100)2

0.4 = 2 n- 1
(n - 1)ln(2)
(n - 1) (0. 693)

In(0.4)
(-0.92)

@l 100x

= -0.3

Using the data in Table 7-4, plot the recrystallization temperature

versus the melting temperature
of
each
metal,
using
absolute
temperatures.
Measure the slope and compare
with
the
expected
relationship between these two temperatures. Is our approximation a good
one?
converting to absolute temperature and plotting, we
approximation is accurate.
T

T
r

Al
Mg
Ag
Au
Cu
Fe
Pt
Ni
Mo
Ta
W

26.

in

= -f1- 1

In( 1. 7)
0.53
800C: N

square

(26) (75/100)2 @l100x

(26) (75/100)2
In(14.6)
2.683
650C: N

25.

grains

933
923
1235
1337
1358
1811
2042
1726
2883
3269
3683

K
K
K
K
K
K
K
K
K
K
K

423 K
473 K
473 K
473 K
473 K
723K
723K
873 K
1173 K
1273 K
1473 K

find

that

the

2000

:i'

...=
1000

Melting Temperature (K)

When copper is joined to nickel by a roll bonding process, a minimum of

85% deformation is required. Measure the thickness of a quarter, then
estimate the minimum combined original thickness of the copper and nickel
alloy sheets from which the quarter was produced.
The thickness of a quarter is approximately 0.062 in
t - 0.062
= 0.413 in
-O--t,------- x 100 = 85
t
%CW
o

89

27.

Two sheets of annealed aluminum alloy 3105, each 2.5 mm thick, are to be
joined by cold indentation welding.
A total deformation of 67% is
required at the joint to obtain bonding.
(a)
What is the final
thickness of the joint? (b) What is the final yield strength of the
material in the joint? (c) Estimate the force that each individual
sheet could withstand and the force that the joint could withstand if the
force was applied parallel to the surface of the sheets.
(Refer to
Figure 7-23. )
1. 65 mm

(a)

%CW

(b)

177 MPa

(c)

Each individual sheet, whose cross-sectional area is 2.5 w,

where w is the width in mm, has a yield strength of 56 MPa.
The joint, which has a cross-sectional area 1.65 w, has a yield
strength of 177 MPa. Therefore

67

sheet: F

(56 x 106 )(2.5w/10 6 )

29.

N/mm length

292 N/mm length

joint: F
28.

= 140

We plan to produce a cold indentation weld in annealed copper alloy

(Figure 7-6) sheet material. Each sheet is 5 mm thick.
the final
thickness of the joint is 3.75 mm.
(a) Estimate the percent cold work
done in the joining process. (b) Estimate the yield strength in the
original material and in the final joint.

= 10

~03.76

%CW

(b)

The yield strength of the original material

yield strength of the joint is 480 MPa.

100

= 62.5%

(a)

is

150

MPa;

the

Suppose two sheets of aluminum alloy 3105 were to be jOined by cold

indentation welding. What effect, if any, would there be on the joining
process if the aluminum sheet had been cold worked 50% prior to JOInIng
compared with the originally annealed sheet? (Refer to Figure 7-23)
Less deformation could be done without embrittling the joint.
If
insufficient deformation could be accomplished
due
to
this
embrittling potential, then no bonding would occur.

30.

If you
Annealing of a nickel alloy requires 1 h at 620C.
complete the annealing process in 15 min, what temperature
recommend?

wanted to
would you

The time for annealing approximately doubles for every decrease of

10C, or it would be cut in half for each increase of 10C.
If it
takes 60 minutes at 620C, then it would take 30 minutes at 630C,
and would take 15 minutes at 640C.
Therefore we recommend an
annealing temperature of 640C.

90

31.

32.

You would like to produce the following.products.

For each one, tell
whether you would recommend hot working, cold working. or a combination
of cold working and annealing; tell which, if any, of the processes shown
in Figure 7-4 would be suitable; and explain your choice.
(a)

Paper clips: cold working would be appropriate - the parts are

small so little force is required, processing would be very
rapid, and little or no finishing to remove oxidation products
would be necessary.

(b)

I-beams that will be welded to produce a portion of a bridge:

hot working would be more appropriate = the parts are rather
large, so less force would be required for deformation, a
continuous hot forming process could be developed, and surface
finish is not critical.

(c)

Copper tubing that will connect a water tap to the main copper
plumbing: a cold work and annealing cycle would be desired
the cold working would permit a good surface finish to be
obtained, while annealing would then soften the tubing so it
could be deformed during installation and would also improve
the corrosion resistance.

(d)

The steel tape in a tape measure:

cold working would be
desired to produce a good surface finish, to give rapid
production rates, and to provide good stiffness to the tape.

(e)

A head for a carpenter's hammer formed from a round rod:

hot
working would be desired to assure adequate ductility and metal
flow during a forging process, giving the detail that is
necessary. The hammer head would later be heat treated to
obtain the desired strength, hardness, and toughness.

What deformation bonding process would you

following? Explain your choices.

recommend

for

each

of

the

(a)

Joining a 100 mm diameter steel shaft to a 100

stainless steel shaft: friction welding would be
since the shafts are both symmetrical.

(b)

Sealing an electronic device in a protective box made from

mm thick stainless steel:
ultrasonic bonding
would
appropriate since the material is rather thin.

(c)

Joining a 25 mm thick steel plate to a 6.25 mm thick titanium

plate, where the length and width of the plates are each 1.8 m:
roll bonding or explosive bonding would both be appropriate for
producing complete bonding in material of this size.

91

mm diameter
appropriate,
0.5
be

Chapter 8

SOLIDIFICATION AND GRAIN SIZE STRENGTHENING

1.

Plot the maximum observed undercooling versus the freezing temperature

for the metals listed in Table 8-1. Do the data in the table confirm the
relationship expressed in Equation 8-5?
Metal
Ga
Bi
Pb
Ag

Cu
Ni
Fe

T (K)
m

l1T(K)
76
90
80
250
236
480
420

30
271
327
962
1085
1453
1538

+
+
+
+
+
+
+

273
273
273
273
273
273
273

500
400
303
544
300
600
1235 g200
H
1358 <l
1726
100
1811
0
T (K)
m

The graph shows that there is a

rough correlation between the
observed data and the generalised
Equation 8-5
2.

Calculate the temperature and the number of degrees of undercooling at

which lead (Pb) should nucleate homogeneously.
l1T ~ 0.2(327

3.

Calculate the
homogeneously.
2uT
r

4.

l1Hf l1T

273) ~ 120C

size

of

207C

critical

radius

when

lead

nucleates

(2) (33 x 10- 3 J/rt ) (600 K) ~ 1. 39 x 10-9m ~ 13.9

(237 X 106 J/m2 ) (120 K)

Calculate the number of atoms in the critical radius when lead nucleates
homogeneously. the lattice parameter of FCC lead is about 4.9489 A.
Vnucleus
Vunit cell

(41[/3) (13. 9 x

atoms/nucleus

10-scm)3

(4.9489 x 10-s )3

unit cells/nucleus

5.

the

T ~ 327 - 120

11.249

10- 24 cm3

121.207 x 10- 24 cm 3

11. 249 x 10- 24

121. 207 x 10-24

92.8

(4 atoms/cell) (92.8 cells)

371

Calculate the temperature and the number of degrees of undercooling at

which silver (Ag) should nucleate homogeneously.
l1T ~ (0.2)(962 + 273) ~ 0.2(1235)

92

= 247C

962 - 247 ~ 715C

6.

calculate the size

homogeneously.
2O'Tm

r = 6Hf 6T
For Ag Tm

of

the

critical

radius

when

silver

nucleates

1235 K

6T

247C

latent heat of fusion

surface energy

= aHf = 965

= 0' = 126

X 10-3

x 106 J/m3

J/m2

(2)((126 x 10-3 )(1235)

:. r = ..:..=.:...:...:.=;=....:.:.-=..:=--~~=..:..
(965 x 106 )(247)
13.06 x 10-10 m = 13.06
7.

Calculate the number of atoms in the critical radius when silver

nucleates homogeneously.
the lattice parameter of FCC silver is about
4.0862 A.
(4'/[/3) (13. 069 x 10- 1)3 = 9.3307

Vnucleus
Vunit cell

= (4.0862

= 6.8227

x 10-1)3

10-27 m3

10-29 m3

9.3307 x 10-27
136.76 = - - - - - 6.8227 X 10-29
4 atoms/cell in FCC structure

unit cells/nucleus

.. atoms/nucleus = (4) (136. 76)

8.

547

Suppose that a nucleus of lead is formed homogeneously with

undercooling of only 10C.
How many atoms would have had
spontaneously group together in order for this to occur?
r*

20' T

m
= aRfaT

(2) (33 x 10-3 ) (600)

(237 x 106 )(10)
(4'/[/3)( 1. 6708 x 10-8 )3 = 1. 9537 x 10-23m3

vnucleus
v

uni t cell

= (4.9489 x to- 10 )3 = 1. 212

unit cells/nucleus
atoms/nucleus

1. 9537 X 10= -------------23

1. 212

(4)(1.612

93

X 10-28

10-28 m3

1. 612

105 ) = 6.448

105

105

an
to

9.

Suppose that a nucleus of silver is formed homogeneously with

undercooling of only 25C.
How many atoms would have had
spontaneously group together in order for this to occur?

an
to

20' Tm
= LllifflT
2(126 x 10-3 ) (1235)
(965 x 106 )(25)

1. 29

10-8 m

Vnucleus
Vunit cell
-24

unit cells/nucleus = 8.992 x 10

6.823 x 10-29

= 131,790

atoms/nucleus = (4)(131,790) = 527,160

10.

Calculate and plot how the total free energy flF changes with the radius
of a spherical nucleus of nickel at undercoolings of 25C and 350C.
3

flF = (4n/3)r (-flHfflT/Tm) + 4nO'r

2756 x 106 fiT) 3

flF = -(4n/3) ( (1453 + 273) r + 4n(255 x
flF = =(6.688474 x 106 )flTr3 + 3.2044 r2
For fiT = 25C
f.F = 3.2044r2 - 1.6721 x 108 r3
rim
0
50
100
150
200
250

flF/J

0
5.921
1. 5323
1. 5666
-0.0559
-0.6099

X
X
X
X
X

10-17 = 0.05921 X 10-15

10-16 = 0.15323 X 10-15
10-16 = O. 1566 X 10-15
10-15
10-15

For fiT = 350C

flF = 3.2044r2 - 2.3409

109 r3

X 10- 10
X 10- 10
X 10- 10
X 10- 10
X 10- 10

rim
0
5
10
12
15
20

X
X
X
X
X

10- 10
10- 10
10- 10
10- 10
10- 10

flF/J

0
5.0849
o 8635
0.5693
-0.6906
-0.591

94

X 10-19
X 10-18
X 10-18
X 10-18
X 10-17

= 0.5085

10-18

= 5.91 X 10- 18

0.15

[) T

010

~
"0
U'l

.x

LL

';0

25

[) T -:: 3500

1.D

0.05 -

r><1 0-10 m

100

<I

<0
'0

)(

20

LL.

-10
r><10 m

<I

-Q.1 0

11.

Estimate the percent of solidification that will occur in a dendritic

manner when nickel nucleates (a) with 10C undercooling, (b) with 100C
undercooiing ~ ~nd (c) homogeneously. The specific heat of nickel is
4.1 x 10 J/m. C.
_ ct.T
(a)
f - rul
f
(4.1 x 106 )(10)
2756 x 106
(b)

= 0.0149

ct.T

= t.Hf

(4.1 x 106 )(100)

2756 x 106
(c)

= 0.149

ct.T

= t.Hf

(4.1 x 106 )(0.2)(1453 + 273)

..:...:.c:...::...::.....=-=-~.::.:..::::..:...:.::...:::=---.:::.:.:::..:.

2756 x 106
12.

= O. 514

For silver, plot the percent of solidification that will occur in a

dendritic
manner
versus
the
undercooling
produ~ed
3 P!ior
to
solidification. The specific heat of silver is 3.25 x 10 J/a. C.
f _ ct.T _
- t.Hf -

(3.25 x 106 )t.T

(965

10 6 )

= 0.00337

t.T

100
f

CJ

80

~
~

10
50
100
250

0.0337
0.1685
0.337
0.843

...

"tI

I'l
Q)

t.T(oC)

95

13.

If 38% of solidification of iron occurs by dendritic growth, estimate the

undercooling that must have been achieved ;riolj oto nucleation.
The
specific heat of the iron liquid is 5.78 x 10 Jim. C.
f

14.

x 10 )~T
(1737 x 106 )

~ 0.38 ~ (5.78

If a 75 mm cube solidifies in 35 min, calculate (a) the mold constant and

(b) the total solidification time for a 25 mm x 175 mm x 375 mm plate.
t ~ B(V/A)2

(a)

~B

35
.. 156. 25

.. 35

time

(b)

75 3 )2
75 2 X 6
0.224 minutes/mm

0.224 (

25 x 175 x 375
)2
(2 x 25 x 175)+(2 x 175 x 375)+(2 x 375 x 25)

1640625)2
0.224 ( 158750
0.224 x 106.8
23.9 minutes
15.

If a 3 cm x 8 cm x 18 cm plate solidifies in 16 min, calculate (a) the

mold constant and (b) the total solidification time for a 6 cm diameter
sphere.
(a)

(3)(9)(18) ~ 432 cm
2(3)(8) + 2(3)(18) + 2(8) (18)

V
A

B(432/444)2

16

(b)

V
A

t
16.

16.9 min/cm

444 cm

(4nI3) (612)3 ~ 113.097 cm3

4n(6/2)3 = 113.097 cm2
16.9(113.097/113.097)2

= 16.9

min

The following data are obtained from a series of copper castings.

Determine the mold constant B and the exponent n in Chvorinov's rule for
copper.
Size
(mm)

Solidification Time
(min)

6.25 x 6.25 x 150

23 x 25 x 200
75 mm diameter sphere
150 mm cube

0.2
2.7
5.9
18.0

96

V/A

log t

log V/A

mm

3828
5859.4
1.53
-0.69897
0.1847
125000
16250
7.6923
0.43136
0.8861
220593
17671
12.5
0.77085
1. 0969
3375000
135000
1. 3979
25
1. 25527
L -__________________________________________

"'01>

~~

= gradient = 1.25527
1.3979

- 0.43136
_ 0.8861

..J

1.61

't'OC.IJj4

.ooG

log t = log B when log V/A = 0

17.

ot---::-!:'l~--.-__:_T"t

During conventional castigg of an aluminum alloy, Chvorinov's rule is

given by ts = 0.26(V/A)1.6, using units of mm and minutes.
Using the
evaporative pattern casting process (see Chapter 1), a series of aluminum
castings solidifies according to the following data.
Determine the
constants Band n in Chvorinov's rule and determine the effect of the
Styrofoam pattern on solidification time.
Solidification Time
(min)

Size
(mm))mm
6.25
12.5
25
75

x
x
x
x

150
150
150
150

Volume
mm

x
x
x
x

150
150
150
150

Area2
mm

1.3
3.5
8.5
25.9
V/A
mm

log t

log V/A

0.4594
48750
140625
2.88
0.1149
0.7289
5.357
0.5441
281250
52500
0.9719
9.375
0.9294
562500
60000
1. 273
90000
18.75
1.4133
1.687500
L -____________________________________

,.0
.it

~~~,

1. 4133

= gradient = 1.273

- 0.5441
_ 0.7289

log t = log B when log v/a

=0

1.6

.J 0 I--,h-------r~

...,
,..G
I-OGlV/R:

The effect of the styrofoam is to decrease the cooling time because

B = 0.24 < 0.26 for conventional process and 'n' remains the same,
because heat is used to melt and vaporise the foam.
97

18.

Figure 8-7(b) shows a photograph of an aluminum alloy. Estimate (a) the

secondary dendrite arm spacing and (b) the local solidification time for
that area of the casting.
(a)

The distance between adjacent dendrite arms can be measured.

Although most people doing these measurements will arrive at
slightly different numbers, the author's calculations obtained
from four different arms are:
16 mm / 6 arms
9mm/5arms
13 mm / 7 arms
18 mm / 9 arms

2.67
1. 80
1. 85
2.00

mm
mm
mm
mm

average

= 2.08

mm

0.208 cm

Dividing through by the magnification:

SDAS = 0.208 cm / SOx = 0.00416 cm = 4.16 x 10-3 cm
(b)
19.

From Figure 8-8, LST = 90 s.

Figure 8-26 shows a photograph of a copper alloy.

Estimate (a) the
secondary dendrite arm spacing and (b) the local solidification time for
that area of the casting.
(a)

the distance between adjacent dendrite arms can be measured.

Although most people doing these measurements will arrive at
slightly different numbers, the author's calculations obtained
from four different arms are:
33
27
23
24

mm
mm
mm
mm

/
/
/
/

11
9
6
8

arms
arms
arms
arms

3.0
3.0
3.8
3.0

mm
mm
mm
mm

average 3.2 mm

0.32 cm

Dividing through by the magnification:

SDAS
(b)
20.

= 0.32

cm / 30x

From Figure 8-8, LST

0.0107 cm

= 1.07

x 10-2 cm

10 s.

Which aluminum casting will have the higher strength - a 25 mm x 200 mm x

200 mm plate or a 31.25 mm x 200 mm bar? Estimate the secondary dendrite
arm spacing in the center of each casting, using the equation for
solidification time given in Problem 8-17.
For casting 1, V
A

V/A

105 mm3
25 x 200 x 200
(4 x 25 x 200) + 2(200) (200)
20000 + 80000
104 mm
10

From the equation in Problem 8-17

t = 0.26 (V/A)1.6

98

10.35 minutes
= 621 seconds

= (31.25)(31 j 25)(200)
= 195312.5 nun

For casting 2, V

(4 x 31.25 x 200) + 2(31.25)2

25000 + 1953.13
26953 nun2
.. VIA = 7.2464
A

= 0.26

(VIA) 1. 6

= 0.26 (7.2464)1. 6

(0.26) (23. 779)

min = 371 s

= 6.18
SDAS

= K t sn

From the example in the text,

assuming K

= (8

x 10-3 ) mm and n

SDAS for casting 1

SDAS for casting 2

= 0.42

= (8
=

X 10- 3 )(621).42
(8 X 10- 3 )(371).42

= 0.12 nun
= 0.096 mm

Casting 2 is the stronger; i t has the shorter solidification time

and the smaller secondary dendrite arm spacing.
21.

Which copper casting will have the higher strength = a cylindrical bar
37.5 mm in diameter and 200 mm taIlor a 25 nun x 300 nun x 300 mm plate?

(VIA)
1

(n/4) (37.5) x 200

2(n/4)(37.5)2 + n(37.5)200

220893
25770.9

= 8.57
(300)2 X 25
4(25)(300) + 2(300)(300)

2250000
210000

10.7

Casting 1 will be stronger, because its VIA ratio is smaller and

therefore it will solidify in a shorter time and possess a
smaller SDAS.
22.

Calculate (a) the diameter of the sphere that would freeze in the same
time as a 62.5 nun x 150 mm x 225 nun plate and (b) the ratio of the volume
of the sphere to the volume of the plate.
(VIA) plate

(62.5)(150)(225)
(2)(62.5)(225) + (2)(150)(225) + (2)(150)(62.5)
2109375 nun3
114375 nuns.
18.4426 nun

(VIA) sphere
:. D

V sphere
V plate

= (4/3nr 3 )/(4nr2 )
= 110.66

mm

( 110.66)3
-2-2109375

(4n/3~

= 0.336
99

r/3

= D/6

?09529.8
2109375

18.4426

23.

We need a riser for an aluminum casting that takes at le~st 25 min to

solidify.
Suppose that the mold constant is 0.26 min mm.
Which one
of the following riser shapes will satisfy this requirement with the
least riser volume or mass - a cube, a sphere, or a cylinder with an HID
ratio of 1. 07
Assuming mould constant = 0.26 mins/mm2
and t = 0.26 (V/A)1.6
Cube: 25
0.26 (a3 /6a2 )1.6 = 0.26 (a/6)1.6
a
104.11 mm
V a 3 = 1,128,538 mm3
Sphere: 25
r

0.26 [(4nr 3 /3)/(4nr 2 )]1.6 = 0.26 (r/3)1.6

mm
V = 4/3nr 3 = 590,901 mm3

= 52

Cylinder: 25
. D
V

0.26 [(n/4}D 3 12(n/4)D2 + nD2]1.6

0.26 (D/6) .6
104.11 mm
(n/4)D 3
886,354 mm 3

Therefore, the sphere requires the least volume or mass.

24.

Calculate the volume, diameter, and height of the cylindrical riser

having an HID ratio of 2 that would be required to prevent shrinkage in a
steel casting having dimensions of 50 mm x 225 mm x 250 mm.

V casting
A casting

(50)(225)(250) = 2812500 mm3

(50)(225) + 2(50)(250) + 2(225)(250)
22500 +4250~0 + 112500
16 x 10 mm

V riser
A riser

(n/4)D 2H
(n/4)D 2 (2D) = nD 3 /2
2(n/4)D 2 + nDH = 2(n/4)D2 + nD(2D)
5nD 2/2

(VIA) riser

(VIA) casting

nD 12 ~ 2812500 or DIS ~ 17.5781

5nD2/2
160000
D = 87.89 mm
H = 175.78 mm
3
V= 1,066,444.5 mm
25.

Calculate the volume, diameter, and height of the cylindrical riser

having and HID ratio of 1.5 that would be required to prevent shrinkage
in an aluminum casting having dimensions of 75 mm x 100 mm x 125 mm.
V casting

A casting

(75)(100)(125) = 937500 mm3

2(75)(100) + 2(75)(125) + 2(100)(125)
15000 + 18750 + 25000
58750 mm2

V riser
A riser

(n/4)D 2H
(3n/8)D 3
2(n/4)D 2 + nDH = 2nD2

100

(VIA) riser

(VIA) casting

(3K/8)D3/2KDz ~ ~~~~~O
3D/16

15.957
85.1 DIID

(ie) D = 85.1
26.

DIID,

H = 127.66

DIID,

V = 726055 mm3

A step-block casting is shown in Figure 8-27, along with an attached

riser.
Compare the solidification times of each casting section and
riser and decide if the riser will prevent shrinkage.
(2)(6)(8)
96
(V/A)1 = 2(2)(6) + 2(6)(8) + 2(2)(8) = 152 = 0.632

t = 0.40B

(4)(6)(6)
144
(V/A)z = 2(6)(6) + 2(4)(6) + (4)(6) + (2)(6) = 156 = 0.923 t = 0.85B
(V/A)R =

(Kl4)(5)z(8)
(K/4)(5)z + K(5)(8)

157.1
= 145.29 = 1.081

t = 1.17B

The solidification time progressively increases from the extremity

of the casting towards the riser; therefore the riser will be
effective and will prevent shrinkage.
27.

A step-block casting is shown in Figure 8-28, along with an attached

riser.
Compare the solidification times of each casting section and
riser and decide if the riser will prevent shrinkage.
(4)(5)(6)
120
(V/A)1 = 2(4)(6) + 2(3)(5) + (4)(5) + (3)(4)= 110 = 1.091 t = 1.19B
2(2)(5) +

(V/A)z
(VIA)

(5)(4)(2)
(2)(4) +

2(5)(4)

(K/4) (4) z (8)

_ 100.5
2(K/4) (4)z + K(4)(8)- 125.7

40
68 = 0.589

= 0.80

t = 0.35B
t = 0.64B

The first section to freeze is that portion of the casting adjacent

to the riser.
This freezing will then isolate the thick casting
part from the riser; consequently shrinkage will occur in the thick
section and the riser is not effective.
28.

The following data were obtained from castings poured using a superalloy.
Determine the constants k and m that relate secondary dendrite" arm
spacing to local solidification time.
Solidification time
(s)

Dendrite Arm spacing

(mm)

300
1000
2500
5000

0.020
0.032
0.046
0.060

101

From the graph,

n

= 3.9/10 = 0.39

From the equation

o.1o.----------------------------------,
SO.05
<J

"J

SDAS = k(LST)0.39
0.032 = kOOOOO)0.39
0.032 = 14.791k
k

29.

= 0.0022

0.01~1~0~0--------'5~0~0.---1~0~0~0.---~5~6~0~0~1~0,~000

Solidification Time (s)

When aluminum powder particles are produced by rapid solidification

processing, solidification times of 0.0005 s are observed. Estimate the
secondary dendrite arm spacing of the metal powders and compare to the
SDAS of an aluminum casting that is 25 mm x 250 mm x 250 mm, using the
expression for Chvorinov's rule given in Problem 8-17.
Solidification time for the casting is
= 0.26(V/A)1.6
s
volume
(25)(250)(250) = 1562500 mm3
Area
4(25)(250) + 2(250)(250)
25000 + 125000
150000 mm2

.. t

0.26 0562500/150000)1.6
11.05 minutes

= 663

SDAS(cm)
:. SDAS casting
and SDAS powder
30.

8 x 10- 4 (663)42
0.0122 cm
8 x 10- 4 (0.0005).42
0.000033 cm

The solidification time of a typical aluminum weld is about 4s. Compare

the secondary dendrite arm spacing in the fusion zone of the weld to that
in a 75 rom x 125 rom x 200 mm aluminum casting whose mold constant is
0.072 min/mm2 and whose exponent n is 1.5.
For the casting
V 75 x 125 x 200 = 1875000 mm3
A 2(75)(125) + 2(75)(200) + 2(125)(200)
48750 + ~OOOO
98750 mm
~ts

1875000) 1. 5
0.26 ( 98750
0.26 (18.9873)1.5
= 21. 51 minutes
1291 s
102

SDAS = 8 X 10- 4 to. 42

.. SDAS casting
0.016 em
SDAS weld
= 0.001 em
31.

The cooling curves in Figure 8-29 were obtained from the surface,
mid-radius, and center of a continuously cast copper bar. Determine the
local solidification time and the SDAS at each location.
Is the surface
of a casting expected to be weaker or stronger than the center?
surface:
mid-radius:
center:

9 - 3 = 6 min = 360 s
20 - 8 = 12 min = 720 s
38 - 18 = 20 min = 1200 s

LST
LST
LST

SDAS
SDAS
SDAS

0.04 cm
0.06 cm
0.10 em

The surface will be the strongest.

32.

A cooling curve is shown in Figure 8-30.

Determine (a)
the pouring
temperature, (b) the freezing temperature, (c) the superheat, (d) the
cooling rate just before freezing begins, (e) the total solidification
time, (n the local solidification time and (g) the probable identity of
the material.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

(e)

(n

(g)

33.

A cooling curve is shown in Figure 8-31. Determine (al the pouring

temperature, (b) the freezing temperature, (cl the superheat, (d) the
cooling rate just before freezing begins, (e) the total solidification
time, (f) the local solidification time, and (g) the undercooling.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)

34.

pouring temperature = 800C

freezing temperature = 650C
superheat = 800 - 650 = 150C
cooling rate = ~T/~t = 150/10
15 C/min
total solidification time
40 min
local solidification time = 40 - 10 = 30 min
magnesium

pouring temperature = 2100C

freezing temperature = 1750C
superheat = 2100 - 1750 = 350C
cooling rate = ~T/~t = (2100 - 1650) / 50 = 9C/s
total solidification time = 350 s
local solidification time = 350 - 50 = 300 s
undercooling = 1750 - 1650 = 100C

Suppose a 125 mm cube of copper is allowed to solidify and all of the

shrinkage occurs in the center of the casting as a spherical cavity.
Estimate the diameter and volume of the shrinkage cavity.
V casting

V shrinkage

(125)3

= 1953125

mm3

= 5.1% = (0.051)(19~3125)

volume (4n/3)r 3
r
d

= 99609.4

99609.4 mm3
28.757 mm
= 57.5 mm

103

mm

35.

The entire shrinkage in a 125 mm spherical casting is found as a

spherical cavity with a diameter of 43.75 Mm.
Estimate the percent
volume change during solidification.
(4n/3) (43.75/2)3

Xvolume change =

(4n/3) 025/2)3

~~:~~o~~

x 100

x 100

= 4.29X
36.

A 30 mm x 60 mm x 80 mm copper casting is produced which weighs 1220 g.

Calculate the percent shrinkage that occurred during the solidification
process. What would be the volume of the shrinkage cavity at the center
of the casting?
V casting

= 144000

(30)(60)(80)

mm3

P
0.00893 g mm- 3
expected weight = 1285.92 ~
..

X h ink
_ 1285.92 - 1220 x 100
s rage 1285.92

65.92
Shrinkage volume = 0.00893
37.

= 5.13X
3

7381.9 mm

A 25 mm x 300 mm x 300 mm aluminum casting is produced which weighs 5.9

kg.
Calculate the percent shrinkage that occurred during the
solidification process.
If the shrinkage is distributed as spherical
pores, each having a diameter of 0.05 mm, how many pores are present in
the casting?
V casting

= 25

x 300 x 300

PAl = 2.699 Mg/m

~ weight = 2.25 x 2.699

2,250,000 mm3

= 6.07275

kg

:.X shrinkage = 6. ~~~~~7; 5.9 x 100

= 2.845X

shrinkage volume = 64012.5 mm

volume of pores = (4n/3)(0.025)3
= 6.54 x 10-5 mm3
Number of pores = 64012.5/6.54 x 10-5
= 9.8 X 108
38.

Suppose liquid aluminum completely fills a metal mold that is 75 mm x 75

mm x 900 mm and is controlled so that all of the shrinkage occurs along
the length of the casting.
What is the length of the aluminum casting
immediately after solidification?
Assuming Xshrinkage for Al
93
Lf = 100 x 900 = 837 mm
104

39.

The density of liquid bismuth is 10.067 Mg/m3 and the density of solid
bismuth is 9.6 Mg/m 3
Determine (a) the percent volume change during
freezing and (b) whether the casting shrinks or expands during freezing.
(a) "change
"change

(1 I 10.067)
(1 I

= (1 I 9.5) x 100
10.067)

0.09933 - 0.10526 x 100

0.09933

-5.97"

(b) bismuth expands during freezing.

40.

Suppose we produce an aluminum casting containing gas porosity.

What
forming process discussed in Chapter 7 would best be used to help close
up the porosity without creating any major change in the dimensions of
the casting?
Isotactic compaction.

41.

Figure 8-10 shows the dendrites in a titanium powder particle that has
been rapidly solidified.
Assuming that the size of the titanium
dendrites is related to solidification time by the same relationship as
in aluminum, estimate the solidification time of the powder.
the secondary dendrite arm spacing can be estimated from the
photograph at several locations. the author's calculations, derived
from measurements at three locations, are
11 mm I 8 arms
13 mm I 8 arms
13 mm I 8 arms
average

1. 375
1. 625
1. 625
1. 540

mm
mm
mm
mm

Dividing by the magnification of 2200:

SDAS

= 1.540

mm I 2200

=7

x 10- 4 mm

=7

x 10-S cm

The relationship between SDAS and solidification time, Example 8-5,

is
SDAS
t

(0.0875)1/0.42

105

= 0.003

Chapter 9

SOLIDIFICATION AND SOLID SOLUTION STRENGTHENING

1.

The triple point for water occurs at 0.007 atm and 0.0075C.
information and your knowledge of the behaviour of water at
pressure, construct a schematic unary phase diagram.

Using this
atmospheric

------1 atm

2.

The unary phase diagram for 5i02 is shown in

Figure

triple point where solid, liquid and vapour

temperature and type of solid present. What do
indicate?

3.

14-6.

Locate

the

coexist and give the

other "triple" points

(a)

The solid-liquid-vapour triple point occurs at 1713C; the

solid present is ~-cristobalite.

(b)

The other triple points give an equilibrium between two solids

and a vapour.

Which of the following systems would be expected to display unlimited

solid solubility?
(a)

Au-Ag:

both are FCC

both have a valence of +1 and similar
electronegativities
%~r = (1.442 - 1.445)/1.442 x 100 = 0.2

(b)

Ag-Na

both are FCC

both have a valence of +1, although
electronegativities are not similar
%~r = (1.858 - 1.445)/1.445 x 100
29

(c)

AI-Cu

both are FCC

Al has a valence of +3; Cu has a valence of +1
Y~r = (1.432 - 1.278)/1.278 x 100 = 12

(d)

Al-Li

Al is FCC; Li is BCC
Al has a valence of +3; Li has a valence of +1
%~r = (1.519 - 1.432)/1.432 x 100 = 6

Only the Au-Ag system should display complete solid solubility.

106

4.

Which of the following systems would be expected to display unlimited

solid solubility?
(a)

Cs-K:

both are BCC

both have a valence of +1
%ll.r = (2.65 - 2.314)/2.314 x 100

14.5

(b)

AI-Au:

both are FCC

Al has a valence of +3; Au has a valence of +1
%ll.r = (1.442 - 1.432)/1.432 x 100 = 0.7

(c)

U-W:

uranium is orthorhombic: tungsten is BCC

both have a valence of +4
%ll.r = (1.38 - 1.371)/1.371 x 100 = 0.7

(d)

Mo-Ta

both are BCC

Mo has a valence of +4; Ta has a valence of +5
%ll.r = (1.43 - 1.363)/(1.363 x 100 = 5

The Cs-K system has the best chance for complete solid solubility
although the radius ratio is very close.
5.

Suppose 1 at% of the following elements are added to aluminum without

exceeding the solubility limit. Which one would be expected to give the
higher strength alloy? Will any alloying element have unlimited solid
solubility in aluminum?
Aluminum is FCC, has a valence of +3, and an atomic radius of 1. 432
(a)

Ge:

DC, +4 valence, r

(b)

Ag: FCC, +1 valence, r

(c)

Cu: FCC, +1 valence, r

(d)

Mg: HCP, +2 valence, r

(e)

Li: BCC, +1 valence, r

(0

Zn: HCP, +2 valence, r

= 1.225
= 1.445
= 1.278
= 1.604
= 1. 519
= 1.332

-7

14.5% ll.r

-7

0.9% ll.r

-7

10.8% ll.r

-7

12.0% ll.r

-7

6.1% ll.r

-7

7.0% ll.r

A.

Because Ge atoms have the largest size difference compared to

aluminum, we might expect the greatest solid solution strengthening
effect from germanium.
We do not expect to have complete solid solubility in any
systems.
6.

Determine the liquidus temperature,

range for a Cu-25% Ni alloy.
liquidus

= 1210

freezing range

= 1210

solidus
- 1170

107

solidus

= 1170C

= 40C

temperature,

and

of

these

freezing

7.

Determine the liquidus temperature,

range for a Cu-50% Ni alloy
liquidus

= 1310C

freezing range
8.

1150C:

0:

1200C:

0:

= 1310

- 1260

and

freezing

= 1260C

= 50C

+ L

0::

25% Ni

0::

L:

30% Ni
20% Ni

L:

25% Ni

100%
(25-20)/(30-20) x 100
(30-25)/(30-20) x 100

1250C:

0:

1300C:

0: +

0::

50% Ni

0::

L:

58% Ni
46% Ni

L:

50% Ni

0:

50% 0:
50% L
100% L

Determine the phases present, the compositions of each phase, and

amounts of each phase in wt% for a Cu-50% Ni alloy at 1250C, 1300C
1350C.

1350C:
10.

solidus

temperature,

Determine the phases present, the compositions of each phase, and the
amounts of each phase in wt% for a Cu-50% Ni alloy at 1250C, 1200C, and
1250C.

1250C:
9.

solidus

the
and

100%
(50-46)/(58-46) x 100
(58-50)/(58-46) x 100

0:

33% 0:
67% L
100% L

Figure 9-7(b) shows the NiO and MgO display complete solid solubility.
What does this suggest concerning the crystal structures of NiO and MgO?
What structure does each have? What does this suggest about the ionic
radii and valences of the cations in each ceramic compound? Do NiO and
MgO satisfy Hume-Rothery's conditions?
They have the same crystal structure (sodium chloride type)
Ni and Mg have the same valence or electrical charge
r Ni = 0.69 A; rMg = 0.65; %~r = 4.5
NiO and MgO do satisfy Hume-Rothery conditions.

11.

Determine the phases present, the compositions of each phase,

amounts of each phase in mole% for a NiO-50% MgO mixture at
2400C and 2600C.
2200C:

2400C:

5 + L 5: 62% MgO
L: 37% MgO

2600C:

5:50% MgO

L: 50% MgO

108

100 5
(50-37)/(62-37) x 100
(62-50)/(62-37) x 100

52% 5
48% L
100 L

12.

A total of 100 g of NiO and MgO is heated to 2500C, producing a

structure containing 33% liquid and 67% solid. How many grams of NiO
must be in the mixture?
At 2500C, the liquid contains 52% MgO and the solid contains 72%
MgO.

Consequently the overall composition of the ceramic is

%5

= 67 = (x

- 52)/(72 - 52) x 100

16 + 24.312
16 + 58.71
wt% MgO

= 65.4

mol% MgO

= 40.312 g/mol
= 74.71 g/mol

(65.4 mol)(40.312)
+ (34.6)(74.71) x 100

= (65.4)(40.312)

2636
5221

50.5%

Therefore there are 50.5 g MgO and 49.5 NiO.

13.

The MgO-FeO systems is shown in Figure 9-20. What crystal structure do

you expect each ceramic compound to have?
(You may need to review
Chapter 3.) Based on ionic radii and valences of the cations in each
ceramic compound, do FeO and MgO satisfy Hume-Rothery's conditions?
Both have the sodium chloride crystal structure
Both have the same valence or electrical charge
r Mg = 0.66 r Fe = 0.74 %~r = 12.1
Therefore FeO and MgO do satisfy the Hume-Rothery conditions.

14.

15.

For a MgO-60% FeO mixture, determine (a) the liquidus temperature,

(b)
the solidus temperature, (c) the com~osition of each phase at 2200C, and
(d) the amount of each phase at 2200 C.

= 2100C

(a)

liquidus temperature

(b)

solidus temperature

(c)

at 2200 o C, only liquid is present.

60% FeO

(d)

since only liquid is present, its amount is 100% L

= 1700C
The composition is

L:

For a MgO-30% FeO mixture, determine (a) the liquidus temperature," (b)
the solidus temperature, (c) the com~osition of each phase at 2400C, and
(d) the amount of each phase at 2400 C.
(a)

liquidus temperature

(b)

solidus temperature

(c)

L: 40% FeO

(d)

%L

%5

= 2520C
= 2150

5: 18% FeO

(30-18)/(40-18) x 100
(40-30)/(40-18) x 100

109

54.5
45.5

16.

Plot how the freezing range depends on the % FeO in the MgO-FeO
At what composition is the maximum freezing range obtained?
0% FeO:
10% FeO: 2740
20% FeO: 2640
30% FeO: 2530
40% FeO: 2400
50% FeO: 2260
60% FeO: 2100
70% FeO: 1920
80% FeO: 1740
90% FeO: 1550
100% FeO:

2570
2370
2170
2000
1820.
1700
1560
1480
1400

OC
170C
270C
360C
= 400C
= 440C
400C
360C
260C
150C
OC

system.

500

0...,
III
be

be

t:i

'"N
Q)
Q)

'"

f%.<

%FeO

MgO

FeO

Maximum freezing range occurs at 50% FeO.

17.

At 2000C, a mixture of MgO and FeO contains 60%

composition of the original mixture?

liquid.

What

is

the

At 2000C, the compositions of each phase are:

s:

40% FeO

L: 65% FeO

= 60

%L = (x - 40) / (65 - 40) x 100

18.

= 55%

feO

A mixture of MgO and FeO is heated to produce a solid containing 60% FeO.
Determine the temperature at which the mixture is held.
Can you
determine the composition of the original mixture? Explain and point
out whether this result confirms the phase rule.
The solid has a composition of 60% FeO when the temperature is
1700C.
No. the composition of the original mixture may be anywhere between
60 and 83% FeO. Fixing just one composition is not enough to fix
the entire system in a two phase region, since the phase rule says
there are two degrees of freedom.

19.

By trial
A MgO-40% FeO ceramic is heated until only 25% solid remains.
and error, estimate the temperature to which the ceramic was heated.
@2400C: 0% S (This is the liquidus temperature)
@2300C: (46-40)/(46-28) x 100
25% S
@2200C: (53-40)/(53-28) x 100 = 52% S
The temperature is about 2300C.

20.

Figure 9-21 shows the Nb-W phase

satisfies Hume-Rothery's rules.

diagram.

Verify

that

Both have the BCC crystal structure and a valence of +4

r Nb

= 1.426

= 1.3171 w Y~r = 4.0

Hume-Rothery's conditions are satisfied.

110

this

system

21.

For a Nb-70% W alloy, determine (a) the liquidus temperature b (b) the
solidus temperature, (c) the com~osition of each phase at 3000 C, and (d)
the amount of each phase at 3000 C.
(a)

liquidus temperature

(c)

~:

(70-68)/(83-68) x 100
(83-70)/(83-68) x 100

%L
22.

solidus temperature

2820C

83% W L: 68% W

roO:

(d)

3020C (b)

13.3
86.7

Plot how the freezing range depends on the % W in the Nb-W system.
At
what composition is the maximum freezing range obtained?
Would you
expect shrinkage defects to be more concentrated in a Nb-70% W alloy or a
Nb-30% W alloy?

0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%

W:
W:
W:
W:
W:
W:
W:
W:
W:
W:
W:

2540
2590
2660
2730
2810
2910
3020
3120
3260

2490
2520
2550
2600
2650
2720
2820
2950
3140

OC
50C
70C
110 C
130C
160C
190C
200C
170C
120C
OC

250

'"'
u

0
'-'

200

Q}

bO

~
oj

bO

t::

oM
N
Q}
Q}

I-<

Nb

%W

The maximum freezing range occurs neat 70% W.

We would expect more concentrated shrinkage in the 30% W alloy since
it has the shorter freezing range.
23.

When a Nb-W alloy is heated to 2800C, only 33% solid remains.

the composition of the original alloy.
At 2800C, the compositions of the two phases are ~
48%.
%~

24.

(x - 48)/(68 - 48) x 100

= 33

Determine

68% Wand

x = 54.6% W

By trial
A Nb-60% W alloy is heated until 40% liquid is produced.
error, determine the temperature that must have been obtained.
@2900C:
@2850C:
@2800C:
@2750C:

(76-60)/(76-59)
(73-60)/(73-54)
(68-60)/(68-49)
(64-60)/(64-44)

x
x
x
x

100
100
100
100

94% L
68%L
42% L
20% L

The temperature must be about 2800C.

111

and

25.

A Nb-30Y.
liquid.
percent,
and at%,
(a)

W alloy is heated to 2600C, producing a mixture of solid and

Determine (a) the composition of the original alloy in atomic
(b) the composition of the solid and liquid phases in both wt%
and (c) the amount of solid and liquid phases on a weight basis.

MWW = 183.85 g/mol:

at%

(b)

g/mol
0.163
0.916

17.8

Compositions in weight percent from the tie line at 2600C are

L:21% W

(401 183.85)
at% = (40 1 183.85) + (60 1 92.91)

0.218 _
0.864 - 25.2

(21 1 183.85)
(21 1 183.85) + (79 1 92.91)

0.114
0.964 - 11. 8

at%

26.

= 92.91

(3D g 1 183.85)
(3D g 1 183.85) + (70 g 1 92.91)

ex: 40% W

(c)

MWNb

%ex
%L

(30-21)/(40-21) x 100
(40-30)/(40-21) x 100

47.4
52.6

A MgO-40% FeO ceramic is heated to 2300C, producing a mixture

of solid
and liquid. Determine (a) the composition of the original alloy in mole
percent, (b) the composition of the solid and liquid phases in both wt%
and mol%, and (c) the amount of solid and liquid phases on a weight
basis.
(a)

MWMgO
MWFeO

= 16

= 16

= 40.312

24.312

+ 55.847

= 71.847

g/mol
g/mol

_
(40 g 1 71. 847)
_ 0.557
mole% FeO - (40 g 1 71.847) + (60 g 1 40.312) - 2.045
(b)

Compositions in weight percent from the tie line are

L:

47% FeO

mole% FeO(S)

S: 23% FeO
(47/71.847)
_ 0.654
(47 1 71.847) + (53 1 40.312) - 1.969

(23/71.847)
_ 0.320
mole% FeO(L) = (23 1 71.847) + (77 1 40.312) - 2.230
(c)

27.

27.2

%S
%L

(47-40)/(47-23) x 100
(40-23)/(47-23) x 100

33.2

14.3

29
71

Suppose we prepare a Nb-W alloy by mixing together equal numbers of atoms

of each, then heat the alloy to 2800C. Calculate the composition of the
alloy in wt%, then determine which phases are present.
wt% W

(50)(183.85)
(50)(183.85) + (50)(92.91)

9192.5

= 13.838 = 66.4

L and ex are both present in this alloy at 2800C.

112

28.

Suppose we combine 50 cm3 of Nb with 30.cm3 of Wand heat to 2800C.

Calculate the composition of the alloy in wt%,
then determine which
phases are present.
Pw = 19.265 glcm

PNb

= 8.57

glcm

(30)(19.254)
wt% W = (30)(19.254) + (50)(8.57)

577.62

= 1006.12 = 57.4

From the phase diagram, both L and a are present in this alloy at
2800C.
29.

A MgO-60% FeO ceramic is allowed to cool from the liquid.

equilibrium conditions, calculate the composition of (a) the first
to form on freezing and (b) the last liquid to solidify.

(a)
30.

(b)

82% FeO

A Nb-70% W alloy is allowed to cool from the liquid.

Under equilibrium
conditions, calculate the composition of (a) the first solid to form on
freezing and (b) the last liquid to solidify.
(a)

31.

34% FeO

Under
solid

84% W

(b)

50% W

Consider a Nb-70% W alloy which cools rapidly

to
produce
the
non-equilibrium solidus shown as a dashed line in Figure 9-21.
(a) What
is the composition of the first solid to form?
(b)
Determine the
composition and amount of each phase present
during
equilibrium
solidification at 2900C, 2800C, and 2700C.
(c)
Determine the
composition and amount of each phase present during non-equilibrium
solidification at 2900C, 2800C, and 2700C.
Under
equilibrium
conditions, determine the compositions of the last liquid to freeze and
the last solid to form.
(e) Under non-equilibrium conditions, determine
the compositions of the last liquid to freeze and the last solid to form.
(f) Compare the equilibrium and non-equilibrium solidus temperature.
(a)

84%

(b)

2900C:

L: 59% W
ex: 76% W

(76-70)/(76-59) x 100
(70-59)/(76-59) x 100

2800C:

a: 70% W

100% a

2700C:

a: 70% W

100% a

2900C:

L: 59% W
ex: 81% W

(81-70)/(81-59) x 100
(70-59)1(81-59) x 100

50% L
50% a

2800X:

L: 48% W
a: 77% W

(77-70)/(77-48) x 100
(70-48)/(77-48) x 100

24% L
76% a

2700C:

L: 37% W
ex: 72%W

(72-72)1(72-37) x 100
(70-37)/(72-37) x 100

5.7% L
94.3& a

(c)

(d)

(f)

last liquid is L: 50% W

last solid is ex: 70% W

equilibrium solidus = 2820C

113

(e)

35.3% L
64.7% a

last liquid is L: 32% W

last solid is a: 54% W

non-equilibrium solidus = 2660C

32.

Consider a HgO-40% FeO ceramic which cools to produce the non-equilibrium

solidus shown as a dashed line in Figure 9-20.
(a)
What is the
composition of the first solid to form? (b) Determine the composition
and amount of each phase present during equilibrium solidification at
220C, 2000C, and 1800C. (c) Determine the composition and amount of
each phase present during non-equilibrium solidification at 2200C,
2000C, and 1800C. (d) under equilibrium conditions, determine the
compositions of~the last liquid to freeze and the last solid to form.
(e) Under non-equilibrium conditions, determine the compositions of the
last liquid to freeze and the last solid to form.
(f)
Compare the
equilibrium and non-equilibrium solidus temperatures.
(a) 18% FeO
(b)

(c)

33.

2200C:

s:

L: 53% FeO
28% FeO

(48-28)/(53-28) x 100
(53-40)/(53-28) x 100

48% L
52% S

2000C:

L: 65% FeO
S: 39% FeO

(40-39)/(65-39) x 100
(65-40)/(65-39) x 100

= 96.2%

1800C:

s:

2200C:

L: 53% FeO
S: 22% FeO

(40-22)/(53-22) x 100
(53-40)/(53-22) x 100

2000C:

L: 65% FeO
S: 28% FeO

(40-28)/(65-28)
(65-40)/(65-28)

1800C:

L: 77% FeO
S: = 33% FeO

(40-33)/(77-33)
(77-40)/(77-33)

40% FeO

3.8% L
S

100% S

(d)

last liquid is L: 65% FeO

last solid is S: 40% FeO

(f)

equilibrium solidus

= 2000C

= 58% L
= 42% S
x 100 = 32% L
x 100 = 68% S
x 100 = 16% L
xl00 = 84% S

(e) last liquid is L: 88% FeO

last solid is S: 67% FeO
non-equilibrium solidus

= 1600C

Consider the cooling curve for the Nb-W alloy shown in Figure 9-22.
Determine (a) the liquidus temperature, (b) the solidus temperature, (c)
the freezing range, (d) the pouring temperature, (e) the superheat, (f)
the local solidification time, (g) the total solidification time, and
(h) the composition of the alloy.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)

liquidus temperature = 2970C

solidus temperature = 2760C
freezing range = 2970 - 2760 = 210C
pouring temperature = 3200C
superheat = 3200 - 2970 = 230C
local solidification time
12 - 4 = 8 min
total solidification time = 12 min
65% W

114

34.

Consider the cooling curve for the MgO-FeO ceramic shown in Figure 9-23.
Determine (a) the liquidus temperature, (b) the solidus temperature, (c)
the freezing range, (d) the pouring temperature, (e) the superheat, (:tJ
the local solidification time, (g) the total solidification time, and (h)
the composition of the ceramic.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)

35.

liquidus temperature = 1900C

solidus temperature = 1500C
freezing range = 1900 - 1500 = 400C
pouring temperature = 2800C
superheat = 2800 - 1900 = .900C
local solidification time
400 - 100
total solidification time = 400 s
72% FeO

300 s

Cooling curves are shown in Figure 9-24 for the bismuth-antimony

Based on these curves, construct the Bi-Sb diagram.
Sb:
20% Bi:
40% Bi:
60% Bi:
80% Bi:
Bi:

700

630C

590C
475C
540C
390C
490C
325C ,.-.,
400C OU
305C '-'
270C I-<Q)

mp
liquidus
solidus
liquidus
solidus
liquidus
solidus
liquidus
solidus
mp

system.

...
;:I

til
I-<

Q)

p.

IS

200

Q)

Eo-<

100

S~b--~2~0--~4~0--~6~0~~8~0--~Bi

%Bi

115

Chapter 10

SOLIDIFICATION AND DISPERSION STRENGTHENING

1.

2.

A hypothetical phase diagram is shown in Figure 10-30.

(a)
What
intermetallic
compound
is
present?
Is
it
stoichiometric
or
non-stoichiometric? (b) Identify the 4 solid solutions present in the
system. (c) Identify the three-phase reactions by writing down the
temperature, the reaction in equation form, the composition of each phase
in the reaction, and the name of the reaction.
(a)

(c)

peritectic @ 1150:
monotectic @ 950:
eutectic @ 750:
eutectoid @ 450:
peritectoid @ 300:

(b)

- non-stoichiometric

,~,

~,

L (30% B) + 5 (5% B) ~ ~ (15% B)

L (40 % B) ~ L (60% B) + ~ (25% B)
Ll(67% B) ~ ~ (~5% B) + ~ (90% B)
~ (20% B) ~ (10% B) + ~ (92% B)
(5% B) + ~ (95% B) ~ ~ (50% B)

A hypothetical phase diagram is shown in Figure 10-31.

(a)
What
intermetallic
compound
is
present?
Is
it
stoichiometric
or
non-stoichiometric? (b) Identify the 4 solid solutions present in the
system. (c) Identify the three-phase reactions by writing down the
temperature, the reaction in equation form, the composition of each phase
in the reaction, and the name of the reaction.
(a)

e -

(c)

peritectic @ 1100: ~ (95% B) + L (80% B) ~ ~ (90% B)

monotectic @ 900: Ll (30 % B ~ (5% B) + L2 (50% B)

non-stoichiometric

(b)

~,

~,

eutectic @ 680: L (60% B) ~ (5% B) + ~ (80% B)

peritectoid @ 600: (5% B) + ~ (80% B) ~ a (38% B)
eutectoid @ 300: ~ (90% B) ~ a (40% B) + ~ (95% B)

3.

A portion of the Cu-Al phase diagram is shown in Figure 13-8(d).

(a)
What intermetallic compounds are present in the system?
Are they
stoichiometric or non-stoichiometric compounds? (b) Identify the solid
solution present in the system. (c) Identify the three-phase reactions
by writing down the temperature, the reaction in equation form and the
name of the reaction.
(a)

X,

(c)

eutectic
peritectic
eutectoid
eutectoid
eutectoid
peritectoid

~l'

~2' ~,

~ -

all non-stoichiometric

@10200: L ~ + ~
@10200: L + ~ ~ X
@9600: X ~ ~ + ~
@780o: ~ ~ ~ + t
@550o: ~l~ + ~ 2
@3800: + ~ ~ f
2

116

(b)

4.

5.

The Co-Mo phase diagram is shown in Figure

10-32.
(a)
What
intermetallic compounds are present?
Are they
stoichiometric
or
non-stoichiometric compounds? (b) Identify the solid solutions present
in the system. (c) Identify the three-phase reactions by writing down
the temperature, the reaction in equation form, and the name of the
reaction.
(a)

'1, e,

(c)

eutectic
peritectic
eutectoid
eutectoid
peritectoid

(b)

0:,

@1610o:, L + f3 ~
@1530o: L + (1' ~
@1334: L ~ 0: +
@1250o: (1' ~ e +
@1200o: 0: + e ~

f3
(1'

e
e
f3
'1

The Si02-MgO phase diagram for a ceramic system is shown in Figure

14-22(d). (a)
What intermediate compounds are present?
Is their
composition fixed or variable? (b) Is there any solid solubility of one
oxide in the other? Is this unusual for ceramic systems? (c)
Identify
the three-phase reactions by writing down the temperature, the reaction
equation form, and the name of the reaction.
(a)
(b)
(c)

6.

(1'

MgSi0 3 , Mg2Si0 4 - both are stoichiometric

no solid solubility; this is quite typical of many ceramics
monotectic @1690 : L ~ SiO + L
1
2
2
eutectic @1850O: L ~ Mg2Si04 + MgO
peritectic @1550o: L + Mg2S104 ~ MgS103
eutectic @1530o: L ~ S10 2 + MgS103

A portion of the Zr0 2-CaO phase diagram for a ceramic system is shown in
Figure 14-23(b). (a) Is there any solid solubility of CaO in ZrO/ (b)
Identify the three-phase reactions by writing down the temperature,
reaction in equation form, and the name of the reaction.
(a)

the

yes; up to about 12% CaO may dissolve in tetragonal Zr0 2 and 3%

CaO in monoclinic ZrO
2

(b)

peritectic @2600o: L + tetragonal ZrO ~ cubic ZrO

eutectic @2300o: L ~ cubic ZrO + Z~CaO
2
eutectoid @900o: tetragonal ZrO 2~ monocl~nic ZrO + cubic ZrO
2

1.

Consider a Pb-12% Sn alloy. During solidification, determine (a) the

composition of the first solid to form, (b) the amounts and compositions
of each phase at 290C, (c) the liquidus, solidus,
and
solvus
temperatures, (d) the amounts and compositions of each ~hase at 200C.
and (e) the amount and compositions of each phase
at 0 C. (f) Suppose,
due to rapid cooling, that the composition of the last primary 0: was 6%
Sn. Calculate the amount of non-equilibrium eutectic microconstituent.

111

(a)

first solid is a: 5% Sn

(b)

(12-8)/(15-8) x 100 ; 57% L

(15-12)/(15-8) x 10-0 ; 43% a

L: 15% Sn
8% Sn

a:

8.

9.-

(c)

liquidus ; 300C

(d)

a:

(e)

a:

(f)

solvus

150C

100% a

12% Sn

x 100
(12-2)/(100-2) x 100

2% Sn

(110-12)/(100~2)

fJ: 100% Sn

= eutectic

90% a
10% fJ

(12-6)/(61.9-6) x 100 = 10.7%

Consider an AI-l0% Mg alloy [Figure 13-1(b)].

During solidification,
determine (a) the composition of the first solid to form, (b) the amounts
and compositions of each phase at 500C, (c) the liquidus, solidus, and
solvus temperature, (d) the amounts and compositions of each phase at
OoC. (f) Suppose, due to rapid cooling, that the composition of the
last primary a was 7% Mg.
Calculate the amount of non-equilibrium
eutectic microconstituent.
(a)

first solid a: 2.5% Mg

(b)

a:

(c)

liquidus; 610C

(d)

a:

10% Mg

100% a

(e)

a:

0% Mg

(35-10)/(25-0) x 100 ; 71.4% a

(10-0)1(35-7) x 100 ; 28.6% fJ

(f)

eutectic

6% Mg

(24-10)/(24-6) x 100 ; 78% a

(10-6)1(24-6) x 100 ; 22% fJ

fJ: 24% Mg

fJ: 35% Mg

solvus

= (10-7)/(35-7)

x 100

370C

= 10.7%

Locate the eutectic reaction in the hypothetical phase diagram in Figure

10-30.
Calculate the amount
of
each
phase
in
the
eutectic
microconstituent.
%a
~

10.

solidus; 270C

(90-70)/(90-25) x 100 = 31
= (70-25)/(90-25) x 100 = 69

Locate the eutectic in the Co-Mo phase diagram in Figure 1-32. Calculate
the amount of each phase in the eutectic microconstituent. Assuming that
the solid solutions are soft
and
ductile,
will
the
eutectic
microconstituent be ductile or brittle?
%a

= (57-36)/(57-25)

x 100 = 66
(36-25)1(57-25) x 100 = 34

The eutectic microconstituent is composed primarily of the solid

solution a; therefore it is expected to be ductile.

118

11.

Locate the eutectic reactions

in

the Si02-MgO phase diagram (Figure

14-22(d)]. Calculate the amount of each phase in each of the eutectic
microconstituents. Would you expect the eutectic microconstituents to be
ductile or brittle?

(4-35)/(40-0) x 100 = 12.5%

Si02
MgSi03 = (25-0)/(40-0) x 100 = 87.5%

L -+ Mg2Si04

MgO

1850 0 C

(100-61)/(100-58) x 100 = 92.9%

(61-58)1(100-61) x 100

MgO

7.1%

Both eutectics will be brittle, since there are composed

ceramics.
12.

Consider a Pb-25% Sn alloy. Determine (a) if the alloy is hypoeutectic

or hypereutectic, (b) the composition of the first solid to form duri~
solidification, (c) the amounts and compositions of each phase at 184C,
(d) the amounts and compositions of each phase at 182C, and (e) the
amounts and compositions of each microconstituent at 182C.
(a)

hypoeutectic

(c)

0::

(d)
(e)
13.

completely

L:
IX:

(3:

(b)

first solid

0::

10% Sn

19% Sn
61. 9% Sn

(61.9-25)/(61.9-19) x 100
(25-19)/(61.9-19) x 100

19% Sn
97.5% Sn

(97.5-25)/(97.5-19) x 100
(25-19)/(97.5-19) x 100

primary 0:: 19% Sn

eutectic: 61. 9% Sn

= 86%

0:

14% L

92.4%

= 7.6% (3
= 86% 0:

0:

(61.9-25)/(61.9-19) x 100
(25-19)/(61.9-19) x 100 = 14% eutectic

Consider a Pb-75% Sn alloy. Determine (a) if the alloy is hypoeutectic

or hypereutectic, (b) the composition of the first solid to form during
solidification, (c) the amounts and compositions of each phase at 184C.
(d) the amounts and compositions of each phase at 182C, and (e) the
amounts and compositions of each microconstituent at 182C.
(a)

hypereutectic

(b)

(c)

L: 61. 9% Sn
(3: 97.5% Sn

(97.5-75)/(97.5-61.9) x 100
(75-61.9)/(97.5-61.9) x 100

(d)

0:: 19% Sn
(3: 97.5% Sn

(97.5-75)/(97.5-19) x 100
(75-19)/(97.5-19) x 100

(e)

primary (3: 97.5% Sn

(75-19)/(97.5-61.9) x 100 = 37% (3
eutectic: 61.9% Sn (97.5-75)/(97.5-61.9) x 100 = 63% eutectic

first solid (3: 98% Sn

119

= 63% L
= 37% (3
= 28.7% 0:
= 71. 3% (3

14.

Consider a Co-50% Mo alloy (Figure 10-32). Determine (a) if the alloy is

hypoeutectic or hypereutectic, (b) the composition of the first solid to
form during solidification, (c) the amounts and compositions of each
phase at 1400C, (d) the amounts and compositions of each phase at
1300C, and (e) the amounts and compositions of each phase at 1100C.
(a)

hypereutectic

(b)

(c)

L: 41% Mo
: 58% Mo

(58-50)/(58-41) x 100
(50-41)/(58-41) x 100

24% Mo
57%'Mo

(57-50)/(57-24) x 100
(50-24)/(57-24) x 100

7: 27% Mo

(57-50)/(57-27) x 100
(50-27)/(57-27) x 100

(d)

0::

(e)

15.

(c)
(d)
(e)

first solid is

0:

~:

100% Si

= 71. 5% ~
= 28.5% L
(75-1.65)1(99.83-1.65) x 100 = 74.7% ~
~: 99.83% Si
0:: 1. 65% Si
(99.83-75)/(99.83-1.65) x 100 = 25.3% 0:
primary~: 99.83% Si
(75-12.6)1(99.83-12.6) x 100 = 71.5% ~
eutectic: 12.6% Si
(99.83-75)/(99.83-12.6) x 100 = 28.5% eut
~:

(75-12.6)/(99.83-12.6) x 100
(99.83-75)/(99.83-12.6) x 100

99.83% Si

L: 12.6% Si

A Pb-Sn alloy contains 35% primary

composition of the overall alloy?
0: --

0:

and

65%

eutectic.

What

is

the

61.9
61. 8 -_ x19 x 100 -- 35% x = 46 .9%

A Pb-Sn alloy contaIns 26% 0: and 74% ~ at room temperature. What is the
composItIon of the overall alloy?
Is the alloy hypoeutectic" or
hypereutectic?
0:

18.

(b)

hypereutectic

pr 1mary
17.

= 47%
= 53%
= 21%
= 79%
= 23%
= 77%

Consider an AI-75% Si alloy. Determine (a) if the alloy is hypoeutectic

or hypereutectic, (b) the composition of the first solid to form during
solidification, (c) the amounts and compositions of each phase at 578C.
(d) the amounts and compositions of each phase at 576C, and (e) the
amounts and compositions of each microconstituent at 576C.
(a)

16.

57% Mo

first solid is : 61% Mo

= 100
100

- x
_ 2 x 100

= 26%

An AI-Sl alloy contaIns 40%

composItion of
hypereutectlc?

= ~gg = ~

the

x 100

overall
40%

= 74.5%
and
alloy?

0:

Sn
60%
Is

= 60.4%

120

hypereutectic
~

the

at

450C.
What is
alloy hypoeutectic

hypereutectlc

the
or

19.

An AI-5i alloy contains 17% primary {3 and

composition of the overall alloy?
t t
eu ec lC

20.

99.83 - x
= 99.83
_ 12.6

100

= 28.3%

What

is

the

{3

are

5i

x = 70.5% B

In the hypothetical phase diagram in Figure 10-30, 25% primary {3 and 75%
eutectic are observed. What is the overall composition of the alloy?

eu t ec t lC

22.

eutectic.

In the hypothetical phase diagram in Figure 10-30, 30% '1 and 70%
found at 740C. What is the overall composition of the alloy?
90 - x
90 _ 25 x 100 = 30%

21.

82%

82%

90
= 90

-_ x
68 x 100

= 75%

x - 73.5% B

A cooling curve for a Pb-5n alloy is shown in Figure 10.33.

Determine
(a) the pouring temperature, (b) the superheat,
(c) the liquidus
temperature, (d) the eutectic temperature, (e) the freezing range,
(f)
the local solidification time, and (g) the total solidification time.
From the cooling curve, can you determine the composition of the alloy?
(a)
(b)
(c)

(d)
(el

(f)
(g)

pouring temperature = 400C

superheat = 400 - 270 = 130C
270C
liquidus temperature
eutectic temperature = 160C
freezing range = 270 - 160 = 110C
local solidification time
400 - 60
total solidification time = 400 s

340 s

The alloy contains about 25% 5n.

23.

A cooling curve for a AI-5i alloy is shown in Figure 10.34.

Determine
(a) the pouring temperature,
(b) the superheat,
(c) the liquidus
temperature, (d) the eutectic temperature, (e) the freezing range,
(f)
the local solidification time, and (g) the total solidification time.
From the cooling curve, can you determine the composition of the alloy?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)

pouring temperature = 1400C

superheat = 1400 - 1200 = 200C
liquidus temperature = 1200C
eutectic temperature = 570C
freezing range = 1200 - 570
630C
local solidification time
240 - 20
total solidification time = 240 s

The alloy contains about 60% 5i

121

220 s

24.

Construct a phase diagram from the following information: element A melts

at 1200C and element B melts at 1000C; element B has a maximum
solubility of 10% in element A, and element A has a maximum solubility
of 20% in element B; the number of degrees of freedom from the phase rule
is zero when the temperature is 800C and there is 45% B present; at room
temperature 3% A is soluble in Band 0% B is soluble in A.

ex + {3

oA

25.

20

40
%B ~

60

Cooling curves are obtained for a series of Cd-Zn alloys (Figure 10-35).
Use the cooling curves to produce the Cd-Zn phase diagram. The maximum
solubility of Zn in Cd is 2.6%, the maximum solubility of Cd in Zn is
about 2%, and the solubilities at room temperature are about zero.

Cd:
5% Zn:
12% Zn:
20% Zn:
40% Zn:
70% Zn:
90% Zn:
Zn:

liquidrlIl
eutectic
liquidus
eutectic
liquidus
eutectic
liquidus
eutectic
liquidus
eutectic
liquidus
eutectic
T

mp

321C
400
300C
270C
275C U 300
270C 0
280C OJ
270C ..,
':I"' 200
310C to
270C kOJ
350C !" 100
270C E-<OJ
390 C
270C
0
420C
Cd

{3

98

ex + {3

20

40
% Zinc

122

60
~

80

Zn

26.

What fraction of the solidification of an Fe-0.35% C alloy occurs by

peritectic reaction?

the

Just below the peritectic temperature, the amount of each phase is

(0.53-0.35)/(0.53-0.17) x 100
(0.35-0.17)/(0.53-0.17) x 100

27.

50
50

All of the ~ forms by the peritectic reaction.

Therefore
fraction of solidification by the peritectic reaction is 50%.

the

What fraction of the solidification of an Fe-0.15% C alloy occurs by

peritectic reaction?

the

Just below the perltectic temperature, the amount of each phase is

%~

%0
28.

(0.15-0.09)/(0.17-0.09) x 100 = 75
(0.167-0.15)/(0.17-0.09) x 100 = 25

Calculate the amount of ~ and liquid that must comblne to produce 100%
phase by the peritectic reaction in the Al-Li system (Figure 13-4).

The compositions of each phase involved in the peritectic reaction

are:
L: 47% Li

~:

25% Li

~:

34% Li

We can use the lever law with an original composition equal

peritec~ic composition.
%~

%L

(47-34)/(47-25) x 100
(34-25)/(47-25) x 100

41%

combine,

100%

is

An Al-Li alloy (Figure 13-4) contains a microstructure composed of 30% ~

and 70% liquid just below the peritectic temperature.
Determine the
overall composition of the alloy. If this composition solidified under
non-equilibrium conditions, would you expect to have more or less liquid
present at this temperature?
47 - x
34
47

x 100

30

x = 43. 1% Li

We would expect more than 70% L if the peritectic reaction

under non-equilibrium conditions.
30.

the

59
41

Therefore when a mixture of 59% ~ and

formed by the peritectic reaction.
29.

to

Calculate the amounts and compositions of the two liquids

Cu-70% Pb alloy at 956C.

= 33

L : 36% Pb

(87-70)/(87 - 36) x 100

L : 87% Pb

(70-36)/(87-36) x 100 = 67

123

occurred

present

in

31.

A Cu-Pb alloy contains 75% a and 25% L2 immediately after the monotectic
reaction. Calculate (a) the composition of the overall alloy and (b) the
amounts of Ll and L2 just before the monotectic reaction.
(a)

:.'.0:

(b)

:.'~

L2
32.

87 - x
87 - 0 x 100

= 75

x = 21. 75% Pb

= (21.75-0)/(36-0) x 100 = 60.4

= 0% (the alloy is hypomonotectic;

What is the solubility of lead in copper?

terms of Hume-Rothery's conditions.

the remaining 39.6% is

Discuss

this

observation

a)

in

Hume-Rothery's
The solubility of Pb in Cu is about 0% Pb.
conditions are not satisfied. Both have the FCC crystal structure
but copper has a valence of +1 while lead has a valence of +4. Also
%I!.r

rCu = 1. 278
33.

= 36.9

When a ternary eutectic reaction occurs, there are zero degrees of

freedom. How many solid phases are produced as a result of the ternary
eutectic? How many total phases are in equilibrium?
In a ternary diagram, there are three components. At the eutectic
point, there are zero degrees of freedom.
Therefore the total
number of phases is:

=C -

P + 1

or

o =3

- P + 1

or

=4

phases

The phases present during the ternary eutectic are liquid plus three
solids, whose reaction is of the form

34.

Consider the liquidus plot in Figure 10-27. For a constant 20% C, draw a
graph showing how the liquidus temperature changes from 80% A-)% B-20% C
to 0% A-80% B-20% C. I I
Liquidus
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%

A- 0%
A-10%
A-20%
A-30%
A-40%
A-SO%
A-60%
A-70%
A-80%

B-20%
B-20%
B-20%
B-20%
B-20%
B-20%
B-20%
B-20%
B-20%

C:
C:
C:
C:
C:
C:
C:
C:
C:

400C
360C
300C
200C
320C
375C
420C
490C
525C

,...,
u

0....,

Ul

@ 20% C

'"d

..-I

C"

..-I

,..:I

124

100
O%B
80:.'.A

20

40

60

80%B
O%A

35.

Consider the liquidus plot for the AI-5i-Mg alloy in Figure 10-36. For a
constant 20% AI, draw a graph showing how the liquidus temperature
changes from 20% AI-80% Mg-O% 5i to 20% AI-O% Mg-80% 5i.
Liquidus
20%
20%
20%
20%
20%
20%
20%
20%
20%

AI-80%
AI-70%
AI-60%
AI-50%
AI-40%
AI-30%
AI-20%
AI-10%
AI- 0%

Mg- 0%
Mg-10%
Mg-20%
Mg-30%
Mg-40%
Mg-50%
Mg-60%
Mg-70%
Mg-80%

5i:
5i:
5i:
5i:
5i:
5i:
51:
5i:
5i:

550C
805C
1000C
1050C
1005C
950C
1120C
1230C
1320C

1200
,.... 1000
u

'-'

.g
OJ

..-I

@ 20% Al

;:I

0'

:3

400
0%5i
80%Mg

36.

40

60

80%5i
0% Mg

From the hypothetical ternary phase diagrams in Figures 10-27 and 10-28,
determine for an A-40% B-20% C alloy (al the liquidus temperature, (bl
the primary phase, and (cl each phase present at room temperature.
(al
(bl
(cl

37.

liquidus temperature
310C
primary phase is ~
phases present are oc + ~ + ~

From the hypothetical ternary phase diagrams in Figure 10-27 and 10-28,
determine for an A-10% B-60% C alloy (al the liquidus temperature, (bl
the primary phase, and (cl each phase present at room temperature.
(al
(b)
(cl

liquidus temperature
270/C
primary phase 1s ~
phases present are oc + ~

125

Chapter 11
DISPERSION STRENGTIlENING BY PHASE TRANSFORMATION AND HEAT TREATMENT

1.

Under equilibrium conditions. what is the maximum amount of 9 that can

form during aging of an AI-3.5% Cu alloy at 300C? What is the maximum
amount of 9 that can form in the same alloy if natural aging occurs?
@300C (artificial): 9
@25C (natural): 9

2.

(3.5-1.0)/(54-1.0) x 100

4.72%

(3.5-0)/(54-0) x 100

6.48%

The 9 particles that form in an AI-3% Cu alloy aged at 200C have an

average diameter of 500 x 10-8 cm and a density of 4.26 Mg/m3 Calculate
the number of these particles per cubic centimeter of the alloy.
9

= (3.0-0.5)/(54-0.5)

p (9) = 4.26 Mg/m3

p (AI) = 2.7 Mg/m 3
vol% 9

= 4.67%

x 100

= (4.26

x 106 g/m3 ) (10- 6 m3 /cm 3 )

(4.67/4.26)
x 100
(4.67/4.26) + (95.33/2.7)

= 1.096
36.40

4.26 g/cm3

x 100

3.01

particle

number of particles
3.

0.0301 cm Icm
65.45 x 10- 18

= 4.6

x 1014 cm3

The AI-Li phase diagram is shown in Figure

treatment required to produce age hardening
including appropriate temperatures.

13-4.
in an

The solvus temperature is about 300C and the

is about 600C. Therefore
(a)
(b)
(c)
4.

Describe a heat
AI-2% Li alloy.

eutectic

temperature

solution treat between 300C and 600C

quench
age below 300C

In rapid solidification processing. an AI-12% Cu alloy could be quenched

from above the liquidus temperature to produce a supersaturated 'solid
solution of . Compare the percent 9 produced when this alloy is aged at
250C with the percent 9 produced when a conventional AI-4% Cu alloy is
aged at the same temperature.
conventional alloy (4% Cu): 9
RSP alloy (12% Cu): 9

126

(4-1)1(54-1) x 100
(12-1)/(54-1) x 100

5.66%
20.75%

5.

In rapid solidification processing, an AI-8% Li alloy could be quenched

from above the liquidus temperature to produce a supersaturated solid
solution of . Compare the percent ~ produced when this alloy is aged at
300C with the percent ~ produced when a conventional Al-2% Li alloy is
aged at the same temperature.
conventional alloy (2% Li):
RSP alloy (8% Li):

6.

~
~

(2-1)/(21-1) x 100
(8-1)/(21-1) x 100

Caloulate the amount of each

phase
and
the
microconstituent in an Fe-0.25% C alloy at 700C

5%
35%
amount

of

each

of

each

= (6.67-0.25)/(6.67-0.0218) x 100
= 96.57%
Fe 3C = (0.25-0.0218)/(6.67-0.0218) x 100 = 3.43%
(0.77-0.25)/(0.77-0.0218) x 100 = 69.50%
(0.25-0.0218)/(0.77-0.0218) x 100 = 30.5%

primary
pearlite
7.

Calculate the amount of each

phase
and
the
microconstituent in an Fe-1.25% C alloy at 700C

Fe 3C

= (6.67-1.25)/(6.67-0.0218) x
= (1.25=0.0218)/(6/67-0.0218)

primary Fe3C
pearlite
8.

100 = 81.53%
x 100 = 18.47%

= (1.25-0.77)/(6.67-0.77)
= (6.67-1.25)/(6.67-0.77)

x 100
x 100

= 8.14%
= 91.86%

The microstructure of a steel contains 9% Fe C and 91% at 500C.

What
is the carbon content of the steel? Is3 the steel hypoeutectoid
or hypereutectoid?

9.

6.67
= 6.67
-

- x
100
0.0218 x

91%

= 0.62%

hypoeutectoid

The microstructure of a steel contains 35% and 65% '1 at 800C. What
the carbon content of the steel?
The compositions of the two phases at 800C
0.02% C
0.32 - x

= 0.32 - 0.02 x
10.

amount

100

35r.

= 0.215r.

are

'1:

0.32r.

is

and

The microstructure of an iron-carbon alloy contains 25% Fe 3C and

at 800C. What is the carbon content of the alloy?

75%

'1

The compositions of the two phases at 800C are '1: 0.92% C and Fe C:
3

6.67% C
'1 =

6.67 - x
6.67 - 0.92

x 100 = 75%

This is a hypoeutectic cast iron.

127

= 2.36%

11.

The microstructure of a steel contains .18% Fe C and 82% a. at room

Is the' steel
temperature. What is the carbon content of the 3 steel?
hypoeutectoid or hypereutectoid?
a.

12.

6.67 - x
- 0

= 67.0

x 100

= 82%

pear Ii te

6.67
= 6.67
_

hypereutectoid

- x
0.77 x 100

hypereutectoid

= 67%

since

Fe C is
3

= 2.717%

the

hypoeutectoid

0.77 - x
0.77 _ 0.0218 x 100

primary a.

since

= 33%

is

primary

The microstructure of a steel contains 33% proeutectoid

pearlite at 700C. What is the carbon content of the steel?
The alloy must be
microconstituent.

14.

= 1. 20%

The microstructure of an iron-carbon alloy contains 33% proeutectoid Fe 3 C

and 67% pearlite at 700C. What is the carbon content of the alloy?
The alloy must be
microconstituent.

13.

a.

the

and

67%

primary

0.52% C

When a steel is heated, the austenite phase contains

constitutes 60% of the structure. Estimate the temperature
carbon content of the steel.

0.4% C and
and overall

Austenite contains 0.4% C when the temperature is about 780C.

x
15.

= 0.248%

When an iron-carbon alloy is heated, the austenite phase contains 1.0% C

and constitutes 80% of the structure.
Estimate the temperature and
overall carbon content of the alloy.
Austenite contains 1.0% C when the temperature is about 830C.
~

16.

6.67 - x
- 1 x 100

= 6.67

80%

x =

2.134% C

A de~sity of a.-Fe is 7.87 Mg/m 3 , and the density

Mg/m
If a cementite lamella in pearlite is
calculate the thickness of the ferrite lamella.
p -Fe
a.

= 7.87

Mg/m3

= 7.87

g/cm3 , p cementite

of
3

cementite is 7.66
10- 3 cm thick,

7.66 Mg/m3

7.66 g/cm3

In pearlite
wt% a.
wtY~e3C

vol%

a. =

= (6.67-0.77)/(6.67-0.0218)

x 100
(0.77-0.0.218)/(6.67-0.0218) x 100

(88.74617.87)
(88.746/7.87) + (11.254/7.66) x 100

128

88.746
11. 254
11. 276
12.745 x 100

88.474

vol%

Fe C
3

= 11.526

Fe3 C thickness
Fe C thickness + a thickness
3

a thickness
17.

= 0.023 = 23

= 11.526
= 0.23 mm

x 100

x 10-3 cm

Calculate the density of pearlite, using

given in problem 16.

the

densities

of

each

let ff = 0.88474 be the volume fraction of ferrite and fc

be the volume fraction of cementite (See Problem 16).

phase

0.11526

Then

Ppearlite
Ppearlite
18.

= (0.88474)(7.87)

(0.11526)(7.66)

= 7.846

Mg/m3

When we examine the microstructure of a steel, we find that the structure

contains about 20 vol% primary a and 80 %vol pearlite.
Using the
densities of a (Problem 16) and pearlite (Problem 17), estimate the
percent carbon in the steel.
(20)(7.87)
157.4
(20)(7.87) + (80)(7.846) x 100 ="785.08 x 100

wt% primary a

0.77 - x
x 100 = 20.05%
0.77 - 0.0.218

primary a
19.

20.05

x = 0.62% C

When we examine the microstructure of a steel, we find that the structure

contains about 15 vol% primary Fe 3 C and 85 vol% pearlite.
Using the
densities of Fe 3 C (Problem 16) and pearlite (Problem

17),

estimate

the

percent carbon in the steel.

,
wt% Fe 3 C

(15)(7.66)
(15)(7.66) + (85)(7.846) x 100

primary Fe 3 C
20.

= 6.6~ = g:~~

x 100

114.9

= 781.81

= 14.697%

x 100 = 14.497

= 1.6367%

Determine the percent of monoclinic ZrO present in the eutectoid product

formed when tetragonal ZrO transforms 2[Figure 14-23(b)].
2

monoclinic Zr0 2
21.

(15-12)/(15-3) x 100

= 25%

Calculate the amollilt of each phase in the eutectoid reaction that occurs
in the Co-Mo system (Figure 1-32) when ~ cools. Based on this result, do
you expect the eutectoid product to be ductile or brittle? Do you expect
any alloy containing the eutectoid product to be ductile or brittle?
c = (99-74)/(99-62) x 100
(74-62)/(99-62) x 100

129

68%
32%

Most of the eutectoid is composed of the brittle intermetallic

compound, so the eutectoid might be relatively brittle as well.
Any alloy containing
to be brittle.
22.

as the primary microconstituent

is

expected

Calculate the amount of each phase in the eutectoid reaction that occurs
in the Cu-Al system [Figure 13-8(d)] when ~ cools. Based on this result,
do you expect the eutectoid product to be ductile or brittle?
Do you
expect any alloy containing the eutectoid product to be ductile or
brittle?
= (15.6-11.8)/(15.6/9.4) x 100 = 61%
= (11.8-9.4)/(15.6-9.4) x 100 = 39%

72

The eutectoid should be relatively ductile.

Only hypereutectoid alloys, containing primary 7 2 , should be
brittle.
23.

Calculate the amount of eutectoid microconstituent when

alloy (Figure 13-13) cools under equilibrium conditions.
eutectoid

24.

26.

27.

x 100

Al-72%

= (3-1.3)/(6-1.3)

x 100

Zn

= 86%

Calculate the amount of eutectoid microconstituent when a Cu-3% Be

[Figure 13-8(e)] cools under equilibrium conditions.
eutectoid

25.

= (72-34)/(78-34)

an

alloy

36%

austenite in a eutectoid steel is transformed to pearlite at

650 C. Estimate (a) the interlamellar spacing and (b) the yield strength
of the pearlite.

Sup~ose

= 3.5

10- 4 mm

(a)

from Figure 11-19, A

(b)

From Figure 11-18, yield strength

= 300

MFa

Suppose the strength of an isothermically transformed eutectoid steel is

448 MFa.
Estimate (a) the interlamellar
spacing
and
(b)
the
transformation temperature.

= 60,000

or A

= 1.67

10-4 mm

(a)

From Figure 11-18, l/A

(b)

From Figure 11-19, the temperature must be about 600C

A eutectoid steel is to be isothermally transformed to produce a hardness

of Rc45. Determine (a) the microconstituent that is produced and (b) the
transformation temperature required.
(a)

From Figure 11-20, the microconstituent is bainite.

(b)

The transformation temperature is about 375C.

130

28.

A eutectoid steel is to be isothermally transformed to produce a hardness

of Rc38. Determine (a) the microconstituent that is produced and (b) the
transformation temperature required.

29.

(a)

From Figure 11-20, the microconstituent is pearlite

(b)

The transformation temperature is about 600C

We would like to produce a bainitic structure in a eutectoid steel having

a hardness of R 52. Describe the complete heat treatment that would be
required.
c
From Figure 11-20, the heat treatment is
a. austenitize @ 800C for perhaps 1 hour
b. quench to about 300C and hold for more than 2000 s (0.55 h)
c. cool to room temperature

30.

We would like to produce a

having a hardness of R 30.
would be required.
c

pearlitic structure in a eutectoid steel

Describe the complete heat treatment that

From Figure 11-20, the heat treatment is

a.
b.
c.
31.

austenitize @ 800C for perhaps 1 h

quench to about 600C and hold for more than 10 s
cool to room temperature

Describe the microstructure in a eutectoid steel that has been heated to

800C for 1 n, quenched to 600C and held for 100 s, and finally quenched
to room temperature.
relatively fine pearlite

32.

Describe the microstructure in a eutectoid steel that has been heated to

800C for 1 h, quenched to 300C and held for 1000 s, and finally
quenched to room temperature.
fine bainite and martensite

33.

Describe the microstructure in a eutectoid steel that has been heated to

800C for 1 h, quenched to 400C and held for 1000 s, and finally
quenched to room temperature.
bainite

34.

Describe the microstructure in a eutectoid steel that has been heated to

800C for 1 h, quenched to 300C and held for 60 s, and finally quenched
to room temperature.
martensite

131

35.

Describe the microstructure in a eutectoid steel that has been heated to

SOOC for 1 h, quenched to room temperature and held for 1000 s, reheated
to 300C and held for 10,000 s, and finally quenched to room temperature.
tempered martensite

36.

A steel containing 0.2% C is held at SOOC for 1 h and is then quenched

to room temperature.
Calculate the composition and amount of the
martensite that forms during the quench.
At SOOC, the steel is in an austenite plus ferrite portion of the
phase diagram. From the tie line, the composition of the austenite
is 7: 0.32% C. During quenching, the composition does not change,
so the composition of the martensite produced is M: 0.32% C.
The amount of martensite equals the amount of austenite at the
temperature
M

37.

= 7

(0.2-0.2)/(0.32-0.02) x 100

high

= 60%

A steel containing 1.4% C is held at 800C for 1 hr and is then quenched

to room temperature.
Calculate the composition and amount of the
martensite that forms during the quench.
At SOOC, the steel is in an austenite plus cementite portion of the
phase diagram. From the tie line, the composition of the austenite
is 7; 0.92% C. During quenching, the composition does not change,
so the composition of the martensite produced is M: 0.92% C
The amount of martensite equals the amount of austenite at the
temperature:
M

3S.

=7 =

(6.67-1.4)/(6.67-0.92) x 100

high

= 91.7%

A steel microstructure contains 40% martensite containing

Determine (a) the temperature from which the steel was quenched
the overall carbon content of the steel. Refer to Figure 12-2.

0.7% C.
and (b)

The martensite has the same composition as the austenite from which
it forms. According to a tie line, a temperature of about 735C is
required to give austenite of 0.7% C.
the amount of martensite and original austenite are the same.
the lever law at 735C:
M= 7

x - 0.2 x 100
0.7 - 0.01

132

40%

= 0.296%

From

39.

A steel microstructure contains 85% martensite containing

Determine (a) the temperature from which the steel was quenched
the overall carbon content of the steel.

0.9% C.
and (b)

The martensite has the same composition as the austenite from which
it forms. According to a tie line, a temperature of about 790C is
required to give austenite of 0.9% C.
The amount of martensite and original austenite are the same.
the lever law at 790C
M6.67 - x
- ~ - 6.67 - 0.9
40.

x 100

85%

From

1. 77% C

The lattice parameter of FCC austenite is about 3.6X.

Calculate the
volume change that occurs when a steel containing 0.5% C is quenched to
produce martensite. Does the steel expand or contract during quenching?
From Figure 11-23(b), the lattice parameters and volume of the
cell of the martensite are about
ao

= 2.86

= 2.92

VM = (2.86) 2 (2.92)

unit

23.884 X3

The volume of the austenite unit cell is

VA = (3.6)

93

= 46.656 A

However there are two atoms/cell in body-centered

martensite and four atoms/cell in face-centered cubic
thus the volume change is
%AV

46.656 - 2(23.884) x 100

46.656

tetragonal
austenite.

= -2.38%

The steel expands 2.38% when austenite transforms to martensite.

41.

A dilatometer is a device used to measure the volume change that occurs

during a transformation. If a 3% increase in volume Is measured when a
steel is quenched from the austenite region, estimate by trial and error
the carbon content of the steel. The lattice parameter of the original
FCC austenite is 3.6 X.
The volume of the austenite unit cell is VA
%AV

46.656 - 2VM
46.656
x 100

= (3.6) 3

46.656 X.

-3%

From Figure 11-23(b), we determine the volume vs percent carbon:

0.2% C:

0.4% C:

0.5% C:

0.6% C:

0
0
0
0

2.86

2.86

2.86

2.86

0
0
0
0

2.89
2.91
2.925
2.94

VM
VM

23.6 X3

VM
VM

23.9 X3

23.8 X3
24.1 X3

The amount of carbon in the martensite is approximately 0.55% C.

133

42.

You would like to produce a quenched and tempered eutectoid steel having
a yield strength of 700 MPa.
Describe the complete heat treatment,
including approximate temperatures that would be needed to produce this
structure and strength.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

43.

austenitize @ 800C for about 1 hour

quench to room temperature to produce martensite
temper @ 600C for 1 hour to temper the martensite
cool to room temperature

You would like to produce a quenched and tempered eutectoid steel having
a tensile strength of at least 1050 MPa but a hardness below Rc 40. What
range of tempering temperatures would be satisfactory?
To obtain the desired tensile strength, we must temper below 590C;
to obtain the desired Rc hardness, we must temper above 500C.
Therefore any tempering temperature between 500 and
satisfactory.

44.

590C

will

be

In eutectic alloys, the eutectic microconstituent is generally the

continuous one, but in
the' eutectoid
structures,
the
primary
microconstituent is normally continuous. Explain how this difference is
a natural consequence of the reactions.
In a eutectoid reaction, the original grain boundaries serve as
nucleation sites; consequently the primary microconstituent outline
the original grain boundaries and isolates the eutectoid product as
a discontinuous constituent.
In a eutectic reaction, the primary phase nucleates from the liquid
and grows. When the liquid composition approaches the eutectic
composition, the eutectic constituent forms around the primary
constituent, making the eutectic product the continuous constituent.

45.

Describe how the memory metals might be useful as plates to be surgically

placed around broken bones to provide more rapid healing.
We would make the plates a little longer than is required.
the
plates would then be fastened to the bone on either side of the
fracture with screws. The heat of the body would cause the plate to
attempt to become shorter, forcing the two halves of the bone
securely together to give a good tight fit.

46.

List several everyday items for which the memory metals might
(eyeglass frames are one example).

be

useful

A few examples might include: activating

sensors
for
fire
extinguishers; switches
in
electric
irons,
curling
irons,
coffee-makers, etc that might overheat; switches to open windows in
greenhouses when temperatures
become
excessive;
thermostats;
switches to prevent accidental scalding from hot water in a shower;
do-it-yourself plumbing connectors; electrical connectors; solar.
activated engines; dental apparatus; artificial hearts.

134

Chapter 12

FERROUS ALLOYS
1.

Calculate the amounts of ferrite, cementite, primary ferrite and pearlite

in a 1030 steel.
~

Fe C
3

(6.67-0.3)/(6.67-0.0218) x 100
(0.3-0.0218)/(6.67-0.0218) x 100

primary ~
pearlite
2.

(0.77-0.3)/(0.77-0.0218) x 100
62.82%
(0.3-0.0218)/(0.77-0.0218) x 100 = 37.18%

Calculate the amounts of

pearlite in a 10140 steel.
~

ferrite,

cementite,

(6.67-1.4)/(6.67-0.0218) x 100

= (1.4-010218)/(6.67-0.0218) x
primary Fe C = (1.4-0.77)/(6.67-0.77)
pearllie = (6.67-1.4)/(6.67-0.77)
Fe 3 C

3.

cementite

~ = 0.7~770~0~18

x 100

= 86%

= 6.676.67
- x
- 0.0218

x 100

= 92%

79.27%

= 20.73%
100 = 10.68%
100 = 89.32%

x
x

= 0.127%

= 0.554%

A spheroidized steel contains 15% cementite

Estimate the AISI-SAE number for the steel.
6.67 - x

~ = 6.67 - 0.0218 x

100 = 85%

135

and

100

A plain carbon steel contains 92% ferrite and 8% cementite.

probable AISI-SAE number for the steel?

~
5.

primary

A plain carbon steel contains 14% pearlite and 86% primary ferrite.
is the probable AISI-SAE number for the steel?
primary

4.

95.82%
4.18%

in

x = 1.02% C

What

AISll0l0
What is the
AISI 1055

ferrite

matrix.

AISI 10100

6.

Complete the table below

10120 steel

1050 steel
727C
770C

727C
895C

800C
825C
557-647C

757C
950C

A temperature
A~ or A cmtemperature
Full annealing temperature
Normalizing temperature
Process Annealing temperature
Spheroidizing temperature

7.

A 1030 steel is to be hot rolled, with subsequent air cooling giving a

normalized structure. What should be the last hot rolling temperature?
A

8.

= 810C'

therefore hot work at 810 + 55

= 865C

During spheroidizing of a 10100 steel,a uniform distribution of

spherical cementite particles, 'each 0.002 cm in diameter, is produced.
Estimate (a) the number of these particles per cubic centimeter of the
steel and (b) the number of these ?articles per kilogramme of steel.
The density of ferrite is 7.87 Mg/m and that of Fe C is 7.66 Mg/m 3
3

wt% a
wt% Fe 3 C

= (6.67-1.0)/(6.67-0.0218)

x 100
(1.0-0.0218)/(6.67-0.0218) x 100

(85.28617.87)
(85.286/7.87) + (14.714/7.66) x 100

vol% a
vol% Fe C
3

84.94

(4n/3)(0.001 x 10- 2 )3

4.189

10-15 m3

The number of particles per cm 3 is

number of particles

0.1506 cm3 Fe C/cm3

= _____________3_____
4. 189

(b)

10.837
100
12.758 x

= 15.06

Vparticle

(a)

85.285
14.714

10- 9 cm3

The number of particles per kilogramme is

p

steel

= (0.1506)(7.66)

(0.8494)(7.87)

= 7.8384

Mg/m 3

(3.6 x 10 13/m 3 ) (10- 3 kglMg)/7.8384 Mg/m3 = 4.593 x 10 9 /kg

9.

Suppose a 1080 steel is available in either the pearlitic or spheroidized

condition.
In the pearlite, the cementite platelets are 0.00002 cm
thick, while the ferrite platelets are 0.00007 cm thick.
In the
spheroidite, the cementite spheres are 0.003 cm in diameter.
Estimate.
the total interface area between the ferrite and cementite in a cubic
centimeter of each steel. Densities of each phase are given in Problem 8.

136

wt% Fe 3 C = (0.8-0.0218)/(6.67-0.0218) x 100 = 11.705

vol% Fe 3 C

(11.705/7.66)
+ (88.295/7.87) x 100

= (11.705/7.66)

1.528

= 12.747

x 100

11.897

For pearlite:
There are two ferrite/cementite interfaces every (0.00002 + 0.00007)
= 0.00009 cm or one ferrite/cementite interface every 0.000045 cm.
In a cube one cm thick, there are
1 cm/0.000045 cm

22.222 interfaces

The total interfacial area is then 22.222 cm2/cm3

For spheroidite:

Vsphere

(4n/3)(0.0015)3 = 1.4137 x 10-8 cm3

= 0.11987/1.4137 x 10-8 = 8.479

4n(0.0015)2 = 2.827 x 10-5 cm2

number of spheres
A
sphere
total area

= (8.479

x 10 6 )(2.827 x 10-5 )

= 240

x 106 /cm3

cm2 /cm3

The interface area is much greater in pearlite than in spheroidite.

10.

Describe the final microstructure obtained in a 1050 steel after each of

the following heat treatments.
(a)

Heat at 820C, quench to 700C and hold for 5 s, quench to room

temperature......
martensite

(b)

Heat at 820C, quench to 400C and hold for 1000 s, quench to

room temperature ... bainite

11.

(c)

Heat at 820C, quench to 600C and hold for 100 s, quench to

room temperature ... ferrite and pearlite.

(d)

Heat at 820C, quench to 350C and hold for 50 s, quench

to room temperature. bainite and martensite

(e)

Heat at 820C, quench to 600C and hold for 100 s, quench to

400 C and hold for 100 s, cool slowly to room temperature .....
ferrite and pearlite

Describe the final microstructure obtained in a 10110 steel after each of

the following heat treatments.
(a)

Heat to 900C, quench to 700C and hold for 5 s, quench to

300C and hold for 100 s, quench to room temperature ....
cementite and martensite

137

12.

(b)

Heat to 900C, quench to 600C and hold for 1 s, quench to room

temperature.....
cementIte, pearlite and martensite

(c)

Heat to 900C, quench to 400C and hold for 10,000 s, cool to

room temperature .. bainite

(d)

Heat to 900C, quench to 700C and hold for 5 s, quench to

400C and hold for 1000 s, cool to room temperature ..
cementite and bainite

(e)

Heat to 900C, quench to 250C and hold for 100 s, quench to

room temperature, heat to 400C and hold for 3600 s, cool to
room temperature .. tempered martensite

(f)

Heat to 900C, quench to 600C and hold for 100 s, quench

room temperature ... cementite and pearlite

Recommend an appropriate isothermal annealing heat treatment for a 1050

steel which will give a Rockwell C hardness of 25.
a.
b.
c.

13.

to

austenitize at 820C
quench to 600C and hold for more than 10 s to give ferrite and
pearlite of the correct hardness
cool to room temperature

Recommend an appropriate austempering heat treatment for a 10110 steel

which will give a Rockwell C hardness of 49.
a.
b.
c.

austenitize at 900C
quench to 400C and hold for more than 200 s
bainite of the correct hardness
cool to room temperature

to give all

14.

After austempering, a 1050 steel has a hardness of Rc40.

temperature at which the austenite was transformed.

15.

After an isothermal transformation heat treatment, a 10110 steel has a

~~~~~~~~m~!. Rc57 .
Estimate the temperature at which the austenite was

16.

Estimate the

A 1080 steel (Figure 11-20) is austempered to produce a hardness of Rc 52.

temperature and (b) the minimum

Estimate (a) the transformation

transformation time required.
(b)
17.

3000 s

Estimate the minimum times required to isothermally anneal (a) 1050,

(b) 1080, and (c) 10110 steels at 600C.
(a)

8 s

(b)

10 s
138

(c)

2 s

18.

A 1050 steel is to be quenched and tempered to produce a minimum Brinell

hardness of 300 and a minimum elongation of 15%.
Is this possible? if
so, what tempering temperature would you recommend?
The tempering temperature must be less than 500C to assure adequate
Brinell hardness but must be greater than 425C to permit sufficient
% elongation. Any tempering temperature between 425 and 500C will
be appropriate.

19.

A 1050 steel is to be quenched and tempered to produce a minimum yield

strength of 1000 MPa and a minimum reduction in area of 55%.
Is this
possible? If so, what tempering temperature would you recommend?
The tempering temperature must be less than 460C to assure a
sufficient yield strength and must be greater than 460C to produce
an adequate % reduction in area. A tempering temperature of exactly
460C might work.

20.

In one case, a 1030 steel is austenitized at 850C and quenched.

In a
second case, a 1030 steel is austenitized at 750C and quenched.
Calculate (a) the composition and (b) the amount of martensite formed in
each example.
At 850C, 100% austenite forms of composition 0.3% C.
During
quenching, 100% martensite also containing 0.3% C is produced.
At 750C, the steel is in the austenite plus ferrite region of the
phase diagram.
The austenite has a composition of 0.60% C and its
amount is

= (0.3-0.02)/(0.60-0.02)

x 100

= 48%

After quenching, 48% martensite containing 0.60% C is formed.

21.

A 1020 steel is improperly austenitized and quenched, giving a structure

composed of 30% martensite and 70% ferrite.
Estimate (a) the carbon
content of martensite and (b) the austenitizing temperature.
What
austenitizing temperature should have been used?
Let's calculate the amount of ferrite we should expect at different
austenitizing temperatures:
730C;
740C:
750C:
760C:

ex.
ex.
ex.
ex.

(0.77-0.20)/(0.77-0.02)
(0.66-0.20)/(0.66-0.02)
(0.60-0.20)/(0.60-0.02)
(0.55-0.20)/(0.55-0.02)

x
x
x
x

100
100
100
100

76%
72%

69%
66%

The steel must have been austenitized just below 750C.

Just below 750C, the composition of the austenite is about 0.60% C;
therefore the martensite also has this approximate composition.
The steel should have been austenitized perhaps 30 to 50C above the
A3 temperature, or 840 + (30 to 50) = 870 to 890C.

139

22.

A 1050 steel develops surface cracks during quenching.

Describe a heat
treatment, including appropriate temperatures and times, that might help
minimize this problem. What is this treatment called?
a.
b.
c.

austenitize at 820C for about one hour

quench to 350C and hold for 10 S so no bainite forms
quench to room temperature to produce martensite

This treatment is marquenching.

23.

What difficulties would you expect if you attempted a marquenching heat

treatment using a 1050 steel?
The bainite start time is so short that it is unlikely that the
temperature can be equalized throughout the entire steel piece
before the surface begins to transform to bainite.

24.

Suppose a new polymer quenching medium has an H coefficient of 0.5.

Would this quenchant be more likely to produce quench cracks than a
typical water quench?
Water has an H coefficient of between 0.9 and 4.0, depending on the
amount of agitation.
The polymer is a less severe quench than the
water; consequently quench cracking is less likely in the polymer.

25.

We would like to perform a marquenching heat treatment for a 1050 steel.

What is the minimum quenching temperature that we could use?

26.

When a 1080 steel is quenched in a particular medium, a mixture of

pearlite and martensite forms. What microstructure would be produced in
an identical treatment for a 1020 steel?
To produce a mixture of pearlite and martensite in a 1080 steel, a
cooling rate of 40 to 140C/s is required.
For this same range of
cooling rates in a 1020 steel, either ferrite and martensite (for
cooling rates greater than 100C/s) or ferrite, bainite, and
martensite (for cooling rates less than 100C/s) will be produced.

21.

When a 1020 steel is quenched in a particular medium,

a mixture of
ferri te, pearlite, and bainite is produced.
What microstructure would
form in an identical treatment for a 1080 steel?
A cooling rate of 2 to 10C is required to produce ferrite,
pearlite, and bainite in a 1020 steel.
For the same range of
cooling rates in a 1080 steel, the microstructure will be all
pearlite.

28.

A steel containing 8% Mn and 0.5% C is heated to 100C.

(a) Is this a
hypoeutectoid or a hypereutectoid steel?
(b)
What phases will be
present in the steel at 100C?
(c) Would this treatment be an'
appropriate spheroidizing treatment?

140

For this composition, the A = 660C and the eutectoid composition

is 0.38% C.
1

29.

(a)

the alloy steel is now hypereutectoid

(b)

the phases at 700C are austenite and cementite

(c)

the treatment is not an appropriate spheroidization treatment

because of the formation of the austenite.

A steel containing 4% Mo and 0.4% C is heated to 850C, which is well

above the A3 temperature for a plain carbon steel.
(al
Is this a
hypoeutectoid or a hpereutectoid steel? (bl What phases will be present
in the steel at 850 C? (c) Would this be an appropriate austenitizing
treatment if the steel is to be quenched to produce all martensite?
For this composition, the A = 930C and the eutectoid composition
is 0.17% C.
1

30.

Using

(a)

the alloy steel is hypereutectoid

(b)

the phases present at 850C are still ferrite and cementite

(c)

this is not an appropriate austenitizing treatment because

austenite is not formed.

average

values

for

the

alloying

temperatures for the following steels.

(d) 8620, and (e) 6150.
1140:
4620:
52100:
8620:
6150:
31.

539
539
539
539
539

36(0.405)
36(0.195)
36(1. 04)
36(0.205)
36(0.60)

estimate

(b) 4620,

the

Ms

(c) 52100,

490C
39(0.875)
476C
39(0.55) - 19(1.825)
431C
39(0.35) - 39(1.45)
39(0.80) - 39(0.50) - 19(0.55)= 470C
483C
39(0.875)

For a 4030 steel, estimate (a) the maximum allowable time for a
martempering heat treatment and (b) the maximum allowable time for an
ausforming process.
At what temperature would each of these treatments
be conducted?
(al
(b)

32.

M
MS
MS
MS
MS
s

elements,

(a) 1140,

for martempering, 3 s at 300C

for ausforming, 30,000 s at 540C

For a 4340 steel, describe the microstructure obtained for the following
heat treatments.
(a)

heat at 800C, quench to 300C and hold for 100 s, quench to

room temperature .....
bainite and martensite

(b)

heat at 800C, quench to 650C and hold for 105 s, cool to room
temperature .....
ferrite and pearlite

(c)

heat at 800C, quench to 700C and hold for 104 s, quench to

room temperature ..
ferrite and martensite

141

33.

(d)

heat at 800C, quench to 700C and hold for 10 4 s, quench

to 400C and hold for 10 3 s, quench to room temperature ...
ferrite, bainite and martensite

(e)

Heat at 800C, quench to 600C and hold for 100 s, quench to

room temperature .....
martensite

(f)

Heat at 800C, quench to 300C and hold for 10 4 s, quench to

room temperature .....
bainite

A quenched and tempered steel is to be exposed to 500C for brief periods

of time. It is expected to maintain a hardness of Rc40 after a number of
these exposures.
Which of the following steels would be acceptable:
1030, 1040, 1095, 4340?
Based on the tempering curves in Figure 12-22, this is not possible
for the 1030 and 1040 steels; it is Just barely possible for the
1095 and 4340 steels.

34.

A 4320 steel part quenched to give a hardness of Rc30 is found to wear at

an excessive rate.
Estimate the hardness of the part if the steel were
1040, 9310 or 8640. Which of these alternatives might be better choices
than the 4320 steel?
The Jominy distance that gives Rc30 in a 4320 steel is 17 mm.
this same Jominy distance:
1040:
9310:
8640:

For

R 23

RC39
R C50

Either the 9310 or 8640 steel would be better choices than the 4320
steel.
35.

An 8640 steel part is to have a hardness between Rc45 and Rc50.

What

range of cooling
requirement?

this

rates

must

be

obtained

To obtain a hardness of Rc 45 to 50,

in

order

to

satisfy

the Jominy distances must be

between 17 and 22.7 mm.

This in turn corresponds to a range of
cooling rates between 6.5 and 10C/s.
36.

Consider that the H coefficient of oil is 1.0, that of unagitated-brine

is 2.0, and that of agitated brine is 5.0. Estimate the cooling rate in
the center of a 25 mm diameter bar produced by each of these quenching
media.
For oil, with an H coefficient of 1.0, the Jominy distance is 5 mm;
this corresponds to a cooling rate of 60C/s.
For unagi tated brine, with an H coefficient of 2.0, the Jominy
distance is 4.15 mm; this corresponds to a cooling rate of 72C/s.
For agitated brine, with an H coefficient of 5.0, the Jominy
distance is 2.1 mm; this corresponds to a cooling rate of 240C/s.
142

37.

A SO mm diameter bar of 4320 steel is to have a hardness of R 30. What

c
is the required severity of the quench (H coefficient)? What type of
quenching medium would you recommend to produce the desired hardness with
the least chance of cracking?
To produce a hardness of Rc30 in a SO mm diameter bar of 4320, a
Jominy distance of 17 mm must be obtained.
To obtain this Jominy
distance, an H coefficient of 0.4 or greater must be obtained.
To minimize quench cracks, we would like to cool as slowly as
possible but still produce the required hardness.
Agitated oil
might be an appropriate choice.

38.

A 25 mm diameter bar of 8640 steel is to have a minimum hardness of R 45.

Will (a) agitated brine, (b)
satisfactory quenching medium?

still water,

and

(c)

still oil

be a

To produce the hardness of Rc 45, a Jominy distance of 22.7 mm is

needed.
This in turn requires a quenching medium that has an H
coefficient of 0.1 or greater.
Any of the three quenching media
will meet this requirement.
Still oil would be preferred due to
less likelihood of stresses and cracking.
39.

What is the maximum diameter of a 4320 steel bar quenched in unagitated

brine that will develop a hardness of Rc35?
A Jominy distance of 12 mm or less is required to give a hardness of
Rc35. An H coefficient of 2.0 is obtained by the unagitated brine.
With these conditions, a maximum diameter of 53 mm can be quenched
satisfactorily.

40.

An 8640 steel is cooled at 8C/s.

steel.

Estimate the hardness of the quenched

A cooling rate of 8C/s corresponds to a Jominy distance of 19 mm.

This Jominy distance produces a hardness of Rc 48.
41.

A 4320 steel plate 37.5 mm thick is quenched in water. Plot the hardness
profile across the cross section of the plate after quenching.
We can obtain the Jominy distances that correspond to the surface,
1/4 thickness, and center of the plate, then find the hardness

Jominy
Rockwell C
distance hardness
surface:
114 thickness:
center:

6
mm
12.5 mm
16
mm

143

44

34
31

R
c

so

40~
30

S~--~1~/~4'---'C~--'1/+4'-~S

42.

A 4320 steel plate 50 mm thick is water quenched.

By plotting
hardness profile across the cross section of the plate, determine
depth of the plate which has a hardness of at least Rc40.

the
the

First we can determine the Jominy distance that correspond to

each location in the plate, then find the Rockwell C hardness.

50

Jominy
Rockwell C
distance hardness
surface:
1/4thickness:
center:

7.5 mm
15
mm
19
mm

41
32
29

R
c

40
30
S

1/4

The steel has a hardness of R 40 or greater to a depth of about 1/20

of the cross section.
For a C50 mm plate, this distance is 2.5 Mm.

43.

An 8640 steel plate is to be produced by water quenching, with the center

of the plate having a minimum hardness of Rc50.
What is the maximum

plate thickness than can undergo this treatment?

To obtain a hardness of Rc50 in an
distance must be about 17.5 Mm.
thickness of 45 Mm.
44.

8640

steel

plate,

the

Jominy

This corresponds to a maximum plate

A 50 mm plate of 1040 steel is to have a minimum surface hardness of Rc50

and a maximum center hardness of R 25.
quench?
c

Is this possible

using

water

With a water quench, the Jominy distance at the surface of 50 mm

1040 steel plate is 7 mm and at the center is 19.mm.
These Jominy
distances give surface hardness of Rc36 and a center hardness of
Rc24.
45.

Therefore the water quench will not be satisfactory.

The center of a 50 mm diameter bar of 9310 steel has a hardness of

Determine the hardness at the center of a 25
quenched in the same medium.

mm

diameter

bar

R 40.
c
of -4320

The 50 mm diameter 9310 steel bar must have been quenched at a

equivalent to a Jominy distance of 15.6 mm to produce the

rate
R 40

hardness. This in turn suggests that the H coefficient

been about 0.5.

have

must

For a 25 mm bar quenched in a medium having an H coefficient of 0.5, .

For a 4320 steel,
a Jominy distance of 7.5 mm will be produced.
this cooling rate will give a hardness of Rc45.

144

46.

A 1010 steel is to be gas carburized using an atmosphere that produces

1.2% C at the surface of the steel.
The case depth is defined as the
distance below the surface that contains at least 0.5% C. If carburizing
is done at 950C, determine the time required to produce a case depth of
0.25 mm.
(See Chapter 5 for review).
D = 0.23 x 10

= (0.23
= 2.9778

-4

_4oXP

10-11 m2/s

0.25

0.636

10-3

21c2.9778 x 10-11

47.

137850
]
(8.314)(1221)

x 10 )exp(-13.55721)

1.2 - 0.5
1. 2 - 0.1

:.t

= 1070.8

= 0.3

0.7
) (t)

hours

A dual phase steel containing o. 15% C is to be produced by originally

austenitizing at 750C. Determine the amounts of ferrite and martensite
in the final structure.
What are the carbon content and approximate
R hardness of the martensite?
c
At 750C, the composition of the austenite in the ferrite plus
austenite portion of the phase diagram is 0.60% C and the amount of
austenite is
7 = (0.15-0.02)/(0.60-0.02) x 100 = 22.4%
The austenite transforms to martensite having the same composition
and amount; therefore
amounts:

22.4% martensite, 77.6% ferrite

composition of martensite: 0.60% C

hardness of martensite: R 65
c
48.

Occasionally,when an austenitic stainless steel is welded, the weld

deposit may be slightly magnetic. Based on the Fe-Cr-Ni-C phase diagram,
what phase would you expect is causing the magnetic behaviour? Why might
this phase have formed? What could you do to restore the non-magnetic
behaviour?
Austenite is not magnetic.
The magnetic behaviour might be caused
by the formation and retention of a-ferrite.
The a-ferrite may have formed during solidification of the weld and
may have been retained during the rapid cooling of the weldment.
We could allow the a-ferrite to dissolve by annealing the stainless
steel.

145

49.

Determine the carbon equivalent for a gray iron containing 3.2% C and
2.7% 5i. Is the iron hypoeutectic or hypereutectic? What is the primary
phase that will form during solidification?
carbon equivalent CE = %C + (1/3)%5i = 3.2 + (1/3)(2.7) = 4.1%
This is a hypoeutectic cast iron, since the CE is less than 4.3%
The primary phase in a hypoeutectic cast iron is austenite.

50.

A gray iron intended for particularly good vibration damping should have
a carbon equivalent of at least 4.4%.
If the iron contains 3.8% C (a)
what is the minimum amount of silicon that must be added and (b) what is
the primary phase that will form during solidification?
(a)

CE

%5i
(b)
51.

= %C

(1/3)%5i = 3.8 + (1/3)%5i

= 4.4%

= 1. 8

The primary phase in a hypereutectic cast iron intended to give

good vibration damping is graphite.

What is the difference in microstructure produced when a 1040 steel is

annealed versus when a gray cast iron is annealed?
1040 steel:
annealing gives a microstructure
approximately 50% coarse pearlite and 50% ferrite.

composed

of

gray iron:
annealing gives a microstructure composed of 100%
ferrite; the carbon that would otherwise be present in pearlite is
able to diffuse to the existing graphite flakes.
52.

Explain why the thermal conductivity of ductile or malleable cast iron is

less than that of gray cast iron.
The graphite has a higher thermal conductivity than the matrix in
cast irons.
This graphite is interconnected in gray iron and can
therefore remove heat from the surface into the interior of the
part.
However, the graphite in ductile and malleable irons is not
continuous and therefore cannot transfer heat from the surface.

53.

A gray

iron contains 3.5% C and 2.4% 51.

(a) Determine the carbon
equivalent.
(b) What is the class number for the iron? (c) What is the
nominal tensile strength of the iron? (d) Estimate the tensile strength
of this iron in a 75 mm diameter bar.
(a)

CE

(b)

This carbon equivalent is typical of a Grade 180 gray iron.

(c)

The nominal tensile strength of a Grade 180 iron is 180 MPa.

(d)

In a 75 mm diameter bar,
the cooling rates during'
solidification are very slow, coarse graphite and ferrite are
produced, and the tensile strength may be as low as about 110
MPa.

%C + (1/3)%5i = 3.5 + (1/3)(2.4) = 4.3%

146

54.

A Grade 260 gray iron casting is found to have a tensile strength of 207
MPa.
What is the expected diameter of the bar? Would you expect this
casting to have more or less pearlite than normally would be expected?
In a Grade 260 gray iron, a tensile strength of 207 MPa is expected
for a 75 mm diameter bar.
With this thickness, we would expect to have less pearlite and more
ferri te than the nominal expected amounts due to the slow cooling
rates.

55.

Suppose you could double the number of graphite nodules produced when a
white iron is heated to the malleablizing temperature. What effect would
this have on the time required for first stage graphitization and on the
cooling rate required for second stage graphitization?
By doubling the number of graphite nodules, the diffusion distances
for the carbon atoms to reach graphite nucleation sites or graphite
nodules is reduced, allowing the malleablizing transformations to
occur more rapidly.
Therefore the time required for first stage
graphi tization would be shorter and faster cooling rates would be
permitted during second stage graphitization.

56.

When the thickness of a ductile cast iron casting increases, the number
of graphite nodules normally decreases.
(al What effect will this have
on the amount of ferrite that is present in the matrix? (b) Suppose you
observed the opposite effect of thickness on the amount of ferrite. How
would you explain this difference?
When the number of graphite nodules decreases, the diffusion
distance for carbon atoms to move from the matrix to the nodules is
increased.

57.

(al

Therefore the amount of ferrite in the matrix should

decrease and the amount of pearlite should increase for
low nodule count ductile irons.

(bl

If a larger amount of ferrite is observed when the

thickness of the casting increases, we would expect that
the slower cooling rate, which tends to promote ferrite,
would have offset the lower nodule count, which tends to
promote pearlite.
In this case, the slower cooling rate
would have predominated.

Suppose a ductile iron containing 0.1% S is nodulized by adding 0.05% Mg.

What fraction of the added magnesium will be lost by combining with
sulphur to produce MgS? Will there be enough Mg left to permit graphite
nodules to form?
When magnesium is added to iron containing sulphur,
that occurs is
Mg + S = MgS

the reaction

In 100 grams of iron, we can calculate the amount of magnesium

required to neutralize the sulphur by this reaction:

147

x grams Hg
24.312 g/mol

_
0.1 g S
- 32.064 glmol

= 0.0758

g Hg

However, only 0.05 g of Hg was added to the iron.

Therefore there
is not even enough Hg to neutralize the sulphur, let alone permi t
the formation of graphite nodules.
58.

59.

60.

We would like to produce a 420/12 grade of ductile cast iron without heat
treating.
(a) What is the major phase that should be present in the
matrix?
(b) Would increasing the number of graphite nodules produced
during solidification help or hinder our efforts to produce this
structure? Explain.
(a)

A 420/12 grade of ductile iron should contain a matrix composed

of all ferrite.

(b)

Increasing the number of graphite nodules will reduce the

diffusion distance of the carbon atoms and will make it easier
to produce all ferrite in the matrix.

We would like to produce a quenched and tempered ductile cast iron.

(a)
Would you expect the hardenabillty of the cast iron to be better or worse
than for a plain carbon steel?
Explain.
(b) Would you expect the
hardenability of the ductile iron to be better or worse than for a
malleable coast iron? Explain.
(a)

The hardenability of the cast iron should be better than that

of a plain carbon steel due to the presence of 1 to 3% silicon
in the iron.
The silicon increases the hardenabil1ty of the
matrix.

(b)

The hardenability of ductile iron is better than that of

malleable iron. The silicon content of ductile iron should be
relatively
high
to
promote
graphitization
during
solidification; the silicon content of malleable iron is
comparatively
low
to
prevent
graphitization
during
solidification.

A B320-10 malleable cast iron contains large primary cementite after the
heat treatment is completed.
Is this undesirable structure a result of
poor FSG or poor SSG treatment? Explain.
Presence of large undissolved primary cementite suggests that FSG
was not completed. The purpose of FSG is to break down the pr~mary
cementite, while the purpose of SSG is to control the matrix.
The
problem in this case is too short of an FSG time, too low of an FSG
temperature, too few nuclei produced during heating, or the presence
of alloying elements that stabilize the cementite.

61.

A B350-12 malleable cast iron contains a mixture of ferrite and pearlite

in the matrix after heat treatment.
Is this undesirable structure a
result of poor FSG or poor SSG treatment? Explain.
A B350-12 malleable iron is intended to have a completely ferrite'
matrix; this is achieved by using a sufficiently slow cooling rate
during SSG.
This present of pearlite in the matrix suggests that
the cooling rate was too rapid, the nodule count was too low, or
pearlite stabilizing alloying elements were present in the iron.
148

62.

An Fe-3.6% C cast iron is allowed to solidify.

Calculate (a) the amount

of cementite in both weight percent and volume percent that forms if
white iron is produced, (b) the amount of graphite in both weight percent
and volume percent that forms if gray iron is produced, and (cO the
change in volume during solidification for both gray and wh~te cast
irons.
(The deysities of the phases i~volved are 7.0 Mg/m for th~
liquid, 7.69 Mg/m for austenite, 7.66 Mg/m for cementite, and 1.5 Mg/m
for graphite. )
(a)

In white cast iron, we expect a structure of austenite and

cementite immediately after solidification:
wt% Fe 3 C = (3.6-2.11)/(6.67/2.11) x 100 = 32.675
(32.67517.66)
vol% Fe 3 C = (32.675/7.66) + (67.325/7.69) x 100 = 32.761

(b)

In gray cast iron, we expect a structure of austenite and

graphite immediately after solidification:
wt% Gr

(3.6-2.08)/(100-2.08) x 100

= 1.552

(1.552/1.5)
100 - 7 478
1% G vo r - (1.552/1.5) + (98.448/7.69) x
-.

(c)

Assume that we have 1 Mg of cast iron as our basis.

For white iron
VL

= (1/7) = 0.14286

V7 =

O.~:~~

VFe C

m3

= 0.08754 m3

= O.~~:: = 0.04266

volume change

m3

0.14286 - (0.08754 + 0.04266) x 100

O. 14286
= 8.86% contraction

In gray iron
VL

= (1/7) = 0.14286

VG

= 0.0~~;2 = 0.01035

m3

V7 = 0.;~!:8 = 0.12802 m3

volume change

m2

0.14286 - (0.12802 + 0.01035) x 100

0.14286

= 3.14%

contraction

Note that much less solidification shrinkage occurs in the gray iron.

149

63.

Calculate the percent carbon in an iron-carbon alloy that will give no

volume change when the liquid transforms to austenite plus graphite
during solidification. (Use the data in Problem 62. )
Assume that we start with 1 Mg of liquid iron.
Let "x" be the
number of Mg of austenite hence (l-x) will be the number of Mg of
graphite.
volume change

= 0%

.. 0= (117) - [(xl7.69~/;

(1 -

x)(l/1.5)] x 100

o 0.14286 - (O.13x + 0.6666 - 0.667x)

0.52381 = 0.537x
.. 0.97544 Mg of 7 = x
& 0.02456 Mg of G
Using the lever rule, with "y" representing the overall % carbon
content
_
_ y - 2.08
% graphite - 2.456 - 100 _ 2.08 x 100
:. y = 4. 485% carbon
The cast iron must be slightly hypereutectic in order to prevent
any shrinkage on solidification.
64.

Figure 12-52 illustrates the cooling curves at several distance from the
surface of a gray cast iron. Based on these curves, estimate the chill
depth in the casting.
The cooling curve at 3 mm and 6 mm from the surface show a thermal
arrest at 1131C, so white iron forms. the remaining locations have
an arrest between 1131C and 1155C, indicating that gray iron
forms.
By plotting the arrest temperature versus distance, we can
estimate the chill depth to be about 7.8 mm.
1180
1170
.-..1160

Whi te ~ : f - Gray

Col

'-' 1150
cu

eco 1140
~

Eo<

l130
1120

L-~3---'6--~9~-'ln2~-'1~5---'1"8

Distance from surface (mm)

150

Chapter 13

NON-FERROUS ALLOYS
1.

Calculate the modulus of elasticity-to-density ratio

alloy and compare with the ratio for pure aluminum.

for

an

AI-4%

Li

The density of pure aluminum is 2.70 Mg/m3 ; that for the AI-4% Li
alloy is 2.48 Mg/m3 , Figure 13-3.
Pure AI:

modulusldensity

10 GPa
2.70

2.70 Mg/m3
10

103 kg/m3

10 9 kg m s-2

2.70 x 10 3 kg/m 3
11. 4 GPa
2.48 Mg/m 3

AI-4% Li: modulusldensity

2.

4.6 x 106 m2 S-2

Explain why aluminum alloys containing more than 15% Mg are not used.
When more than 15% Mg is added to AI, a eutectic microconstltuent is
produced during solidification. This eutectic contains
~

= (35-14.9)/(35.5-14.9)

x 100

= 97.6%

Since most of the eutectic is the brittle intermetaillc compound ~,

the eutectic, which is the continuous
microconstituent,
and
consequently the entire alloy are likely to be very brittle.
3.

Determine the formula for the

The
is

phase in AI-Mn alloys.

phase has a composition of 25 wt% Mn.

at% Mn

the atomic

percent

Mn

925/54.93)
_ 0.455 _
(25/54.93) + (75/26.98) x 100 - 3.235 - 14.1

The Mn/Al ratio is 0.14

4.

= 1/7.

Therefore

= AI 7Mn.

Determine the formulas for the ~ and 7 intermetallic compounds in the

AI-Li system. Which of these is a stoichiometric intermetallic compound?
7
is
a
stoichiometric
non-stoichiometric compound.

intermetallic

7 contains approximately 34 wt% Li.

t% L'
a 1

compound;

In atomic percent

(34/6.94)
100
(34/6.94) + (66/26.981) x

= 74 . 9305 = 66.7

Therefore 7 is AlLi2
~

contains 22 wt% Li.

t% L -

Therefore

In atomic percent:

(22/6.94)
100
(22/6.94) + (78/26.981) x
~

is AlLi
151

3.17
6.06

52

is

5.

Calculate the amount of each phase in the AI-Li eutectic.

6.

= (20.4-9.9)/(20.4-4.0) x 100 64%

= (9.9-4.0)1(20.4-4.0) x 100 = 36%

Estimate the secondary dendrite arm spacing for each structure in Figure
13-5 and, from Figure 8-8, estimate the solidification time obtained by
each of the three casting processes. Do you expect higher strengths for
die casting, permanent mold casting, or sand casting?
The secondary dendrite arm spacing
solidification time by the equation
SDAS

(8 x 10-4 )(LST)o.42

or

is

related

LST

= (SDAS/8

to

the

local

x 10- 4 )2.38

We can measure the distance between the center of one dendrite and
the center of another dendrite, divide by the number of dendrite
spacings measured, and then divide by the magnification; this will
give us the SDAS. From the equation above, we can calculate the
solidification time.
sand cast:

SDAS
LST

(25 mmll dendrite spacing)/350 =

180 s

0.071 mm

permanent mold:

SDAS
LST

(28 mml4 dendrite spacings)/350

0.02 mm

9 s

SDAS
LST

(18 mml5 dendrite spacings)/350 = 0.01 mm

1.7 s

die cast:

We expect the highest strength from the die casting.

7.

Would you expect a 2024-T9 aluminum alloy to be stronger or weaker than a

2024-T6 alloy? Explain.
The T9 treatment will give the higher strength; in this temper cold
working and age hardening are combined, while in T6, only age
hardening is done.

8.

Estimate the tensile strength expected for an 1100-H12 aluminum alloy.

The tensile strength for 1100-0 (annealed) is 90 MPa and that for
1100-H18 is 165.5 MPa. then the tensile strength for 1100-H14 is
the average
1100-H14: tensile strength

9.

= (165.5

+ 90)/2

= 108.9

MPa

Estimate the tensile strength expected for a 5056-H16 aluminum alloy.

The tensile strength for 5056-0 (annealed) is 290 MPa and that
5056-H18 is 414 MPa. Then the tensile strength for 5056-H14 is
average of these two:
5056-H14: tensile strength

= (414

+ 290)/2

= 352

for
the

MPa

The tensile strength for 5056-H16 is the average between the H14 and
H18 tempers, or
5056-H16: tensile strength
152

(414 + 352)/2

383 MPa

10.

Suppose you prepare an AI-8% Li alloy by rapid solidification processing

to produce a single phase at room temperature. How much precipitate will
form during aging?
~

11.

= (8-3)/(21-3) = 28%

How much Mg 2A13

(~),

forms in a 518-T7 aluminum alloy?

The T7 temper means that the alloy has been

or stabilized, so the equilibrium amount of
~

12.

= (8-0)/(35-0)

x 100

deliberately overaged,
should be present.

= 23%

Determine the designation for a magnesium alloy containing 4.3% Al and

11.9% Zn that has been hot rolled, cooled, and allowed to naturally age.
ZA124-T1

13.

An HK31A-24 magnesium alloy has a tensile strength of 262 MPa.

expect that the alloy could have an H28 designation?

Explain.

Would you

No; an H28 temper suggests a large percent deformation. However the

magnesium alloys are relatively brittle and typically cannot be cold
worked this amount.
14.

Suppose a 300
any permanent
it is made of
the weight of
(a)

mm long round bar is to support a load of 226 kg without

deformation. Calculate the minimum diameter of the bar if
(a) ZK40A-T5 magnesium and (b) 390-F aluminum.
Calculate
the bar in each case.

The yield strength for ZK40A

corresponding to 225 kg mass is
mass x acceleration
A
d

= (225

is

255

kg)(9.81 m s-2)

F/~ = (2217N)/(255 x 10 6 N m- 2 )
3.33 mm

= 8.69

The density of magnesium is 1.738 Mg/m3 .

w
(b)

= pV = pAl
4.609 g

= 2217

x 10 6 m2
The mass is

(1.738 Mg/m 3 ) (8.69 x 10- 6 m2 )(330/1000 m)

A F/~ = (2217N)/(241 x 106 N m- 2 )

or d = 3.42 mm

= 9.20

The density of aluminum is 2.7 Mg/ml.

MPa.

pV = pAl
7.452 g

153

x 10-6 m2

The mass is

load

15.

600 mm long wire that is 2.5 mm in diameter is expected to elongate

more than 0.75 mm under load. What is the maximum force that can
applied if the wire is made of (a) aluminum, and (b) beryllium?
The maximum allowable strain is e

no
be

= (600.75 - 600)/(600) = 0.00125

= (n/4) (2.5)2 = 4.9087 mm2
= eEA

The cross-sectional area of the wire is A

The maximum allowable load F
(a)

For aluminum F

(b) For beryllium F

16.

= uA

= (0.00125)(69

4.23 N

109 N/m2 ) (4. 9087 mm2 )(10-6 m2/mm2 )

(0.00125)(290 x 109 N/m 2 ) (4.9087 mm2 )(10- 6 m2/mm2)

N

= 1780

A 2700-H10 copper alloy plate 6.25 mm thick is to be produced. Calculate

the original thickness of the plate before rolling.
Should
the
deformation be done by hot or cold working? Explain.
An H10 temper means that 68.6% cold work is done.

%CW

= (t

- 6.25)/t x 100

= 68.6

t = 19.9 mm

The deformation should be done using cold working in order to obtain

the strengthening effect.
17.

Figure 7-16 shows micrographs of a Cu-Zn alloy that has been annealed at
different temperatures. Determine the "xxx" in the OSxxx designation
obtained for each of the annealing temperatures.
We want to measure the average grain diameter in the photographs and
divide by the magnification.
400C: d
650C: d
800C: d

18.

8 mm/75
20 mm/75
50 mm/75

107 X 10-3 mm
267 x 10-3 mm
667 x 10-3 mm

II

II

XXX"

107
267
667

Estimate the minimum tensile and yield strengths for a

having the H10 temper. See Figure 7-24
The H10 temper indicates 68.6% cold work.
strength is
tensile strength
yield strength

19.

XXXII

"xxx"

= 650
= 440

From

Cu-30%
Figure

Zn

alloy

7-24,

Mpa
MFa

A 101000-0S050 copper alloy is cold extruded from a 11.25 mm diameter

a 5.75 mm diameter. What is the approximate temper of the final bar?
2

%CW = (11.25) - (5.75) x 100 = 73.9

(11.25)2
this corresponds to an H12 temper.

154

the

to

20.

Consider a Cu-20% Sn alloy. Describe the sequence by which the alloy

freezes and cools to room temperature. Is it likely that the equilibrium
a + E structure will be produced?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

21.

primary a precipitates from the liquid to give L + a

the remaining liquid and some of the a go through a peritectic
reaction to give a + ~
the ~ goes through a eutectoid reaction, giving a + 7
the 7 goes through a eutectoid reaction, giving a + 0
the 0 goes through a eutectoid reaction, giving oc + E

We would like to produce a TQ temper in an aluminum bronze containing 13%

AI. How much 7 precipitate will form during tempering at 450C?
2

The aluminum bronze is heated, quenched to produce martensite, and

then tempered to allow the equilibrium precipitates to form.
From
the lever law
72
22.

= (13-9.4)/(16-9.4)

x 100

= 54.5%

Suppose we would like to plastically deform a Cu-l0% Pb alloy. Based on

Figure 10-25, estimate the maximum temperature we should use during
deformation. What would happen if we sued a higher temperature?
The maximum temperature should be about 326C; at any higher
temperature, we exceed the eutectic temperature, the lead-rich phase
melts. and hot shortness occurs.

23.

Would you expect the fracture toughness of quenched and tempered aluminum
bronze to be high or low? Explain. (You might compare this structure
with some of those produced in oc + ~ titanium alloys. )
The fracture toughness should be relatively good. The acicular, or
Widmanstatten, microstructure forces a crack to follow a very
tortuous path.

24.

Based on the micrograph in Figure 13-12, would you

expect
the
7'precipitate or the carbides to produce a greater strengthening effect
in superalloys? Explain your answer.
The 7' is more numerous and also more uniformly and closely spaced;
consequently the 7' should be more effective than the smaller number
of coarse carbides.

25.

Under equilibrium freezing, no eutectic microconstituent is expected in a

Zn-27% Al alloy. However, some eutectic is generally found in the last
regions to solidify. Using Figure 13-13, show how this non-equilibrium
eutectic will form.
During solidification, oc first precipitates from the liqUid.
As
the liquid is enriched in zinc, ~ will form. the liquid is enriched
still further in zinc until some non-equilibrium liquid reaches the
eutectic composition. The final microstructure may include primary
a, ~ and eutectic.

155

26.

Under non-equilibrium cooling conditions, the center of the dendrites

that form in a Zn-27% Al alloy contain no eutectoid product, while a
lamellar pearlite eutectoid structure is found near the edges of the
dendrites. Using Figure 13-13, explain this behaviour.
During solidification, the first solid a to precipitate from the
liquid is very rich in aluminum. If cooling is rapid, diffusion is
not fast enough to permit the composition of the a to follow the
solidus line. Consequently the composition of the a dendrites
gradually changes from the aluminum-rich core to the zinc-rich
periphery.
During subsequent cooling, the dendrite cores are so rich in
aluminum that the composition does not pass through the eutectoid
reaction. However the edges of the dendrites are richer in zinc,
pass through the eutectoid reaction during cooling, and produce the
lamellar pearlitic structure.

27.

What is the eutectoid reaction that causes growth in the Zn-4% Al

casting alloys? What is the maximum temperature you would select
stabilize the die castings prior to finish machining?

die
to

The eutectoid reaction is ~

a +~. the eutectoid reaction occurs
at 270C; you would stabilize the die castings
below
this
temperature.
28.

When liquid Zn-27% Al alloy is very

slowly
cooled
to
permit
solidification, shrinkage is found in the bottom half of the casting. In
most other alloys, shrinkage is more commonly found in the top half of
the casting. Explain why the Zn-27% al alloy is different.
During solidification, the primary a forms first.
the a is very
rich in aluminum and, because aluminum is much less dense than zinc,
the a will float towards the top of the casting. The bottom of the
casting therefore becomes enriched in zinc. This zinc-rich liquid
has a low melting
temperature,
solidifies
last,
and
the
solidification shrinkage is formed as this last liquid freezes.

29.

By what mechanism does tin provide strengthening to titanium alloys?

In the usual amounts, the tin does not significantly affect the
equilibrium between a-Ti and ~-Ti. Instead, the tin only provides
solid solution strengthening of the a phase.

30.

When steel is joined using arc welding, only the liquid fusion zone must
be protected by a gas or a flux. However, when titanium is welded, both
the front and back sides of the welded metal must be protected. Why must
these extra precautions be taken when joining titanium?
The titanium may be contaminated or embrittled
anytime
the
temperature is above about 535C. Therefore the titanium must be
protected until the metal cools below this critical temperature.Since both sides of the titanium plate will be heated by the welding
process, special provisions must be made to shield all sides of the
titanium until the metal cools sufficiently.

156

31.

Select an appropriate annealing temperature for a Ti-l0% Mo alloy.

The critical temperature above which all ~ forms is about 8S0C.
The annealing temperature may be slightly above this temperature or,
in some cases, even slightly below, allowing a small amount of to
remain to prevent grain growth.

32.

The Ti-Y phase diagram is shown in Figure 13-22. For a Ti-l0% Y alloy,
(a) estimate the solution treating temperature that will control grain
growth by remaining 10% in the microstructure, (b) determine the
phase(s) present after quenching to
room
temperature
from
the
solution-treating temperature, (c) calculate the amount of each phase
after reheating to produce equilibrium at 400C, and (d) describe the
microstructure after reheating at 400C for 1 h.
Is
this
an
age-hardening treatment of a quench and temper treatment?
(a)

750C is just slightly below the critical

the order of 10% will remain.

so

on

(b)

After quenching, the structure will contain about 10% and

(martensite).

'

(c)

After reheating, and

form;

(40-10)/(40-4) x 100
(10-4)1(40-4) x 100

(dO

temperature,

83.3%
16.7%

After reheating, the structure

precipitates in a matrix of .

will

be

predominantly

This is a quench and temper heat treatment.

33.

For a Ti-30% Y alloy (a) estimate the solution-treating temperature that

will control grain growth by retaining 15% in the microstructure, (b)
determine the phase(s) present after quenching to room temperature from
the solution-treating temperature, (c) calculate the amount of each phase
after reheating to 400C, and (d) describe the microstructure after
reheating at 400C for 1 h. Is this an age-hardening treatment or a
quench and temper treatment?
(a)

500C is just beneath the temperature at which all ~ forms,

about 15% will remain.

(b)

After quenching the structure will contain about 15% and ~ss
(supersaturated ~).

(c)

After reheating, both and

(d)

= (40-30)/(40-4)

x 100
(30-4)1(40-4) x 100

will form:
27.8%
72.2%

The structure will consist primarily of precipitates in

matrix.
This is an age hardening heat treatment.

157

so

34.

What happens when the protective coating on a tungsten part expands more
than the tungsten?
What happens when the protective coating on a
tungsten part expands less than the tungsten?
if the protective coating expands more than tungsten, compressive
stresses will build up in the coating and the coating will flake.
if the protective coating expands less than tungsten, tensile
stresses will build up in the coating and the coating will crack and
become porous.

35.

Compare the % elongation of the aluminum and copper alloys with

the magnesium and titanium alloys. Which group generally tends
the higher ductility? Why is this expected?
AI: %elongation
Cu: %elongation
Mg: %elongation
Tl: %elongation

10
5
1
= 14

to
to
to
to

40
68
15
24

that of
to have

FCC
FCC
HCP - basal slip
HCP - prismatic slip

The FCC alloys, which have .the optimum number of slip systems and
the ability for cross-slip, have the better ductility. In addition,
Ti has better ductility than Mg due to the different slip systems
available.
36.

Determine the ratio between the yield strength of the strongest aluminum,
magnesium, copper, titanium and nickel-copper alloys with the yield
strengths of the pure metals. Compare the alloy systems and rank them in
order of their response to strengthening mechanisms.
pure
metal
strength
lMPa
Cu

Al
Ni

Ti

Mg

33
34.5
110
172
90

alloy
strength
lMPa
1207
504
760
1214
276

response to
strengthening
1207/33
504/34.5
760/110
12141172
276/90

structure

= 36.5
= 14.6
= 6.9
= 7.0
= 3.1

FCC
FCC
FCC
HCP
HCP

the FCC metals have the greater response to strengthening.

37.

Determine the strength-to-weight ratios (using the yield strength) the of

the strongest aluminum, magnesium, copper, titanium, tungsten, and Monel
alloys. Use the densities of the pure metals, in Mg/m3 , to form your
ratios. Rank the alloy systems according to their strength-to-weight
ratios.

158

strength

density

/MPa
Tl

Al
Mg
Cu
Monel
W

38.

Mg/m 3

1214
504
276
1207
759
1517

4.50
2.7
1. 74
8.93
8.93
19.25

strength-toweight
ratio
269
187
159
135
85
79

Explain why aluminum and magnesium alloys are commonly used in aerospace
and transportation applications, whereas copper and beryllium alloys are
not.
Aluminum and magnesium have light weight, good strength, relatively
Copper alloys have
low cost, and good strength-to-weight ratios.
poor strength-to-weight ratios. Beryllium has a good strength-to
weight ratio, but is expensive and difficult to fabricate.

39.

Based on the phase diagrams, estimate the solubilities of nickel, zinc,

silicon, aluminum, tine and beryllium in copper at room temperature. Are
these solubilities expected in view of Hume-Rothery's rules for solid
solubility? Explain.
solubility
Cu-Ni 100% Ni
Cu-Zn 30% Zn
Cu-AI
8% Al
Cu-Si
2% Si
Cu-Be 0.2% Be
Cu-Sn
0% Sn

structure
FCC
HCP
FCC
DC
hex
DC

valence
1
2
3
4
2
4

atom size difference

(1. 278 - 1. 243)/1. 278
(1. 278 - 1. 332)/1. 287
(1. 278 - 1. 432)/1. 278
(1. 278 - 1.176)/1.278
(1. 278 - 1. 143)11. 278
(1.278 - 1. 405 )/1. 278

x
x
x
x
x
x

100
100
100
100
100
100

Hume-Rothery's conditions do help to explain the differences in

solubility.

159

217%
-4.12%

-12. 1%
8.0%
10.6%
-9/9%

Chapter 14
CERAMIC MATERIALS
1.

Qua"rtz (SiD ) 'J-as an hexagonal lirystal structure with lat tic~ parameters
of a = 4.9~3 A and c = 5.405 A and a density of 2.65 Mg/m.
Dete~mine the number 8f silica (SiD ) groups in quartz.
2

V
t = a c cos30
quar z o o
2

MW (Si02 )
(#

= 28.08

of S10 groups)60.08 x 10-6

2

= ----------~=---------=
30
23
(112.985 x 10-

:.# of Si0 2 groups

2.

= (4.913) 2 (5.405)cos30 = 112.985 A23

-6
2(16) = 60.08 g/mol = 60.08 x 10 Kg/mol
)(6.02 x 10

=3

Determine (a) the direction in the unit cell along which ions are in
contact in CaTiO , which has the perovskite structure, (b) the lattice
parameter for th~ unit cell, and (c) the density of the unit cell.
Let's calculate the lattice parameter in the <111>; <110> and <100>
directions:
<111>:

<110>:

<100>:

= (2rCa + 2rTi )V3 = 2(0.99

= (2r Ca + 2ro)/i2 = 2(0.99
= 2rCa = 2(0.99) = 1. 98 A

+ 0.68)

V3 = 1.93 A

= 3.27 A

+ 1. 32)/12

(a)

The direction in which the largest lattice parameter is

calculated must be the actual close packed direction. Thus the
ions touch along <110> directions.

(b)

Since the ions touch along <110> directions, the lattice

parameter a = 3.27 A.
o

(c)

Since MW Ca- 40.08 x 10-6 , MW Ti

and MWO= 16 x

(3.267 x

47.9 x 10- 6

Mg/mol

[(1 Ca)(40.08 x 10- 6

= 5.72
3.

10-6

+ (1 Ti)(47.9 x 10- 6

10-1 )3(6.02

+ (20)(16 x 16 6

)]

x 1023 )

Mg/m3

The
The TiD structure is shown in figure 14-2(c).
for the 2 tetragonal structure are a = 4.59 A and c
o
0

lattice

= 2.96 A.

parameters

(a) Determine the numbers of each ion in the unit cell, (b) calculate the
packing factor for the unit cell, and (c) determine whether the oxygen
and titanium ions touch along the [110] direction.

160

(a)

There are 2 titanium ions (one from the corners and one
the center) and therefore 4 oxygen Ions per unit cell.

(b)

the ionic radius for Ti is 0.68

PF

= 2 (4n/3) (0. 68)3

Aand

+ 4(4n/3)(1.32)3

that for 0 is 1.32

from

A.

= 0.66

(4.59)2(2.96)
We can check to see i f
titanium ionic radii:

(c)

V2a:o is equal

to

the

sum

of

two

2(0.68) + 4(1.32)
6.49 = 6.64
This is relatively close; the ionic radii are probably slightly
different from those given in Appendix B.
4.

Tungsten carbide (We) has a hexagonal structure with lattice parameters

of a = 2.91 Aand c = 2.84 A. If one W atom is located at each corner
of tEe cell, estimatg the density of the ceramic.
There is one tungsten ion (MW = 183.85 x 10-6 Mg/mol)
one carbon ion (MW = 12 x 10- 6 Mg/mol)

P
5.

(183.85 + 12) 10-6

(2.91 x

10- 1 )3(6.0.2

x 1023 )

= 13.2

3
Mg/m

In Ti02 , oxygen ions are located at the following coordinates:

0.3056,
0.6944,
0.8056,
0.1944,

0.3056,
0.6944,
0.1944,
0.8056,

o
o

0.5
0.5

(a) Based on the radius ratios, what should be the coordination number
for the titanium ions? (b) Based on the coordinates listed above and
Figure 14-2(c), does the titanium ion at 0.5, 0.5, 0.5 have this
coordination number? Use the lattice parameters given in problem 3 and
find the actual distance between the oxygen ions and the central titanium
ion.
(a)

The

ionic

radius

ratio

is

rTi/rO

0.68/1.32

0.515.

Therefore the coordination number would be expected to be 6.

(b)

The location of the first two ions can be illustrated with the
first sketch below, which is a trace of the (110) plane.
The
distance "z" is the separation between the oxygen and titanium
ions.
x
y

0.5a - 0.3056a = 0.1944a = (0.1944)(4.59)

(0.5)(2.96) = 1.48 A

= 0.5c

161

= 0.8923 A

z = /x2 + y2 = 1(08923)2 + (1. 48)2 = 1. 7266

The location of the other two ions can be illustrated with the
second sketch, which is a trace of the (002) plane.
The distance
"z" is the separation between the oxygen and the titanium ions.
x
0.8056a - 0.5a = 0.3056a
y= 0.5a - 0.1944a = 0.3056a
z = /x2 + y2 =

vi (1-4027)2

the four oxygen ions are

central titanium ion.

6.

+ (1.4027)2 = 1.9837

quite

Determine whether the following

are
metasilicate, or sheet types of ceramics.
FeO.S1O

3MgQ.2Si02

7.

not

(0.3056)(4.59)
(0.3056)(4.59)

CaO. A1 20 3 . 2S102

the

same

1. 4027
1. 4027

A
A

distance

orthosilicate,

from

the

pyrosilicate,

MgO.CaO.Si02
Al 2 3
.2S1O
2

2MgO.Si02

FeSi03 = Fe(Si0 3 )
Mg3 Si 207 = Mg3(Si 20 7 )

metasilicate

CaAl 2Si 20 S = CaAI 2 (SiO.)2

orthosilicate

Mg2 SiO = Mg2(SiO.)

orthosilicate

MgCaSi0 4 = MgCa(Si0 4 )

orthosllicate

Al 2Si 20 7 = A1 2 (Si 20 7 )

pyrosilicate

pyrosilicate

Asbestos is a hydrated magnesium silicate that often has been used as a

fibrous material in insulation and brake linings.
It is used in the
form of a fiber. Does this suggest that asbestos is an
orthosilicate,
pyrosilicate, metasilicate or sheet type of material?
Because of the fibrous nature of asbestos, we
be a metasilicate.

162

would

expect

it

to

8.

Is wollastonite CaSiO expected to have an

metasilicate, or shee~ type of structure?

orthosilicate,

pyrosilicate,

metasilicate
9.

If 5% of the A1 3 + ions in montmorillonite (AI 20 3 .4Si0 2 .H20) are

by Mg2+ ions, how many grams of K+ ions will be attracted
the clay?
The normal at% A1 3 + is
at% A1 3 +

=2

Al / (2 Al + 4 Si + 12

+ 2

H)

x 100

to

replaced
100

of

= 10

After the ion exchange, 5% or 0.1 A1 3 + ion i~ missing and 0.1 Mg2+
is introduced. To satisfy t~~ charge'2+0.1 K \s also added.
The
and 2
number of ion~ is now 1. 9 Al , 0.1 Mg , 0.1 K , 4 Si, 12
H. The at% K ions is

at% K+

0.1 / (1. 9 + 0.1 + 0.1 + 4 + 12 + 2) x 100

0.1 /20.1 x 100
0.4975

at% Al
at% Si
at% H

1.9120.1 x 100
4/20.1 x 100
2/20.1 x 100

9.4527
19.9005
9.9903

at% Mg
at%

0.1120 x 100
12120.1 x 100

0.4975
59.7015

Now find the wt% of each ion in the clay:

(at% K) (MWK)

(0.4975)(39.092)

19.448

(MWMg )
(at% Al (MWAI )

(0.4975)(24.312)

12.095

(9.4527)(26.981)

255.043

(at% Si)(MWSi )
(at% 0) (MWO)

(19.9005)(28.08)

558.806

(59.7015) (16)

955.224

(at%

Mg)

(at% H) (MWH )
wt% K

(9.9903)(1)

(at% K)(MWK) / ~(at% ion) (MWionl

19.448/1810.57 x 100 = 1.074

1.074% = x g K / 100 g clay x 100%

10.

9.950
1810.57

= 1. 074

g K

Suppose 5% of the Fe 2+ ions are removed when Fe 3 + ions are introduced

into FeO, which has the sodium chloride structure.
Calculate (al the
number of vacancies per cubic centimeter, (b) the atomic percent oxygen
in the FeO, and (cl the weight percent oxygen in the FeO.
(al

FeO has the sodium chloride structure; therefore we would

expect to have 4 Fe 2+ ions and 4 oxygen ions per cell. In 100
unit cells, there ordinarily would be 400 Fe 2+ions and 400
oxygen ions. If 5% of the Fe 2 + ions are removed during
replacement by Fe 3 + ions, then the number of Fe 2+ ions in 100
unit cells should be

163

Fe 2 +

100 cells

= 400

- (0.05)(400)

= 380

The replacement occurs by the relationship

2Fe 3 + + 1 vacancy ~ 3Fe2 +
In 100 unit cells, 20 Fe 2 + ions are removed, (2/3)(20) = 13.33
Fe 3 + ions and (1/3)(20) = 6.67 vacancies are introduced.
In
one unit cell, there is on the average 0.0667 vacancies.
In FeD, the ions touch along the <100> directions
ao

= 2rFe

+ 2rO

= 2(0.74)

The number of vacancies per

vacancies/cm3
(b)

11.

+ 2(1.32)

= 4.12 A

is

per cell / (4.12 x 10- 8 )3

= 9.5375

In 100 unit cells, there are 380 + 13.3 = 393.3 iron

400 oxygen ions. The atomic percent oxygen is
at% 0

(c)

= 0.0667

cm3

= 400

/ (400 + 393.3) x 100

ions

1020
and

= 50.4

_
(50.4) (16 g/molJ
_
wt% 0 - (50.4)(16) + (49.6)(55.847) g/mol) x 100 - 22.55

5uppose 100 g of Mg 25i04 are combined with 150 g of Fe 25i04 to produce an

olivine solid solution.
ions in the solution.

Calculate the weight percent of Mg. Fe. 5i and 0

gMg

(2 Mg)(24.312)
(2 Mg) (24. 312) + (1 5i)(28.08) + (40)(16) x 100 g

g 5i

(1 5i )(28.08)
(2 Mg)(24.312) + (1 5i)(28.08) + (40)(16) x 100 g

19.96 g

(4 0) (16)
Mg)(24.312) + (1 5i)(28.08) + (40)(16) x 100 g

45.49 g

gO

= (2

= 34.55

In Fe 5iD :
2

g Fe

= (2

(2 Fe )(55.847)
Fe) (55.847) + (1 5i)(28.08) + (40)(16) x 150 g

= 82.22

g 5i

= (2

(1 5i )(28. 08)
Fe) (55. 847) + (1 5i)(28.08) + (4 0)(16) x 150 g

= 20.67

g o

(4 0)(16)
150
47 11
(2 Fe)(55.847) + (1 5i)(28.08) + (4 0)(16) x
g =
.
g

In the olivine solid solution:

r~ = 34.55

+ 82.22 +

~19~~6

+ 20.67) + (45.49 + 47.11)x 100

164

13.82

12.

%Fe

82.22
34.55 + 82.22 + (19.96 + 20.67) + (45.49 + 47.11)x 100 = 32.89

%Si

19.96 + 20.67
34.55 + 82.22 + (19.96 + 20.67) + (45.49 + 47. 11)x 100

16.25

".0

45.49 + 47.11
34.55 + 82.22 + (19.96 + 20.67) + (45.49 + 47.11)x 100

= 37.04

Suppose 25 mol% Na
is added to S10 .
Calculate the 0:S1 ratio and
good
glass-forming
determine whether 2 this material ~ill
prov1de
tendencies.
(1 0INa 2 0)(25%/100%) +(2 0/S102 )(75%/100%)

O/Si =

(1 S115i02 )(75%/I00%)

= 2.33

Because O/Si = 2.33 < 2.5, reasonably good glass-forming tendencies

are expected.
13.

isthisaddedmaterial
to S1O.
Calculate
~111
provide

Suppose 25 wt% Na
determine whethe
tendencies.

the 0: Si ratio and

good
glass-forming

MW (Na 2 0) = (2)(22.99) + 16 = 61.98 g/mol

MW (S102 )

= 28.08

+ (2)(16)

= 60.08

glmol

In a 100 g sample, there are 25 g Na2 0 and 75 g S10 2 :

_
(25/61. 98)
_
mol% Na2 0 - (25/61.98) + (75/60.08) x 100 - 24.4

O/Si

(1 0/Na 2 0)(24.4%/100%) + (20/Si02 )(75.6"J100%)

(1 S1/SiO )(75.6%/100%)
2

= 2.32

Because 0/S1 = 2.32 < 2.5, reasonably good glass-form1ng tendencies

are expected.
14.

mol% CaO, and 15 mol% Na

is
produced. Determine the O:Si ritio of this glass.
Does the ma~rial
have good glass-forming tendenc1es?

O/Si:

(2 0/S102 ) (0.70) + (1 O/CaO) (0. 15) + 1 OlNa 0)(0.15)

(1 S1/SiO )(0.70)
2

Because O/Si
glass.
15.

A glass composed of 70 mol% S1O, 15

= 2.43

< 2.5, the material is capable

of

= 2.43

producing

How many grams of PbO can be added to 1 kg of Si02 before the 0:S1

ratio

exceeds 2.5 and glass forming tendencies are poor?

the number of grams of MgO that can be tolerated.

with

165

Compare

this

For PbO:

We do not want to exceed an 0/5i ratio of 2.5. If we

fpbO be the mol fraction of PbO, then (1 - f pbO ) is

let

the mol fraction of 510 .

2

0/5i

(1 O/PbO)(fpbO ) + (2 0/5i0 2 )(1 - f pbO )

2.5 = -----rr--=--=-;=-""""<"7~___:=___....---(1 51/5102 )(1 - f pbO )

fpbO = 0.33

= 223.19

MW (PbO)
wt% PbO
64.7%

g/mol

MW (5i02 )

= 60.08

g/mol

(0.33)(223.19)
+ (0.67)(60.08) x 100

= (0.33)(223.19)

= 1000x

For MgO:

+ x

x 100

= 1833

= 64.7

g PbO

Let f MgO be the mol fraction of MgO and (1 - f MgO ) be the

mol fraction of 5iO .
2

(1 O/MgO(fMgOJ + (20/5102 )(1 - f MgO )

0/5i

= 2.5

f MgO

= 0.33

= 40.312

MW (MgO)

wt% MgO

(1 51/5i02 )(1

g/mol MW(5102 )

= 60.08

g/mol

(0.33) (40. 312)

(0.33)(40.312) + (0.67)(60.08)

24.84% = 1000x+ x x 100

16.

f MgO )

= 330.5

x 100
g MgO

Alumina (Al 2 0 3 ) has a tensile strength of about 210 MPa.

minimum radius of a flaw 18.75 mm deep in order
stress of 85 MPa from causing fracture.
K

= 2u-1a7r
= 2(85)

210
r
17.

24.84

= 12.29

to

prevent

K = 2u-1a7r

13.125/0.025

2~(11.18)

..

applied

mm

3.125 mm deep with a radius of 0.025 mm is present at the

is the max1mum allowable applied stress?

2~

an

the

118.75/r

Hot pressed 5i3N4 has a tensile strength of about 550 MPa.

550

Calculate

= 24.597

MPa

166

If

surface,

crack
what

18.

Partially stabilized ZrO has a tensile strength of about 450 MFa.

microcrack at the surfac~ is 0.01 rom deep with a radius of 1000 A~
this crack likely to propagate when an applied stress of 20 MFa
applied? Show by suitable calculations.
a
k

= 0.01 rom
= 20' Va7r

= 1000

x 10-7 rom

= 0.0001

A
Is
is

rom

.. 450 <> 2(20)v'0.01/0.0001

450 <> 2(20)(10)
450 > 400
The stress is just a little too small to propagate the crack.
19.

From Figure 14-21, estimate the activation energy for viscous flow
borosilicate glass.
108 poise, l/T
10 4 poise, l/T

@~
@~
~

= ~o

x 10- 4 or T = 1053 K
x 10- 4 or T = 1613 K

exp(E~/RT)

108

~oexp[E~/(8.314)(1053)]

104

= ~oexptE~/(8.314)(1613)J

104

= exp(0.0001142

exp(0.0000745

.. 10 4 =
10 =
4

E~)
E~)

exp[E~(O.0001142 exp[E~(0.0000396)]

.. In(10 4 )
E~

20.

= 9.5
= 6.2

in

0.0000745)]

= 9.2103 = E~(O. 0000396)

= 232584

J/mol

A glass is found to have an annealing temperature of 700C and enters the

working range at or above 1200C. Determine (a) the activation energy
for viscous flow and (b) the approximate melting temperature for the
glass.
1013

~oexp[E~/(8.314)(973)]

107

= ~oexp[E~/(8.314)(1473)1
~oexp(0.0001236 E~)

106

exp(0.0000816

= exp[E~(0.0001236

In(10 6 )
E~

E~)

- 0.0000816)]

= 13.8155 = 0.0000419
= 329,726 J/mol

E~

167

21.

Suppose you combine 5 mol of Si02 with 1 mol of Na 20. Determine (a)
weight percent Na 20 in the ceramic, (b) the liquidus temperature of

the
the

ceramic, and (c) the amount of solid Si02 if the ceramic is held at 900C
long enough for the equilibrium phases to precipitate.
terms of the structure why this ceramic should have a
energy for viscous flow than does pure Si02

(d)
Explain in
lower activation

MW (Na20) = 61.98 g/mol MW (Si02 ) = 60.08 g/mol

22.

(1 mol)(61.98)
100
17 1
- (1 mol)(61.98)
(5 mol) (60.08) x
=.

(a)

t% N
a2
w

(b)

From the Si02 -Na20 phase diagram, liquidus T

(c)

Si02

(d)

The presence of the Na

reduces the melting temperature of
the
the ceramic material~ which is expected to
reduce
activation energy for'viscous flow.

(21-17)/(21-0) x 100

= 1100

= 19%

Calculate (a) the amount of mullite that must be comblned

with

Si02

produce an equilibrium structure of 30% liquid-70% muilite at 1800C

(b) the weight percent Al 20 3 present in this ceramic.

to
and

The overall composition of the ceramic in terms of %Al 20 3 is:

= 72x -

mullite

30
30 x 100

= 70%

The amount of mullite that must be combined with silica to give this
composition is:

= (59.4-0)/(72-0)

muillte
23.

x 100

Suppose, when preparing forsterite

= 82.5%

(Mg2Si04),

that we add 10%

more

Si0 2

than is required. Determine (a) the weight percent MgO in the overall
ceramic, (b) the percent forsterite in the ceramic at 1600C, and (c)
the liquidus temperature for the ceramic.
(a)

To obtain 100% forsterite, we should add one mol

two mol of MgO.
o

wt% Si02

= (1

of

(1 mol) (60. 08)

mol)(60.08) + (2 mol) (40.312) x 100

too much S102 , the the amount of S102 added

Mg

to

The weight percent Si02 would then be:

= 42.7

Suppose we initially prepare 100 g of forsterite;

have combined 42.7 g of S102 with 57.3 MgO. If we
(0.1)(42.7)

Si02

= 46.97

would

we would
added 10%
be

In ceramic = 57.3 / (57.3 + 46.97) x 100

168

55%

42.7

(b)

At 1600C, the percent forsterite is

forsterite

(c)
24.

= (55-40)/(58-40)

x 100

= 83.3%

From the MgO-Si02 phase diagram, the liquidus is 1850C

How many mol of CaO must be added to 10 mol of ZrO to assure that
the zirconia is stabilized, or retains the same crystal structure until
melting begins?
In order to produce stabilized zirconia, we need to add a minimum of
16 wt% CaO to the Zr0 2 . This produces a ceramic that has the cubic
Zr0 2 structure at all temperatures.
29.5

Determine the liquidus temperature of a ceramic prepared from 70%

20% Si0 2 and 10% CaO.

Al 20 3 ,

29.5
25.

06/56.08)
(16/56.08) + (84/123.22) x 100

0.285
100
0.967 x

mol% CaO

x
10 _ x x 100

= 4.18

mol CaO

From the phase diagram, the liquidus is 1805C.

26.

Suppose iron ore contains 35% SiD, with the remainder being iron oxide
(FeO). How many grams of CaO per 2 kilogram of iron ore should be added to
a blast furnace operating at 1600C to produce a completely liquid
CaO-Si0 2 slag, assuming all of the iron oxide is reduced to produce
liquid steeL?
At 1600C, the composition of the slag should be Si0 2 -32% CaO to
just produce 100% liquid. In 1000 g of ore, there are 350 g of
510. Therefore
2

32% CaD
27.

= 350

x
+ x x 100

= 164.7

A fireclay containing 50% SiD , 40% Al 0 , and

allowed to cool under equilib~ium conai~ions.
temperature.

g CaO

10% CaO is melted and

Determine the liquidus

From the phase diagram, the liquidus is 1680C.

28.

A ceramic glaze is prepared containing 25% SiD , 45% Al 0 , and 30% CaO.
(a) Determine the liquidus temperature of the 2 glaze. ~b~ Based on the
liquidus temperature, is this a reasonable composition for a glaze?
(c)
Do you expect the glaze to contain the equilibrium amounts of solids at
room temperature? Explain.
(a)

From the phase diagram, the liquidus is 1500C.

169

29.

(b)

This is a reasonable composition for a glaze. This composition

has a relatively low melting temperature so that it would be
easy to apply.

(c)

No. The glaze will almost surely produce a large amount

glassy phase rather than cool to produce the equilibrium
crystalline phases that would be predicted by the
diagram.

of a
solid
phase

Suppose 50 kg of Al 2 0 3 , 4Si02 .H20 are combined with 100 kg of

2CaO.AI 2 0 3 .Si02 to produce a clay body.

The ceramic is dried

at 1600C.
(a) Determine the weight and composition of
after firing.
(b) Did any melting occur during firing?
In AI 2 0 3 .4SiD2 .H2 0: there is 1 mol
4 mol of Si0 2 (MW

= 60.08),

and 1 mol

of

Al2 03

(MW

of H20 (MW

and

the clay
Explain.

= 18)

(1 )(74. 981)
x 50 kg
(1 )(74. 981) + (4) (60. 08) + (1)(18)

= 11. 248

kg SiD

(4)(60.08)
(1 )(74. 981) + (4)(60.08) + (1 )(18) x 50 kg

36.052

(1)(18)
0)(74.981) + (4) (60. 08) + (1)(18) x 50 kg

2.700

kg H2 O

body

74.981),

kg Al 20 3

fired

In 2CaO.Al 20 3 .Si02 : there are 2 mol of CaO (MW = 56.08),

mol of Al 2 0 3 (MW = 74.981), and 1 mol of Si0 2 (MW= 60.08)
(2)(56.08)
(2)(56.08) + (1)(74.981) + (1)(60.08) x 100 kg = 45.37

kg CaO

(1) (74. 981)

(2)(56.08) + (1)(74.981) + (1)(60.08) x 100 kg

30.33

(1 )(60.08)
kg Si02 = (2)(56.08) + (1)(74.981) + (1)(60.08) x 100 kg

= 24.30

(a)

Total weight after firing

the water is driven off.

= 150

kg - 2.7 kg

= 147.3

kg, since

Al 2 3 = (11.248 + 30.33) / 147.3 x 100 = 28.2%

SiD = (36.052 + 24.30) / 147.3 x 100 = 41.0%
2

CaO
(b)

45.37 / 147.3 x 100

= 30.8%

This composition has a liquidus temperature

of
1420C;
consequently the ceramic is completely melted during firing if
equilibrium is reached.

170

30.

Suppose we combine 20 kg of mullite (3Al 2 0 3 .2Si02 ), 30

clay (Al 20 3 2Si0 2 2H20) , and 15 kg of silica.

kg

of

The ceramic is

kaolinite
dried

and

fired at 1500C. (a) Determine the weight and composition of the clay
body after firing.
(b) Did any melting occur during firing?
Explain.
(c) What solid phases are present at room temperature for equilibrium
cooling?
(a)

In mullite, there are 3 mol of Al 2 0 3 (MW

2 mol of Si0 2 (MW

74.981) and

= 60.08):

(3)(74.981)
(3)(74.981) + (2)(60.08) x 20 kg

13.04

(2)(60.08)
(3)(74.981) + (2)(60.08) x 20 kg

6.96

In kaolinite, there are 1 mol of Al 2 0 3 (MW

2 mol of Si0 2 (MW

= 60.08),

= 74.981).
= 18).

and 2 mol of water (MW

(1)(74.981)
(1)(74.981) + (2)(60.08) + (2)(18) x 30 kg

(2)(60.08)
(1)(74.981) + (2)(60.08) + (2)(18) x 30 kg
(2)(18)
(1)(74.981) + (2)(60.08)

9.732
15.596

(2)(18) x 30 kg

4.672

In silica, kg Si0 2 = 15
During firing, the water is driven off and the total weight of
ceramic body is (20 + 30 + 15) - 4.672
60.328 kg
A1 20 3
Si02

31.

= (13.04 + 9.732) /60.328 x 100

= (6.96 + 15.596 + 15) / 60.328 x

100

= 37.7%
= 62.3%

(b)

This ceramic body has an eutectic temperature of about

Because the firing temperature was only 1500C, no
should have occurred.

(c)

From the phase diagram, SiO and mullite should be

in the equilibrium room tem~erature microstructure.

1590C.
melting

present

Suppose we combined 30 kg of Na O.SiO with 10 kg of 3CaO.2SiO and 20 kg

of SiO.
(a) Determine the co~posit~on of the material afte~ melting.
(b) W~at is the minimum temperature to which we would have to heat this
material to produce all liquid, from which a glass could then be
produced?
(a)

In Na 20.Si0 2 , there is 1 mol of Na 20 (MW

1 mol

Si02 (MW

= 60.08):

171

= 61.98)

and

kg Na2 0
kg Si0 2

(1 )(61. 98)
(1)(61.98) + (1}(60.08) x 30 kg

15.23

(60. 08)
+ (1)(60.08) x 30 kg

14.77

(1)

= (1)(61.98)

In 3CaO.2Si02 , there are 3 mol of CaO (MW

2 mol of Si0 2 (MW

56.08) and

= 60.08)

kg CaO

(3) (56. 08)

7':(3""')....,('""5"'"6-,.0""8"'):-'-:-+-r;(2")C"7(7
60""."""'0""8")

kg 5 iD

= 7'(3""')'-:("'5"""6-.0"'8:-;)"':'-+-""'(2=-<)"';(--:-6-=-0.""'0'""8")

(2)(60.08)

10 kg

5.83

x 10 kg

4.17

the total weight is 60 kg.

Na 0

15.23 1 60 x 100

25.4%

Si0 2

(14.77 + 4.17 +20) 160 x 100

64.9%

CaO
(b)

32.

= 5.83

9.7%

1 60 x 100

the minimum temperature required to produce all liquid is the

liquidus temperature, which for this composition is 1020C.

We would like to produce 100 kg of a soda-lime glass containing 80% SiD

2
with a liquidus temperature of 1400C. How many kg of Na 0 and how many
kg of CaO must be added?
2
To produce a soda-lime glass containing 80% Si0 2 with a liquidus of
1400C, the overall composition of the ceramic must be:
Si0 2 - 9% CaO - 11% Na 20
Therefore the 100 kg of glass must include 9 kg CaO and 11 kg Na 20.

33.

After weighing out 250 g of Al 0 particles, with a density of 3.9 Mg/m3 ,

a ceramic body is produced by 2 f 1ring.
When suspended in water, the
ceramic part weighs 160 g. After removal from the water, the part weighs
295 g. Calculate (a) the apparent porosity, (b) the true porosity,
and (c) the fraction of the pore volume that is closed.
(a)

(b)

apparent porosity

bulk density B

W - W

= WW

wd x
s

295 - 250 x 100 = 33%

295 - 160
Wd
250
W - W
295
160 = 1.85
w
s

true porosity = p - B x 100

P

(c)

100

3.9 - 1.85 x 100

3.9

closed pores = 52.56 - 33 = 19.56% or

fraction closed pore volume = 19.56/52.56

172

0.372

52.56%

34.

A reaction bonded Si N part weighs 500 g and occupies a volume of 200

3

cm.

(a)

3 4

What is the bulk density of

density of Si N is
3 4

3.2 Mg/m3 .

the

ceramic?

(b)

The

part? (c) When the ceramic is weighed after soaking in water,

weighs 525 g. What fraction of the pores are closed?
(a)

(c)

= 500

part

-6

x 10
Mg/m3 = 2.5 Mg/m3
200 x 10- 6
3.2 - 2.5
p - B x 100
true porosity
3.2
P
Wd
500
W
B
525 - W = 2.5
W - W
s
w
s
s
W - Wd
525
w
apparent porosity = W
x 100
525
W
w
s
closed porosity
fraction closed

35.

the

The bulk density is simply the weight divided by the volume:

B

(b)

actual

What is the true porosity of the ceramic

x 100

21. 9%

325 g
- 500
x 100
- 325

12.5%

21.9 - 12.5 = 9.4%

9.4/21.9 = 0.429

How much water is required to completely

aluminate cement?

hydrate

40

kg

of

tricalcium

3CaO.Al 20 3 + 6H20 ~ Ca 3 AI 2 (OH)12

Let x equal the wight of the water; then
40
_
x
(3)(56.08) + 74.981 - 6(18)
36.

= 17.76

kg

Suppose 2 kg of calcined plaster of paris are mixed with 500 g of water.

(a) How much extra water was added beyond that required for cementation?
(b) What ratio of water to plaster of paris would be required to just
provide the cementation reaction?
The amount of water actually required for cementation is
CaSO . 1/2H 0 + 3/2H 0
4
2
2
2 kg
x
136.144
(3/2)(18)

CaSO .2H 0
4
2
x

= 0.397

We added 500 g of water but only 397 g

added 103 g too much.
37.

kg water
Therefore

we

Suppose 30 kg of feldspar, 20 kg of montmorillonite clay, and 10 kg

silica are combined.
According to Figure 14-33, for what type
application would this material be suited?

of
of

feldspar
clay
silica
From Figure
porcelain.

30 / (30 + 20 + 10) x 100

20 / (30 + 20 + 10) x 100
10 / (30 + 20 + 10) x 100
14-33,

this

composition

173

was

needed.

50%
33%
17%
is

typical

of

translucent

Chapter 15
POLYMERS

1.

The formula for formaldehyde is HCHO. (a) Draw the structure of the
formaldehyde molecule and mer.
(b) Does formaldehyde polymerise to
produce an acetal polymer by an addition reaction or a condensation
(c) Draw the acetal
reaction? Try to produce a polymer by each method.
structure produced from formaldehyde.
(a)

I
I
H

):=0

-C-O-

monomer
(b)

mer

Polymerisation occurs by an addition mechanism.

Mers of the type described above can be added together to
produce a chain. If a condensation reaction were to occur,
producing water as a byproduct, no hydrogen would remain to
provide side groups and the carbon atoms would not have all
four of their covalent bonds satisfied.

I I
I I

'c=0

... -C-C- ...

if
(c)

The acetal polymer is

H

I I I
... -C-O-C-O-C-O- ...
I I I
H H H

174

2.

Show that the angle between the covalent bonds in the carbon
is 109 0

tetrahedron

A portion of the (110) plane is sketched

which includes the tetrahedral atom:
cos (a/2)
a/2
0:

(1/2) / (v'J/2)
54.7356
= 109.47 0

= 0.57735
C

~
~.f2/2-7

3.

The distance between the centers of two adjacent carbon atoms in linear
of
the
polymers is approximately 1.5 A.
Determine the
length
polyethylene chain containing 10,000 mers.
The sketch shows a portion of the
linear polymer chain. Distance .. z .. ~
which connects points "x" and "y"
I.S
is the length of one mer.
'6"sin(109/2) = (x/2) / 1. 5
0.81649 = z/3
z = 2.4495 A
l = (10,000 mers) (2. 4495)

4.

..

24,495

II

Suppose the distance between the centers of two adjacent carbon atoms in
polyvinyl chloride is 1.5 A. Determine the molecular weight of a polymer
chain that is 2500 A in length.
From problem 3, the length of one mer is 2.4495
number of mers
MWVC
MWpvC

5.

= 2500 A /

2.4495

A = 1020.6

(2 C)(12) + (3 H)(l) + (1 CI)(35.453)

= (62.453)(1020.6) = 63.74

A
62.453 g/mol

g/mol

The molecular weight of a polypropylene polymer is

Determine the degree of polymerisation of the polymer.
MW
= (3 C)(12) + (6 H)(l) = 42 g/mol
polypropylene
degree of polymerisation

175

= 200,000

/ 42

= 4762

200,000

g/mol.

6.

= (7500

MW 1
po ymer
chains/g

mers) (28 g/mol per mer)

= 210,000

the

g/mol

(1 g polyethylene) (6. 02 x 1023 chains/mol)

(210,000 g/mol per chain)

= 2.867
7.

Calculate

The degree of polymerisation in polyethylene is 7500.

number of polyethylene chains in one g of the polymer.

1018

Calculate ~a) the weight and (b) the volume of polystyrene when we
produce 10 chains of polystyrene having a degree of polymerisation of
10,000.
(8 C)(12) + (8 H)(l) = 104 g/mol

MW

styrene
MW
polymer
(a)

(10,000 mers) (104 g/mol per mer)

1,040,000 g/mol

the weight of 1020 chains is

w = (1,040,000 g/mol per chain) (10 20 chains)
6.02 X 1023 chains/mol
172.8 g

(b)

The density of polystyrene is 1.06 Mg/m3 .

is:
v

8.

= w/p = 172.8

g / 1.06 g/cm3

= 163

cm3

Suppose a polypropylene rope weighs 0.38 kg per m.

If the degree
polymerisation of the polymer is 5000, calculate the
number
polypropylene chains in a 10 ft length of rope.
length of rope

= 10

ft

= (10

= 3.05

ft)(0.305 m/ft)

MW
propylene = 42 g/mol
MW
polypropylene = (42 g/mol) (5000 mers)
weight
chains
9.

Therefore the volume

rope

= (0.38

= (1159

kg/m)(3.05 m)

= 210,000

= 1.159

g)(6.02 x 1023 ) chains/mol)

(210,000 g/mol)

g/mol

= 1159

kg

of
of

= 3.22

g
x 1023

Calculate (a) the grams of H 0 initiator that must be added to 1000 g of

methyl methacrylate to produ~e2a degree of polymerisation of 5000 and (b)
the total number of chains produced.
(See Table 15-6)
MWMMA
MW

= (5

'd
peroxl e

C)(12) + (8 H)(l) + (2 0)(16)

(2 H)(l) + (2 0)(16)

176

= 34

= 100

g/mol

g/mol

(a)

mol of MMA = (1000 g MMA) / (100 g/mol) = 10 mol

We need one H 0 to initiate and terminate each chain of polymethyl

methacrylate;2 t g obtain a degree of polymerisation of 5000, we need
10 / 5000 = 0.002 mol of hydrogen peroxide.
g H20 2 = (0.002 mol)(34 g/mol) = 0.068 g
(b)

10.

The total number of chains is

(1000 g)(6.02 x 1023 chains per mol)
number =
(5000 mers) (100 g/mol per mer)

12.04 X 1020

If 10 g of hydrogen peroxide (H 0 ) is added to 2000 g of acrylonitrile,

calculate (a) the degree of polm~rlsation of the polyacrylonitrile and
(b) the total number of chains that are formed.
MW

= (3 C)(12) + (3 H)(l) + (1 N)(14)

acrylonitrile
MW
id = (2 H)(l) + (2 0)(16) = 34 g/mol
perox e
(a)

mol of acrylonitrile

2000 g / (53 g/mol)

53 g/mol

37.7358 mol

mol of peroxide = 10 g / (34 g/mol) = 0.2941 mol

degree of polymerisation = 37.7358 / 0.2941 mol
(b)

11.

Number of chains produced from 2000 g of acrylonitrile is:

(2000 g)(6.02 x 1023 ) chains/mol) = 1.775 x 1023
number
(128 mers) (53 g/mol)

Suppose 1 kg of vinyl chloride is to be polymerised. (a) How many mol

of vinyl chloride are required? (b) How much energy is released during
polymerisation? (c) If the specific heat of polyvinyl chloride is 1 kJ
(kg k)-l, calculate the temperature change during polymerisation.
MWVC = (2 C)(12) + (3 H)(l) + (1 CI)(35.453) = 62.453 g/mol
(a)

mol VC = 1000 g / 62.453 g/mol = 16.01

(b)

For each step, 721 kJ/mol are required to break the C=C
double bond and 738 kJ/mol are released when the two C-C bonds
are formed. The net energy ~E is 17 kJ/mol evolved.
The
total energy is therefore (17 kJ/mol)(16.01 mol) = 272.17 kJ

(c)

~T

~E

= cMWVC

(17 kJ/mol)
= 272 K
(1 kJ/kg K) (62. 453 g/mol)

177

12.

Suppose 1 kg of phenylene oxide is polymerised.

The monomer for
polyphenylene oxide is shown below. (a) Describe the polymerisation of
phenylene oxide, including the by-product formed.
(b)
How
many
individual condensation steps are required? (c) How many grams of the
by-product are produced?

..... ,H

H)b~H...;2~..

H-O

.r'li
(b)

QH
C H
HfOO-H

;O-H

H....C

He

The molecular weight of phenylene oxide is

MWpo = (8 C)(12) + (2'0)(16) + (10 H)(1) = 138 g/mol
The number of mers in 1 kg of phenylene oxide is
mers

= (1000

g)(6.0.2 x 1023 mers/mol) = 4.362 x 1024

138 g/mol

Therefore 4.362 x 1024 individual condensation steps

required to completely polymerize the phenylene oxide.
(c)

The molecular weight of water is 18 g/mol. One mol of

is evolved for each mol of phenylene oxide.

= mol

phenylene oxide

= (7.246

mol)(18 g/mol)

mol H20
g H2 0
13.

1000 g / 138 g/mol

= 130.42

are

water

7.246

The polymerisation of nylon 6,6 is shown in Example 15-5. Calculate (a)

the energy involved when 500 g of monomer are polymerised and (b) the
change in temperature when polymerisation occurs. The specific heat of
nylon is 1. 676 kJ(kg K)-1.
(a)

When the C-O and N-H bonds are broken (360 + 461) = 821 kJ/mol
are required; however, during polymerisation N-C and O-H bonds
are formed, releasing (306 + 499) = 805 kJ/mol. A net loss of
16 kJ/mol is involved in polymerisation.

178

116 g/mol

= (6 C)(12) + (2 N)(14) + (16 H)(l)

hexa
= (6 C)(12) + (4 0)(16) + (10 H)(l)
MW
adipic
(116 + 146)/2 = 131 g/mol
MW
average =

MW

146 g/mol

In 500 g of nylon, the total decrease in energy aE is

aE (16 kJ/mol) (500 g)/(131) g/mol)

(b)

= 61

kJ

The decrease in temperature that would occur is

61 kJ
AT = (0.5 kg)(1.676 kJ/kg Kl = 72.8 K

14.

Suppose a cellulose polymer as described in Table 15-7 is produced.

(a)
Sketch the structure of the cellulose monomer, assuming that water is
produced as the by-product. (b) If 2 kg of the cellulose monomer are
polymerised, calculate the weight of the polymer and the weight of the
evolved water.
(a)

the monomer is

(b)

MWcellulose = (6 C)(12) + (60)(16) + (12 H)(l) = 180 g/mol

One mol of water is evolved for every monomer of cellulose.
The number of mol of cellulose is
cellulose
g H20

= (11.11
= 2000

g polymer
15.

= water = 2000

g 1 180 g/mol

mol)(18 g/moll

- 200

= 1800

= 200

11.11 mol

g of cellulose

A copolymer is produced by combining

kg of ethylene and 2 kg
propylene with 5 g of hydrogen peroxide. Calculate (al the degree
polymerisation and (bl the molecular weight of the polymer.
(al

MW

ehtylene

mol PE
mol PP

28 g/mol

MW

1000 g 1 28 g/mol
2000 g 1 42 g/mol

total mol H20 2

=5

propylene =
35.71
47.62

g 1 34 g/mol

degree of polymerisation
179

42 g/mol

= O. 147

= 83.33

1 0.147

567

of
of

The mol fraction of ethylene is 35.71/83.33 = 0.4285

The mol fraction of propylene is 47.62/83.33 = 0.5715

(b)

[(0.4285)(28 g/mol)

HWpolymer
16.

(0.5715)(42 g/mol)] (567 mers)

20,413 g/mol

Chlorotrifluoroethylene and ethylene are combined to give 5 kg of a

copolymer with a degree of polymerisation of 2500 and a molecular weight
of 128,600 g/mol. Determine (a) the amount in grams of each monomer used
and (b) the amount in grams of hydrogen peroxide initiator required.
116.453 g/mol

(a) HWCTFE = (2 C )(12) + (3 F)(19) + (1 Cl)(35.453)

MEPE

= (2

C)(12)

(4 H)(1)

= 28

g/mol

Let fCTFE be the mol fraction of chlorotrifluoroethylene and

(1 -f CTFE be the mol fraction of ethylene.
HWpolymer

Then

[f CTFE (116.453) + (1 - f CTFE ) (28)] (2500 mers)

fCTFE

128,600

= 0.265

Let x be weight of chlorotrifluoroethylene and (5 - x) be the weight

of polyethylene.

molY. CTFE

x
(b)

(x/116.453)
+ (5 _ x)/(28)] x 100

= [(x/116.453)

=3

kg chlorotrifluoroethylene
2 kg ethylene

mol CTFE = 3000 g 1 116.453 g/mol = 25.671

mol PE = 2000 g 1 28 g/mol = 71.429 mol
mol
g HzOz

17.

26.5

H
z z

= mol

CTFE + PE
deg of polymer

= (0.03888

= 25.761

mol)(34 g/mol)

2500

= 1.32

71.429

0.03888 mol

Would you expect that addition polymerisation would

slower than condensation polymerisation. Explain.

occur

You might expect addition polymerisation to require a

since monomers must migrate to the ends of the chains
polymerisation process continuing.

180

faster

or

longer time,
to keep the

18.

From the data in the table, determine the weight average molecular weight
and the number average molecular weight of the polymer.

Molecular Weight
Range (g/mol)
0-5,000
5,000-10,000
10,000-15,000
15,000-20,000
20,000-25,000
25,000-30,000
30,000-35,000
35,000-40,000

fi

xi

fiM avg

xi' Mavg

0.02
0.08
0.16
0.26
0.27
0.14
0.05
0.02

0.04
0.09
0.18
0.29
0.24
0.12
0.03
0.01

50
600
2000
4550
6075
3850
1625
750

100
675
2250
5075
5400
3300
975
375

= 19,500

18,150

1:

weight average
number average
19.

19,500 glmol
18,150 glmol

Figure 15-39 shows the distribution of molecular weight of polymer

chains, both by weight fraction and number fraction. Estimate the weight
average molecular weight and the number average molecular weight of the
polymer.

Molecular Weight
Range (g/mol)
0-5,000
5,000-10,000
10,000-15,000
15,000-20,000
20,000-25,000
25,000-30,000

fi

xi

fiM avg

xi' Mavg

0.02
0.13
0.20
0.28
0.22
O. 15

0.05
0.18
0.23
0.35
0.15
0.04

50
975
2500
4900
4950
4125

125
1350
2875
6125
3375
1100

= 17,500

14,950

1:

weight average
number average
20.

17,500 glmol
14,950 glmol

Explain why you would prefer that the number average molecular weight of
a polymer be as close as possible to the weight average molecular weight.
We do not want a large number of small chains in the
small chains will reduce the mechanical properties.

181

polymer;

the

21.

Using Table 15-5, construct a graph to determine the relationship between

the glass transition temperatures and the melting temperatures of the
addition thermoplastic polymers.
Converting to Kelvin:
T
m

LD polyethylene

388
153
410
153
360,...,
448-485
PVC
Polypropylene
441-449
257'::::' 400
Polystyrene
358-398
513
PAN
593
380 "Acetal
454
188 ~
323 E-I
6,6 Nylon
538
Polycarbonate
503
416 ~ 200
Polyester
528
348
183 E-I
Polybutadiene
393
Polychloroprene
353
223 ~
Polyisoprene
303
220 ~

lID polyethylene

C!)

0.5 T
m
200
400
600
Melting TemperaturelK

Most of the Polymers fall between the lines

relationships Tg = 0.5 Tm and Tg = 0.75 Tm.
22.

constructed

with

the

The viscosity of polymers is typically 1011 poise at the glass transition

temperature and 104 poise 35C above the glass transition temperature.
(a) Estimate the activation energy for viscous flow in polyacrylonitrile.
(b) Estimate the viscosity at the melting temperature of PAN.
For polyacrylonitrile, T = 107C = 380 K and T = 320C = 593 K.
11
g
4
m

The viscosity is 10 polse at T and 10 poise at 35 above T , or

415 K.
g
g
(a)

1011

~oexp(E~/RT)

--=

10'

exp[E~/(8.31)(380)1

exp[E~/(8.31)(415)1

_ exp(0.0003167E~)
- exp(0.0002900E~)

= exp[(0.0003167 - 0.0002900)(E~)1 = exp (0.0000267)E~)

In(107 ) = 16.118 = 0.0000267 E~ = 604000 J/mol

107

(b)

At the melting temperature,

1011 _exp[604,OOO/(8.31)(380)]

-~--- - exp[604,OOO/(8.31) (593)]

= 1. 61

10-

19

poise
182

exp(191.2)

= exp(122.6)

1.09
1. 76

1083
1053

23.

Silly putty is a polymer material used as a child's toy.

This material
will bounce like a rubber ball but will flow like a liquid when left
undisturbed. Explain this behaviour.
This is a consequence of the viscoelastic behaviour of the polymer.
when the ball is bounced, there is not sufficient time for plastic
flow to occur; the material behaves in an elastic manner.
However,
at rest, creep can occur even at room temperature and what was once
a ball becomes a puddle.

24.

You can change the grain size of crystalline polymers. What would be the
effect of annealing a crystalline polymer at a temperature below the
melting temperature? What would be the effect of allowing a liquid
polymer to crystallize at different temperatures below the melting
temperature?
When we anneal a crystalline polymer below the melting
grain growth may occur, just as in a metal or ceramic.

temperature,

If we were to quench a liquid polymer to various temperatures below

the melting temperature, then hold and allow the polymer to
crystallise, we would find that the grain size would be smaller as
the quenching temperature decreased.
25.

From Figure 3-34, calculate the theoretical density of crystalline

polyethylene and compare with the actual density.
What does this tell
you about the percent crystallinity of the polymer?
p

(4 C)(12) + (8 H)(l)
(7.41)(4.94)(2.55)(10- 24 )(6.02 x 1023 )

= 0.9966

Mg/m3

This is a larger value for the denSity than is actually observed and
reported in Table 15-6. Since we expect a higher density for a
crystalline structure, this suggests that normal polyethylene is not
completely crystalline.
26.

Describe the
crystallize.

relative

tendencies

of

the

following

polymers

to

(a)

Branched polyethylene versus linear polyethylene:

linear polyethylene will crystallize more easily; the branches
prevent the chains from coming closely enough together to
produce a substantial degree of crystallinity.

(b)

Polyethylene versus polyethylene-polypropylene copolymer:

polyethylene will crystallize more easily; the polypropylene is
not as symmetrical as the ethylene monomers and will make it
more difficult to achieve close packing and crystallinity.

(c)

Isotactic polypropylene versus atactic polypropylene:

isotactic polypropylene will crystallize more easily than
less symmetrical atactic polypropylene.

183

the

27.

Suppose a thermoplastic polymer can be produced in sheet form

rolling or by continuous casting. In which case would you
obtain the higher strength? Explain.

either
expect

by
to

We expect higher strength in the rolled polymer; rolling will help

provide crystallization and alignment of the chains, producing
higher strengths than in the cast structure.
28.

A strip of polyethylene 250 mm long and having a degree of polymerisation

of 1000 is pulled in tension until all of the polyethylene chains are
straightened, without distorting the covalent bonds and without allowing
any sliding of the chains. If the length of the strip is now 1875 mm,
estimate the original average distance between the ends of the chains.
From Problem 3, we found that the distance between one polyethylene
monomer and a second adjacent polyethylene monomer is 2.4495 X.
The total length of a polyethylene chain 1000 monomers long should
therefore be 2449.5 X .
However, the ends of the chain were
mm) (2449.5 X) = 327 X.

originally

separated

by

(250

mml1875

29.

How much sulphur is required to provide 75%

polybutadiene?
(4 C)(12) + (6 H)(l)

MWbutadiene
MW
sulphur

cross-linking

kg

of

54 g/mol

32 g/mol

For complete cross-linking, we would need one mol

mol of butadiene.
wt% S

of

= 32

/ (32 + 54) x 100

of

sulphur

per

= 37.2093

For 75% cross-linking, the percent sulphur would be

(0.75)(37.2093)

= 27.91%

The weight of sulphur needed is

27.91
30.

x /

(x + 5) x 100

= 1.936

kg

How many grams of polychloroprene will be completely vulcanised by

of sulphur?
MW

chloroprene
MWsulphur

(4 C)(12) + (5 H)(l) + (1 CI)(35.453)

88.453 g/mol

32 g/mol

For complete cross-linking, we would need one mol

mol of chloroprene.
wt% S

10

= 32

/ (32 + 88.453) x 100

26.566 = 10 / (10 + x) x 100

184

of

sulphur

per

= 26.566

x = 27.64 grams polychloroprene

31.

What fraction of the possible cross-linking sites are used

sulphur are added to 5 kg of polyisoprene?

if

50

of

(5 C)(12) + (8 H)(l) = 68 g/mol

MW
isoprene
MWsulphur

32 g/mol

The number of mol of each involved in the reaction is

mol isoprene
mol sulphur

5000 g I 68 g/mol
50 g I 32 g/mol

73.629 mol
1. 5625 mol

We would need equal numbers of mol of isoprene and sulphur

complete
cross-linking.
Therefore
the
fraction
of
cross-linked is equal to the mol ratio, or
fraction = 1.5625 I 73.529
32.

= 0.02125

for
sites

or 2.125%

A butadiene-styrene elastomer is produced. We find that 30 g of sulphur

will completely cross-link 400 g of the elastomer. What fraction of the
mers in the elastomer are styrene?
MWbutadiene
MWstyrene

(4 C)(12) + (6 H)(l)

54 g/mol

(8 C)(12) + (8 H)(1)

10.4 g/mol

32 g/mol

MWsulPhur
mol sulphur

= 30

g I 32 g/mol

= 0.9375

If completely cross-linked, then there are also

butadiene. Therefore the weight of butadiene is
g butadiene
g styrene

= (0.9375

= 400

mol)54 g/mol)

- 50.625

= 349.375

mol styrene = 349.375 g I 104 g/mol

0.9375

mol

of

50.625 g
g
3.359 mol

fraction styrene = 3.359 I (3.359 + 0.9375) = 0.78

33.

We would like to produce 10 kg of butadiene-acrylonitrile elastomer.

Calculate and plot the amount of sulphur required to provide" 50%
cross-llnking versus the welght percent acrylonitrile present in the
rubber.
MWbutadiene
MWacrylonitrlle
MWsulphur

(4 C)(12) + (6 H)(1) = 54 g/mol

(3 C)(12) + (1 N)(14) + (3 H)(l)

53 g/mol

32 g/mol

For complete cross-linking, the number of mol of sulphur and

butadiene should be equal. For 50% cross-linking, the number of mol
of sulphur would be half the number of butadiene.

185

g S = (g butadiene / 54 g/mol) (50YJ100%) (32 g/mol)

OY.
2SY.
50%
7SY.
100Y.

34.

PAN:
PAN:
PAN:
PAN:
PAN:

g
g
g
g
g

sulphur
sulphur
sulphur
sulphur
sulphur

(10,000/54)(0.5)(32)
2963 g
(7,500/54)(0.5)(32)
2222 g
(5,000/54)(0.5)(32)
1481 g
(2,500/54)(0.5)(32)
741 g
o no cross-linking possible

You want to produce a complex component from an elastomer.

vulcanize the rubber before or after the forming operation?

Should you
Explain.

You want to form the elastomer first, while it still has a high
viscosity. After forming, you may then vulcanize to provide the
cross-linking; after cross-linking, the elastomer can no longer be
easily deformed.
35.

Figure 15-31 shows the stress-strain curve for an elastomer.

From
curve, calculate and plot the modulus of elasticity versus strain
explain the results.

the
and

To determine the modulus of elasticity, we can draw a tangent to the

stress-strain curve at various strains:
@O
@2
@4
@6

strain,
strain,
straln,
strain,

E
E
E
E'

slope
slope
slope
slope

/1(1'//1
/1(1'//1
/1(1'//1
/1(1'//1

186

0.130
0.692
1.453
1. 816

MPa
MPa
MPa
MPa

70
60

'" Y

Stretching of honds
50

Uncoiling of chains_
20

10

-~

""-

Strain

"""

The modulus increases with increasing strain as the uncoiling effect

is nearly completed and stretching of the covalent bonds beCOBeS
more pronounced.
36.

A stress of 15 MPa is applied an elastomer. After 3 weeks. the stress is

observed to be 14 MPa. What period of time is required before the stress
falls to 12 MPa?
(T

= (Toexp(-t/i\)

14 = 15exp(-3/i\)

In(14/15)

or

-0.06899

-3/i\

i\ = 43.483 wks
or

12 = 15exp(-t/43.483)
t
37.

= 9.7

In(12/15)

-0.2231

-t/43.483

wks

elastomer is stretched using a stress of 5 MPa. At 27C. the stress

is reduced to 4.66 MPa after 1 year. At 75C. the stress falls to 4.66
MPa after 1 week. Determine the activation energy for viscous flow in
the elastomer.
An

(T

= (Toexp(-t/i\)

@27C = 300 Ie:

4.66
i\

5exp(-365/i\)
5183.2 days

or In(4.66/5)

-0.07042

-365/i\

4.66
i\

5exp(-7/i\)
99.4.days

or In(4.66/5)

-0.07042

-1/i\

187

From h

= hoexp(E~IRT)

5183.2
99.4
or

38.

~oexp[(E~/(8.31)(300)1
~ expt(E~/(8.31)(348)1

= exp[(0.0004011 In(52.144) = 3.9540 = 5.53

52.144

= exp(0.0000553E~)
E~ = 71,500 J/mol

0.00034579)E~1

x 10-5E~

or

The degree of polymerisation normally is not used to characterise network

polymers such as phenolics. Explain.
Individual chains are no longer present after the polymer is
completely cross-linked and polymerised; instead the entire polymer
should be considered continuous.

39.

Suppose we wish to produce a linear amine chain by combining 5 kg of urea

with formaldehyde. Calculate (a) the amount of formaldehyde required to
produce the chains, (b) the amount of water evolved, and (c) the final
weight of the polymer. (d) How much additional formaldehyde is needed
to completely cross-link the linear chains into a network?
(1 C)(12) + )2 N)(14) + (1 0)(16) + (4 H)(1) = 60 g/mol
MW
urea
MWformaldehyde = (1 C)(12) + (1 0)(16) + (2 H)(l) = 30 g/mol
mol urea
(a)

= 5000

g/mol

g/60

To produce chains only, we need equal numbers of

and formaldehyde:
mol formaldehyde

(b)

= 83.333 = (x grams) I
= 2500 g formaldehyde

One mol of water will be evolved for each

formaldehyde used in producing the chains:
mol water

= 83.333
= 1500

= (x grams) I
g water

mol

or

urea

(30 g/mol)
mol

of

urea

of

(18 g/mol)

(c)

Total weight = g urea + g formaldehyde - g water

= 5000 + 2500 - 1500 = 6000 g

(d)

The functionality of the urea is four. Two sites are used to

produce the chains. During cross-linking, each urea can form
two links with urea in other chains.
Therefore we need two
additional formaldehyde molecules per original urea, or two
mol of formaldehyde per mol of urea.

extra formaldehyde
40.

83.333

(83.333 urea) (2 formaldehyde/urea) (30)

Explain why a thermosetting network polyester cannot be

only adipic acid and ethylene glycol. (Example 15-16.)

produced

5000 g
using

Both monomers are bifunctional. There is no unsaturated bond in

either. Therefore there is no way to provide cross-linking of the
chains.
188

41.

A thermosetting polyester is produced by combining 100 g adipic acid, 150

g maleic acid, and 50 g ethylene glycol. Calculate the amount of styrene
required to completely cross-link the chains.
We need one mol of styrene for each mol of maleic
the cross-linking.

acid

= 1.293

provide

116 g/mol

HWmaleic acid = (4 C)(12) + (40)(16) + (4 H)(l)

HWs t yrene = (8 C)(12) + (8 H)(l) = 104 g/mol
mol maleic acid = 150 g 1 116 g/mol

to

mol

g styrene = (1.293 mol)(104 g/mol) = 134.48 g

42.

A polyester is produced by combining 500 g of maleic acid and 250 g of

ethylene glycol under conditions that give a degree of polymerisation of

700. Then 30 g of styrene are added.
Calculate the fraction of the
possible cross-linking that are used.
HWmaleic acid = 116 glmol
HW styrene= 104 g/mol
mol maleic acid = 500 g 1 116 g/mol = 4.31 mol
We need equal mol of
styrene
for
complete
However,the actual number of mol of styrene added is

cross-linking.

mol styrene = 30 g 1 104 g/mol = 0.288 mol

Therefore the fraction of the cross-linking sites that are used is
fraction = 0.288 1 4.31 = 0.067
43.

100 g of phenol are polymerised to produce a phenolic thermosetting

polymer. What is the total amount of formaldehyde required to produce
the chains and to satisfy one-third of the possible cross-linking sites?
HWphenol = (6 C)(12) + (1 0)(16) + (6 H)(l) = 94 g/mol
HWformaldehyde

(1 C)(12) + (1 0)(16) + (2 H)(l) = 30 glmol

mol phenol = 100 g 1 94 = 1.0638 mol

To produce the chains we would need 1.0638 mol of formaldehyde. _ For
complete cross-linking, we would need an additional 1.0638 mol; however
we are only going to cross-link at 1/3 of the possible sites.
Therefore
the total amount of formaldehyde required is
mol of formaldehyde = 1.0638 + (1/3)(1.0638) = 1.4184 mol
g of formaldehyde = (1.4184 mol) (30 g/mol) = 42,.552 g
44.

Many paints are polymeric materials. Explain why plasticisers are added
to paints. What must happen to plasticisers after the paint is applied?
The plasticisers lower the viscosity and make the paint flow more
easily, providing better coverage. The plasticiser must evaporate
however, for the polymer material to harden.
189

45.

An
The density of the Styrofoam used to make a cup is 0.0486 Mg/m3 .
average-sized cup weighs about 2.5 g. What volume of solid polystyrene
is required to produce 1000 cups?
density = 0.0486 Mg/m3 = 0.0486 g/cm3
original volume = 2.5 g / 0.0486 g/cm3

46.

= 51.44

cm3

Compare the tensile strength-to-weight

ratios
of
the
following
materials,using data from tables in Chapters 13, 14 and 15. How do the
polymers compare with other materials?
strength-to-weight ratio
polypropylene
polyacrylonitrile
polyetherimide
2024-T4 aluminum
aged Cu-2% Be
AMl00-T6 magnesium
Al 0

Mg/m~)
Mg/m )
Mg/m 3 )
Mg/m 3 )
Mg/m~)
Mg/m )
Mg/m 3 )

4.56 x 10' m
5.39 x 10' m
8.27 x 10' m
17.4 x 10' m
14.6 x 10' m
15.9 x 10' m
5.28 x 10' m

115 MPa/(3.10 Mg/m~)

560 MPa/(3.20 Mg/m )

5.65 x 10' m
17.65 x 10' m

41
62
105
469
1310
276
210

2 3

SiC
hot pressed Si 3 N,

MPa/(0.90
MPa/(1.15
MPa/(1.27
MPa/(2.70
MPa/(8.96
MPa/(1.74
MPa/(3.98

Polymers tend to have lower strength-to-weight ratios than

and metals.
47.

ceramics

Compare the modulus of elasticity-to-density ratio for the following

materials, using Table 6-3, Table 14-5, and data in this chapter.
Are
the properties of the lightweight polymers comparable with those of other
materials?
modulus-to weight ratio
Mg/m 33 )
Mg/m 3 )
Mg/m )
Mg/m 3 )

LD polyethylene
polyacrylonitrile
polyphenylene sulphide
Al 0

(0.28
(4
(3.3
(392

GPa)/(0.92
GPa)/(1.15
GPa)/(1.30
GPa)/(3.98

hot pressed Si 3 N,
aluminium alloys
titanium alloys
steels

(315
(70
(106
(210

GPa)/(3.20 Mg/m3 )
3
GPa)/(2.70 Mg/m ~
GPa)/(4.507 Mg/~ )=
GPa)/(7.87 Mg/m ) =

2 3

Polymers have a much lower

and metals.

190

modulus-to-weight

ratio

Mg/m3

0.304 X 106 m
3.47 x 106 m
2.54 x 106 m
98.5 x 106 m
98.4
25.9
23.5
26.7

x 106 m
x 106 m
x 106 m
X 106 m

than

ceramics

Chapter 16
COMPOSITE MATERIALS

1.

A dispersion strengthened SAP aluminum alloy is produced from metal

powder particles having a diameter of 0.01 mm. The Al 0
film on the
surface of each particle is spheroidised during the ~o~der metallurgy
manufacturing process. If the SAP contains 15% vol Al 0 , calculate the
original thickness of the oxide film on the aluminum p8waer particles.
VAl

= (4n/3)(0.005) 3 = 5.236

vol% Al 2 03

= Voxide

x 10

-7

mm

/ (Voxide + VAl) x 100

15

Voxide / (Voxide + 5.236 x 10-7 ) = 0.15

Voxide
Voxide

0.924

10-7 mm3

(4n/3)r 3 - 5.236 x 10-7 = 0.924

r3 =1.47 x 10-7 mm 3

10-7

r = 0.00528 mm

thickness = 0.00528 - 0.005 = 0.00028 mm

2.

The density of Al 0 is about 3.85 Mg/m3 .

An SAP aluminum alloy is
produced by powde~ ffietallurgy processing using powder particles having a
diameter of 0.01 mm with an oxide coating of 0.0001 mm. A dispersion of
spherical oxide particles 0.005 mm in diameter is produced.
Calculate
(a) the vol% Al 0 present in the SAP, (b) the density of the SAP alloy,
and (c) the num~e~ of oxide particles per 1000 g of alloy.
VAl = (4n/3)(0.005)
Vtotal

5.236 x 10

(4n/3) (0. 0051)3 = 5.556

Vox ide = (5.556 - 5.236) x 10

(a)

vol% Al 0

(b)

(c)

2 3

-7

-7
X

mm

10-7 mm3

= 0.32 x 10

-7

mm

= 0.32 / 5.556 x 100 = 5.76

(0.0576)(3.85) + (0.9424)(2.7) = 2.7662 Mg/m3

V
= (4n/3) (0.0025)3 = 6.545 x 10-8 mm3
particle
In 1000 g of SAP, there are 1000 g / 2.7662 Mg/m3 = 361.51 cm3.
Of this volume, (361.51 cm3 )(0.0576) = 20.82 cm3 = 20,820 mm3
of Al 0 .
2 3
particles = 20.820 mm3 / 6.545 x 10- 8 mm3 = 3.18 X 1011

191

3.

A tungsten alloy containing 2 wt% thorium is converted into a powder,

compacted into a desirable shape, and oxidized during sintering.
ThO
particles with a diameter of 1000 Aare produced. If all of the thori~
is oxidized, calculate (a) the vol% ThO produced in the alloy and (b)
the number of oxide particles per cUbic 2 centimeter.
(The density of Th02
is 9.86 Mg/m 3 .)
In 100 g of material, there are 98 g / 19.524 Mg/m3 = 5.0899 cm3 of
tungsten. Based on the reaction Th + 02 ~ Th02,

=x

2 g Th / 232 g/mol
x

= 2.2759

volume oxide
(a)

(b)

vol% Th02
V
ti 1
par c e

g oxide / 264 g/mol oxide

g oxide

= 2.2759

0.2308 cm3

g / 9.86 Mg/m3

= 0.2308 / (5.0899 + 0.2308) x 100 = 4.34

= (41(/3) (500 x 10-8 cm)3 = 5.236 X 10-16 cm3

In one cubic centimeter, there is 0.0434 cm 3 of oxide.

number of oxide particles is
number = 0.434 / 5.236
4.

10-16 = 8.3

The

1013 per cm3

A nickel-yttrium alloy is internally oxidized to produced Y

particles
each 1500 A in diameter. Careful measurements indicate the~e3are
2 x 10 12 oxide particles per cubic centimeter of the composite. If the
density of Y
is 5.01 Mg/m3, calculate (a) the vol% Y
in the alloy
and (b) the ~t7. Y originally in the alloy.
2 3

= (41(/3) (750

V
particle
Voxide/cm

= (2

x 10

12

x 10-8 cm)3

= 1. 7671

10-15 cm3

3
-15
3
/cm )(1.7671 x 10
cm )

= 0.00353

3
3
cm /cm

= (0.00353)(100) = 0.353

(a)

vol% Y20 3

(b)

(0.353)(5.01)
t% Y
w 23- (0.353)(5.01) + (99.647)(8.902)

=x

100

= 0.2

In 100 g of the composite, there would be 0.2 g Y20 3 and 99.8 g Ni.

= 88.91 g/mol
yttria = 2(88.91)

MWy
MW

2Y + 1. 50
X g

2(88.91)
wt% Y

= 0.1575

+ 3(16)

225.82 g/mol

YO

2 3

0.2 g
(225.82)

= 0.1575

/ (0.1575 + 99.8) x 100

192

g Y
0.158

5.

Explain why aluminum, which is a more ductile, tougher material than

cobalt, is not used to produce cermets for hlgh speed machining tools.
Aluminum has a melting temperature (660 C) that is below that often
reached during high speed machining;
consequently the aluminum
matrix may melt.

6.

A C-6 cemented carbide cutting tool contains 8 wt~ Co, wt~

TiC and 72 wt% WC. Calculate the density of the material.
16-2 for densities. )
F
Co

(8/8.9)

= 7C(8n/"8'."9....
)-(r:il"'0"/14....,,9..)"":-+::..:("'1~0:-;/4.....,9"4"')-+..,....("'7"'2'/..
15.-.-;;7..,..,.7)

TaC,
(See

10 wt%
Example

= 8.1785
0.8989 = 0 1099
.

(10/14.5) = 0.0843
8.1785

= 0.2475

F TlC = (10/4.94)

8.1785

FWC
P =

(72/15.77)
8.1785

(0.1099)(8.~)

= 12.226

7.

Mg/m

= 0 . 5582

+ (0.0843)(14.5) + (0.2475)(4.94) + (0.5582)(15.77)

A grinding wheel is 200 mm in diameter and 25 Mm thick and weighs 2.28

kg. It is composed of SiC (density of 3.2 Mg/m3 ) bonded by silica glass
(density of 2.5 Mg/m3 ), with the SiC particles approximating cubes of
dimension 0.25 Mm. (a) Calculate the volume fraction of SiC particles in
the wheel and (b) determine the number of SiC particles lost from the
wheel after it is worn to a diameter of 175 Mm.
(a)

Based on the weight and volume, we can calculate

density of the composite wheel.
2.28 x 10-3
Mg m3
Pc = wlV = --------~~~~~------~
(1[/4) (200 x 10- 3 )2 (25 X 10-3 )

the

overall

= 2.903 Mg m3

Pc

= fglassPglass

+ (1 - fglass)PSiC

2.903 = fglass(2.5) + (1 - fglass)3.2

-0.297 = -0.7 f l
g ass
fglass = 0.42
f SiC = 0.58
(b)

Total volume lost is

Vlos t = (1[/4)(200 x 10-3 )2(25 x 10-3 ) - (1[/4)(175 x 10-3 )2(25 x 10-3 )

= 0.000184 m3
3

VSiC lost = 0.000184 x 0.58 = 0.0001067 m

-3 3
-11 3
Vparticle = (0.25 x 10 ) = 1. 5625 x 10
m
:. Number of particles = 0.0001067,1. 5625 x 10-11
= 6.83 x 10
193

8.

An abrasive grinding wheel contains 70 vol% Al

a phenolic binder, and
porosity. Determine the volume percent porosity3 if the grinding wheel
has a density of 2.95 Mg/m3 . The density of the phenolic is 1.28 Mg/m3
3
and that of Al 2 0 3 is 3.96 Mg/m .

Let fpb be the volume fraction phenolic binder and (0.3 - f pb ) be

the fraction porosity.

= 2.95 = (0.7(3.96)
= 0.139

fpb

9.

or

fporosity

= 0.3

- 0.139

= 0.161

An electrical contact material is produced by infiltrating copper into a

poro~s tungsten compact.
If the density of the finished composite is 15
Mg/m, calculate (a) the volume fraction of copper in the composite,
(b)
the volume fraction of pores in the tungsten compact before infiltration,
and (c) the original density of the tungsten compact before infiltration.
P

(a)

fCuPCu + F~w
f Cu (8.93) + (1 - fCu) (19.254)

15
15
fCu

(b)

0.412

The copper in the finished composite filled the

the compact prior to infiltration. Therefore
f

(c)
10.

+ (f pb )(1.28) + (0.3 - fpb)(O)

porosity

porosity

in

= 0.412

= (0.588) (19. 254)

= 11. 321

+ (0.412) (0)

Mg/m3

Suppose we use hollow glass beads as extenders in a thermosetting

polyester. The glass beads have an outside diameter of 1 mm and a wall
thickness of 0.01 mm. The glass has a density of 2.5 Mg/m3 and the
polyester has a density of 1.28 Mg/m 3. Calculate the number of beads
requ red per cubic meter to produce a composite with a density of 0.85
Mg/m.

In each glass bead

Yair
V

glass

(4n/3) (0.98/2)3

= 0.4928

mm 3

(4n/3)(1/2)3 - 0.4928 = 0.030798 mm3

0.030798 I (0.030798 + 0.4928) = 0.0588

glass
(0.0588)(2.5) + (0.9412)(0) = 0.147 Mg/m3
Pbead
For a composite with a density of 0.85 Mg/m 3
f

0.85
0.85
f

P + (1 f )p
g g
g polyester
(0.147) + (1 - f )(1.28)
g
g
0.38
f

In one m3 , there are 0.38 m3 = 0.38 x 10 9 mm3 of beads

number of beads = 0.38 x 109 / (4nI3) (1/2)3 = 7.26 x 10 8 /mm 3
194

11.

Calculate the number of grams of clay that must be added to 1000 g of

polyethylene to proguce a modulus of elasticity of 0.84 Gfa. The density
of clay is 2.4 Mg/m and that of polyethylene is 0.95 Mg/m.
(See Figure
16-7. )
To obtain the desired modulus of
clay must be f clay = 0.3
.. f clay

elasticity,

the

volume

fraction

x Mg clay/2.4 Mg/m3
x Mg clay/2.4 Mg/m 3 + (1 x 10-3 )/0.95 Mg/m3

.. 0.3[(x/2.4 + (lxl0- 3 /O.95)] = x/2.4

0.3x/2.4 + 0.3 x 10- 3 /0.95 = x/2.4
2.4 x 10-3 /0.95 = 0.7 x
:.1. 083 X 10- 3 Mg = x
(ie) 1083 g = x
12.

Round sand grains coated with 1.5 wt% phenolic resin are often used to
make molds and cores for metal castings.
(a) If the sand grains are 0.5
mm in diameter, determine the average thickness of the resin coating.
The sand has a density of 2.2 Mg/m3 and the resin has a dens!ty of 1.28
Mg/m3 .
(b) The apparent density of the sand is 1. 52 Mg/m.
Estimate
the volume percent porosity in the sand.
(a)

Vsand = (41[/3) (0. 5/2)

= 0.0654 mm

= 6.54 x 10

-11

weight of sand grain = (6.54 x 10-11 )(2.2 Mg/m 3 )

= 1. 44

10- 10 Mg

wt% resin

1.5=

x = 2.193
vol resin

x Mg resin
x Mg resin +
X

(1. 44

x 10- 10 ) Mg sand

x 100

10- 12 Mg

(2.193 x 10-12 )(1.28 Mg/m 3 ) = 2.807 x 10-12 m3

Vtotal = (6.54 x 10- 11 ) + (2.807 x 10- 12 ) m3

= 6.8207 x 10- 11 m3
(41[/3)r 3

= 6.8207 x 10-11

.. r = 0.253

10- 3 m = 0.253 rom

.. Resin thickness = 0.253 - 0.250

(b)

0.003 mm

The approximate density of the sand grains = 2.2 Mg/m3

:. %porosity

2.2 - 1. 52 x 100
2.2
30.9%

13.

We wish to compocast a 2n-27% Al alloy introducing 30 vol% glass beads

during the processing. (a) From Figure 13-13, estimate the required
casting temperature and (b) determine the density of the final product.
The gensity of the glass is 2.2 Mg/m3 and that of the zinc alloy is 5.03
Mg/m.

195

(a)

We would like to do the compocasting when about 40% solids are

present in the solidifying mixture. From the phase diagram we
can calculate the amount of solid at various temperatures for
an alloy containing 27% Al and 73% Zn:
500C:
480C:
470C:
460C:

0::
0::
0::
0::

43%
55%
58%
62%

Zn
Zn
Zn
Zn

L:
L:
L:
L:

74%
80%
81%
82%

Zn

0:
0:
0:
0:

Zn

Zn
Zn

(74-73)/(74-43)
(80-73)/(80-55)
(81-73)/(81-58)
(82-73)/(82-62)

x
x
x
x

100
100
100
100

3%
28%
35%
45%

An appropriate temperature would be about 475C.

(b)
14.

= (0.3)(2.2)

+ (0.7)(5.03)

= 4.181

Mg/m 3

Using Figure 14-24, estimate the liquidus temperature of E glass.

The composition of E glass is 5i02 -18% CaO-15% A1 2 0 3
The liquidus temperature corresponding to this composition is
1400C.

15.

A composite is produced by incorporating 30 vol% H5 carbon fibers in

polyester.
(a)
Determine the volume percent polyethylene
fibers
required to produce the same modulus of elasticity and (b) compare the
specific modulus of the polyethylene-reinforced composite with that of
the carbon-reinforced composite. The density of polyester is 1.28 Mg/m3
and the modulus is 4.55 GPa.
(a)

= (0.3 x 280) +
= 87.185 = f pE (119)
82.635 = 114.45 fPE
0.722 = fPE

Ecarbon

(0.7)(4.55)

~E

:.

= 87.185

GPa

(1 - f pE )(4.55)

:.
or 72.2 vol% polyethylene fibers
(b)

Pcarbon

= (0.3)(1.5)

(0.7)(1.28)

0.45 + 0.896
1. 346 Mg/m 3
specific moduluscarbon
PPE

= (0.722)(0.97)

= 1. 056
specific modulusPE
Mg/m3

16.

= 87.185/1.346

64.8 (m2

S-2

x 10 6 )

+ (0.278)(1.28)

= 87.185/1.056 = 82.6

(m2

S-2

x 106 )

There is some interest in producing magnesium reinforced with HM carbon

fibers. Determine the density and modulus of elasticity both parallel
and perpendicular to the fibers if 350 g of fibers are introduced into
300 g of magnesium. The density of the magnesium is 1.74 Mg/m3 and its
modulus is 45.5 GPa.

vol% fibers

(350/1. 5)
+ (300/1.74)

= (350/1.5)

= (0.575)(1.5)

+ (0.425)(1.74)

= 0.575

= 1.602
196

Mg/m3

E
=(0.575)(539) + (0.425)(45.5)
parallel
= 329.3 GPa
(0.575/539) + (0.425/45.5)
1/E
perpendicular
0.01041
96 GPa
:. Eperpendi cu 1ar
17.

0.0010667 + 0.009341

An aluminum panel for an airplane measures 2 m x 2.65 m x 6.25 mm.

(a)
Determine the weight of the aluminum panel. (b)
Determine the weight
giving the same modulus of elasticity if the panel is made
of
polyethylene fiber-reinforced epoxy of the same thickness.
The density
of the epoxy is 1.3 Mg/m3 and its modulus is 3.156 GPa.

(a)
(b)

weight = 2 x 2.65 x (6.25 x 10-3 )(2.7 Mg/m3 )

0.08944 Mg

The modulus of elasticity of Al = 70 GPa

70 = f pE (119) + (1 - f pE ) (4.55)
65.45 = 114.45 fPE
0.572 = fPE
P = (0.572)(0.97) + (0.428)(1.3) = 1.1111 Mg/m 3
weight = 2 x 2.65 x (6.25 x 10- 3 ) x (1.1111) = 0.03681 Mg

18.

Calculate (a) the vol% fibers and (b) the specific modulus of a
unidirectionally aligned fiberglass boat hull having a dersity of 1.6
Mg/m.
The matrix is polyester (density 1.28 Mg/m, modulus
of
elasticity = 4.55 GPa) and S glass fibers are employed.

P = ff(2.5)

(b)

.. ff = 0.262
E = (0.262)(88.2) + (0.738)(4.55) = 26.47 GPa

(1 - ff)(1.28) = 1.6 Mg/m

. modulus = ~
26.47 = 16.5
speciflc
19.

(2

m s -2 x 10 6)

Nickel-base superalloys can be reinforced with tungsten fibers.

(a)
Determine the volume fraction of tungsten fibers needed to obtain a
modulus of elasticity of 280 GPa perpendicular to the fibers.
(b)
Calculate the modulus of elasticity parallel to the fibers for this
composite. The density of the superalloy is about 8.5 Mg/m3 and the
modulus of elasticity is 196 GPa.
(a)

liE

f
(b)

20.

(a)

perpendicular
= 0.575

w
E
parallel

1/280

(0.575)(409.5) + (0.425)(196) = 318.8 GPa

A hybrid composite is produced in which polyester is reinforced with HS

carbon and kevlar fibers. The volume percent of the carbon fibers is
twic~ that of the Kevlar fibers.
If the density of the composite is 1.4
Mg/m, estimate (a) the vol% of carbon, Kevlar, and polyester and (b) the
wt% of ca~bon, Kevlar, and polyester. The density of the polyester is
1. 28 Mg/m .
197

(a)

Let fC be the volume

fraction Kevlar, and
polyester.

= fcPC =
f C(1.5)

(0.5f C)(1.44)

be

1.5 fC)Pp
+ (1

or 40%

fKevlar
f polyester

0.20

20%

0.40

40%

the

fraction

= 1. 4

- 1. SfC) (1. 28 )

(0.40)(1.5 Mg/m3

volume

the

volume

1.4

wt% carbon

(0.40)

x 100

42.9

wt% Kevlar

(0.20)(1.44 Mg/m3 )
x 100
(0.40)(1. 5) + (0.2) (1. 44) + (0.4) (1. 28)

20.6

(0.40)(1.28 Mg/m3 )
x 100
(0.40)(1. 5) + (0.2)(1. 44) + (0.4)(1. 28)

= 36.6

O. 5)

+ (0.2)(1.44) + (0.4)( 1. 28)

A 25 mm diameter cable is constructed of a 3.125 mm diameter aluminum

core coated with steel. Determine the thermal conductivity of the
composite cable. The thermal conductivity of aluminum is 238.3 W(m K)-l and
that of steel is 100.3 W (m K)-l.

(~/4)(3.125)2

VAl

= 30.:796

490.87385 - 7.6699
7.6699
490.87385
.. K

mm3 /mm

= 7.6699

mm3 /mm

(~/4)(25)2 - (n/4)(3.125)2

VFe

22.

+ (1 -

0.40

wt% polyester
21.

fC)

f carbon

fC

(b)

1.5

(0.5f C )PK

0.5f C be

carbon,

fraction
(1

= 483.2039

mm 3 /mm

0.0156

(0.0156)(238.3) + (0.9844) (l00. 3)

= 102.46

W/m K

Two composites are produced; one composite contains 30vol% SiC particles,
while a second contains an equal amount of SiC but in the form of fibers.
Which will have the higher heat capacity?
Will heat capacity be
dependent on the orientation of the fibers?
The two composites will both have the same heat capacity; heat
capacity does not depend on the size, shape, or orientation of the
reinforcement.

23.

Explain why bonding between carbon fibers and an aluminum matrix must be
excellent, while bonding between silicon nitride fibers and a silicon
carbide matrix should be poor.
In carbon-aluminum, we want to have good transfer of load from the
softer, more ductile aluminum matrix, permitting the carbon to
provide the good strength and stiffness.
In Si N -SiC, we want poor bonding so the fibers consume energy as
they ~utl out of the matrix and to make it more difficult for cracks
to propagate through the reinforcement.

198

24.

Figure 16-47 shows the cross section of a Borsic fiber-reinforced

aluminum composite material. Estimate (a) the vol% of tungsten, boron
and aluminum in the composite and (b) the modulus of elasticity parallel
to the fibers.
(c) If tungsten were not present in the boron fiber
core, by what percent would the modulus of elasticity of the composite
increase or decrease?
(a)

From the photograph, the diameter of the tungsten core is about

2 mm, the diameter of the boron fiber is 30 mm, and the
distance between the centers of adjacent fibers is 33 mm.

Atotal

= (33)2

Atungsten

~oron
AAl
F

= 3.14

1089 mm

('/[/4) (2)2

3. 14 mm

('/[/4) (30)2 - 3.14

1089 - 3.14 - 703.72

/ 1089

f~ = 703.72 / 1089

fAL= 382.14 / 1089

0.0029
0.6464
0.3509

2
2

2
703.72 mm
2
382.14 mm

or 0.29%
or 64.62%
or 35.09%

(b)

E = (0.0029)(409.5)

(c)

If tungsten was not present

A_
= 706.86 :. fB = 0.6491
-Doron
E = (0.6491)(385) + (0.3509)(70) = 274.47 GPa

(0.6462)(385)

(0.3509)(70)

274.54 GPa

The tungsten makes virtually no difference in the stiffness of

overall composite. It's function is to serve as the precursor
the boron.
25.

the
for

A composite of epoxy reinforced with 65 vol% carbon fibers is intended to

have a minimum modulus of elasticity of 245 GPa.
(a)
At what
temperature should the carbon fibers be produced?
(b)
What tensile
strength will these fibers possess?
(a)

0.65

EC = 0.35 (3.15)

245

.. EC = 375.23 GPa
To obtain this modulus of elasticit in a carbon fiber, a
pyrolizing temperature of about 2400 C should be used, Figure
16-19.
(b)
26.

From Figure 16-19,

the
tensile
strength
pyrolizing at 2400C is about 1900 MPa.

obtained

by

Aramid fibers can be produced by a condensation reaction involving the

two monomers shown below. Suppose 100 g of monomer A is reacted with
monomer B.
(a)
What by-product is formed as a result of
the
polymerisation reaction? (b) How many grams of monomer B are required?
(c) How many grams of the by-product are formed? (d) What is the total
weight of the aramid fibers produced?

199

H,..C -C'H0

HCI ....

Ii:

H,C _C/H

/ \1""
...ft.. ". .... " N-C/
CI-C-C
C +CI
"\,

C--C

11

(a)
(b)

..

H/

'H

C-N

c-c

A"

"B n

HCI is created as a by-product.

= (8 C)(12)

= (6

(2 0)(16)

(4 H)(l)

C)(12) + (2 N)(14) + (8 H)(l)

100 g "A"_ x g "B"

202.906 -

--ros-

27.

(c)

100 g "A" _ x g "B"

202.91
- 36.453

(d)

total weight

= 100

= 53.23

(2 CI)(35.453)

202.906

108

monomer "B"

17.97 g HCI

"A" + 53.23 "B" - 17.97 "HCI"

= 135.26

A capacitor much like the one shown in Figure 16-33 is produced by

stacking together 21 copper sheets 0.008 mm thick and 20 BaTiO
sheets
0.5 mm thick. Determine the electrical conductivity both parallel and
perp~ndiCu}tr
the sheets. The electrical ~~~duct!~~\y of copper is 6
x 10 ohm m, and that for BATi03 is 1 x 10
ohm m .

_\0

VCu
Vtitanate
fCu

= (21
= (20

sheets) (0. 0008 cm/sheet)

0.0168 cm3 /cm2

sheets) (0.05 cm/sheet)

1. 00 cm 3 /cm2

= 0.0168

= 0.0165

/ (0.0168 + 1.00)

ftitanate = 0.9835
crparallel

107 ) + (0.9835)(1 x 10-1)

9.9 x 10 5 ohm- 1 m- 1
(0.0165)(6

1/cr
perpendicular

cr
perpendicular

(0.0165/6 X 107 )
2.75 x 10-10
9.835 X 109

= 1.017

(0.9835/1 x 10-1)

0.9835 X 1010

10-10ohm- 1 m- 1

200

28.

Suppose a 6.25 mm thick iron sheet is coated with a 0.125 mm enamel of

glass. (a) Calculate the percent decrease in thermal conductivity
between the uncoated and coated iron. (b) Calculate the thickness of
the glass enamel required to reduce the thermal conductivity of the steel
by 50%. The thermal conductivity of iron is 79.6 W/mK and that of glass
is 1. 26 W/mK.
fenamel
:.f iron
(a)

0.98039

1/K = (0.01961/126) + (0.98039/79.6)

= 0.02788
.. Kcoated = 35.873 W/mK
Kuncoated
.. %decrease

(b)

1/39.8

79.6 W/mK
(79.6 - 35.873)/79.6 x 100

= (fe /1.26)

0.01257

0.7936f
0.7804f

:. 0.0161 = f

= 55%

(1 - f )/(79.6)

0.012563 - 0.012566f

by

50%

then

the

(ie) 0.0161 = t /(t

6.25)

:. t = 0.1023 mm
e
Suppose we sandwich a 1 mm thick layer of polycarbonate between two
sheets of 5 mm thick glass. Calculate the modulus of elasticity of the
composite perpendicular to the sheet.
The modulus and density of
polycarbonate are 238 GPa and 1.2 Mg/m3 , while those of the glass are
84 GPa and 2.3 Mg/m .

pc
1/E
E

30.

0.01556 + 0.01232

If the composite conductivity is reduced

conductivity will be 79.6/2 = 39.8 W/mK.

0.02513

29.

0.01961

0.125/ (6.25 + 0.125)

1/(10 + 1)

= 0.090909

(0.090909)/(2.8) +
0.03247 + 0.010943
23.04 GPa

0.5

(0.919191)/(84)Y~~ ~
= 0.04341
'+30
I

An aluminum honeycomb structure is produced.

)OC

O'o~nC

The honeycomb material is

in the form of hexagonal cells, with each face of the cell 5mm long. The
aluminum walls of the cell are 0.08 mm thick.
Separated by 25 mm of
honeycomb are two aluminum sheets each 1.5 mm thick. (a)
Estimate the
density of the structure. (b) How many kg would a 1.22 m x 2.44 m panel
of the honeycomb weigh? Compare with a 1.22 m x 2.44 m x 25 mm thick
solid aluminum plate.
(a)

From the sketch of the hexagon, we can first find the area of a
hexagon:
x/5
y/5

cos30
sin30

.. x
.. y

= 4.33
2.5

201

= 4(triangles)

+ (rectangle)
= 4(4.33 x 2.5/2) +(5 x 2 x 3 4.33) = 64.95 mm2
V = (64.95 x 25) = 1623.76 mm
(half wall thickness)~wall length) (6 walls)
(0.04)(5)(6) = 1.2 mm

AAlin cell

= 30

(1.2)(25)
VAlin sheets
Vtotal Al
weight Al
Vtotal cell

P
(b)

= 6.07 x

mm3

(64.95)(2 sheets)(1.5)

194.85 mm3

= 224.85 mm
= (224.85 x 10-9 ) x (2.7 Mg/m3 )
= 6.07 x 10-7 Mg
= 1623.75 + 194.85 = 1818.6 mm3
10

-7

1818.6 x 10- 9

= 0.3338

Mg/m3

Total thickness of honeycomb is 25 + (2 x 1.5)

= 28

Mm.

Volume = 1.22 x 2.44 x 28 x 10- 3 = 0.08335 m3

weight = (0.08335) x 0.3338 Mg m- 3
= 0.02782 Kg = 27.82 kg
Volume of Al plate = (1.22)(2.44)(25 x 10-3 ) = 0.07442 m3
weight of Al plate = (0.07442)(2.7 Mg/m3 ) = 0.2009 Kg
= 200.9 kg
31.

For the honeycomb structure described in Problem 16-30, estimate the

thermal conductivity of the honeycomb parallel to the walls of the cells.
The thermal conductivity of aluminum is 239 W/m.K and that of air is
about 0.02095 W/m.K.
First treat only the honeycomb portion between the sheets.
treat this as a "fiber" composite. For each cell
AAI
and

= 1.2

We

can

mm

Acell = 64.95 mm
The fraction of Al = 1.2/64.95 = 0.0185
Kcells = KAlfAI + Kairfair
= (239)(0.0185) + (0.02095)(0.9815)
= 4.4421 W/m.K

Now we can treat the entire sandwich structure as a laminar

composite composed of the cellular region plus the two aluminum
sheets. We can find the volume fraction of the cellular region by
fcells

= (25)mm3 /(28

1/K_

--~oneycomb

-~oneycom

mm )

= 0.8929

= f cells/Kcells

+ f

/k

sheets sheets
= 0.8929/4.4421 + 0.1071/239
= 0.20099 + 0.000448 = 0.20144

b = 4.9643 W/m.K

202

32.

A completel dried 52.4 mm x 100 mm x 200 mm sample of wood has a density

of 0.3 Mg/m. (a) How many liters of water are absorbed by the sample
if it contains 125% water? (b) Calculate the density after the wood
absorbs this amount of water.
(a)

The volume of the sample is V = (52.4)(100)(200)

(0.3 Mg/m~)(1,048,000)10-9
dry weight
= 0.0003144 Mg
= 314.4 g
125
= weight of water x 100
% water
dry weight
weight of water

(b)

The total weight is now 393 + 314.4 = 707.4 g.

If we assume
that the volume does not change when the water is absorbed,
then the density is
p

33.

= (1.25)(314.4) = 393

1,048,000 mm3

707.4 x 10-6 (Mg)/1,048,000

0.675 Mg/m3

10-9 (m3 )

The measured density of a 100 cm3 sample of birch (see Table 16-6) is
0.98 Mg/m3 Calculate (a) the density of completely dry birch and (b)
the percent water in the original sample.
(a)

Based on Table 16-6, the density of birch containing 12%

is 0.62 Mg/m3 . Therefore 100 m sample would weigh 62 g.

water

12% - weight of water x 100 _ green weight - dry weight x 100

dry weight
dry weight
12%
p
(b)

62 - dry weight x 100

dry weight

= 55.36

dry weight

= 55.36

g / 100 cm3 = 0.5536 Mg/m3

If the actual density = 0.98 Mg/m3 , then the weight of 100

is 98 g.

cm

water
34.

A contractor calls for a slump of 50 mm for the concrete basement floor

of a new house, while a slump of 125 mm is specified for the walls.
Explain the difference in the two specifications.
In the walls, the concrete must be more fluid so
form without leaving any air pockets; however
concrete does not have to be so fluid.

35.

it
in

can fill
a floor,

the
the

The tar used in producing asphalt has a density of about 1.5 Mg/m3 .
Determine the typical weight of one meter (1 m3 ) of asphalt if the
asphalt is composed of 65 vol% sand (density 2.2 Mg/m3 ).
(1.5)(0.35) + (2.2)(0.65) = 1.955 Mg/m3
.. 1 meter of asphalt weighs 1. 955 Mg

203

Chapter 17
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY

1.

A current of 100 A is passed through a 3 mm diameter wire 1500 m long.

Calculate the power loss if the wire is made of (a) copper, (b) germanium
and (c) silicon. (See Tables 17-2 and 17-8. )

P~wer = VI = I~ = 12Vo-A

l. = 1500 m
d = 3 mm
A = (n/4) (3 mm)2 = 7.068 mm2 = 7.068 x 10-6 m2

Power = (100A)2(1500 m)/(7.068 x 10-6 m2)(0-) = 1.953 x 1012 / 0(a)

(b)
(c)

2.

Cu: 0- = 5.98 x 107 (0 ml -1

2
power = (1. 953 x 10 )/(5.98 x 107 ) = 3.27
Ge: 0- = 2(0 m)-l

power

Si: 0- = 5
power

(1.

953 x 1012 )/2 = 9.77

X 10-4(0 .. )-1

(1.953 x 1012 )/(5 x 10-4 )

104 W

1011 W
3.91

1015 W

A current density of 2 x 109 A m-2 is applied to a 500 m long aluminum

wire. A resistance of lOis measured along the wire. Calculate (a) the
diameter of the wire and (b) the voltage imposed on the wire.
current density J = I/A = 2 x 109 A m- 2
(a)

R = Vo-A

or A = VRa= (500 m)/ (1_~) ~3. 77 x 107 0-1 m- 1 )

= 1. 326 x 10 m
d = v4A/n = 1c4) (0. 1326 x 10-5 )/n = 4.11 x 10-3 m
= 4.11 mm

(b)

3.

current density J = I/A = 2 x 109 A/m2

I = JA = (2 x 109 A/m2 ) (1.326 x 10-5 m- 2 ) "
= 26,520 A
V = IR = (26.520 A)(l ohm) = 26,520 volts

The power loss in a 1 mmdiameter gold wire is to be 100 W when a

current is flowing in the circuit. Calculate the required length of
wire.
Powir = I~ = 12Vo-A = 100 W
(4) V(4.26 x 107 0-1 m-1 )(n/4)(1 x 10-3 m)2 = 100
l=209m

204

4-A
the

4.

A 400 resistor is produced from a 2.5 mm diameter iron

the required length of the wire.
R

= l/a-A

or l

= RITA

= (400)(1
= 1963 m

5.

6.

wire.

Calculate

x 107 ) (n/4) (2.5 x 10-3 m)2

An electric field of 1000 V.m-1 is applied to a 0.5 m length of magnesium

wire. Calculate (a) the voltage and (b) the current density in the wire.
(a)

~ = V/l or V = ~/l = (1000 V m-1 )(0.5 m) = 500 V

(b)

J = a-~ = (2.25 x 107 0- 1 m- 1 )(1000 V m- 1 )

= 2.25 x 1010 A m- 2

A current density of 108 A.m- 2 is applied to a silver wire.

the valence electrons serve as charge carriers, determine
drift velocity of the electrons.

If all of
the average

Silver is FCC, with 4 atoms/cell, a valence of 1, and a lattice

parameter of 4.0862 A.
n = (4 atoms/cell) (1 carrier/atom) = 5.8263 x 1028 m- 3
(4.0862 x 10- 10 m)3
J = nqv
or v = J/nq = 108 (A m- 2)/(5.863 x 1028 m- 3 )(1.6 x 10-19 C s-1)
= 10.66 m/s
7.

Suppose the mobility of an electron in nickel is 0.05 m2. V-1s -1.

Estimate the fraction of the valence electrons that are carrying an
electrical charge.
Nickel is FCC, with 4 atoms/cell, a valence of 2, and a lattice
parameter of 3.5167 A.
a-

nqp or n = a-/qp

108 0-1 m-1)/(1.6 X 10-19C) (0.05 m2 V-1s- 1 )

= 1.825 x 1028 carriers/m3

(1.46

total electrons = (4 atoms/cell) (2 carriers/atom)

(3.5167 x 10- 10 m)3
fraction = (1.825 x 1029 ) / (1.84 X 1029 ) = 0.099
8.

-4 -1

-1

The electrical conduct~vi! o~1si1icon is 5 x 10 0 .m and the mobility

of electrons is 0.19 m.V .s . What fraction of the valence electrons
in silicon carry an electrical charge?
Silicon is DC, with 8 atoms/cell, a valence of 4, and a lattice
parameter of 5.4307 A.
n = a-/qp = (5x 10-4)/(1.6 x 101 19 )(0.19) = 1.64 x 1016/m3
total electrons = (8 atoms/cell) (4 electrons/atoms)= 1.9979 x 1029/m3
(5.4307 x 10- 10 m)3
16
fraction = 1.64 x 10 / 1.9979 X 1029 = 8.2 X 10-14

205

9.

A voltage of 50 V is applied to a 0.1 m length of 1 mm diameter copper

wire. Determine the average drift velocity of the electrons if 50% of
the valence electrons are responsible for conducting the current.
Copper is FCC, with 4 atoms/cell, a valence of 1, and a lattice
parameter of 3.6151 A .
n

(4 atoms/cell) (1 electron/atom)
(3.6151 x 10- 10 m)3

actual electrons
V

= (0.5)(8.466

= 8.466

x 1028 )

x 1028/m3

= 4.233

x 1028/m3

= J/nq = u~/nq = u(V/t)/nq

= (5.98 x 107 C- 1m-1 ) (50 V/0.1 m)/(4.233 x 10 28 m- 3 )(1.6 x 10-19C)
= 4.41 m s-l

10.

11.

A current of 200 A is passed through the arc in an arc-welding process.

The diameter of the arc is about 5 mm and the arc extends 2.5 mm from the
tip of the electrode to the metal being welded. A voltage of 40 V is
applied across the arc. Calculate (a) the current density in the arc,
(b) the electric field across the arc, and (c)
the
electrical
conductivity of the gases in the arc during welding.
(a)

I/A

(b)

V/t

(c)

= 200 A/(x/4)(5 mm)2 = 1.0186

= (40 V) / (2.5 mm) = 16 V/mm

= IR = It/uA

or

A/mm2

= 1.0186

x 107A m- 2

u = It/VA
= (200) (2. ?;/<"10) (x/4) (5~~ -1
= 0.6366 C mm = 636.6 C m

Calculate the number of energy levels present in the 3p level of

of solid HCP titanium.

10

mm3

There are 6 electrons per atom in the 3p energy level, or there are
3 energy levels per atom. Titanium is HCP and has 2 atoms per cell.
electrons/m3 = (6 electrons/atom) (2 Ti atoms/cell)
(2.9503 x 10-10 m)2(4.6831 x 10-10 m) cos30
= 3.40 x 1029
.. electrons/mm3 = 3.40 X 1020
6N
3.40 x 1020 electrons/mm3
3N = energy levels = 1.70 x 1023 levels/mm3

In 10 mm3 the number of energy levels

12.

Calculate the electrical resistivity

+200C.

= Pr (l

of

= 10
pure

x 1.70

10 23

aluminum

at

= 1.7

-100C

al1T)
P- 100
2.65 x 10-8 [1 + (0.0043)(-100 - 25)] = 1.226 x 10-8 em
P+ 200 = 2.65 x 10-8 [1 + (0.0043)(200 - 25)] = 4.644 x 10-8 C m
+

206

1022
and

13.

Calculate the temperature of a pure nickel rod

resistivity of 10 x 10-8 O.m.
P

= Pr (l

that

has

an

electrical

+ allT)

10 x 10-8 = 6.84 x 10-8 [1 + (0.0069)(T - 25)]

1.462 = 1 + (0.0069)(T - 25)
T = 91.96C
14.

To what temperature must you raise pure

temperature electrical resistivity?
p/P r

=1

+ allT

or

T
15.

= 1 + (0.0165)(T
= 85.61C

Based on Figure 17-12(b), determine the

for tin in copper.
x

= atomic

fraction Sn

wt% Sn
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.8
1.0
b

= (wt%

5.98
5.92
5.50
4.96
4.66
4.37
4.08
3.70
3.29

= slope

107
107
107
107
107
107
107
107
X 107

x
x
x
x
x
x
x

0.167
0.169
0.182
0.202
0.215
0.229
0.245
0.270
0.304

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

defect

to

double

resistivity 'coefficient

xU-x)

10-7
10-7
10-7
10-7
10-7
10-7
10-7
10-7
10-7

0.0
0.00054
0.00107
0.00161
0.00215
0.00268
0.00322
0.00430
0.00538

0
0.00054
0.00107
0.00161
0.00215
0.00267
0.00321
0.00428
0.00535

IIp

0
0.002
0.018
0.035
0.048
0.062
0.078
0.103
0.137

(0.122 - 0.021) x 10-7 /(0.00505 - 0.00095)

2. 46 x 10-6 Q m

0.12
0.10
IIp

0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0

0.001

0.002

0.003

0.004

0.005

xU - x)

207

room

- 25)

0.14

(x 10-7 )

it

(wt% Snl118.69)
Sn)/118.69) + (wt% Cul63.54)

(1"

magnesium

x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x

10-7
10-7
10-7
10-7
10-7
10-7
10-7
10-7

16.

To what temperature must you raise pure copper to obtain the same
electrical resistivity as that you would get by alloying with 25 wt%
zinc? (See Example 17-7. )
First we can convert 25 wt% Zn to atomic fraction zinc "x";
x

(25/65.3S)
+ (75/63.54)

= (25/65.3S)

= 0.245

We can then combine Equations 17-6, 17-7 and 17-S, equating the
temperature and defect resistivities:

P = PT + Pd = PT = b(l - x)x = Pr (l + a6T)

P = P25 + b(l - x)x = Pr (l + a6T)
1.67x10- 8 + (1.Sx10-7 )(1-0.245)(0.245) = (1.67 x 10-8 )[1 + 0.006S(T-25)]
(0.167 x 10-7 + 0.333 x 10-7 )/0.167 x 10-7 = 1 + ().006S)(T - 25)
2.994

1 + 0.006S(T - 25)
31S.2C

17.

Sup~ose the electrical conductivity of iron containing 3 at% impurity

at
500 is 2 X 10 6 Q-l m-l. Determine the contribution to resistivity due to
temperature and impurities by calculating (a) the expected resistivity or
pure iron at 500C, (b) the resistivity due to impurities, and (c) the
defect resistivity coefficient.

(a)
(b)

PT

1/u

(9.71 x 10

= P =Pd

= 50

Pd =

Pd

= 1.

x 10

-8

= Pd

03 x 10 -7

+ 39.69 x 10

-8

b(1 - x)x

1.03 x 10-7
b
lS.

39.69 x 10- 8

)[1 + 0.0065(500 - 25)]

PT

1/(2 x 10 )

(c)

-8

= b(l - 0.03)0.03
= 3.54 X 10-6 Q m

A nickel alloy filament 0.1 mm in diameter and 1 m long operating on a

120-V circuit consumes 335 W at 500C. Calculate (a) the current flowing
in the filament during use and (b) the current that initially flows in
the filament before it heats to the operating temperature, assuming_ that
the alloy has the same temperature resistivity coefficient as pure
nickel.

= VI

= 2.79

(a)

power

(b)

We can find the room temperature resistivity by first

calculating the resistivity at 500C.

or

335

(120)!

or

= VII = P500liA
Thus P500 = VAIlt
(120 V)(O.l x 10-3 m)2(n/4)/(2.79 A)(l m)
3.37S x 10-7 Q m

20S

At 25C:

= P25 (1

Psoo

3.378 X 10

P25
R2S

- a~T)

= P25 [1 + (0.0069)(500 - 25)]

= 0.7897 X 10-7 C m
= P2slIA = (0.7897 x

I
19.

-7

= 10.05477 C
= V/R = 120 /

Based on the data in Figure 17-11,

coefficient for nickel in copper.

10-7 )/(n/4)(1 x 10-4 )2

11.93 A

10.05477
estimate

the

defect

resistivity

From the data derived from Figure 17-11:

YJU

0%
10%
20%
30%
40%

1. 67
16.00
28.00
37.00
43.00

x
x
x
x
x

Pd

10-6
10-6
10-6
10-6
10-6

= ~P

0
14.33
26.33
35.33
41. 33

X
X
X
x

(1 - x)x

0
0.0955
0.168
0.217
0.243

0
O. 107
0.213
0.317
0.419

10-8
10-8
10- 8
10- 8

where "x" was determined by the following (shown for 10% Nil:

(l0/58.71)
+ (90/63.54)

= (10/58.71)

= 0.107

The slope of the graph below is "b"

b

(42 x 10-8 - 15 X 10-8

(0.240 - 0.095)

= 1. 7

10-6 C m

0.1

0.2
(1 -

20.

0.3

x)x

The electrical resistivity of a Au-30 wt% Pt alloy is 2.2 x 107 C m at

room temperature.
Calculate the defect resistivity coefficient for
platinum in gold.

_
(30/195.09)
at% Pt - (30/195.09) + (70/196.97) = 0.302
The resistivity at room temperature for gold is 2.35 x 10- 8 C m

209

P = PT
P = PT

+ Pd

and

Pd = b(l - x)x

= b(l - x)x
22 x 10-7 = 2.35 X 10-8 + b(l - 0.302)(0.302)
1965 x 10-7 = b(0.211)
or b = 9.31 X 10-7 g m
21.

(a) Determine the equations that relate millivolt reading to temperature

for Pt:Pt-10Y. Rh and iron: constantan thermocouples. (b) Suppose that at
600C your accuracy in measuring voltage is 0.2 mY. What is the error
in degrees Celsius for each of the thermocouples? Which would you prefer
for best accuracy?
(a)

For Pt:Pt-l0% Rh - n =

~T

/ ~V = (1600 - 0) / (16 - 0)
T(oC) = 100 V (mV)

For iron: constantan - n =

(b)

/ ~V = (800 - 0) / (46 - 0)
T(oC) = 17.4 V (mV)

For Pt:Pt=10% Rh - At 600C, V = T/n = 600 / 100 = 6 mV

(100)(6.2)
(100)(5.8)
For iron:constantan
At 600C, V = T/n = 600 / 17.4 = 34.5 mV
T34 . 7 mv

T34 . 3 mv

(17.4)(34.7)

603.8 C

(17.4)(34.3)

596. 8C

For best accuracy, we would prefer to us~ iron:constantan b

where the maximum temperature range is 7 C rather than 40 C.
22.

Suppose you would like

to

use

temperature in a jet engine.

the temperature were 2100C?
T = nV
V

2100

23.

B4 C:C

thermocouple

to

monitor

What millivolt reading would you expect

or
n = ~ / ~V = 200 / 35
T (oC) = 5.714 V (mV)
2100/ 5.714 = 367.5 mV

the
if

5. 714C/mV

Figure 17-40 shows the output from a chromel:alumel thermocouple immersed

in an aluminum-silicon alloy during freezing. Assuming that the alloy is
hypereutectic, estimate (a) the liquidus temperature, (b) the eutectic
temperature, and (c) the composition of the alloy. (See Figure 10-19. )
(a)

Liquidus occurs at 42 mv:

(b)

Eutectic occurs at 23 mv:

(c)

The AI-Si alloy with a liquidus of 1000C contains 44% S1.

210

Tliquidus
Teutectic

1000C
570C

24.

Will nobium (Nb) be superconductive at 5 K when a magnetic field of

5 x 10 4 A m- 1 is present? Explain.

= 5 X 10 4 A m- 1
c
Ho [l - T/Tc)2]
156800[1 - 5/9.8)2]
= 11.6 X 10 4 A m- 1

116000 A m- 1

As H < H [1 - (TIT )2] the combination of 5 K temperature and

c
0
c
5 X 10- 4 A m- 1 field lies within the envelope so the niobium is
superconductive under these conditions.
25.

-1

Suppose an alumina (AI 20 3 ) rod 1 mm in diameter and 5 x 10 A m

length
is used as an insulator in a 240-V circuit at room temperature.
Calculate (a) the current flowing in the circuit and (b) the number of
electrons passing through the alumina rod per second.
Repeat for the
case in which the rod is made of aluminum instead.
A = (n/4) (1 x 10-3 )2 = 7.854
12 ohm- 1 m- 1
For Al
(1" = 10-

10-7 m2

2 3

(a)

R
I

(b)

= V(1"A = (10 x 10-3 m- 1 )

= 1. 27 X 1016 Q
= VIR (240) I (1.27 x

Since 1 A

=1

I (10- 12 ) (7. 854 x 10-7 m2 )

10 16 ) = 1.89

10- 14 A

Cis.,

number of electronsls

= I/q
= 1. 18

26.

(1.89 x 10-14 ) I (1.6 x 10-19 )

X

10 5 Is

If the electrical conductivity of diamond is 10- 16 Q-1. m-1, determine (a)

the number of charge carriers per cubic meter, (b) the fraction of the
total electrons in the valence band that are excited into the conduction
band, and (c) the constant no at room temperature.
Assume that the

A.

atomic radius for carbon in diamonds is 0.77

From Table 17-8,

2 -1 -1
2
-1
0.18 m V s ; '"b = O. 14 m V
10- 16 /(1.6 x 10- 19 ) (0.18 + 0.14)
1953 m- 3
(b)

maximum electrons

-1

(8 atomslcell)(4 electronslatom)
a

o
a = 8r/iJ = 3.556 A = 3.556 X 10- 10 m
o
maximum electrons = (8)(4)/(3.556 x 10- 1)3

211

7.11

1029 m3

fraction = 1. 95
(c)

103

I 7. 11

1023 = 2.74

= n o exp(-Eg 12kT)
1.95 X 103 = n exp[-5.4/(2)(8.63
o
= noexp(-105) = 2.5 x

10-27

x 10-5 )(298)]
10-46n

no = 8 x 1048 1m3
27.

For tin, determine (a) the number of charge carriers per cubic meter, (b)
the fraction of the total electrons in the valence band that are excited
into the conduction band, and (c) the constant no at room temperature.
(a)

= ng(lte + ~)
From Table 17-8, It
2

-1

= 0.24 m V

= 0.9

e
-1
sand

= 0.9 x 10

a-1

-1

1024 m- 3

maximum electrons
ao

(J'

x 105 /(1.6 x 10-19 )(0.25 + 0.24)

= 1. 148
(b)

n = (J'/q(lt e + ~)
= 0.25 mOl V- 1 S-l

or

(J'

= (8

= 6.4912 A= 6.4912

atoms/cell)(4 electrons/atom)
3
a
o

x 10-10m

(8)(4)/(6.4912 x 10-1)3 m

maximum electrons

1. 17 x 1029 m- 3

Fraction
(c)

x 1024 /1.17 x 1029

= 9.81

10-6

= n oexp(-Eg/2kT)
1.148 x 10 24 = n exp(-0.08/(2)(8.63 x 10-5 )(298)
o
= n oexp(-1.555) = 0.211 no

28.

= 1.148

For pure silicon, estimate (a) the value of no at room

temperature,.

(b)

the electrical conductivity at 500C if the mobility remains constant.

From Table 17-8, "e
(a)

= 0.19,

= 0.05,

and

(J'

=5

10-4

= (J'/n("e - "h)
= (5 x 10-4 ) I (1.6 x 10-19 )(0.19 + 0.05) = 1.3
= n exp(-E 12kT)
o 16 g
-5
1.3 x 10 = n oexp[-1.107/(2)(8.63 x 10 )(298)]
= n oexp(-21.52) = n 0 (4.50 x 10-1)

n
n
n

212

a- 1m- 1 at
x 10 16/m3

25C

(b)

= (2.89 x 1025 )exp[ (1. 107 / (2)(8.63 x 10-5 )(500 + 273)

(2.89 x 1025 )exp(-8.297)
(2.89 x 1025 ) (2. 49 x 10- 4 )
= 7.196 x 1021/m3

500

(J"

29.

nq(I'e + ~)
276 g-1 m-1

(7.196 x 10 21 )(1.6 X 10-19 )(0.19 + 0.05)

Estimate the temperature at which the electrical conductivity of

will be twice its room temperature value.

silicon

Assuming that the mobility does not change significantly:

(J"298 /

(J"T = 0.5

exp[-l. 107/(2)(8.63 x 10- 5 )(298) = (0.5)exp[-1.07/(2)(8.63 x 10-5 )(T)

exp(-21.52)
-21. 52

30.

0.5exp(-6414/T)
In(0.5) - 6414/T

Suppose there are 2 x 1019 electrons/m3 serving as charge carriers in

germaniur4when an elec}ric fi:ld is appli~1' When the field is removed,
electrons/m
rema1n after 10
s.
Determine
(a)
the
2 x 10
recombination time and (b) the time required for 99% of the electrons and
holes to recombine.
(a)

n = noexp(-t/T)
2 x 10 14 = (2 x 1019 )exp(-10- 6 /T)
In(10- 5 ) = -11.513 = -10- 6 /T
T = 8.686 X 10- 8 s

(b)

n/n

0.01

In(O.Oll
t

31.

-8

=4.605 = -t/8.686 x 10
4 X 10-7 S

Suppose silicon is doped with 0.0001 at% phosphorus.

Estimate the
electrical conductivity of the semiconductor in the exhaustion range.
n

(8 Si atoms/cell) (10- 6 P atoms/Si atom) (1 electron/P atom)

4.99

32.

exp(-t/8.686 x 10-8 )

10 22 carriers/m3

Estimate the at% antimony required to produce an electrical

of 105 g-1 m- 1 in germanium in the exhaustion range.
n = (J"/ql'
n = 10

e
/ (1.6 x 10-19 )(0.38)

213

conductivity

1. 64

(8 Ge atoms/cell) (x Sb atoms/Ge atom) (1 electronlSb atom)

1024

x: 3.71

(5.6575 x 10-10 m)3

X

10-5 Sb atoms/Ge atom

at% Sb : (3.71 x 10- 5 )(100) : 0.00371%

33.

Calculate the number of grams of gallium that must be added to 11 ~p of

silicon in order to produce an electrical conductivity of 3000 Q m
in
the saturation range.
n : O'/ql'h

n: (3000) / (1.6 x 10-19 )(0.05) : 3.75

3.75

10 23 /m3

1023: (8 Si atoms/cell) (x Ga atoms/Si atom) (1 hole/Ga atom)

(5.4307 x 10- 10 mf

X :

7.5

X 10- 6

at% Ga atoms

Ga atoms/Si atom
7.5

10-4
":4

wt% Ga : _____(...,,7_._5_x_l_0__)_(_6_9_.7_2--Og"-/_m_o_I_)_ _ x 100

(7.5 x 10- 4 )(69.72) + (99.99925)(28.08)
wt% Ga

(x g Ga) x 100 : 1.862

x + 1000
x = 0.0001862 g Ga

34.

1. 862 x 10

-5

10- 5

Suppose 0.472 kg of gallium are combined with 0.528 kg of arsenic to

produce GaAs.
(a)
Will this produce a
p-type
or
an
n-type
semiconductor? (b) Calculate the number of extrinsic charge carriers
per cubic centimeter, using the lattice parameter from Figure 17-27.
GaAs has the zinc blende crystal structure.
(a)

(0.528/74.9216)
at% As : (0.528/74.9216) + (0.472/69.72) x 100 = 51.004

There are more As atoms than Ga atoms; the As atoms contribute

electrons, while the Ga atoms contribute holes. therefore we expect
this particular GaAs compound to act as a n-type semiconductor.
(b)

A:

: 5.63
5.63
o
in each unit cell.

10-10 m and there are 4 Ga and 4 As atoms

Consider 106 unit cells.

There are 4(0.51005)(10 6 ) : 0.08032
As atoms and 4(0.48996)(10 6 ) = 1.95984 x lOB Ga atoms in this
number of cells.

10 6

10 6 = 0.08032

10 6

excess As atoms: 2.04016

10 6

This excess represent the number of

cells.
carriers/m3 = 0.08032 x 10 6
: 4.5 X 1030

214

1.95984

charge

carriers

(10 6 cells)(5.63 x 10- 10 )3

in

106

unit

35.

For which of the semiconducting compounds in Figure

expect the broadest exhaustion of saturation plateau?

17-27

AlAs has the highest energy gap E ; therefore we would

g

would
expect

you
AlAs

to have the broadest exhaustion or saturation plateau.

36.

A ZnO crystal is produced in which 1 interstitial Zn atom is introduced

for every 1000 Zn lattice sites.
Estimate (a) the number of charge
carriers per cubic centimeter and (b) the electrical conductivity at
25C.
From example 17-12, a o = 4.758 x 10
contain 1000 Zn sites.

(a)

-10

m.

250 unit cells

(2 carriers/interstitial site)

(250 unit cells)(4.758 x 10-10 m)3

7.43 X 1025 carriers/m3

37.

Each Fe+ 3 ion in FeO can serve as an acceptor site for an electron.
If
there is 1 vacancy per 500 unit cells of the FeO crystal (which has the
sodium chloride structure), determine the number of possible charge
carriers per cubic centimeter. The lattice parameter of FeO is 4.29 A.
For each vacancy, there are two Fe 3+ ions;
two acceptors per 500 unit cells or
acceptors/cell

therefore

there

are

= 2/500 = 0.004

-10 3
-29 3
Vunit cell = (4.29 x 10 ) = 7.8954 x 10
m
acceptors/m3
(0.004 / cell)(7.8954 x 10-29 m3cell)
5.1 x 1025

38.

Determine the energy gap Eg for the Fe 30 4 .MgCr 20 4 thermistor in Figure

17-30.

= 1/nMq =

(1/~qn

)exp(E /2kT)
g

From Figure 17-30, we find

104 when 1000/T
10
Thus

-1

=6

when 1000/T = 2

or T

167 K

or T

500 K

exp[E /2k(1670]
g

exp[E /2k(500)]
g

105 = exp[(E /2k) (0.006 - 0.002)

g
In(10 5 ) = 11.513 = 0.004 E /2k
E

(11.513)(2)(8.63 x 10- 5 )/0.004

215

0.498 eV

39.

Calculate the temperature when an Fe 30 4 .MgCr 20 4 thermistor operating in a

12 V circuit produces a current of 15 rnA. the thermistor is in the
form of a wire 1 mm in diameter and 0.12 m length.

= V/I = 12 V/0.015 rnA = -38002 n

P = RA/t = 80~~1l/4) (1 x 10 ) /0.12
= 5.24 x 10 n m

From Figure 17-30 this resistivity corresponds to 1000/T

T
40.

= 1000
= 1000
1

= 727C

A germanium crystal 10 mm in diameter and 0.3 m in length is doped with

indium. A current of 10 A is passed through the rod with a voltage of 12
V. A magnetic field of 500 V C A- 1 m- 1 is measured. Calculate the number
of indium atoms per 10 6 Ge atoms in the semiconductor.
VH = HJ~ = HJ/nq
where J = I/A = 10/(1l/4)(1 x 10-2 )2
n

= HJ/VHq = (500)(127320)/(12)(1.6

= 127320
x 10-19

A/m2

= 3.315

x 10 25/m3

(8 Ge atoms/cell)(x In atoms/Ge)(1 carrier/In atom)

x = 7.5

10- 4 In atoms/Ge atom

In atoms/10 6 Ge atoms
41.

= (7.5

x 10- 4 )(10 6 )

= 750

When a voltage of 10 mV is applied to the emitter of a transistor, a

current of 3 rnA is produced. if the voltage is increased to 15 mV, the
current through the collector increases to 8 mAo By what percent will
the collector current be increased when the emitter voltage is doubled
from 10 mV to 20 mY?
01.010 V, IC = 0.003 A
0.015 V, IC - 0.008 A
IC
0.003
0.008
0.375
0.375

= Ioexp(VE!B)
I o exp(0.010/B)
I o exp(0.015/B)
exp[ (0. 010/B)
exp(-0.005/B)

In(0.375)

= -0.98

(0. 015/B)]

x 83

B = 0.00509772

216

-0.005/B

exp[(1/B)(0.010 - 0.005)]

0.003 _ exp(0.010/B) _ exp(1.96166) _

7.11111
---1--- - exp(0.020/B) - exp(3.92332) - 50.56818
c
(0.003)(50.56818)/(7.11111) = 0.02139 A = 21.3 rnA
21.3 - 3 x 100

%increase
42.

= 610%

CaD has the sodium chloride crystal structure and a lattice parameter of
4.62 A. Suppose the conductivity of CaD at 977C is measured to be 2.408
x 10-10 0- 1 m- 1 and 1. 445 x 10-5 0- 1 m- 1 at 1810C.
Calculate (a)
the
activation energy for diffusion of Ca z+ in CaD and (b) the mobility of
Ca z+ at both temperatures.
(a)

We can combined equations 17-26 and 17-27.

~

= ZqD/kT = (ZqDo/kT)exp(-QlRT)

~1

nZq(Zq/kT1 )D oexp(-QIRT1 )

~z

nZq(Zq/kTz )Do exp(-QIRT2

~1

(t/T 1 )exp( -QIRT 1 )

~Z

(lITz

1.664 x 10-5

(b)

= 299
=

= nZq~ = nZq(Zq/kT)D

(1/1250)exp[-Ql(8.31)(1250)]
(1/2083)exp[-Ql(8.31)(2083)

1.6664exp(-0.000009627Q

0.00005777Q)

= exp(-0.00003850Q)
10-5 ) = -11.512925 = -0.00003850Q

10- 5

In(l x
Q

) exp (-QlRTz )

2.408 x 10-10
1.445 x 10-5
1 x

and

kJ/mol

(4 Ca ions/cell)
(4.62 x 10-10 m)3

4.056 x 10z8 /m 3

at 977C

~ = ~/nZq = 2.408 x 10- 8 /(4.056 x 10 28 ) (2) (1. 6 x 10-19 )

~ = 1. 86 X 10- 18 mZ y-l s-l

At 1810C
= 1.445

= (1.445

~/nZq

= 1. 11

10- 5 0- 1 cm- 1

10-13 mZ

= 1.445 x 10-3

0- 1 m- 1

x 10-3 )/(4.056 x 10 Z8 )(2)(1.6 x 10- 19 )

y-l S-l

217

Chapter 18

DIELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC PROPERTIES

1.

The_flect[onic polarization in a tungsten crystal is determined to be 4

C/m. Determine the average displacement of the electrons from the
nucleus.

xl0

(2 atoms/cell) (74 electrons/atom) = 4.67 x 10 30 /m3

(3.1652 x 10- 10 m)3

2.

P/Zq = (4 x 10-7 C/m2) / (4.67 x 1030 /m3 )(1.6 x 10-19 C)

0.535

10-18 m

= 0.535

10- 8

The electronic polarization in a platinum crystal is determined to be 7 x

10- 8 C/m2. Determine the average displacement of the electrons from the
nucleus.
Z

(4 atoms/cell) (78 electrons/atom)

= 5.1673 X 10 30

/m3

(3.9231 x 10- 10 mj3

3.

P/Zq

0.0847

10- 18 m

= 0.0847

10-8

Calculate the polarization when an electric field causes an average

dis~lacement of the electrons from the nucleus in a gold crystal of
5 x
10-

A.

(4 atoms/cell) (79 electrons/atom) = 4.6575 x 1030/m3

(4.0786 x 10- 10 m)3

4.

Zqd

3.726

(4.6575 x 1030
X

m3 )

(1. 6 x 10- 19

C) (5 x 10-18 m)

10-6 C/m2

Calculate the polarization when a electric field causes an average

displacement of the electrons from the nucleus in a silicon crystal of 3
x 10- 18 cm.
Z

(8 atoms/cell) (14 electrons/atom)

= 0.6693

x 10 30 /m3

(5.4307 x 10- 10 m)3

5.

Zqd

3.36

(0.6993

1030

m3 )

(1. 6 x 10- 19 ) (3 x 10-18

m)

10-7 C/m2

Calculate the ionic polarization e~~ected for KCI if an electric field

causes a displacement of 6 x 10
A. KCI has the cesium chloride
structure.
Z

(1

Cs + ion/cell)
(3.626 x

Zqd

(1

10- 10

(0.020976

charge/ion)
m)3

0.020976 X 10 30 /m3

1030 /m3 ) (1. 6 x 10- 19 ) (6 x 10- 18 m)

218

6.

Calculate the ionic polarization expected for CaO if an electric field

causes a displacement of 4 x 10-16 cm.
CaO has the sodium chloride
structure.
Z

7.

ions/cell) (2 charge/ion) = 0.0811267 x 1030 /m3

(4.62 x 10-10 m)3
(0.081127 X 1030 / m3 )(1.6 x 10-19 C)(4 X 10-18 m)

= Zqd

Calculate the displacement between the ions in Zns if the ionic

polarization is 6 x 10-8 C/m2.
ZnS has the zinc blende crystal
structure.

8.

(4 Ca

= (4

Zn

ions/cell)(2 charges/ion)
(5.958 x 10-10 m)3

= 0.03783

x 1030 /m3

(6 x 10-8 C/m2 )/(0.03783 x 1030 /m3 )(1.6 x 10-19 )

P/Zq

9.91 X 10-18 m = 9.91 x 10-8

A.

A 1 mm thick alumina (A1 20 3 ) dielectric is used in a 60 Hz circuit.

Determine the voltage required to produce polarization of a 6 x 10-8
C/m2. Will this voltage cause the dielectric to break down?
K

= 9.0

~max

P
V

=6

V/d
(K -

x 106 Vim

l)e V/d
o

Pd/(K - l)e
o
(6 x 10-8 C/m2 )(0.001 m)/(9 - 1)(8.85 x 1012

F/m)

0.85 volts

V/d

= 0.85/0.001 = 850

Vim < 6 x 106 Vim

The dielectric will not break down.

9.

A diamond cube 2 mm x 2 mm x 2 mm is introduced as a dielectric into a

circuit. The total charge Q on one face of the crystal is 3 x 10- 5 C.
Calculate the voltage acting on the crystal. The dielectric constant of
diamond is 5.5.

= e o KAV/d

(0.002)(0.002) = 4 x 10-6 m2

CV

Qd/e KA
o
(3 X 10-5 C) (0. 002 m)/(8.85 x 10- 12 F/m)(5.5)(4 x
3.08 X 108 volts

219

10.

Calcium fluoride has the fluorite crystal structure with a lattice

parameter of 5.43 A and a dielectric constant of 7.36.
Calculate the
thickness of the crystal if 50 V causes a displacement of 2 x 10-8 A
between the calcium and fluoride ions.
Z = (4 Ca2+ ions/cell)2 charges/ion)
0.0.49968 X 1030 /m2
(5.43 x 10-10 m)3
(0.049968

P = Zqd

(K -

l)o~

(K -

1) VIP
o

(K -

1030

1)

m3 )(1. 6 x 10-19 C)(2

10-18 m)

V/d

(7.36 - 1)(8.85 x
0.176 m = 176 mm
11.

KCI has the cesium chloride structure. When 12 V are applied to a 0.1 cm
thick crystal, a displacement of 1.186 x 10-6 Ais observed between the
ions. Calculate the dielectric 'constant for KCI.
CI- ionlcell)(l charge/cell) = 0.020976 x 1030 /m3
(3.626 x 10-10 m)3
P = Zqd = (0.020976 x 1030 /m3 )(1.6 x 10-19 C)(1.186 X 10-16 m)

= (1

3.98 x 10-7 C/.;t

P
K

12.

(K -

= (K

l)o~

Suppose you would like to select a dielectric for use in a 60 Hz circuit.

Calculate the ratio of Teflon thickness to Al 20 3 thickness required to
obtain the same polarization and charge.
Kteflon = 2.1

Kalumina

tteflon / talumina
13.

- l)oV/d

= 1 + Pd/ V
o
1 + (3.98 x 10-7 C/m2) (0. 001 m) (8. 85 x 10-12 F/m) (12 V)
4.75

= 9.0

Pteflon

(Kalumina - 1) / (Kteflon - 1)
(9.0 - 1) / (2.1 - 1) = 8/1.1 = 7.27

Calculate the ratio of polyethylene thickness to

each dielectric is to store the maximum charge
without breakdown.

~max
~max

= Palumina

phenolic thickness if
in 12,000 V circuit

20 x 10 Vim = V/tpolyethylene
6
12 x 10 Vim = V/tphenolic

V = ~polyethylene t polyethylene
tpolyethylene/ tphenolic

= ~phenolic t phenolic

= ~Phenolic
= 12 x 106 /
220

/ ~polyethylene
20 X 106 = 0.6

14.

A BaTiO dielectric 4 mm thick is used. in a 24,000 V circuit.

The
dielectfic breaks down and a current flows through the barium titanate.
(a) Is this breakdown expected? (b) If not, explain why breakdown may
have occurred.
t;

(a)

= V/t

24,000 volts / 0.004 m = 6 x 106 V/m < 12 x 106 V/m

Breakdown is unexpected, since the actual strength

electrical field is less than the dielectric strength.

Suppose polyvinxl chloride is used as a dielectric in a 220 V circuit

operating at 10 Hz. The polymer is in the form of a sheet 20 mm x 20 mm
x 0.1 mm/ Calculate the power loss due to the dielectric.
P

(5.556 x 10-11 )Ktanot;2fu

where t;
u

V/d = 220 volts/0.0001 m = 2.2 x 106 V/m

x 10- B m3

= (0.02)(0.02)(0.0001) = 4

(5.556 x 10-11 )(3.2)(0.05)(2.2 x 106 )2(10 6 )(4 x 10-B )

16.

the

breakdown may have occurred due to various defects in the

crystal, such as
adsorbed
moisture,
grain
boundaries,
impurities, etc.

(b)

15.

of

A nylon dielectric in the form of a

1.72 W

cm diameter cylinder 0.001 mm thick

is used in a circuit operating at 10 Hz. Calculate the maximum voltage
in the circuit if the power loss is to be less than 0.15 W.
P L = (5.556 x 10

where t;

PL

-11

= V/t

)Ktanot; fu
and u

= (n/4)(0.01)2(10- 6 ) = 0.7854

x 10-10 m3

(5.556 x 10-11 )(3.6)(0.04)(V/lo-6 )2(10 6 ) (0.7854 x 10-10 )

= 0.15

v = 15.45 volts.
17.

Calculate the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor containing

layers of Teflon, where each Teflon sheet has the dimensions 20 mm x
mm x 0.2 Mm.
If there are 20 layers of teflon, then there must be n
of conductor material.
C

21

20
20

layers

K(n - l)A/d

8.85 x 10- 12 F.m)(2.1)(21 - 1)(0.02 m)(0.02 m)/(0.0002 m)

734.4 x 10-12 F = 0.000743 ~F
18.

A parallel plate capacitor having a capacitance of 0.034

~
is to be
constructed of fused silica sheets each 10 mm x 10 mm x 0.01 Mm.
Determine the number of fused silica sheets and the number of conductor
sheets that are required.
C C K(n - l)A/d
or
n = 1 + Cd/c KA
o
0
n = 1 + (0.034 X 10-6 F)(10- 5 m)/(8.85 x 10-12 F/m)(3.8)(0.01 m)(O.Ol m)
n = 101 conductor layers
(n - 1) = 100 fused silica sheets

221

19.

Determine the surface area of a 0.025 ~F parallel plate capacitor

containing 3 layers of dielectric each 0.015 mm thick if the dielectric
is (a) polyvinyl chloride and (b) barium titanate.
Assume that the
capacitor is operating in a 106 Hz circuit.

(a)

K(n - l)Ald

or

Cd/

K(n - 1)

for polyvinyl chloride

A ~ (0.025 X 10-6 F/rn) (1.5 x 10-5 m)/(S.S5 x 10-12 F/m)(3.2)(4 - 1)

4.41 x 10-3 m2
(b)

(0.25 X 10-6 F/m)(1. 5 x 10-5 m)/(S. S5 x 10-12 F/rn)(3000)(4 - 1)

4.7 X 10- 6 m2

20.

for barium titanate

What force must be applied to a 1 mm x Imm x 0.01 mm

crystal if a voltage of 12 V is to be produced?
How
required?
g

= l/Ed;

where V
A

E
d

and~

V/t or

VEAd/t

12 volts
(1 mm)(l mm) = 1.0 mm2
0.01 mm = 1 x 10-5 m
69 GPa
100 x 10-12 mlV

(12 V)(6.9 x 1010 N/m2) (10- 6 m2 )(100 x 10-12 mlV)

10- 5

= S.274
strain

21.

= F/A;

barium titanate
must strain is

= d~ = (100

1. 200 x 10- 4

10-12 mlV)(12 V I 10- 5 m)

A strain of 5 x 10- 4 mlm is produced in a barium titanate crystal having

an area of 1.5 x 10-5 rn2 , resulting in a voltage of 75 V. Calculate (a)
the thickness of the crystal and (b) the applied force.
(a)

(b)

strain

= d~ = d(V/t)

= dV/

= 0.015

mm

= V/t =

g~

(100

where d

= 100

10-12 mlV

10-12 mlV) (75 V)/(5 x 10- 4 )

(liEd) (F/A

F = VEAd/t

222

= 1. 500

10- 5 m

where V

75 volts
1. 5 X 10- 5 m2
0.015 mm=1.5x 10-5 m
6.9 x 10 10 N/m2
100 x 10- 12m1V

t
E
d
F

(75 V)(6.9 x 10 10 N/m2 )(1.5 x 10- 5 )(100 x 10- 12 mlV)

1. 5 x 10- 5 m
518 N

22.

Determine the ratio of the forces required to produce a voltage of 125 V

in quartz versus barium titanate. The modulus of elasticity of quartz
is 71. 2 GPa.
E

quartz

qquartz

l/dE where E = 71.2 GPa

= 7.2

x 1010 N/m2

1/(2.3 x 10-12 m/V) (7. 2 x 10 10 N/m2)

6.06 V miN

1/dE

where E = 69 GPa
= 69 x 10 9 N/m2
2
22
10
gtitanate = 1/(100 x 10- mlV)(6.9 x 10 N/m ) = 0.145 V mIN

gtitanate

(125 V) (A/t)/6.06 = 20.63 (Alt)

Fquartz = VAitg
Ftitanate

23.

(125 V) (Alt)/O. 145 = 862 (Alt)

VAitg
Fquartz/Ftitanate = 20.63/862 = 0.0239

Determine the voltage required to eliminate polarization

thick dielectric made from material A in Figure 18-28.
coercive field
V=

24.

~t

0.15

= 3200 Vim

If a voltage of 25 V is required to eliminate polarization in material

in Figure 18-28, determine the thickness of the dielectric.

V/~

mm

= (3200 V/m) (0.00015 m) = 0.48 volts

coercive field =

25.

in

= 2800 Vim

= (25 V) (2800 Vim) = 0.0089 m = 8.9 mm

Material B in Figure 18-28, which originally is not polarized, is placed

in an electric field that caused polarization of 4 x 10-8 C/m2
Determine (a) the field required to do this and (b) the dielectric
constant of the material at this point.
(al

(b)

P
K

800 Vim

= 1 + P/Eo~ = 1 + (4 x 10- 8 )/(8.85 x 10- 12 )(800)

223

6.65

26.

electric field of 4000 V/m is applied to material A in Figure 18-28.

Assuming that the material originally was not polarized, determine (a)
the polarization and (b) the dielectric constant at that point.

An

6 x 10-8 C/m

(a)

(b) P

27.

Plot a graph showing how the dielectric constant

unpolarized material B in Figure 18-28 changes as the
increases.
7

800
2000
4000

4
9
11

X
X
X

of
originally
electric field

K.

10-8
10-8
10-8

6.65
6.08
4.1

6
1{

5
Field

28.

Calculate and compare the maximum magnetization we would expect in iron,

nickel, cobalt and gadolinium. There are seven electrons in the 4 f
level of gadolinium.
(2 atoms/cell) (4 magnetons) (9. 27 x 10-24 )
3. 15 X 106 A/m
~e
(2.866 X 10- 10 m)3
(4 atoms/cell) (2 magnetons) (9.27 x 10- 24 )
1. 71 x 10 6 A/m
~i
(3.5167 x 10-10

mt

MCo

MGd

29.

(2 atoms/cell)(3 magnetons)(9.27 x 10-24 )

(2. 5071)2(4.0686) (10- 30)cos30
(2 atoms/cell(7 magnetons) (9.27 x 10-24 )
(3.6336)2(5.7810)(10-30 )cos30

2.51

106 A/m

1. 96 x 10 6 A/m

A Ni-25 wtX Co alloy, which has a lattice parameter of 3.52 A,

is
prepared. Assuming no interactions between the cobalt and nickel atoms,
calculate (a) the atX Co in the alloy and (b) the maximum magnetization
of the alloy.
(a)

atX Co

(25/58.93)
(25/58.93) + (75/58.71) x 100

224

24.9

(b)

magnetonstotal

(0.249)(3 magnetons/Co)

(0.751)(2 magnetons/Ni)

= 2.249
M
alloy

= (4

atoms/cell)(2.249 magnetons)(9.27 x 10,-:24A m2/magneton)

(3.52 x 10- 10 m)3

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~--~~~~~~

1.912 x 106 Aim

30.

A nickel-copper alloy is prepared which has a lattice parameter of 3.54 A

The maximum magnetization of the alloy is measured as 1.46 x 106 Aim.
Assuming no interactions between Ni and Cu atoms, estimate the wt% Cu in
the alloy.
M = (4 atoms/cell) (atomic fraction Ni)(2 magnetons) (9.27 x 10- 24 )
(3.54
1.46 x 106

= (1.6717

10-10 m)3

x 106 ) (atomic fraction Ni)

atomic fraction Ni = 1.46 I 1.6717 = 0.873 = 87.3 at% Ni

wt% Nl
wt% Cu
31.

(al

H = 0.4nllt = 0.4n(JO)(5)/(2) = 9.425 A m-1

(b)

~H=H+M

M = (~ - llH = (800,000 - 1)(9.425 A m-1 ) = 7.54 x 106 A m- 1

r
B = ~ = ~ r ~ 0 H = (800,OOO)(4n x 10-7 henry/m) (9.425) = 9.47T

Using a core of 45 Permalloy, you would like to produce a 19 m long,

300-turn coil of a conductor, giving an inductance of 7.5 Tesla.
What
current must you use in the coil?

B=

~r~oH

H = 0.4nnIlt

33.

= 85.48

5upermalloy, a soft magnetic material, is surrounded by a 20 m long,

30-turn coil of a conductor through which a current of 5 A is passed.
Calculate (a) the magnetic field H, (b) the magnetization M, and (c) the
inductance B.

(c)

32.

(87.3)(58.71)
(87.3)(58.71) _ (13.7)(63.54) x 100
14.52

or H = B/~r~o = (7.5)/(25,OOO)(4n x 10-7 ) = 238.7

or I

= HtI(0.4n)(n)

= (238.7)(19)/(0.4n)(300) = 12

Calculate the strength of the magnetic

saturation magnetization in 5upermalloy.
Msaturation
0.8 Tesla
~r = 800,000
H = M I (~r - 1) = 0.8 I (800,000 - 1)

field

A.

required

225

to

produce

10-6 Tesla

x 10- 6 )/(4n x
= 0.796 A m- 1
(1

A m- 1

l(f7 )

34.

Using Figure 18-29, (a) calculate and plot the BH product as a function
of magnetic field and (b) determine the Dower of the magnetic material.
HI(A m- 1 )
0
1250
1460
1670
2080
2300
2500

0.52
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.2
0.1
0

Power

35.

(BH)

0
1 X
1.6x
2.1 X
2.1 X
2.2 X
2.2 X

B/T
1.1
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0

105
105
105
105
105
105

Power

(BH)

= 511

<t:

300

f-

---::r::
<0

TAm

tOoO
2000
H/A m- 1

-1

BHI(T A m- 1 )
0
1
1. 44
1.68
1. 47
1. 32
0

.
maXImum

,...
I

X
X
x
x
x

= 1. 7

105
105
105
105
105

<t:
f-

'"0

---::r::
<0

X 105 T A m-1

Using Figure 18-29, calculate (a) the initial permeability

maximum permeability of the material.
(a)

(b)

= L).B/L).H = 0.2/5000

(b)

the

4 x 10- 5 T m A-I

From the slope of the line from the origin to where the line
just touches the initial curve,
/!max

= L).B/L).H = 0.75/5000 = 1. 5

10- 4 T m A-I

Using Figure 18-30, calculate (a) the initial permeability

maximum permeability of the material.
(a)

and

From the tangent at the beginning of the initial curve,

/!.

37.

0
500
511
501
416
230
0

.
maxImum

600

,...

Using Figure 18-30, (a) calculate an plot the BH product as a function of

magnetic field and (b) determine the power of the magnetic material.
HI(A m- 1 )

36.

BHI(T A m- 1 )

B/T

and

From the tangent at the beginning of the initial curve,

/!i = L).B/L).H = 0.8/4 x 10

=2
226

-6-1

x 10

T mA

(b)

the

(b)

From the slope of the line from the origin

just touches the initial curve,
"'max

38.

= f.Blf.H = 0.8

=4

1 2 x 105

to where the line

10-6 T m A- l

Determine the power of the CosCe material shown. in Figure 18-25

H

0
0.1 x 10 6
6
0.15 x 12
0.2 x 10
0.24 x 10 6

0.75
0.75
0.74
0.6
0

Power

(BH)

BH

<"""
I

75000
111000
120000

..::
I-

'"o

max

OU-____- L_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

~_

0.1

H/l0 6A m- 1
39.

A magnetic field obtained from a 100-turn coil 12 m in length produces a

magnetization of 0.3 tesla in the material shown in Figurel

18-29.
Determine (a) the required magnetic field, (b) the relative permeabil i ty
of the material in the magnetic field, and (c) the current required to
produce the magnetization.
(a)

From the Figure, H = 2500 Aim

(b)

'"

(c)
40.

= 0.3/2500 = 1.2

HU(0.41l)(n)

x 10-' T m A- l

= (2500)(12)/(0. 41l) (100) = 238

A magnetic field of 160,000 A m- l is obtained in a rod made from the

material shown in Figure 18-30. Determine (a) the magnetization produced
and (b) the relative permeability at that field.
(al

From the Figure, B

(b)

'" = f.Blf.H
ur

41.

f.Blf.H

= ",/"'0

= M = 0.6

0.6/160,000

3.75 x

= 3.75

10- 6/(41l

x 10-6 T m A-I

x 107 ) = 2.98

Suppose we replace 5% of the Fe 2 + ions

Determine the total magnetic moment.
total magnetons

in

magnetite

with

Cu2+

(0.95 Fe 3+l(4 magnetons) + (0.05 Cu2 +l(1 magneton)

3.85 magnetons per subcell

total moment

ions.

(8 subcells) (3. 85 magnetons) (9. 27 x 10-2 '

(8.37 x 10- 10m)3
4.87 x 10 5 Aim

227

42.

The tota! magnetic moment per cubic centimeter in a spinel structure in

which Mn + ions have replaced a portion of the Fe 2 + ions is 5.5 x 105
Aim. (a) Calculate the fraction of the Fe 2 + ions that have been
replaced and (b) determine the wt% Mn in the spinel.
(a)

Let fHn be the ato~!c fraction manganese, then (1 - f Mn ) is the

atomic fraction Fe .
magnetons per Mn : 5; magnetons per Fe 2+ : 4
total moment

(8 subcells) [(1 - f Mn )(4) + f Mn (5)] (9.27 x 10-24

(8.37

10-10 m)3

5.5 x 105 : (1.265 x 105 )(4 - 4fHn + 5fHn )

fMn + 4 : 5.5/1.265 : 4.3478 or fMn : 0.3478
(b)

The formula of the spinel is now

(0.654 Fe 2 +, 0.346 Mn2 +).2Fe 3+.40
at% Fe : (0.654 + 2)/7
at% Mn : 0.346/7
at% 0 : 4/7
wt% Hn :

37.92
4.94
57.14

(4.94)(54.938)
100
(4.94)(54.938) + (37.92)(55.847) + (57.14)(16) x

: 8.22

228

Chapter 19

OPTICAL AND THERMAL PROPERTIES

1.

E
2.

emits a continuous spectrum having

Calculate the voltage on the filament.

A tungsten filament
wavelength of 1.02 A.

= hc/A

(6.62 x 10- 34 Js) (3 x lOB mlS)

(1.02 x 10-10 m) (1. 6 x 10- 19 C)

tungsten

Calculate the minimum voltage required to produce the Ka peak in cobalt.

E = he/A =

(6.62

x 10- 34

Js)(3

lOB m/s)

(1.790 x 10-10 m)(1.6 x 10- 19 C)

1.79

10-10 m

= 6.934 volts

A voltage of 2017 V is required to produce the Ka characteristic peak

potassium.

Calculate the wavelength of the Ka peak.

A = hc/E =

in

(6.62 x 10- 34 Js)(3 X lOB mls)

(2017 V)(1.6 x 10- 19 C)

..:.::..:....:..:::.....:..:c....::.=___-=-=-'-'-'~c....::.=--=-=..:.

6.15 x 10-10 m
5.

10-34 Js

The wavelength of Ka radiation in cobalt is 1.79

4.

minimum

volts

Determine the highest frequency radiation produced when

filament is heated using a 10,500 V supply.
19 C) = 2.538 X 101B S-l
tJ = E/h = (10,500 V)( 1. 6 x 106.62

3.

= 12,169

= 6.15 A

Determine the difference in energy between electrons in (a) the K and L

shells, (b) the K and M shells, and (e) the Land M shells of tungsten.
(a)

K-L shell = Ka = 0.211

E =

(b)

10- 34 Js) (3 x lOB mls)

-10
0.211 x 10
m

K-M shell = K/3 = 0.184

E =

(e)

(6.62

(6.62

L-M shell
E =

A
9.41

li

10-15 J

10-34 Js) (3 x lOB mls)

O. 184 x 10-10 m

10.79

~Q-15

1. 35

10-15

= La = 1.476 A

(6.62 x 10-34 Js)(3 X lOB mls)

-10
1. 476 x 10
m

229

6.

Figure 19-30 shows the results of an X-ray fluorescence analysis.

Determine (a) the accelerating voltage and (b) the identity of the
elements in the sample.
(a)

The smallest wavelength of X-rays is 0.8 A. Therefore the

short wavelength limit ~SWL = 0.8 A = 0.8 X 10-10 m.
E

(b)

= (6.62

x 10-34 )(3

10 8 )

(0.8 x 10- 10 )(1.6 x 10- 19 )

= 15,516

volts

The wavelength of each of the peaks in Figure 19-30 can be

determined and matched with the characteristic peaks in Table
19-1.
1. 50
1.65
2.07
2.30

A ---A

A
A----

Ni
Ni
Cr
Cr

K[3

K
K[3

The sample contains nickel and chromium.

7.

Figure 19-31 shows the results of an X-ray fluorescence analysis.

Determine (a) the accelerating voltage and (b) the identity of the
elements in the sample.
(a)

The smallest wavelength of X-rays is 0.25 A. Therefore the

short wavelength limit ~SWL = 0.25 A= 0.25 X 10-10 m.
E

(b)

-34

= (6.62

x 10 )(3 x 10)
= 49,650 volts
(0.25 x 10-10 )(1.6 x 10- 19 )

The wavelength of each of the peaks in Figure 19-31 can be

determined and matched with the characteristic peaks in Table
19-1.

0.63
0.70
1.80
1.91
5.00
5.35
5.70

A ---A ---A ---A ----

A ---A ----

Mo
Mo
Fe
Fe
5
5
Ho

K~

K[3
K[3

K[3

K
La

The sample contains molybdenum, iron, and sulfur.

8.

Figure 19-32 shows the energies

of
photons
produced
from
an
energy-dispersive analysis of radiation emitted from a specimen in a
scanning electron microscope. Determine the identity of the elements in
the sample.
We can determine the energy associated
with
each
of
the
characteristic peaks, convert the energy to wavelength of the X
rays, and match these wavelengths with those of the characteristic
peaks in Table 19-1.

= (6.62

10- 34 Js)(3 X lOB mls)

(E)(1.6 x 10- 19 J/ev)
X

230

= 1.24125

x 10- 6/E m

8650
1900
5400
5900
6900
7600

eV
eV
eV
eV
eV
eV

i\

7.09
6.53
2.30
2.10
1.80
1.63

x
x
x
x
x
x

10- 10
10-10
10- 10
10-10
10-10
10-10

m = 7.09
m = 6.53
m = 2.30
m = 2.10
m = 1. 80
m = 1.63

A ---A
A
A
A
A

8i
8i
Cr
Cr
Co
Co

Ka
~

Ka

Ka
~

The sample contains silicon, chromium and cobalt.

9.

Figure 19-33 shows the energies

of
photons
produced
from
an
energy-dispersive analysis of radiation emitted from a specimen in a
scanning electron microscope. Determine the identity of the elements in
the sample.
with
each
of
the
We can determine the energy associated
characteristic peaks, convert the energy to wavelength of the X
rays, and match these wavelengths with those of the characteristic
peaks in Table 19-1.
i\

2250
2450
6400
7000

(6.62 x 10- 34 Js)(3

10 8 m/s)

= 1. 24125

(E)(1.6 x 10- 19 J/eV)

eV
eV
eV
eV

i\

5.52
5.07
1. 94
1. 77

x
x
x
x

10- 10
10-10
10-10
10- 10

m 5.52
m = 5.07
m = 1. 94
m = 1. 77

A ---A
A
A

x 10- IE m

8 Ka
8 ~
Fe Ka
Fe ~

The sample contains iron and sulfur.

10.

If the relaxation time is 3 x 10- 4 s, determine the time required for the
intensity of a phosphorescent material to decrease to 1% of the original
intensity.
-tiT

where III

In(O.Ol)

-4.605

-t/(3 x 10- 4 )

The intensity of a phosphorescent material is reduced to 90% of the

original intensity after 8.43 x 10-7 s. Calculate the relaxation time
for the material.
In(I/I )

-tiT

In(0.90)

-8.43 x 10-7 I T

12.

1. 38 x 10-3 s

11.

= 0.01

In(I/I )

where III

(-8.43 x 10-7 ) I

= 0.90

(-0.10536)

=8

x 10-6 S

The intensity of a phosphorescent material is reduced to 95% of its

original intenSity after 2.56 x 10-6 s. Determine the time required for
the intensity to decrease to 0.1% of the original intensity.
In(I/I )
o

T =

where III = 0.95

o
(-2.56 x 10-6 ) I In(0.95) = (-2.56 x 10- B ) I (-0.0513)

-tiT

49.9 x 10- 6 s
t

-Tln(I/I ) = (-49.9 x 10- 6 )ln(0.001)

o
(-49.9 x 10- 6 )(-6.9078) = 3.447 x 10-4
231

13.

When europium is added to ZnS, donor bands are introduced which provide
for emission of photons in the red spectrum.
What is the energy
difference between (a) the donor level and the conduction band and (b)
the donor level and the valence band? (See Table 17-10. )

The red spectrum has a wavelength of about 6800

The energy corresponding to this wavelength is:
E

-34

= (6.62

= 2.92

x 10
Js)(3 x 10 mls)
(6800 x 10- 10 m)

(a)

Therefore the donor level should be located

the bottom of the conduction band.

(b)

the energy gap E

in znS is 3.54 eV.

or 6800 x 10-10m.

10-19 J
1.83

= 1.83
eV

eV

below

Therefore the donor level

is located 3.54 - 1.83 = 1.71 eVabove the top of the valence

band.
14.

Will an incident beam of photons having a wavelength of 8000 A cause

luminescence in (a) Cds, (b) edSe, and (c) PbTe?
What is the maximum
wavelength of incident photons .required for each material? (See Table
17-10. )
Photons having a wavelength of 8000
energy of:
E

-34

= (6.62

A= 8000

10-10 m have an

x 10
Js)(3 x 10 mls)
(8000 x 10-10 m) (1.6 X 1619 J/eV)

1. 55 eV

Luminescence will occur if this energy is greater than the energy

gap in the material.
(a)

CdS: Eg

= 2.42

= (6.62

min
(b)

CdSe: Eg

min
PbTe: Eg

No luminescence

-34

x 10
)(3 x 10 )
(2.42)(1.6 x 10- 19 )

= 1.74

(c)

eV < 1.55 eV

eV < 1.55 eV

= (6.62

-34

= 5129

eV < 1.55 eV
-34

5129

X 10- 10 m

7134

No luminescence

= 7134

x 10
)(3 x 10 )
(1.74)(1.6 x 10- 19 )

= 0.25

10- 10 m

Luminescence
8

~
= (6.62 x 10
)(3 x 10 ) = 49650 X 10-10 m
min
(0.25)(1.6 x 10- 19 )

15.

49650

Using the data in Table 17-10, determine (a) the wavelengths of photons
produced from pure GaAs, (b) whether the photons are in the infrared,
Visible, or ultraviolet portion of the spectrum, and (c) the location of
the electron trap with respect to the valence band if GaAs is to produce
photons in the yellow portion of the spectrum.
(a)

In GaAs, the energy gap E = 1.35 eV, or the wavelength is

g

10- 34 )(3

108 )

(6.62 x
x
(1.35)(1.6 x 10- 19 )
232

= 9194

10- 10 m = 9194

(b)

This wavelength of 9194

(c)

If photons are produced in the yellow portion of the spectrum,

the photons have a wavelength of about 5800 A = 5800 x 10-10m.
The energy gap associated with the trap is:
E

is just into the infrared spectrum.

(6.62 x 100- 34 )(3 x

(5800 x

10- 10 )(1.6

lOB)

x 10- 19 )

= 2.14

The energy trap is 2.14 eV below

However, the energy gap E is only 1. 35
g

the
eV.

eV
conduction
Therefore

band.
yellow

should not be produced by GaAs.

16.

By appropriately doping yttrium aluminum garnet with neodymium, electrons

are excited within the 4f energy band of the Nd atoms.
Determine the
approximate energy transition if the Nd:YAG serves as a laser, producing
a wavelength of 5320 A. What color would the laser beam possess?
(6.62 x 10-34 ) (3 X lOB)
E =
= 2.33 eV
(5320 x 10- 10 )(1.6 x lQ-19)
The wavelength of 5320

17.

A is

in the green portion of the spectrum.

Which, if any of the semiconducting compounds listed in Table 17-10 could

produce a green laser beam with a wavelength of 5130 A?
To produce photons of 5130 A, the energy gap should be greater than:
(6.62 x 10- 34 (3

X lOB)

= 2.42 eV
(5130 x
x lOB)
Of the compounds in Table 17-10, CdS would potentially work.
E

18.

10- 10 )(1.6

Determine the wavelength of photons emitted from (a) pure silicon and (b)
silicon doped with indium. Are the photons in the infrared, visible or
ultraviolet portion of the spectrum? (See Tables 17-8 and 11-9. )
(a)

The energy gap for pure silicon is 1.107 eV.

wavelength of photons is:
A

= (6.62

-34

x 10
)(3 x 10 )
(1.107)(1.6 x 10- 19 )

= 11.213

The corresponding
10- 10 m

11,213 A

This lies in the infrared portion of the spectrum.

(b)

The energy gap for silicon doped with indium is 0.160 eV.
corresponding wavelength of photons is:
A =

(6.62 x 10- 34 )(3 x lOB) = 77,578

(0.160)(1.6 x 10- 19 )

10- 10 m = 77,578 A

This lies in the infrared portion of the spectrum.

233

The

19.

Based on the data in Figure 17-27, determine how the wavelength of the
emitted photons changes as aluminum replaces gallium, producing AlAs
rather than GaAs.
1. 35 eV

For GaAs, E

(6.62 x 10- 34 )(3 x 108 )

(1.35)(1.6 x 10- 19 )

9194

10-10 m

9194

5640

10- 10 m

5640

2.20 eV

For AlAs, E

(6.62 x 10- 34 )(3 x 108 )

(2.20)(1.6 x 10- 19 )

The wavelength would gradually decrease from 9194 to 5640

amount of Al increased in the compound.
20.

A as

the

is passed through a
A beam of X-rays having a wavelength of 2.291
platinum foil having a linear absorption coefficient of 6.54 x 105 m- 1 .
if only 2% of the original intensity of the beam is transmitted,
determine the thickness of the foil.

= -~ where III 0 = 0.02 and ~ = 6.54 X 105 m- 1

o
-In(III o ) I ~ = -In(0.02) I 6.54 x 10- 10 = 3.912/6.54

In(I/I
x

5.98
21.

10-6

In(I/I o )
~

= -~x

= -In(III o )
= 113900

(b)

where 1/10

I x

= 0.32

= -In(0.32)

I x

and x

foil of
(b) the

= 0.01

= -(-1.1394)

mm

ti tanium.

thickness

10-5 m

I 1 x 10- 5

m- 1

To filter out all but 1% of the beam, the thickness should be

x

= -In(III o )

I~

404 x 10- 5 m

22.

105

Only 32% of an X-ray beam passes through a 0.01 mm

Determine (a) the linear absorption coefficient and
required to filter out all but 1% of the X-ray beam.
(a)

= -In(O.Ol)
= 0.04

I 113900

= (-4.6052)

I 113900

mm

Using Figure 19-15, determine the exponent in the relationship between

the absorption coefficient and incident wavelength for nickel.
(The
exponent should be a whole number.) Based on this relationship, estimate
the absorption coefficient of a nickel foil for X-rays having a
wavelength of 13 A.
We can determine the equation by replotting the ~ vs
nickel on a In-In plot, as shown below.
The data
straight line, indicating an equation of the form:
~

. = cAn

234

A data for
plots as a

ltx10

i\

II
40000
90000
180000
300000

-:;; 2x10 5
CD
."
<.>
E 1x105

1. 50

2.00
2.50
3.00

CD

~ 6x10"

.:::

~
'-

4x10

-:;: 2x10 4
;

c = 1.1x10

CD

!t -1
II

:,j 1x10~ t - - - -........- - - - " - I

Wavelength I

From this graph, we can measure the slope and calculate the
constant.
n
c

= slope = 3
= 11000 m-1

If the wavelength is 13
II
23.

= 11000

i\3

X,

then the absorption coefficient is

.-1

= 11000(13)3 = 24,167,000

From Figure 17-27, determine whether any of the solid solutions

GaAs and GaSb will transmit visible light.

Eg

GaAs:

= 1.35

= (6.62

-34

minimum: Eg

= 0.60

i\

eV
8

x 10
)(3 x 10 ) = 9194
(1.35)(1.6 x 10- 19 )

10- 8 m = 9194

eV

-34

i\ = (6.62 x 10
)(3 x 10 )
(0.60)(1.6 x 10- 19 )

Eg = 0.75 eV

GaSb:
i\

= (6.62

x 10- 34 )(3 x 10 8 )

(0.75)(1.6 x 10-19 )

16,550

None will transmit visible light.

235

10- 8

= 16,550

between

24.

Which, if any, of the following semiconducting compounds are

transmitting visible light - InSb, lnAs, GaAs, and GaP?
17-10. )
InSb:

= O. 165

A = (6.62 x 10

-34

eV
B

)(3 x 10 )
(0.165)(1.6 x 10- 19 )

lnAs: E
g

= 0.36

(1.35)(1.6 x 10- 19 )

A =

10-10 m

75,227

-10

34,379

34,479 x 10

1. 35 eV

(6.62 x 10- 34 )(3 x lOB)

= ,:";:":"":"::",,,,:,:--=,;:,-,,---=-,:,,,:,,,,,,:,:-.::...:..-'-

GaP: E

75,227

eV

(6.62 x 10- 27 )(3 x lOB)

A = .;..:..:..=:......:.:--=.;:.-..----'...:..:......:.:-.::..::..-'(0.36)(1.6 x 10- 19 )
GaAs: E

capable of
(See Table

9194

10- 10

= 5541

10- 10 m

9194 A

2.24 eV

(6.62 x 10- 34 )(3 x lOB)

(2.24)(1.6 x 10- 19 )

5541

Only GaP will transmit visible light.

25.

26.

Describe how the index of refraction will change when the wavelength of
frequency of the incident radiation changes for (a) polyvinyl chloride
and (b) polyethylene.
(a)

From Table 18-1, we find that the dielectric constant I<

increases ad the frequency increases for polyvinyl chloride.
Based on the relationship between index of refraction and
dielectric constant, we would also expect the index
of
refraction to increase as the frequency increases.

(b)

However, when the frequency increases for polyethylene, the

dielectric constant remains constant; therefore we also would
expect a constant index of refraction. The difference between
these two polymer's behaviour is related to the polymer
structure - polyethylene has a simple symmetrical structure
while the chlorine atoms on PVC make that material more easily
polarized.

Suppose a laser beam strikes a 10 mm thick sheet of leaded glass at an

angle of 15 to the normal of the glass. Determine the angle between the
beam and the normal as the laser passes through the glass.
By what
distance will the transmitted beam be displaced from its original path by
the glass?

236

Let material "1" be air

Then
n 2/n t

sin oc / sin

(1 / 2.5)sin 15

glass

2.5 / 1 : sin 15 / sin

sin

air

and "2" be the glass.

= 5.94 = angle

or

= (1

/ 2.5)(0.2588)

= 0.1035

between beam and normal.

If the beam was not diffracted, it would emerge from the opposite
side of the glass at distance "y" from its entry point
y / 10 mm = tan(15)

or y = 2.679 mm

~ 10mm ~

The beam actually emerges at a distance "y - x" from the point of
entry, or
(y - x) / 10 mm

= tan(5.94)

or y - x

= 1.040

mm

The distance by which the beam is displaced is "x", or

X :

27.

2.679 - 1.040 : 1.639 mm

Suppose a beam of light from an LED passes through air and impinges at an
angle of 30 to the normal of a composite sheet of Ti02 and polyethylene.
Determine the angle between the beam and the normal of the composite as
the beam of light passes (a) through the Ti02 and (b) through the
polyethylene.
(a)

If we assume that the light first strikes the Ti0 2, then we

can let material "1" be air and material "2" by Ti0 2.
sin ~
n t sin oc / n 2 : (l)(sin 30)/(2.7) = 0.1852
sin ~

(b)

10.67

next the light passes from Ti02 to polyethylene.

Letting

material "1" be Ti02 and material "2" be polyethylene

sin

28.

= n t sin oc/ n 2 = (2.7)(sin 10.67)/(1.5) = 0.333

= 19.47

A ~eam of light passing through a glass sheet (n = 1.5) at an angle of

26 to the normal of the sheet then enters a second sheet of a transparent
dielectric. If the beam of light in the dielectric makes and angle of
18 to the normal, determine (a) the index of refraction and (b) the
dielectric constant of the dielectric.

237

(a)

Let material "'1" be the glass and material "2" be the

dielectric.
n2

= n1

sin 1 sin

= (1.5)(sin 26) 1 (sin 18)

= (1.5)(0.4384)/(0.3090)
= 2.128
(b)

29.

From equation 19-6, we find that

K = n 2 = (2.128)2 = 4.529

Suppose we construct a composite glass fiber, with the inner portion of

the fiber having an index of refraction of 1.5 and the outer sheath of
the fiber having an index of refraction of 1.48. Calculate the maximum
angle that a beam of light can deviate from the axis of the fiber without
escaping from the inner portion of the fiber.
Let material "1" be the inner sheath and material "2" be
sheath. Then

the

outer

sin u = n 2 si~/nl =(1.48)(sin90)/(1.50)=0.986667

= 80.63
Therefore the maximum angle that the beam can deviate from the fiber
axis is 90 - 80.63 = 9.37.
30.

Suppose that 25% of the intensity of a beam of photons entering a

material at a 90 angle to the surface is transmitted through a 10 mm
thick material with a dielectric constant of 1.44.
Determine the
fraction of the beam that is (a) reflected, and (b) absorbed.
(c)
Calculate the linear absorption coefficient of the photons in the
material.
First we can calculate the index of refraction of the material:
n = Vi. =

"1.

44 = 1. 2

(a)

R = [en - 1) 1 ~n + 1)]2 x 100

= (0.2 1 2.2) x 100 = 8.26%

(b)

Itotal = Ireflected + Iabsorbed + Itransmitted

[(1.2 - 1) 1 (1.2 + 1)]2 x 100

100%

100 = 8.26 + Iabsorbed + 25

Iabsorbed = 66.74%
(c)

In(I/I o ) =
~

-~

-In(III o ) 1 x
= 40.44

-In(0.6674) 1 10

m- 1

238

(-0.4044)(1 x 1)-3)

31.

The linear absorption coefficient of a 2.5 mm thick material is 80 m- 1

The intensity of a transmitted beam is 10% of the original beam.
Determine (a) the reflectivity, (b) the index of refraction, and (c) the
dielectric constant of the material.
(a)

First we need to find the percent of the beam that is absorbed.

In(I/I o ) = -~ = -(80)(2.5 x 10- 3 ) = -0.2
exp(-0.2) = 0.08187

1/10
I

III

absorbed

x 100 = 81.87%

Itotal =Itransmitted + labsorbed + Ireflected

100

(b)

= 10

81.87 + Ireflected

= 8.13%

Reflectivity

Ireflected

Reflectivity

[en - 1) I (n + 1)]2 x 100

(n - 1) I (n
n

(c)

32.

= n2

(1.79)2

1)

Ka = 1.937

= 0.285

= 3.2

A ; KP

Ka = 2.104

A; KP

= 1.910

Ka = 1.660

A; KP

= 1.500

peak

of

the

A.

Manganese would be an

A,

Chromium would be an

A,

Cobalt would be an

Because its absorption edge is 1.608

effective filter.
33.

Ka

Because its absorption edge is 2.070

effective filter.
Ni:

the

= 1.757

Because its absorption edge is 1.896.

effective filter.

Mn:

8.13

= 1.79

What filter material would you use to isolate

following X-rays - iron, manganese, nickel?
Fe:

100%

Figure 19-34 shows the intensity of the radiation obtained from a copper
X-ray generating tube as a function of wavelength.
The accompanying
table shows the linear absorption coefficient for a manganese filter for
several wavelengths. if the Mn filter is 0.02 mm thick, calculate the
intensity of the transmitted X-ray beam for each wavelength.

239

from Figure 19-34 for

each of the wavelengths. Then we can calculate the final intensity
If from the expression below, using the appropriate absorption

First we can read the initial intensity 10

coefficient for each wavelength.

The table below includes both the initial intensity from the figure
and the final intensity as calculated from the above expression.

34.

Wavelength
(A)

Linear Absorption Coefficient

(m- t )

0.711
1.436
1.542
1.659
1. 79
1.937
2.103
2.291

24900
173900
211000
258600
.320200
47300
59100
73900

72

90
120
88
86
81
74
68

If
43.8
2.78
1. 76
0.50
0.14
31. 45
22.7
15.5

The results of an X-ray diffraction analysis using copper radiation (A =

1.5418
are given as 20 values below.
Determine (a) the crystal
structure of the metal, (b) the Miller indices of each of the peaks, and
(c) the lattice parameter of the material.

A)

We start by finding sin 2 0 for each of the peaks.

Then we divide
through the smallest of the sin2 a values to determine if this
division produces all whole numbers. Fortunately in this example,
all whole numbers are obtained. (If this were not the case, we
would have to find some other common denominator that does produce
all whole numbers.)
In this case, these whole numbers will
correspond to h 2 + k + 12 values. Indices can then be assigned to
each peak.
Peak
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

20
26.65
38.05
47.06
54.81
62.04
68.71
81. 33

sin20
0.053
0.106
0.159
0.212
0.266
0.318
0.425

sin2 O/O.053 h2 + k 2 +
1

2
3
4
5
6

12

1
2
3
4
5
6
8

indices
(100)
(110)
( 111)
(200)
(210)
(211)
(220)

(a)

Because of the sequence of sin2 a values (ie no "7" is present),

the material must be simple cubic.

(b)

The Miller indices are given in the table.

240

(cl

We can pick one of the peaks (say peak 7), use Bragg's Law to
find the interplanar distance d 20' and use the interplanar
spacing equation to calculate t~e lattice parameter.
(Other
more sophisticated analytical methods may be used to give more
accurate results.)

= 2d22O sina

i\.

or

35.

= d 220vb2

i\./2sina

120

= 1. 5418/2sin(81. 33/2)

(1.5418)(2)(0.6516)

1. 831

+k 2 + 12

= 3.346 X

Figure 19-35 shows the results from an X-ray diffraction experiment as

the intensity of the diffracted peak versus the 2a angle. Determine (a)
the crystal structure of the metal, (bl the indices of the planes that
produce each of the peaks, (cl the lattice parameter of the metal, and
(d) the probable identity of the metal. Copper radiation (i\. = 1.5418 X)
is used.
We start by finding sin2 a for each of the peaks.
Then we divide
through by the smallest of the sin2 a values to determine if this
division produces all whole numbers. In this case, we do no~ obtain
whole numbers. Therefore we might try to multiply the sin a/0.l06
values by 3. When we do this, we obtain a series of h 2 + k 2 + 12
values that are approximately whole numbers with a series that
corresponds to a FCC crystal structure.
Indices can then be
assigned to each peak.
2a

sin2a

38
44.5
65
78.5
82.5
99

0.106
0.143
0.289
0.400
0.435
0.578

peak
1
2
3
4
5
6

sin2 9/0.106

1
1. 34
2.73
3.77
4. 10
5.45

x
x
x
x
x
x

h2 + k 2 +
3
3
3
3
3
3

12

3
4.02
8.2
11. 3
12.3
16.35

indices
(111)
(200)
(220)
(311 )
(222)
(400)

(a)

The crystal structure must be face-centered cubic.

(b)

The indices are given in the table.

(c)

We can pick one of the peaks (say peak 2), determine

interplanar spacing d 200 using Bragg's Law, and then find

the

the lattice parameter from the interplanar spacing equation.

i\. = 2d

a
(d)

200

sina

or d

200

= i\.l2sina = 1. 5418/2sin(44. 512)

= (1.5418)/(2)(0.3786)

= 2.036 X

From Appendix A, this lattice

that of gold.
241

parameter

might

correspond

to

36.

An X-ray film with a 180 mm diameter is used

in an
diffracted line 40 mm from the exit port of the
Determine the interplanar spacing of the plane
diffracted line if copper radiation (~ = 1.5418
is

A)

A
X-ray camera.
beam is produced.
that produced the
used.

The 29 angle can be determined from the location of the diffracted

line and the size of the camera.
29
9

18Ox/nR where x = 40 mm and R

(180)(40)/(n)(90) = 25.46
12.73

= 180/2

90 mm

From Bragg's law,

d

37.

= ~2sin9 = 1.5418/2sin(12.73)

(1.5418)/(2)(0.2204)

3.498

In a Debye-Scherrer X-ray film obtained from a powdered chromium specimen

with copper radiation (~ = 1.5418 A), the first three diffraction lines
are located at 29 = 44.4, 64.6, and 81.8.
Determine the Miller
indices correspondi~ to each line if the lattice parameter of BCC
chromium is 2.8845 A.
Using Bragg's Law, we can determine the interplanar spacing for each
line.
d

= ~/2sin9 = 1. 5418/2sin9 = 0.7709/sin9

From the interplanar spacing equation, we can calculate h 2 + k 2 +

and then determine the indices of the diffracting planes.
h2 + k 2 +
line 1: 29

12

= (aol

44.4; 9

line 2: 29

64.6; 9

line 3: 29

81. 8; 9

d)

12

= (2. 8845/d) 2

22.2; d
32.3; d
40. gO; d

2.0403

A;

h2 + k 2 +

1.443

1;

h 2 + k 2 + 12

1.1774

A;

h2 + k 2 +

Therefore line 1 must be from (110)

planes; and line 3 from (211) planes.

242

planes;

line

12

12

2
4

=6

from

(200)

38.

Calculate the temperature of a 1 kg sample of nickel originally

after 4000 calories are introduced.
liT

= Q/cw

40.

25C

where Q is the heat introduced, c is the specific

heat, and 101 is the mass of the sample.

liT = (16 kJ)/(0.46 kJ/kg K) = 34.8 K

t f = To + liT = 25 + 348 = 59. 8C
39.

at

34. 8C

Calculate the heat in joules required to raise the temperature of 50 g of

silica by 50C.
liT

= cwllT

= (1.110

where Q is the heat introduced, c is the specific

heat and 101 is the weight of the sample.
kJ/kg K)(50 x 10-3 kg) (50 K)

= 2.775

kJ

= 2775

Suppose a 50 mm x 50 mm block of magnesium 20 mm thick is used as a heat

sink; determine the thickness of a 50 mm x 50 mm block of copper required
to remove the same amount of heat with only a 5C temperature increase.
(50

10- 3 m) (50 x 10- 3 m) (20 x 10-3 m)

(50 x

10- 6

m3 )(1.74

Mg/m 3 )

= 87

= 50

x 10- 6 m3

If the thickness of copper is t mm

VCu

(50 x 10- 3 m) (50 x 10-3 m) (t x 10- 3 m)

= 2.5t

10-6 m- 3

22.325 t g

wCu

= CMgwMg
Cu
CCu
22. 325t = (1017 J kg-1 J(1 ) (87 g)
(385 kg -1 K- 1 )

101

41.

(1017) (87)
(385) (22. 325)

mm

= 10.29

mm

Liquid copper is poured into a mold 1 m in length and

solidify. Calculate the length of the copper casting after
room temperature.
IX

lit

= llVlllT
= to:llT =

(1 m)(16.6 x 10-6 C- 1 )(1084.9 - 25C)

m

= 0.01759
t

- lit

=1

- 0.01759

243

0.98241 m

allowed
cooling

to
to

42.

A gray iron mold is produced by machining a cavity 350 mm long at room

temperature. the mold is then heated to 315C and liquid aluminum is
poured into it. Assuming that the temperature of the mold does not
change, calculate the final length of the aluminum casting after it cools
to room temperature (25C).
l=350mm
T
= 660 CO
mp

T
room

25 CO

The mold will initially expand from the original 350 mm length.

6l = l"i
6T = (350)(12 x 10-6 )(315 - 25) = 1.218 mm
o ron
lmold = 350 + 1.218 = 351.22 mm
The casting will initially have this same length - 351.22 mm - but
will then contract. the amount of contraction of the aluminum is

6l = lAI6T = (351.22)(25 x 10-6 )(660 - 25)

5.576 mm

If = 351. 22 - 5.58 = 345.64 mm

43.

A 50 mm aluminum conductor wire is coated with a protective layer of

epoxy. If the coated wire is heated from 25C to 100C, determine the
final length of both the aluminum and the epoxy.
What is likely to
happen to the epoxy coating as a result of the expansion?
AI:
epoxy:

If = lo + lO"AI6T = 500 + (500)(25 x 10-6 )(75) = 500.9375 mm

if = l o + l 0 " epoxy6T = 500 + (500)(55 x 10-6 )(75) = 502.0625 mm

The epoxy expands a greater amount than the aluminum; consequently

if the epoxy is tightly bonded to the aluminum, the epoxy tries to
occupy too large of a volume and may spall or flake off of the
aluminum.
44.

A 100 mm x 100 mm plate of magnesium is coated with a thin layer of fused

quartz; the composite is then heated from 25C to 350C.
Calculate the
expected dimensions of both the magnesium and the quartz after heating.
What is likely to happen to the quartz layer?

Hg: If = lo + i o"Mg6T = 100 + (100)(25 x 10-6 )(325) = 100.8125 ~

quartz: If = l + l "
t 6T = 100 + (100) (0. 55 x 10-6 ) (325)
0 quar z
o
= 100.0179 mm
The quartz expands less than the magnesium; if the quartz is tightly
bonded to the magnesium, then the quartz layer will crack and expose
the magnesium below.
45.

A casting is to be made from a 1020 steel. A sand core having a diameter

of 100 mm is placed into the mold, the steel is poured around the sand"
core, and solidification occurs.
After freezing, the sand core is
knocked out of the casting, leaving behind a hole in the casting.
Calculate the diameter of the hole.
The melting temperature for the
steel is about 1500C.
244

= do

df
46.

= 100

- d aAT
0

- (100)(12 x. 10-6 ) (1500 - 25)

= 98.23

mm

Suppose an aluminum plate 100 mm x 100 mm x 10 mm thick separates a heat

source at 300C from a bath containing 1 liter of water at 25C.
Calculate (a) the heat Q transferred to the water each second and (b) the
time required to warm the water to 26C.
KAAT/~x = (238 W/m K)(0.01 m2 )(215C)/(0.01 m)
65450 W

(a)

(b)

The heat required to raise the temperature of the water 1C is

= cw~T = (4.189

kJ/kg K)(1 kg)(lC)

= 4.181

kJ

= 4181

This heat is supplied by the flux of heat through the aluminum

plate.
time
41.

= (65450

W)/(4181 J)

= 15.63

We would like to heat 100 ml of water from 10C to 11C in 60 s. We will

do this by immersing a 10 mm long cylinder of copper in the water while
the other end of the copper cylinder is in contact with a heat source
operating at 800C. Calculate the required diameter of the cylinder if
half of the heat is lost from the cylinder during transfer.
The heat required to warm the water is

= cw~T = (4181

J/kg K)(0.1 kg)(1C)

= 418.1

But half of the heat from the heat source is lost. Therefore a
total of 831.4 J must be provided by the heat source.

Q = 831.4 J =
831.4 J

KAAT/~x

= (400

where A

= (n/4)d 2

and ~T

= 800

- 10

190C

W/mK) (n/4) (d2 ) (190C/l x 10-2 m)

(831.4 x 102 )/(400) (n/4) (190)

= 3.3165

x 10- 5 m2

5.811 x 10-3 m = 5.81 mm

48.

A window glass (soda-lime) 5 mm thick and 1 m square separates a room at

25C from the outside, at OC. (a) Calculate the amount of heat lost
from the room through the window each day. (b)
Suppose we produce a
window composed of two layers of glass each 2 mm thick separated by a 1
mm thick layer of 6.6 nylon. Recalculate the amount of heat lost from
the room each day.
(a)

Q = KAAT/~x = (0.96 W/mK) (1 m)2(25)/(5 x 10-3 m)

4800 W = 4~00 J/s = 4800(3600 s/h) (24 h/day)
414.1 x 10 J/day
0.415 GJ/day

(b)

composite

+ f

glass glass
nylon nylon
(4 mml5 mm)(0.96) + (1 mml5 mm)(121)

24.91 W m- 1 K- 1
245

49.

(24.97 W m- 1 K- 1 ) (1 m2 ) (25C)/(5 x 10-3 m)

124850 W = 124850 J/s
124850 (J/s)(3600 s/h) (24 h/day)
1. 079 GJ/day

From the data in Table 19-6, use the thermal conductivity to calculate
the electrical conductivity of aluminum and compare your answer with the
value given in Table 17-2.
From the Lorentz constant,

= KILT = (238
= 3.472

X 107

W/(m K)/(2.3 x 10-8 W 0 K- 2 ) (298 K)

0- 1

m- 1

The value for electrical conductivity given in Table 17-2 is

3.77 x 107 0- 1 m- 1

246

Chapter 20.
CORROSION AND VEAR

1.

A brass plumbing fitting produced from a Cu-30% Zn alloy operates in the

hot water system of a building. After some period of use, cracking and
leaking occur, although on visual examination not metal appears to have
been corroded. Offer an explanation for why the fitting failed.
The high zinc brasses are susceptible to dezinclfication,
particularly when the temperature is increased.
One of the
characteristics of dezincification is that copper is redeposited in
the regions that are attacked, obscuring the damage.
However, the
redeposited copper is spongy, brittle, and weak, permitting the
fitting to fail and leak. Therefore dezincification appears to bea
possible explanation.

2.

A gray cast iron pipe is used in the water distribution system for a
city.
the pipe fails and leaks, even though it is well below the
freezing line of the soil and no corrosion noticeable to the naked eye
has occurred. Offer an explanation for why the fitting failed.
A cast iron is susceptible to graphitic corrosion, where the iron is
selectively corroded, leaving behind a spongy, porous, weak, and
brittle network of interconnected graphite flakes.
Because of the
presence of the graphite and corrosion products in the at tacked
regions, this corroded region may not be detectable with the naked
eye, although a pocket knife could easily scrape away this corroded
material.
Based on the observations,
graphitic corrosion appears
to be a likely culprit.

3.

The slag covering liquid steel in a furnace is composed of 4 parts by

weight 5iOz to 1 part FeO. Because the melting point of the slag is less
than the temperature of the liquid steel (1600C), the slag is also a
liquid and begins to attack the furnace refractory.
Determine how much
(al MgO or (b) Al z0 3 would have to be added to make the liquidus
temperature of the slag equal to or greater than the steel temperature so
that slag-refractory problems are reduced.
The initial slag contains 20% FeO and 80% 5iO . This point can be
located on each of the ternary phase diagrams. z A line can then be
constructed in the ternary,
running from the initial slag
composi tion (20% FeO-80% 51Oz ) to pure MgO or pure Al z0 3 .
By
following these constructed lines to where the line intersects the
1600C liquidus temperature, the amount of the third oxide can be
determined.
(a)

MgO: 35%

(b)

241

Al 0: 21%

4.

Which of the following coatings would be expected to protect iron even if

the coating is scratched to expose the iron - polyethylene, glass enamel,
zinc, nickel, tin, lead?
To provide protection of the underlying iron, the coating must be
more anodic than the iron and must be an electrical conductor so
that an electrochemical cell can be created. Polyethylene and glass
are both non-conductors; they are not expected to serve as
sacrificial anodes because no protective cell will be established.
Nickel, tin, and lead are all more cathodic than iron; consequently
none of these three metals will serve as sacrificial anodes.
Instead they will tend to accelerate the corrosion of the iron.
However, zinc is a conductor and is more anodic than iron; therefore
zinc will protect the iron even if the coating is scratched.

5.

Suppose 5 g of Ni 2 + are dissolved in 1000 ml of water to produce an

electrolyte. Calculate the electrode potential of the nickel half-cell.
Cion = 5 g Ni

6.

= EO

= -0.25

2+

/ 58.71 g/mol

0.0~92 log (Cion)

= -0.25

+ (0.0296)(-1.06956)

= 0.0852
+

0.0~92 10g(0.0852)

= -0.282

A half cell produced by dissolving lead in water produces an electrode

potential of -0.15 V. Calculate the amount of lead that must be added to
1000 ml of water to produce this potential.

= EO

+ 0.0592 10g(C.

-0.13 + 0.0592 10g(C

)
ion
n

-0.15

10g(C ion )
Cion

Ion

=g

-0.675675
Pb2 + /

or

Cion

or g Pb

MWPb

2+

= 0.211
= (Cion) (MWpb )

= (0.211)(207.19) = 43.72
7.

An electrode potential

in a .silver half cell is found to be 0.78 V.

Determine the concentration of Ag+ ions in the electrolyte.

E
0.78

= EO

+ 0.0592 10 (C

)
n
g ion
0.0592
0.80 + --1- log (Cion)

10g(C10n ) = -0.33784
8.

or Cion

= 0.4594

mol/dm

What
A current density of 0.03 A/cm2 Is applied to a 125 cm2 cathode.
period of time is required to plate out a 0.05 cm coating of gold onto a
cathode?
i

I/A

Vp

or

= Atp

= iA = (0.03

A/cm2 ) (125 cm2 )

= 3.75

(125 x 10-4 m2 )(5 x 10-4 m)(19.302 Mg/m3 )

248

120.64 g

ItWnF

wnF/IM

= 47,283
9.

= 13.13

Determine the plating current density required to deposit 50 g of tin per

1000 cm2 onto a cathode in 1.5 h.
iAM/nF
ItWnF
wnF/AtM
(50 g)(2)(~6,500 C)/(1000 cm2 )(1.5 h) (3600 s/h)(118.69 g/mole)
0.015 A/cm

w
i

10.

(120.64 g) (3) (96,5000 C)/(3.75 A)(196.97 g/mole)

Suppose a copper water pipe having an inside diameter of 2 cm is

accidentally connected to the power system of a building, causing a
current of 0.2 A to flow through the pipe.
Determine the rate of
corrosion of the pipe.
If the wall thickness of the pipe is 0.1 cm,
estimate the time required before the pipe begins to leak.
Rate of Corrosion
w

= ItWnF =
= 6.584

A)(1 s) (63. 54 g/mole)/(2) (96,500 C)

g/s

(~52

x 10

= (circumference) = nd = (n)(2) = 6.28 cm2

x 10-5 g/s)/(6.28 cm2 ) = 1.0484 x 10-5 g/s cm2

Area per cm length

w per cm

= (6.584

Time to leak
The pipe will begin to leak when 0.1 cm of material has been
corroded.
Volume per cm = (n/4)d 2 _ (n/4)d. 2
o
1
(n/4)(2.2)2 = (n/4)(2.0)2 = 0.65973 cm3 per cm
weight per cm = (0.65973 cm3 per cm)(8.93 g/cm3) = 5.891 g per cm
time
11.

(5.891 g per cm) / (6.584 x 10-5 g/s per cm)

89.474 s = 24.85 h

An aluminum probe 25 mm in diameter is submerged to a depth of 250 mm in

an electrolyte. After one year, the diameter of the probe is reduced to
21.8 mm.
Calculate the current density at the aluminum surface that
caused the corrosion.
~V

[(n/4)(0.025)2 - (n/4) (0.0218)2] (250)

29405 mm3

weight

ndi

= 2.9405

x lO-5m3

p~V = (2.7 Mg/m3 ) (2. 9405 x 10-5 m3 ) = 79.394 g/year

(79.394 g/year)/(365 d/year) (24 h/day) (3600 s/h)

= 2.518 x 10-6 g/s

= (n)(0.025 m)(0.250
249

m)

= 19.635

x 10-3 m2

nFw/AtH =

12.

(3)(96,500 C)(2.518 x 10- 6 gls)

(19.635 X 10- 3 m2 )(1 s)(26.981 g/mole)

--~~~~~~~~~~~~~----

1. 376 Alm2

In a corrosion cell composed of copper and iron, a current density of

0.008 ~cm2is applied to the cathode. the area ~f the copper cathode is
100 cm and the area of the iron anode is 200 cm . Calculate the amount
of iron that is lost from the anode each hour.
I = ieuAeu = iFe~e
(0.008 Alcm2 )(100 cm2 ) = i Fe (200 cm2 )
i Fe = (0.008)(100)/(200) = 0.004 Alcm2
w

13.

= iAtHlnF = (0.004)(200)(3600)(63.54)/(2)(96,500) = 0.948

Would corrosion of iron be higher in lake water of sea water?

terms of polarization.

g/h

Explain in

In terms of resistance, we might expect that sea water would have a

higher conductivity than lake water and therefore would produce a
more rapid rate of corrosion. However, lake water is likely to be
more stagnant, permitting either build-up of impurities at the iron
surface which might retard the corrosion rate or creating oxygen
starvation cells which might increase the corrosion rate.
14.

15.

An Alclad composite material

is produced in which one layer of 2024

aluminum alloy is sandwiched between two layers of 1100 aluminum alloy.
(a) Would you expect the corrosion resistance of the composite to be
good or poor? Explain.
(b) Suppose that one of the 1100 alloy sheets
were deeply scratched. Would the corrosion resistance change? Explain.
(a)

Corrosion resistance would be good.

The 1100 alloy is
commercially pure aluminum and is expected to have good
resistance to corrosion compared to the 2024 alloy. As long as
the 2024 layer is surrounded by the 100 alloy, the overall
composite should have good corrosion resistance.

(b)

Corrosion resistance will now be relatively poor.

the 1100
alloy will act as the cathode, while the exposed 2024 alloy
will act as the anode.
Because the exposed anode area is
small, we would expect rapid corrosion rates.

A 1080 steel rod 6.25 mm in diameter is to be formed into a coiled

spring. For best corrosion resistance, should the rod be formed hot or
cold? Explain.
For best corrosion resistance, we should form the steel by a hot
working process.
If we used a cold working process, residual
stresses may be stored in the spring; this in turn would permit the
development of stress cells that might encourage corrosion.

16.

A steel nut is very securely tightened onto a bolt used in a marine

environment.
After several months, the nut contains numerous cracks.
Explain why cracking might have occurred.

250

When the nut is tightly secured onto the bolt residual stresses are
likely to be introduced into the assembly. The presence of numerous
cracks suggests that stress corrosion cracking may have occurred as
a result of these stresses.
17.

18.

austenitic stainless steel is found to corrode in the heat-affected

zone a short distance from the fusion zone.
(a)
Why does corrosion
occur at this location?
(What does this tell you about the carbon
content of the steel? (c) What does this tell you about the type of
welding process that must have been done?
(d) What could you do to
prevent the occurrence of this corrosion?
An

(a)

During the welding process, some of the material in the heat

affected area is exposed to temperatures in the sensitization
temperature range (425 to 870C).
Chromium carbides are then
formed at the grain boundaries, depleting the austenite of the
protective chromium solid solution.
Intergranular corrosion
can then occur.

(b)

Intergranular corrosion is only likely to occur if the carbon

content is above at least 0.03%.

(c)

The welding process must have been relatively slow, permitting

extended holding times in the sensitization temperature range
in that portion of the heat affected zone.
However, the
process was not exceptionally slow or all of the material in
the heat affected zone, even that adjacent to the fusion zone,
would have become sensitized.

(d)

Prevention could be done by: using a lower carbon steel; using

a steel that had been stabilized with titanium or niobium;
using a faster welding process; making sure that the steel was
not preheated prior to welding; using a quench anneal after
welding to dissolve the precipitated chromium carbides.

An aircraft wing composed of carbon fiber-reinforced epoxy is connected

to a titanium forging on the fuselage.
Will corrosion occur in the
carbon (graphite) fibers, the epoxy, or the titanium? Explain.
Titanium is expected to corrode first.
The epoxy is a polymer
material and is not expected to participate in an electrochemical
cell; the graphite, which is a "ceramic" material, does have some
electrical conductivity but is rather cathodic compared to titanium,
which is generally an anodic material.
-

19.

The inside surface of a cast iron pipe is coated with tar,which provides
a protective coating.
Acetone in a chemical laboratory is routinely
drained through the pipe.
Explain why, after some period of time, the
pipe begins to corrode.
During use, the acetone serves as a solvent for the tar; the
protective tar coating is eventually dissolved and the cast iron
pipe is then exposed to any corrosive material that is drained
through the pipe.

251

20.

A frequent coating for a low carbon steel is cadmium.

Does cadmium
provide corrosion protection to the steel even if the coating is
scratched?
From Table 20-2, we find that cadmium is more anodic than a low
carbon steel. The cadmium serves as a sacrificial anode, much like
zinc.

21.

Almost pure tin is sometimes used to solder copper for electrical uses
Will the tin solder or the copper corrode in a corrosive environment?
From the galvanic series, we find that tin is anodic to copper.
Therefore the tin is expected to corrode.

22.

The axle of an automobile

consequently, the axle should
However, if the housing leaks,
housing may greatly reduce the

is normally sealed in a housing and,

survive the lifetime of the automobile.
the axle may fail.
Explain why a leaky
life of the axle.

The axle is continually exposed to a cyclical load during rotation.

Normally the axle is loaded so that the applied stress is well below
the endurance limit and fatigue is not likely to occur.
However,
when the axle is exposed to the environment, corrosion may occur.
The corrosion may reduce the diameter of the axle, thereby
increasing the applied stress, and may also introduce locations for
easier nucleation of fatigue cracks. Finally corrosion may help to
accelerate the growth of any fatigue cracks that do form.
Consequently failure may occur as a result of corrosion fatigue.
23.

A sheet of annealed 1040 steel is exposed to the weather. Although steel

is not in contact with any other material that could act as a cathode,
corrosion gradually occurs. Explain why the steel will corrode.
The microstructure of the annealed 1040 steel contains a mixture of
approximately 50% ferrite and 50% pearlite.
As a result we have
microcells produced throughout the steel sheet, with the ferrite
acting as the anode and the pearlite acting as the cathode.
In
addition, even within the pearlite, we have a mixture of ferrite and
cementite, with the cementite serving as the cathode.

24.

A steel column partly submerged in lake water is found to corrode

severely just beneath the water surface. How would the corrosion pattern
change if the steel column were submerged in a small pond instead of a
large lake?
We expect the water in a small pond to be much more stagnant than in
a large lake; consequently, the oxygen content in the water would be
relatively low.
This is turn would produce a more effective
concentration cell, or oxygen starvation is more likely in the small
pond.

252

25.

annealed copper sheet,

a cold-worked copper sheet,
and a
recrystallized copper sheet are submerged in an electrolyte. Which would
be expected to be most resistant to corrosion? Which would be the least
resistant to corrosion? Explain.
An

The annealed copper should would be most resistant to corrosion; the

grain size is expected to be particularly large and no residual
stresses are expected. Consequently a stress cell is unlikely.
In
addition, the annealed sheet is expected to have the most uniform
composition, ie the least segregation, so a composition cell is also
unlikely.
The cold worked copper sheet is expected to have the poorest
corrosion resistance due to the residual stresses introduced during
the cold working process.
The recrystallized sheet should have intermediate corrosion
resistance; residual stresses should have been eliminated as a
result of the heat treatment but the grain size may be smaller than
in the annealed sheet.
26.

A steel pipe used to transport crude oil is buried in various types of

soil. Different rates of corrosion of the pipe are noted, depending on
the nature of the soil. Explain why the soil might affect the corrosion
rate of the pipe.
One explanation might be that the composition of the soil will
affect the soil conductivity. Moist cells containing mobile ions may
permi t rapid conductivity, leading to a higher current and more
rapid corrosion rates.

27.

In which case would you expect less severe corrosion problems - joining
two steel sheets with aluminum rivets or joining two aluminum sheets with
steel rivets? Explain.
The aluminum is expected to be the anode while the iron is the
cathode.
To minimize the rate of corrosion of the aluminum, we
would like to have the anode area be as large as possible compared
to the cathode area.
When we use aluminum rivets in steel, the
anode area is very small and the aluminum will corrode rapidly.
When aluminum is joined with steel rivets, the aluminum anode area
is large and corrosion will occur at a slower rate.
This situation may be reversed if the aluminum is passivated with a
thick protective aluminum coating.
The aluminum oxide may then
cause the aluminum to be the cathode; now we would have rapid
corrosion of the steel rivets.

28.

A steel plate can be protected by a coating of paint. Will the type of

protection provided by the paint resemble the type of protection provided
by tin or that provided by zinc? Explain.
Paint will provide protection more like that of tin than of zinc.
The paint, which is an organic material, will not be conductive and
cannot serve as a sacrificial anode. When the paint is disturbed,
the underlying steel is exposed and will begin to corrode.

253

29.

Two sheets of 1020 steel are joined together with an aluminum rivet
(Figure 2-23).
During the JOInIng process, the aluminum rivet is
severely deformed.
Discuss the possible corrosion cells that might be
created as a result of this process.
Composi tion cells - aluminum may act as the anode in conjunction
with the steel; in addition ferrite may serve as the anode to
cementite within the steel.
Stress cells - the aluminum rivet is deformed when the joint is
produced, causing the most highly cold worked portion of the rivet
to act as the anode. In addition grain boundaries in both the steel
and the aluminum may act as the anodes for a stress cell.
Concentration cells - crevice corrosion may occur between the two
steel sheets and also between the aluminum rivet and the steel
sheets.

30.

A corrosion cell is set up between iron and zinc. The current density at
the iron sheet is 0.02 Alcm 2 . Calculate the weight loss of zinc per week
(a) if the zinc has a surface area of 10 cm2 and the iron has a surface
area of 100 cm2 and (b) if the zinc has a surface area of 100 cm2 and the
iron has a surface area of 10 cm2 .
(a)

Alcm2 ) (100 cm2 ) = 2A

(1 wk)(7 days/wk) (24 hlday) (3600 s/h)

iFe~e

= (0.02

(2 A) (604,800 s)(65.38 g/mol)

(2) (96,500 C)

WZn = ItWnF
(b)

= 604,800

WZn

= 409.8

= ItWnF =

(0.2 a)(604,800 s)(6538 g/mol)

(2)(96;500 C)

A cadmium coating is used to protect a 1 m x 1 m steel sheet. A scratch

0.1 cm wide and 10 cm long is made in the cadmium coating.
If 2 g of
cadmium are lost uniformly from the coating per week, determine the
corrosion current produced in the sheet.
~e

ACd
t

= (0.1

cm)(10 cm)

(1 wk)(7 days/wk) (24 hlday) (3600 s/h)

wnF/tM

=(

=1

= 604,800

cm

2 g Cd)(2)(96,500 C)/(604,800) s)(112.4 g/moll

5.68 x 10- 3 A
32.

31.

= 604,800

= 5.68

rnA

Anodized aluminum sheet is joined by steel rivets. Would you expect the
steel or the anodized aluminum to act as the anode? Explain.
In the anodized condition, the aluminum is coated with a thick layer
of non-conductive aluminum oxide.
Consequently the aluminum is
protected and the steel will serve as the anode.

254

33.

Figure 20-24 shows a cross section through a plastic-encapsulated

integrated circuit, including a small microgap between the lead frame
and the polymer. If chloride ions from the manufacturing environment are
able to penetrate the package, determine what types of corrosion cells
might develop and what portions of the integrated circuit might corrode.
Composition cells can develop between gold and aluminum (with the
aluminum serving as the anode and corroding); gold and copper (with
the copper serving as the anode and corroding); and aluminum and
silicon (with aluminum serving as the anode and corroding).

34.

Liquid pig iron contains 4% C, 0.5% Ni, 1.2% Si and 0.8% Mn is held at
1625C. If oxygen is blown into the liquid pig iron, describe the order
in which the different elements in the liquid bath will be oxidized.
In order of oxidation:
First carbon will oxidize to form CO
Silicon will oxidize to form SiD
Manganese will oxidize to form MAD
Carbon will oxidize to form CO
Iron will oxidize to form FeD 2
Nickel will oxidize to form NiO

35.

Determine the Pilling-Bedworth ratio for the following metals and predict
the behaviour of the oxide that forms on the surface.
The Pilling Bedworth relation is:
P-B = MWoxidePmetal
nMWmetalPoxide
The appropriate values for the equation and the final
Pilling-Bedworth ratio are shown in the Table below:
Metal

Metal
Density
(mg/m3 )

Ag

10.49
3.5
1. 55
6.689
8.832
10.22
0.967
8.57
5.765
6.505

Ba

Ca
Ce
Co
Mo
Na
Nb
Sn

Zr

Oxide

Oxide
MWmetal
DenSi}y
(Mg/m )

Ag 0

7.143
5.72
3.30
6.86
6.45
6.47
2.27
4.47
6.446
5.6

Ba8

CaD
Ce 0
Co8 3
MoO
Na 8
Nb2 0

sn8

ZrO2

107.868
137.3
40.08
140.12
58.93
95.94
22.99
92.91
118 69
91.22

231. 736
153.3
56.08
328.24
74.93
127.94
61. 98
265.82
134.69
123.22

P-B

2
1
1

1.578
0.683
0.657
1. 142
1. 741
2.106
0.574
2.743
1.015
1. 569

1
1

2
2
1
1

For metal oxide systems that have a P-B ratio less than one, a
flakey non-adherent oxide is expected. This is the case for Ba, Ca
and Na.

255

For metal oxide systems that have a P-B ratio greater than two, a
porous, non-protective oxide is expected. This is the case for Mo
and Nb.

For metal oxide systems that have a P-B ratio between one and two, a
relatively protective oxide is expected, as for Ag, Ce, Co, Sn and
Zr.
36.

When palladium is oxidized at 1480C, 0.1 mg of Pd metal is lost per

square centimeter per hour. At 604C, only 0.0001 mg is lost per square
centimeter per hour.
(a) Assuming that oxidation is controlled by the
diffusion of Pd ions through the oxide, calculate the activation energy
for the diffusion of Pd in PdO. (b)Suppose a 10 cm x 10 cm foil of Pd is
placed into an oxidizing atmosphere at 1000C for 10 days. Calculate the
amount of Pd that is oxidized. Remember that oxidation occurs from both
sides of the foil.
(a)

To determine the activation energy, we assume

Arrhenius relationship: rate = exp(-QlRT)
0.0001 mg/cm2 .h _ exp[-Q/(8.31) (604 +273)]
0.1 mg/cm2.h - exp[-Q(8.31) (1480 + 273)1

an

exp(-0.00013721Q)
exp(-0.00006865Q)
0.001

= exp[-(0.00013721

In(O.OOl)

= -6.9077553

exp(-0.00006856Q)

- 0.00006865)Q]
-0.00006856 Q

Q = 100.8 kJ/mol
(b)

Since oxidation occurs from both sides of the foil, !he area
that is exposed is (2 sides)(10 cm x 10 cm) = 200 cm
rate

(f.""1

(1000
= exp[-100800/(8.31)
exp( 100800/(8.31)(1480
7.274 x 10-5
9.878 x 10-4

= 0.0736

+ 273)]
+ 273) 1

exp(-9.528)
exp(-6.980)

mg/cm2.h

rate = 0.007356 mg/cm2.h

amount = (0.00736)(200 cm2 ) (10 d)(24 hid)
37.

= 353.46

mg

Suppose a 100 cm2 surface area of copper is exposed to an oxidizing

atmosphere at an elevated temperature. After 1 h, 1 X 10-7 cm of copper
has oxidized; after 1000 h, 3. 164 X 10- 8 cm has oxidized; and after
100,000 h, 3.164 X 10-5 cm has oxidized.
(a) Determine from the data
whether oxidation follows a linear, parabolic, or logarithmic pattern.
(b) Calculate the total weight loss of copper after 1 year.
(a)

If we assume a parabolic relationship, then the calculated "k"

in the equation y = kt should be the same for each time.
1 hr: k = y2/t = (1 x 10-6 mm)2/(3600 s)

103 hr: k

= y2/t = (3.164
256

x 10-5 )2/(10 3 )(3600)

2.78

10-16 mm2/s

2.78 x 10-16 mm 2/s

The relationship is parabolic.

(b)

Y=
w

(1 year)9365 days/year) (24 h/day) (3600 s/h)

-18

(2.78 x 10

= (9.36

= 3.1535

cm/s) (3.1536 x 10 s) = 9.36 x 10

10-6 cm)(100 cm2 ) (8.93 g/cm3)

= 0.00836

-6

x 107s

cm

38.

A newly developed stainless steel was tested at 500C in an oxygen

atmosphere.
Aftel 10,000 s, a weight gain ~f 0.62 g/m2 was measured;
after 40,000 s, the weight gain was 1.24 g/m; and after 90,000 s, the
gain was 1. 86 g/m2
(a)
Determine from the data whether oxidation
follows a linear, parabolic or logarithmic pattern.
(b)
Explain why
there is a weight gain.
(a)

If we assume a parabolic relationship, then the calculated "k"

in the equation y = ill should be the same for each time.
Although we do not have the values for thickness, the thickness
will be directly related to the weight change.

10,000 s: k

= w2 /t

(0.62 g/m2 )/(10,OOO s)

3.844 x 10-5 g/(m2 s)

40,000 s: k

= w2 /t

(1.24 g/m2 )/(40, 000 s)

3.844 x 10-5 g/(m2 s)

90,000 s: k

= w2 /t

(1.86 g/m2 )/(90,OOO s)

3.844 x 10-5 g/(m2 s)

The relationship is parabolic.

(b)

39.

When the metal reacts with oxygen to produce the oxide film
more material is deposited onto the sample.
Therefore the
sample weight includes the metal plus the oxide, leading to a
net gain in weight.

Fiber-reinforced polymers have better resistance to sliding wear than

unreinforced polymers. Would you expect the orientation of the fibers to
have an effect on wear resistance? (See Figure 20-25.) Which would be
most effective - normal, longitudinal, or transverse fibers? Explain.
Would the aspect ratio of the fibers be important? Explain.
The orientation of the fibers will have an effect on wear
resistance. The longitudinally aligned fibers will provide the best
wear resistance.
In addition, the aspect ratio will be important,
with a larger aspect ratio providing better resistance to wear.

40.

A nylon cylinder 250 mm in diameter slides continuously against a steel

housing under a load of 110 N.
The cylinder rotates at 250 rpm.
(a)
Calculate the length of time before 0.25 mm of 6,6 nylon is worn from the
surface of the cylinder. (b) Calculate the time if 18% PTFE is added to
the nylon.
(a)

The change in volume that occurs when 0.25 mm is worn from the
surface is:

257

= 250 mm

= 250

df

- 2(0.25)

= 249.5

mm

V10S S per m = [(n/4)(0.25 m)2 - (n/4) (0.2495)2] (1 m)

1.962 x 10-4 m3
velocity v

= 1.962

(circumference)(rpm)

x 105 mm3

= n(0.25)(250)

196.3 mlmin = 1.963 x 105 mmlmin

kny 1on
t

= 414

= Vloss lkFv

. = 1.962
= 2.19
(b)

10-8 mm3 INm

X
X

105 mm3 /(414 x 10-8 mm3 /Nm)(110 N)(196.3 mlmin)

106 min

= 36,600

hours

k ny 1onIPTFE = 12 x 10-8 mm3 INm

t

= Vloss kFv

1.962 x 105 mm3 /(12 x 10-8 /Nm) (110 N)(196.3 mlmin)

1,263,000 hours

258

Chapter 21

FAILURE - ORIGIN, DETECTION, AND PREVENTION

1.

Figure 21-32 is a photograph of a 31.75 mm diameter axle from an

automobile; after an accident, the axle was found to be broken. From the
photograph, determine the mechanism by which the axle fractured and the
location at which fracture began (express by the angle measured clockwise
from the top of the photograph). What is the probable cause for the
accident?
There are chevron patterns on either side of the axle, pointing
directly towards the bottom of the photograph, which is where the
fracture initiated. The presence of the chevron pattern suggests
that fracture occurred in a brittle manner. The axle most certainly
broke as a result of the impact when the automobile crashed.

2.

Figure 21-33 shows the fracture surface of a coil spring made from a 6.35
mm diameter steel rod. From the photograph, determine the mechanism by
which the axle fractured and the location at which fracture began
(express by the angle measured clockwise from the top of the photograph).
A smooth fracture appearance that has initiated at about 10
counterclockwise from the top of the photograph is apparent.
This
appearance suggests that the fracture is a result of fatigue.
During use of the spring, cyclical stresses are applied. The spring
was either overloaded or some type of defect was present that
concentrated the applied stresses.
In this particular case, a
longitudinal seam was introduced during manufacture that served as a
stress raiser.

3.

Figure 21-34 shows the end of a steel wire used to reinforce an

automobile tyre.
From the appearance of the wire, determine the
mechanism by which the wire fractured.
The wire shows some degree of necking. This suggests that the wire
has some degree of ductility and that the wire failed as a result of
a tensile overload, possibly when the tire operated in a deflated
condition.

4.

Figure 21-35 shows a diagram of a pin and hanger strap assembly used on a
bridge. The bridge connection is designed in such a manner that as the
ambient temperature changes, the resulting expansion or contraction of
the bridge can occur by rotation of the pin.
The pin failed, as
indicated, and a cross section of the pin is also shown.
Discuss the
probable mechanism for fracture and how this fracture came about.
The pin was unable to rotate, which caused a cyclical torsional
overload to be placed on the pin during movement of the bridge in
response to temperature changes. Eventually the pin failed as a
result of this overload, perhaps by simple overload or perhaps by
fatigue.

259

The real reason for the failure was corrosion, which eventually
froze the pin and prevented its movement. The corrosion eventually
caused a groove to be eroded from the pin, reducing the section size
of the pin and therefore increasing the stresses acting on the pin,
permitting easier fracture. The corrosion was a result of exposure
of the pin assembly to the environment and was accelerated due to
use of salts on the bridge to prevent icing during the winter.
5.

A steel shaft in an automotive water pump rotates on steel ball bearings.

The shaft fractured, causing the fan blade that was attached to the shaft
to injure a mechanic adjusting the engine of the automobile.
On
inspection, the shaft was found to have fractured at a groove in which
the balls rotated (Figure 21-36). Severe deformation of the metal had
occurred in this groove. Discuss some of the possible causes for this
fracture.
From the appearance of the shaft, it is apparent that the shaft was
overheated, losing its strength. The ball was then forced into the
softened shaft, the bearing seized and the high forces that resulted
caused the water pump to disintegrate. One of the possible causes
for the overheating and fracture might be lack of lubrication in the
bearing; other causes might be use of the incorrect water pump or
misassembly of the water pump in the automobile.

6.

Determine (a) the mass absorption coefficient

absorption coefficient for a Cu-30% Ni alloy.
Be
fraction.

(30/58.71 g/mol)
x 100
(30/58.71 g/mol) + (70/63.54 g/mol)

atY. Nl

P
(a)

and (b)
sure to

fNiP Nl + fCuPCu
(0.31686)(8.902 Mg/m 3 )

(0.68314)(8.93 Mg/m3 )

the
use

linear
atomic

31.686

8.921 Mg/m3

Mass absorption coefficient:

~

= fNi~i

+ fcu~Cu

= (0.31686)(31.0 m2 /Mg) + (0.68314)(32.5 m21Mg)

(b)

Linear absorption coefficient:

~ - P~m
7.

= (8.921

Mg/m3 ) (32.0 m2 1Mg)

A gas bubble 2 mm in diameter is located in a 2 cm thick aluminum

casting. Compare the intensity of an X-ray beam transmitted through the
section containing the bubble with the intensity of a beam transmitted
through the section containing no defect.
The absorption coefficient is so small in air compared to aluminum
that we can ignore the effect of air. Therefore x = 1.8 mm at the
bubble and x = 20 mm where the bubble is not present:
I bubb Ie

I oexp[-(15.6)(2. 7)(18 x 10-3 ]

Isolid

I oexp[-(15.60(2.7) (20 x 10- 3 ]

260

loexp(-0.75816)
0.4685
I exp(-0.8424) - 0.4307
o
Ibubble/lsolid
8.

= 1.088

A 1 mm diameter tungsten inclusion is located in a 10 mm thick aluminum

weld. Compare the intensity of the X-ray beam transmitted through the
section containing the inclusion with the intensity of a beam transmitted
through the section containing no defect.
I inclusion

I exp[-(15.6)(2.7)(9 x 10- 3 ) + (288)(19.3)(1 x 10-3 )

o

Isolid
linclusion
Isolid
9.

exp(-5.93748)
exp(-0.4212)

0.002639 = 0 004
0.6563
.

The sensitivity when radiographing a 18.75 mm thick iron plate is 2.5%.

Calculate (a) the smallest flaw that can be detected and (b) the ratio
formed by the intensity of the beam transmitted through the smallest flaw
divided by the intensity of the beam passing through the solid plate.
(a)

sensitivity
~x

(~x/x)

= (2.5x)/l00

x 100

= 2.5

2.5 x 18.75 x 10-3 /100

0.4688 x 10- 3 m

Idiscontinuity

exp[-(26.5)(7.87)(18.75 - 0.4688)(10- 3 )]

liron

exp[-(26.5)(7.87)(18.75 x 10-3 )
exp(-3.8126)
exp( 3.9104)

10.

0.02209
0.02003

=1

1030

Based on Table 21-1, determine the relationship between mass

coefficient and atomic number Z for X-rays with A
0.098
similar relationship obtained for the absorption of neutrons?

261

absorption
Is a

A.

The sketch shows how the

mass absorption coefficient
varies with the atomic number
for the elements given in the
table for X rays with a
wavelength of 0.098 A. For
elements with a low atomic
number, the mass absorption
coefficient is nearly a
constant (approximately
15 mZIMg). For higher
atomic number elements,
the mass absorption
coefficient increases with
about the square of the
atomic number.

500

100

e
~

50

10 1

,.1

10

100

There is not a similar relationship for neutrons.

11.

What percentage of the incident X-ray beam is transmitted through (a) a 3

cm thick magnesium plate, (b) a 3 cm magnesium plate containing a 2 cm
long, 0.01 cm thick crack perpendicular to the beam. and (c) a 3 cm
magnesium plate containing a 2 cm long, 0.01 cm thick crack parallel to
the beam.
(a)

=
(b)

exp[- 15.2)(1.74)(3 x 10-z)

o
0.4523 or 45.23%

I/i

I/i

= exp[-(15.2)(1.74)(2.99

= 0.4535
(c)

12.

1/10

x 10-z)

= exp(-0.790755)

or 45.35%

= exp[-(15.2)(1.74)(1

= 0.7676

exp(-0.79344)

x 10-z)

= exp(-0.26448)

or 76.76%

Aluminum is reinforced with 50 vol% boron fibers each 0.005 cm in

diameter. if the fiber-reinforced composite is 0.5 cm thick. determine
the ratio of the intensities of an X-ray beam transmitted through a
cracked fiber and through the remainder of the composite.
Would you
expect that a broken fiber could be easily detected by X-ray radiography?
Isolid/Io

exp[-(15.6)(2.7)(0.25 x 10-z ) - (13.8)(2.3)(0.25 x 10-z)]

exp(-0.18465)

Icrack/Io

= 0.8314

or 83.14%

exp[-(15.6)(2.7)(0.25 x 10-z ) - (13.8)(2.3)(0.25-0.005)(10-z )

= exp(-0.18306) = 0.8327

or 83.27%

It is unlikely that the broken fiber could easily be detected by X-ray

radiography.

262

13.

A laminar composite material composed of a 3 cm thick copper plate bonded

to a 0.5 cm thick lead sheet is then rolled to a final thickness of 0.25
cm. Calculate (a) the intensity of a transmitted X-ray beam before
rolling and (b) the intensity after rolling. Describe how a radiographic
technique could be used to control the thickness of a rolled material.
(a)

Before rolling

III
(b)

exp[-(350)(11.34)(0.5 x 10- 2 )
exp(-28.581)

= 3.87

(32.5)(8.96)(3 x 10- 2 )

x 10-13

After rolling

III

exp[-(350)(11.34)(0.5/3.5)(0.25 x 10- 2 )
- (0.325)(8.96)(3/3.5)(0.25 x 10- 2 )

exp(-2.0415)

= 0.1298

By monitoring the intensity of the radiation passing through

the material, some indication of the thickness could be
obtained. The intensity could then be used as a control to
open or close the rolls to alter the thickness if desired.
14.

Often the intensity of a radiation source and the absorption capability

of a material are related by the half value layer (HVL).
This is the
thickness of the material that will reduce the intensity of a radiation
beam by half. Calculate the HVL for aluminum and iron using (a) tungsten
X-rays, (b) cobalt 60 gamma rays, and (c) neutrons.

III

= HVL = -(1/~p)ln(0.5) = 0.693147/~p

Aluminum:

HVL

= 0.0693147/(~)(2.7)

HVLX-rays

0.693147/(15.6)(2.7)

0.016456 m

gamma rays

0.693147/(5.5)(2.7)

0.046677 m

HVLneutrons

0.693147/(3.0)(2.7)

0.085574 m

Hn

Iron: Hn
HVL

15.

or

exp(-~px)

= 0.693147/(~)(7.87)
0.693147/(26.5)(7.87)

0.003324 m

HVL
gamma rays

0.693147/(5.5)(7.87)

0.16014 m

Hnneutrons

0.693147/(1.5)(7.87)

0.58716 m

X-rays

Radium has a half life of 1620 years.

for radium and (b) the percentage
remaining after 25 years.
In(I/I )
o

Calculate (a) the decay constant

of the radium source intensity

-At

263

16.

(b)

1/1

exp[-(4.2787 x 10-4 )(25)]

= 0.989

x 10

-4

-1

or 98.9%

The intensity of a thulium 170 source is 76% of its original value after
50 days. Calculate (a) the decay constant and (b) the half-life of
thulium.
exp(-At)

1/10

17.

= -(l/t)ln(I/I o ) = -(1/1620)ln(0.5) = 4.2787

(a)

or In(I/I o )

= -At
= 0.005489

(~)

-(l/t)ln(I/I o )

-(1/50)ln(0.76)

(b)

-(l/A)ln(I/I o )

-(1/0.005489)ln(0.5)

day-1

= 126.28

days

Calculate the thin-rod ultrasonic velocity in aluminum, copper and lead

and compare with the velocity in bulk materials given in Table 21-3.
Note: Equation 21-4 is incorrect. The correct equation is:
tI

= iETp

3720 m S-1

The thin rod values are all lower than those in the bulk material.
18.

An ultrasonic pulse introduced into a 125 mm thick lead block returns

the transducer in 1.0 x 10-4 s. Is there a flaw in the lead
so at what depth beneath the surface is the flaw located?

block?

to
if

The distance that the pulse travelled is:

tI

= x/t

or x

= tit = (1.96

x 103 )(1 x 10-4 )

= 0.196

= 196

mm

However, if no flaw was present, the pulse should have travelled 2

x 125 = 250 mm. There must be a flaw located 196 + 2 = 98 mm
beneath the surface.
19.

An ultrasonic pulse introduced into a 100 mm thick polymer material

returns to the transducer in 9.4 x 10-5 s.

velocity in the material.
tI

20.

= x/t = (200

Calculate the ultrasonic

x 10-3 m)/(9.4 x 10-5 ) s)

= 2128

An ultrasonic pulse is introduced into a thin rod

m/s

of a material 250 mm
long. A pulse returns in 3.3 x 10- 4 s. if the density of the material
is measured to be 1.33 Mg/m3 , estimate the modulus of elasticity of the
material.

264

v
E
21.

= x/t = VE7P
(p)(X/t)2 = (1.33

x 103 )(500 X 10- 3 )/(3.3 X 10- 4 )2

GPa

Figure 21-37 shows the oscilloscope trace of an ultrasonic inspection of

t.he 125 mm wall of a stainless steel pressure vessel.
(a) Calculate the
ultrasonic velocity in the stainless steel. (b) Is a flaw present?
if
so, at what depth beneath the surface of the steel is the flaw located?
(a)

The final return peak at 4.4 X 10- 5 s represents the reflection

off of the opposite side of the stainless steel wall.
The
pulse must therefore have travelled a total of 250 mm.

v = (250 x 10- 3 m) I (4.4 x 10- 5 s)

(b)

= 5682

mls

There is another peak that occurs after 2.2 x 10-5 s. This must
represent a flaw. The distance below the surface is:

x = vt = (5.682 x 103 )(2.2 x 10-5 s)

depth below the surface = 62.5 mm
22.

= 3.05

= 0.125

= 125

mm

Two sheets of nickel are sandwiched about a core of copper, giving a

laminar composite that is 37.5 mm thick.
An ultrasonic pulse is
introduced into the composite plate; return pulses are observed at 0.844
x 10- 5 s, 0.981 X 10-5 s, and 1.297 x 10-5 s. Estimate the thicknesses
of the copper core and each of the nickel sheets.

x 103 )(0.844 x 10-5 ) = 50.8 mm

(4.63 x
- 0.844) x (1 x 10-5 ) = 6.34 mm
vt = (6.02 x 103 )(1.297 - 0.981) x (1 x 10-5 ) = 19.0 mm

vt

= (6.02

103 )(0.981

Thicknesses are therefore: Ni-1

Cu
Ni-2
23.

A laminar composite is produced from 50 mm thick stainless steel and 5 mm

thick polymer. In a thro~~h-transmission ultrasonic test, a pulse is
received after 1.135 x 10 s. Calculate the ultrasonic velocity in the
polymer.
t

= (xlv) stainless

1.135 x 10- 5

v
24.

25.4 mm
3.17 mm
9.50 mm

= 1890

= (50

+ (xlv)

polymer

x 10-3 /5.74 x 103 ) + (5 x 10-3 /v)

m s-1

We would like to monitor the thickness of 0.02 mm of silver foil using a

resonance ultrasonic test. What frequency must we select if we want to
produce 9 half-wavelengths in the foil?

= (9)(3.63

x 103 )/2v

= 0.02

9(;\/2)

(9)v/2v

Thus v

(9)(3.63 ~ 103 )/(2)(0.02 x 10-3 )

8.17 x 10 Hz
265

x 10-3 m

25.

A resonance ultrasonic test is used to determi~e the thickness of a glass

enamel on cast iron. A frequency of 22.2 x 10 Hz is required to produce
3 half-wavelengths in the enamel. What is the enamel thickness?

= v/v = (5.64 x 103 )(22.2 x 106 ) = 2.54

~2 = 2.54 x 10-4 /2 = 1.27 x 10-4 m

10-4 m

x = 3(~2) = 3(1.27 x 10-4 m = 0.381 mm

26.

Figure 21-38 shows the results of ultrasonic inspection of ductile cast

iron (See Chapter 12) for different heat treatments and for different
degrees of nodularity, or roundness, of the graphite.
Explain why the
heat treatment and nodularity might affect the ultrasonic velocity.
As the nodularity increases, the velocity also increases because the
rounder graphite does not scatter the pulse as easily as would flake
graphite.

27.

Describe how the shape of the graphite in a cast iron treated with
different amounts of magnesium might affect the attenuation in a
through-transmission ultrasonic test.
As the magnesium increases, the attenuation decreases because of the
change in graphite shape from flake to spheroidal.

28.

Describe how thermography might detect lack of bonding between the

sheets and the cells in a honeycomb structure.

cover

At locations of poor bonding, conduction of the heat is interrupted

and these areas become hotter, thereby becoming
visible
to
thermography.
29.

Which of the following non-destructive tests would not be suitable for

inspecting ~lumina (A~ 0 ) for surface cracks oriented perpendicular to
the surface - X-ray raaiography, ultrasonic inspection, eddy current
inspection, magnetic particle inspection, dye penetrant inspection?
Explain.
X-ray diffraction and dye penetrant
techniques.

inspection

would

be

possible

Ultrasonic inspection would not be suitable because the crack is

parallel to the pulse and therefore no return pulse would be
generated; eddy current inspection is not possible because alumina
is not conductive; magnetic particle inspection is not suitable
because alumina is not magnetic.
30.

Describe a test that might be used to count the number of wires in a wire
rope that will break when a given load is applied.
Acoustic emission would be a possible choice.
Each time a wire
breaks, the fracture would be detected by the receiver and could be
counted.

31.

The center of an aluminum casting 50 mm thick contains shrinkage in the

form of many small, disconnected pores. Would the following inspection
techniques locate the porosity? Explain for each case.
266

Through-transmission ultrasonic inspection: A greater attenuation

of the pulse would be observed as the pulse travels through the
shrinkage region; therefore the porosity could be detected.
Pulse-echo ultrasonic inspection: Some reflected pulse signal
return to the transducer to allow for the detection of
shrinkage.
Eddy current inspection: This is not suitable since
is in the center of the casting, while eddy current
best suited for surface inperfections.
Magnetic particle inspection:
is not magnetic.

may
the

the shrinkage
inspection is

This is not suitable because aluminum

X-ray radiography: This would be suitable due to the difference in

absorption coefficient between the metal and the shrinkage voids.
Rockwell hardness testing: This is not suitable, since the hardness
is measured only at the surface.
32.

Which of the following inspection techniques might locate quench cracks

produced when a high-carbon steel plate is rapidly quenched? Explain for
each case.
Pulse-echo ultrasonic inspection: It would be difficult to detect
the cracks, since the quench cracks are often quite small and are
perpendicular to the surface (or parallel to the ultrasonic pulse).
Eddy current inspection: This is good technique for detecting small
cracks at or near the surface.
Magnetic particle inspection with the probe method: This is a good
technique for detecting small cracks at or near the surface in
steels.
X-ray radiography: This method is suitable, provided that the
is not too thick and the cracks are not too small.
Acoustic emission:
by this method.

33.

The presence of the cracks should be

plate

detectable

Which of the following inspection techniques might be effective as a

means to assure that a 0.002 cm thick nickel plating is present on a zinc
casting? Explain for each case ..
Pulse-echo ultrasonic inspection: Although a return signal from the
zinc-nickel interface might occur, it would be very difficult to
detect it and separate it from the initial pulse.
X-ray radiography: This is not suitable; although there may be some
difference in exposure with and without the nickel coating, the
difference is probably too small to normally detect or use as a
control method.

267

Acoustic emission: Unless the interface between the nickel and zinc
is very poor, there should be no indications when a test stress is
applied that nickel is or is not present.
Eddy current inspection: This might be acceptable.
The nickel
plating may influence the electromagnetic field set up by the eddy
current probe and allow a difference to be detected.
Electromagnetic testing: Nickel is ferromagnetic while zinc is not.
Therefore electromagnetic testing should be able to tell us if any
nickel coating is or is not present.
34.

Which of the following inspection techniques might be effective in

detecting whether an austenitic stainless steel contains between 5% and
10% ferrite? Explain for each case.
Through-transmission ultrasonic inspection:
ferrite causes a significant attenuation in
this should not be a useful test.

Unless the amount of

the ultrasonic pulse,

Acoustic emission:
This. should not be a useful
test;
the
application of the test stress should not affect the microstructure.
Electromagnetic testing: The ferrite is ferromagnetic while the
austenite matrix is not ferromagnetic; therefore if the steel is
magnetic, some ferrite is present. By measuring the strength of the
magnetic field, the amount of ferrite can be determined.
Magnetic particle testing: This is used to detect imperfections
the material, not microstructure.

in

Eddy current inspection: It might be possible to set up test

conditions to estimate the presence and even the amount of ferrite,
since the microstructure will influence the type of electromagnetic
response of the material to the eddy current probe.
35.

Safety glass might be produced by Joining two sheets of glass with a thin
layer of thermoplastic polymer.
Which of the following inspection
techniques might be effective in determining if bonding between the glass
sheets is complete? Explain for each case.
Electromagnetic
testing;
Neither
glass
nor
polymer
ferromagnetic therefore this test will not be useful.

are

Eddy current inspection: neither glass not polymer are electrically

conductive: again this test will not be useful.
Thermography: This test should work; concentration of heat will
occur at locations of incomplete bonding between glass and polymer.
Magnetic particle inspection: neither the glass nor the polymer are
magnetic; therefore this test will not be useful.
X-ray radiography: Generally we would expect, due to the geometry,
to find the X-ray beam perpendicular to the glass-polymer interface.
Therefore the thickness of any lack of bonding would be extremely
small and probably would not be detectable.
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