Metal Nanoparticles For Catalysis Advances and Applications

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Published on 12 June 2014 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781782621034-FP001
Metal Nanoparticles for Catalysis
Advances and Applications
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Carbons and Carbon Supported Catalysts in Hydroprocessing

Chiral Sulfur Ligands: Asymmetric Catalysis
Recent Developments in Asymmetric Organocatalysis
Catalysis in the Refining of FischerTropsch Syncrude
Organocatalytic Enantioselective Conjugate Addition Reactions:
A Powerful Tool for the Stereocontrolled Synthesis of Complex Molecules
N-Heterocyclic Carbenes: From Laboratory Curiosities to Ecient
Synthetic Tools
P-Stereogenic Ligands in Enantioselective Catalysis
Chemistry of the MoritaBaylisHillman Reaction
Proton-Coupled Electron Transfer: A Carrefour of Chemical Reactivity
Traditions
Asymmetric Domino Reactions
C-H and C-X Bond Functionalization: Transition Metal Mediation
Metal Organic Frameworks as Heterogeneous Catalysts
Environmental Catalysis Over Gold-Based Materials
Computational Catalysis
Catalysis in Ionic Liquids: From Catalyst Synthesis to Application
Economic Synthesis of Heterocycles: Zinc, Iron, Copper, Cobalt,
Manganese and Nickel Catalysts
Metal Nanoparticles for Catalysis: Advances and Applications
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Metal Nanoparticles for

Catalysis
Advances and Applications
Franklin Tao
University of Notre Dame, USA
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RSC Catalysis Series No. 17

Print ISBN: 978-1-78262-033-4
PDF eISBN: 978-1-78262-103-4
ISSN: 1757-6725
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
r The Royal Society of Chemistry 2014
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.
Biography
Franklin (Feng) Tao, PhD, is a tenure-track
assistant professor of chemistry. After receiving a PhD from Princeton University
and being a postdoctoral fellow at UCBerkeley and Lawrence Berkeley National
Lab, he started his independent career in
2010. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal
Society of Chemistry in 2013. Currently, he
is leading a research group focusing on
synthesis, evaluation of catalytic performance, and in situ and operando characterization of catalytic materials in catalytic
reactions for chemical and energy transformations toward fundamental understanding of catalytic processes at the
molecular level. He has published about 100 peer-reviewed publications and
three books with Wiley and the Royal Society of Chemistry.
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Acknowledgements
I would like to thank all the contributors who made the publication of this
book possible, the Royal Society of Chemistry books team for their eort in
publishing this book, and support from the Chemical Sciences, Geosciences
and Biosciences Division, Oce of Basic Energy Sciences, Oce of Science,
U. S. Department of Energy under the grant DE-FG02-12ER16353. An acknowledgement must also go to Dr Radha Narayanan for her time at the
early stages of the development of this book.

Edited by Franklin Tao
Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry, www.rsc.org
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Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction: Synthesis and Catalysis on Metal
Nanoparticles
Franklin (Feng) Tao, Luan Nguyen and Shiran Zhang
Chapter 2 Nanocatalysis: Definition and Case Studies
Choumini Balasanthiran and James D. Hoefelmeyer
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
Introduction
2.1.1 Flash Synopsis of the History of Catalysis
2.1.2 Reporting Turnover Frequency: the Common
Denominator in Catalysis
Factors Contributing to Structure Sensitivity in
Catalysis
2.2.1 Statistical Shape Analysis of Polyhedra
Crystals and Relation to Catalysis
2.2.2 Equilibrium Shapes of Nanocrystals
2.2.3 Surface Restructuring
2.2.4 Mobility of Surface Adsorbates
2.2.5 Change in the Electronic Structure of Solids
at the Nanometre Scale
2.2.6 Example to Illustrate Anomalous TOF
Behavior: Ethane Hydrogenolysis on
Rhodium
Synthesis and Properties of Well-defined
Nanocrystals
The Dawn of Nanocatalysis and Case Studies
2.4.1 CO Oxidation on Au
2.4.2 TiO2 Nanocrystals with Reactive Facets
2.4.3 Catalysis on Shape-controlled Pt Nanocrystals

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Advanced Templating Methods for

Nanocrystal Synthesis
2.4.5 Hybrid Nanocrystal Catalysis
2.5 Conclusion
References
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2.4.4
Chapter 3 New Strategies to Fabricate Nanostructured Colloidal and

Supported Metal Nanoparticles and their Ecient
Catalytic Applications
Kohsuke Mori and Hiromi Yamashita
3.1
3.2
Introduction
New Route for the Preparation of Supported Metal
Nanoparticle Catalysts
3.2.1 A Photo-assisted Deposition Method Using
a Single-site Photocatalyst
3.2.2 A Microwave-assisted Deposition Method
3.2.3 Deposition of Size-controlled Metal
Nanoparticles as Colloidal Precursors
3.3 Multifunctional Catalysts Based on Magnetic
Nanoparticles
3.3.1 Coreshell Magnetic FePt@Ti-containing
Silica Spherical Nanocatalyst
3.3.2 Water-soluble FePt Magnetic NPs Modified
with Cyclodextrin
3.3.3 FePd Magnetic NPs Modified with a Chiral
BINAP Ligand
3.3.4 Coreshell Nanostructured Catalyst for
One-pot Reactions
References
Chapter 4 Organometallic Approach for the Synthesis of Noble
Metal Nanoparticles: Towards Application in Colloidal
and Supported Nanocatalysis
Solen Kinayyigit and Karine Philippot
4.1
4.2
4.3
Introduction
Organometallic Synthesis of Noble Metal
Nanoparticles
Nanoparticles for Colloidal Catalysis
4.3.1 Hydrogenation Reactions
4.3.1.1 Ligand Stabilized Nanoparticles as
Catalysts
4.3.1.2 Water-soluble Nanoparticles as
Catalysts
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4.3.1.3
Ionic Liquid Stabilized

Nanoparticles as Catalysts
4.3.2 Dehydrogenation Reactions of Amine-borane
4.3.3 Carboncarbon Coupling Reactions
4.3.3.1 Pd Nanoparticles Stabilized by
Chiral Diphosphite Ligands
4.3.3.2 Pd Nanoparticles Stabilized by
Pyrazole Ligands
4.3.4 Hydroformylation Reactions
4.4 Nanoparticles for Supported Catalysis
4.4.1 Alumina as a Support for Hydrogenation and
Oxidation Reactions
4.4.2 Silica as a Support for Hydrogenation and
Oxidation Reactions
4.4.2.1 Hydrogenation of Olefins
(Cyclohexene and Myrcene)
4.4.2.2 Oxidation of Carbon Monoxide and
Benzyl Alcohol
4.4.3 Carbon Materials as Supports for
Hydrogenation and Oxidation Reactions
4.4.3.1 Hydrogenation of Cinnamaldehyde
4.4.3.2 Oxidation of Benzyl Alcohol
4.4.3.3 Versatile Dual Hydrogenation
oxidation Reactions
4.5 Conclusion and Perspective
References
Chapter 5 Nickel Nanoparticles in the Transfer Hydrogenation
of Functional Groups
Francisco Alonso
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Antecedents
5.3 Hydrogen-transfer Reduction of Alkenes
5.4 Hydrogen-transfer Reduction of Carbonyl Compounds
5.5 Hydrogen-transfer Reductive Amination of Aldehydes
5.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 6 Ammonium Surfactant-capped Rh(0) Nanoparticles for
Biphasic Hydrogenation
Audrey Denicourt-Nowicki and Alain Roucoux
6.1
6.2
Introduction
Nanoparticles as Relevant Catalysts for Biphasic
Hydrogenation
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Contents
Asymmetric Nanocatalysis: a Great Challenge

6.3.1 Ethylpyruvate
6.3.2 Prochiral Arenes
6.4 Conclusions
References
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6.3
Chapter 7 Pd Nanoparticles in CC Coupling Reactions

Dennis B. Pacardo and Marc R. Knecht
7.1
7.2
Introduction
Synthetic Scheme for the Fabrication of Pd
Nanoparticles
7.3 CC Coupling Reaction Mechanism for Pd
Nanocatalysts
7.4 Pd Nanoparticles in the Stille Coupling Reaction
7.5 Pd Nanoparticles in the Suzuki Coupling Reaction
7.6 Pd Nanoparticles in the Heck Coupling Reaction
7.7 Summary and Conclusions
References
Chapter 8 Metal Salt-based Gold Nanocatalysts
Zhen Ma and Franklin (Feng) Tao
8.1
8.2
Introduction
Metal Salt-based Gold Nanocatalysts
8.2.1 Metal Carbonate-based Gold Catalysts
8.2.2 Metal Phosphate-based Gold Catalysts
8.2.3 Hydroxyapatite-based Gold Catalysts
8.2.4 Hydroxylated Fluoride-based Gold Catalysts
8.2.5 Metal Sulfate-based Gold Catalysts
8.2.6 Heteropolyacid Salt-based Gold Catalysts
8.3 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 9 Catalysis with Colloidal Metallic Hollow Nanostructures:
Cage Eect
Mahmoud A. Mahmoud
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
Introduction
Synthetic Approaches to Hollow Metallic Nanocatalysts
Assembling the Nanocatalysts on Substrates
Hollow Nanostructures are Dierent in Catalysis
9.4.1 Hollow Nanostructures with a Catalytically
Active Inner Surface and an Inactive Outer
Surface
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9.4.2
Comparing the Activity of Hollow and Solid

Nanocatalysts of Similar Shapes
9.4.3 Comparing the Activity of a Single Shell
Hollow Nanocatalyst with a Double Shell
Consisting of a Similar Inner Shell Metal
9.4.4 Following the Optical Properties of
Plasmonic Nanocatalysts During Catalysis
9.5 Proposed Mechanism for Nanocatalysis Based on
Spectroscopic Studies
References
Chapter 10 Nanoreactor Catalysis
Kyu Bum Han, Curtis Takagi and Agnes Ostafin
10.1
10.2
Introduction
Steric and Structural Eects
10.2.1 Dendrimers
10.2.2 Microgels
10.2.3 Polymer Coreshell Structures
10.2.4 Hydrophobichydrophilic Structures:
Micelle, Emulsion, and Liposome
10.3 Absorbing Nanocatalyst Surface
10.3.1 Micelle and Emulsion
10.3.2 Carbon Nanotubes
10.4 Conclusion
References
Chapter 11 Nanoparticle Mediated Clock Reaction: a Redox

Phenomenon
Tarasankar Pal and Chaiti Ray
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
History
11.1.1 Iodine Clock Reaction
11.1.2 BZ Reaction
11.1.3 BrayLiebhafsky Reaction
11.1.4 BriggsRauscher Reaction
11.1.5 The Blue Bottle Experiment
Recent Work
11.2.1 Clock Reaction of Methylene Blue
Mechanistic Approach
11.3.1 EleyRideal Mechanism
11.3.2 LangmuirHinshelwood Mechanism
Applications
11.4.1 Water Purification
11.4.2 Memory Facilitation by Methylene Blue
and Brain Oxygen Consumption
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11.4.3 Novel UV-activated Colorimetric Oxygen

Indicator
11.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 12 Theoretical Insights into Metal Nanocatalysts
Ping Liu
12.1
12.2
12.3
Introduction
Computational Method
Metal Nanocatalysts
12.3.1 Copper Nanocatalysts for WaterGas
Shift Reactions: the Importance of
Low-coordinated Sites
12.3.2 Metal (Core)Platinum Shell Nanocatalysts
for Oxygen Reduction Reactions in Fuel
Cells: the Essential Role of Surface
Contraction
12.4 Supported Metal Nanocatalysts
12.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
Chapter 13 Porous Cryptomelane-type Manganese Oxide Octahedral

Molecular Sieves (OMS-2); Synthesis, Characterization
and Applications in Catalysis
Saminda Dharmarathna and S. L. Suib
13.1
13.2
13.3
Introduction
Synthesis and Morphology Control
Catalysis
13.3.1 Selective Oxidation and Fine Chemical
Synthesis
13.3.2 CH Activation
13.3.3 CO2 Activation
13.3.4 Environmental and Green Chemistry
13.4 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Subject Index
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Published on 12 June 2014 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781782621034-00001
CHAPTER 1
Introduction: Synthesis and

Catalysis on Metal
Nanoparticles
FRANKLIN (FENG) TAO,* LUAN NGUYEN AND SHIRAN ZHANG
Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame,
Notre Dame, IN 46556, US
*Email: [email protected]
Heterogeneous catalysis is critical for chemical and energy transformations.

It has played a cornerstone role in the chemical industry for more than one
century. Many industrial catalysts were developed on the basis of trial-anderror. An industrial catalyst is typically a combination of a few or more
components. From a materials science point of view, an industrial catalyst is
very heterogeneous in terms of composition, structure, size, shape, and
dispersion of catalyst particles on their support. In addition, a chemical
reaction with a heterogeneous catalyst is performed on the surface of a
catalyst particle at a high temperature while the catalyst particle is in a
gaseous environment or in a liquid. An oxidizing and/or reducing reactant
very likely restructures its surface and/or subsurface and/or bulk before a
stable catalytic performance is obtained. In many cases, the chemistry and
structure of a catalyst particle during a catalytic reaction could be dierent
from those before catalysis. They could be very dierent from those of a
catalyst under ex situ conditions after catalysis. Here, the ex situ condition is
defined as a status at which the catalyst is at room temperature and all
reactant gases are purged. Due to these potential dierences between in situ

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Chapter 1
and ex situ conditions and the heterogeneity of an industrial catalyst in

chemistry and structure, understanding heterogeneous catalysis at a molecular level has been quite challenging. Despite the complications with
catalyst materials and their reaction pathways, heterogeneous catalysts have
played a cornerstone role in chemical and energy transformations, and
heterogeneous catalysis has been one of the most important fields since the
beginning of the last century.
The measured catalytic performance (activity, selectivity, and stability) is
the outcome of many structural and chemical factors that interact with each
other. However, a catalytic event is performed on a catalytic site which has a
specific geometrical packing of catalyst atoms to give a suitable electronic
structure for an appropriate molecular or dissociative adsorption with a
subsequent coupling to form a product. Essentially, a catalytic event is determined by a molecular reaction with a catalytic site at a microscopic level.
The correlation between the macroscopic catalytic performance and microcosmic picture of catalytic sites is lacking due to the heterogeneity of an
industrial catalyst. Experimental and theoretical simulations of industrial
catalysis with single crystal model catalysts have been an important approach to understanding how a specific site on the surface of a catalyst
particle participates in a catalytic reaction at a solid (a catalyst)gas or liquid
(reactants) interface. This approach has provided a tremendous amount of
information on catalytic reactions from a surface science point of view. It has
been the cornerstone for understanding heterogeneous catalysis at a molecular level. However, due to the limited variability of structure, composition, and size, there exists a gap in materials between a well-defined
single crystal model catalyst and an industrial catalyst with heterogeneous
structure and chemistry.
In the last two decades, the significant advance in nanoscience and
nanotechnology was partially driven by both the quantum eect of semiconductor nanoparticles with dierent sizes and plasmonic eect of some
noble metal nanoparticles with dierent sizes. Accompanying this, spectacular achievements have been made in syntheses toward controlling the
size, shape, or composition of nanomaterials. These achievements in the
materials synthesis of nanomaterials, particularly the control of size, shape,
structure, and composition of metal or bimetallic nanoparticles, have
oered the possibility to bridge the gap between materials in the studies of
heterogeneous catalysis. Colloidal chemistry allows tuning of the size, shape,
structure, and composition readily. As metal atoms on dierent crystallographic faces of a metal nanoparticle pack dierently, tuning the shape of
metal nanoparticles to expose dierent crystallographic faces can oer
dierent types of catalytic sites. For example, Pt atoms on a Pt nanocube
pack into a (100) surface of a fcc lattice. An octahedral nanoparticle only
exposes its (111) face. Both (100) and (111) faces can be found on a cubooctahedral nanoparticle. A concave nanocube, in fact, oers a stepped surface with a high density of under-coordinated catalyst atoms. The capability
of tuning size with synthesis provides a method to distinguish the sites of
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Introduction: Synthesis and Catalysis on Metal Nanoparticles
under-coordinated catalyst atoms at corners and edges from the site on the
surface since there is a size-dependent density of these under-coordinated
atoms at corners and/or edges.
Chapter 2 describes structural factors of catalyst nanoparticles, which
could influence catalytic performances including catalytic activity and selectivity. In addition, it reviews correlations between these structural factors
and catalytic performance, and discusses the potential restructuring of the
surfaces of catalyst particles. A few examples are discussed from a structural
point of view.
Chapter 3 reviews a few synthetic routes of metal nanoparticle catalysts. It
presents three methods for the preparation of metal nanoparticles supported on a substrate including photo-assisted deposition methods using
single-site photocatalysts, a microwave-assisted deposition method, and
deposition of size-controlled metal nanoparticles as colloidal precursors. In
addition, the syntheses of multi-functional catalysts are discussed.
In Chapter 4, syntheses of noble metal nanoparticles are reviewed from an
organometallic point of view. It emphasizes the nature of the ligand stabilizing the nanocatalysts in solution and the role of the support for a supported catalyst. Syntheses of Pt, Rh, Ru, Ir and other metals are exemplified.
Factors influencing the synthesis of metal nanoparticles and their performance in catalysis are discussed in detail.
After the review of syntheses in Chapters 24, Chapter 5 discusses the
catalytic transfer hydrogenation of organic compounds. It focuses on the
utilization of nanoparticle catalysts of the earth-abundant metal, Ni, a replacement for noble metal catalysts in hydrogen-transfer reductions of
functional groups.
Chapter 6 reports the recent progress achieved in nanocatalysis, particularly use of quaternary ammonium salts as water-soluble capping agents of
rhodium nanoparticles. Hydrogenation under biphasic liquidliquid conditions and asymmetric catalysis including ethylpyruvate hydrogenation and
prochiral arene hydrogenation are described.
As well as hydrogenations on Ni and Rh nanoparticles in Chapters 5 and 6,
the catalysis of CC coupling on Pd nanoparticles is reviewed in Chapter 7.
The importance of Pd-catalyzed CC coupling pioneered by Heck, Suzuki
and Negishi was recognized by the 2010 Nobel prize in chemistry. Thanks to
the advance in the synthesis of metallic Pd nanocatalysts with specific size
and shape, ecient catalysis on Pd nanoparticles in contrast to traditional
small molecules was revealed. Due to the limited space, only CC coupling
on selected examples are discussed in Chapter 7, though a large number of
applications of Pd nanoparticles in CC coupling have been reported in the
literature.
Gold nanoparticles supported on oxide substrates exhibit exciting catalytic
activities for many inorganic and organic reactions in contrast to the inert
nature of macroscopic gold particles. Tremendous eort has been put into
exploration of the origin of catalytic activity of Au nanoparticles following
the discovery of activity for many reactions on them. Numerous papers on
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Chapter 1
this topic have been published in the literature. In these reports, most of the
Au catalyst particles were supported on an oxide. Other than metal oxides,
salts have been used as supports for Au nanoparticles. Some salts are solid
acids, which are used in acid catalysis. In fact, integration of the acidic
support of a salt with gold nanoparticles forms a bi-functional catalyst that is
highly active in organic reactions. Chapter 8 reviews the preparation and
catalysis of salt-based Au catalysts. These salts in the Au/salt catalysts are
carbonate, phosphate, hydroxyapatite, hydroxylated fluoride, metal sulfate,
and heteropolyacid. A comparison between the roles of salts and oxides in
gold catalysis is made.
All the metal nanoparticle catalysts discussed so far are metal nanoparticles with a solid core. From a structural point of view, a nanoparticle
with a hollow or porous core could provide dierent catalytic activity.
A porous metal nanoparticle consist of an external surface and an internal
surface. Thus, the total surface area is significantly increased due to the
existence of the internal surface in the hollow or porous core of the particle.
More importantly, the density of catalyst atoms with a low coordination
number in such a metal particle is in fact much higher than that of a metal
nanoparticle with a solid core. In addition, its inner surface could be covered
with much less capping molecules due to the limited space in a pore. Thus,
the density of active sites could be significantly larger. In addition, the
limited space at a scale of nanometres or a sub-nanometre, in fact increases
the rate of collision of reactant molecules with catalyst atoms. These structural features could oer porous metal nanoparticles dierent catalytic activity and selectivity in contrast to a metal nanoparticle with a solid core.
Chapter 9 presents the synthesis of porous metal nanocatalysts and discusses the catalysis of the nanoparticles.
As discussed in Chapter 9, the local structure of a catalyst nanoparticle is
critical for its catalytic activity. Other than the localized structure of a metal
nanoparticle, such as the surface of a catalyst particle with a solid core and
the surface and inner surface of a porous nanoparticle, the external environment of a particle could influence catalytic shape to some extent.
A metal particle together with its surrounding layers or shell can be considered as a single reactor at the nanoscale. The surroundings could be a
scaold of a dendrimer around the loaded metal nanoparticles, a crosslinked linear polymer of microgels, a polymer with a hydrophobic or
hydrophilic substrate around a metal particle, or a shell of a metal particle.
Chapter 10 describes several types of nanoreactors and discusses the eect
of the surroundings on the catalysis of metal nanoparticles.
Other than these catalytic reactions, metal nanoparticles can also catalyze
clock reactions. Chapter 11 reviews the clock reactions on metal and oxide
particles, and discusses the mechanisms.
Computational chemistry is significant for a mechanistic understanding
of chemical reactions. The application of a computational approach to
catalysis studies is certainly the most successful synergy in chemical sciences. A tremendous eort has been made in this field in recent decades and
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Introduction: Synthesis and Catalysis on Metal Nanoparticles
spectacular achievements have been obtained. Theoretical studies are able

to not only rationalize experimental findings and provide insights into reaction pathways and catalytic performance, they are also able to oer
guidance for the design of new catalysts. Computation-aided screening of
catalysts can largely narrow the coverage of potential composition and
structure and accelerate the design and optimization of catalysts. Chapter 12
briefly introduces computational methods and presents examples to demonstrate how computational approaches were used to determine reaction
pathways that could not be tracked with current experimental techniques.
This chapter also reviews applications of the computational approach in
studying catalytic reactions on metal nanoparticles supported on reducible
oxides and demonstrates the essential role of the metal/oxide interface in
promoting the catalytic performance of metal nanocatalysts.
Catalysis on manganese oxide octahedral molecular sieves exhibits high
catalytic activity in many catalytic reactions for chemical and energy transformations. Chapter 13 reviews the synthesis of these molecular sieves and
discusses catalytic reactions including selective oxidation and fine chemical
synthesis, CH activation and CO2 activation, environmental remediation,
and green chemistry.
23/06/2014 08:14:40.
CHAPTER 2
Nanocatalysis: Definition and

Case Studies
CHOUMINI BALASANTHIRAN AND JAMES D. HOEFELMEYER*
Department of Chemistry, University of South Dakota, 414 E. Clark St.,
Vermillion, SD 57069, USA
2.1 Introduction
Catalysis is the process of introducing a catalyst to a reaction to increase the
rate of the reaction. The catalyst provides an alternate reaction pathway with
a lower activation energy. It facilitates the reaction without being consumed
and contributes to multiple turnovers of the catalytic reaction cycle at each
catalytic site. Catalysis has enormous technological significance, being
important in energy production, the chemical industry, and environmental
technologies, and is a foundation of our modern way of life as well as of life
itself.1
Early examples of catalysis in the chemical industry include the catalytic
oxidation of sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide, which allowed the large-scale
commercial production of sulfuric acid; ammonia synthesis from nitrogen
and hydrogen (Haber process); and ammonia oxidation (Ostwald process).2
Catalysis has been utilized extensively in the petroleum industry, for example in hydrodesulfurization and reforming. These uses arose from an
increasing demand for high-octane gasoline. The long history of the growing
demand for chemicals and fuel resulted in a parallel demand for better
catalysts, and has triggered much research into understanding catalytic
processes.
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Nanocatalysis: Definition and Case Studies
Most catalysis occurs between a substrate and a catalyst in which the

catalyst hosts the substrate at a specific site. At this active site, the substrate
undergoes a chemical transformation into a product. Finally, the product is
released from the active site. There are some homogeneous reaction
schemes that do not follow these guidelines, such as the catalytic decomposition of stratospheric ozone that occurs through free radical chain
reactions.
In nature, highly pre-organized enzymes are optimized to catalyze specific
biochemical reactions. Active sites in enzymes are highly specific in binding
to substrates. The hostguest interactions are precise, and arise from the
specific positioning of functional groups that participate in intermolecular
interactions, such as hydrogen bonding or electrostatic interactions, with
the substrate in order to achieve molecular recognition. Other amino acid
residues present specific functional groups to activate the substrate and
stabilize the transition state, which results in the minimization of the activation energy of the reaction. Finally, the product may have a low anity for
the active site and dissociate, or in some cases the product causes a change
in the shape of the enzyme to assist in ejecting the product. Once the
product is released, the enzyme, and its active site, is restored to its original
state ready for another turnover of a catalytic cycle. The existence of such
finely tuned structures for each of the intricately linked steps within the web
of biochemical reactions is awe-inspiring.
2.1.1
Flash Synopsis of the History of Catalysis3
The utility of catalysts should be instantly recognizable, and should motivate

interest in their development. Without any guiding principle to develop new
catalysts for a reaction, the best approach may be an empirical one. Slowly,
over time, some substances were observed to increase the rate of a chemical
reaction. The catalyst may be homogeneous (dissolved catalyst) or heterogeneous (insoluble catalyst). It might follow that the next question would
pertain to the relation between rate and mass of catalyst added, and it might
quickly arise that dierent laboratories could report diering rates based on
an identical mass of the same catalyst. The results could suggest that the rate
is dependent on the mass of the catalyst as well as its morphology. For
example, one gram of nickel shot versus one gram of freshly prepared, finely
divided nickel precipitate may show remarkably dierent catalytic behavior
in a heterogeneous system. Understanding this dierence lies in understanding that the catalysis occurs on the surface of the nickel. This realization would certainly initiate a race to develop high surface area materials
and the means to stabilize them. Thin films, porous materials, and finely
divided materials are high surface area morphologies.
Without tools that enable detailed characterization of the catalyst
morphology, the approach to develop new catalysts remains somewhat
empirical. For instance, wetness impregnation of nickel onto a support
followed by dierent calcination protocols could lead to catalysts with widely
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Chapter 2
dierent activities. The use of electron microscopy and X-ray diraction

have proven enormously beneficial in providing answers, and have allowed
further details about morphology to be elucidated. Key features include
particle size, particle shape, and crystal phase. With this level of sophistication in the preparation and characterization of catalyst materials, it has
become possible to realize the size- dependent behavior of matter manifest
in catalysis.4
The focus of this chapter will be on catalysis on finely divided materials,
and we have intentionally set aside the discussion of homogeneous catalysis
with molecular entities, grafted catalysts, enzyme catalysis (natures nanomachines), and soft materials that may spontaneously arrange to a shape
that is an eective catalyst (artificial enzymes). Additionally, our emphasis is
not on porous materials that include crystalline zeolites, metalorganic
frameworks, ordered nanotube arrays, mesoporous materials, aerogels, and
xerogels. While all of these materials have an important role in the emergent
field of nanocatalysis,5 we intend to emphasize the importance of surface
science6 and nanocrystal synthesis in the development of new heterogeneous catalyst systems.
2.1.2
Reporting Turnover Frequency: the Common

Denominator in Catalysis
The activity of a catalyst should be defined in a way that allows comparison

between measurements taken from various laboratories. The standard for
comparing catalyst activity is to report the turnover frequency,7 rate law,8
conditions of the reaction, and active site of the catalyst. Reporting these
data can require an enormous amount of eort; however, failure to define
these characteristics does not allow a meaningful comparison of catalysis
data. The correct reporting of catalytic data provides a link to understanding
structureactivity relations over a wide variety of catalyst types including
molecular, supported catalysts, and single crystals through calculating normalized turnover frequency according to the power rate law.9 This important
link has been vital in bridging the fields of homogeneous catalysis, heterogeneous catalysis, and surface science.
In heterogeneous catalysis, there are reactions that are structure-sensitive
or insensitive. Structure-insensitive reactions exhibit nearly identical turnover frequencies independent of the structure of the catalyst. For example,
ethylene hydrogenation catalyzed on platinum shows a turnover frequency
of B110 s1 on Pt wire, Pt(111), or Pt supported on silica under normalized
conditions of 10 torr C2H4, 100 torr H2, 298 K.10,11 Structure-insensitive reactions, therefore, can be useful probes for validating catalysis measurements. Due to the potential utility, it is imperative that catalytic data be
reported with the utmost care in order to establish potential structure-insensitive reactions as probes. For example, one can measure catalyst particle
size using electron microscopy, X-ray diraction, chemisorption analysis,
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and turnover frequency of a structure-insensitive reaction. If electron

microscopy data indicates small particles while chemisorption data and
turnover frequency data of a structure-insensitive reaction indicate a larger
particle size, then the disparate data may be diagnostic of a blockage of
surface sites.
2.2 Factors Contributing to Structure Sensitivity in

Catalysis
Here, the properties of matter responsible for structure sensitivity in catalysis will be outlined. In particular, it is instructive to describe the size- and
shape-dependent changes in the properties of finely divided materials. The
size range in which such changes are most dramatic is B115 nm. Below
this range, clusters tend to have molecular-like properties with discreet orbital energies; whereas above this size range, particles exhibit electronic
properties similar to bulk materials. We note that control of the morphology
of nanostructured materials above 15 nm (which is not the focus of this
chapter) may have other implications, such as surface plasmon resonances,
mass transport in porous structures, or directionalization of charge carriers
or lasing in nanowires. It is also worth pointing out that the occurrence of
facets in nanoparticles emerges at a size of B4 nm; below which, shapes
tend to be less well-defined due to a lack of extended facets. Finally, it is
important to appreciate that the selection of a sizeshape combination of a
nanoparticle translates to a selection of an electronic structuresurface
topology combination that has important implications in catalysis besides
simply adjusting the surface area of the catalyst.
2.2.1
Statistical Shape Analysis of Polyhedra Crystals and

Relation to Catalysis
It is rather intuitive to suppose that a nanocrystal with a cubic shape always

has 8 corner atoms and that the ratio of those sites to the total number of
atoms or total number of surface sites is dependent on the size of the cubic
nanocrystal. The smallest cube would be composed of 8 atoms (2 2 faces),
therefore the ratio of corner atoms to surface atoms is 1. The next size up,
with 3 3 faces, is composed of 27 atoms, with 26 of them on the surface,
and 8 being the corner atoms. Therefore the ratio of corner atoms to surface
atoms is 8 : 26, or 0.31. The same ratio for a cube with 4 4 faces is 0.14, and
so on. As the size increases, the corner and edge atoms become less significant as the surface atoms are increasingly made up of face sites. The
surface topology of crystals 415 nm is dominated by atomically smooth
crystal faces, which share chemical features with single crystal surfaces.
Statistical shape analysis to reveal the ratio of surface atom types for
polyhedral nanocrystals was calculated by Van Hardeveld and Hartog.12 For
example, a cubo-octahedron is a common morphology for face-centered
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10
Figure 2.1
Chapter 2
Statistical shape analysis of particles with cubo-octahedron shape.

Reprinted from ref. 12 with permission from Elsevier.
cubic metals composed of five types of surface atoms: corners (C66), atoms
within {100} faces (C84,5), atoms within {111} faces (C93), edges between two
{111} faces (C79), and edges between {100} and {111} faces (C75). The ratio of
the surface atom types to total surface atoms calculated for crystals with
n shells shows the rapidly diminishing importance of corner and edge atoms
and dominance of facial atoms with increasing size (Figure 2.1).
This is an idealized model; whereas, nanoparticle samples have some
distribution of size and shape that complicates the statistical shape analysis.
In fact, the ability to precisely control the dimensions of nanocrystals in
order to achieve minimum size and shape distribution can allow statistical
shape analysis with smaller standard deviations. This seems to be an opportunity that defines the field of nanocatalysis. Ideally, the nanocatalyst
samples would be characterized and reported with quantitative details including statistical shape analysis. Perhaps this is an opportunity for mathematics to merge with chemistry. Some reports that include mechanistic
details for the formation of special non-equilibrium nanocrystal shapes incorporate detailed qualitative shape analysis.13 In special cases where
homogeneous samples can be created, quantitative relations between surface topology and turnover frequency can be determined. This tends to work
well for larger high-quality nanocrystals with small relative size distribution
and uniform shape. For particles that have poorly defined shapes (size o4 nm),
it becomes extremely challenging to develop quantitative relations, which
interestingly is often the regime in which materials exhibit maximum
turnover frequency!
Crystal domain size clearly contributes to structure sensitivity in catalysis.1421 As crystal domains become smaller, the ratio of corner and edge
atoms to facial atoms increases, and the surface topology becomes increasingly disordered, or roughened. The open coordination spheres of
corner and edge atoms should bind substrates actively. A reaction mechanism operating on corner and edge atoms is likely to be very dierent to
one on an extended crystal face.
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2.2.2
11
Equilibrium Shapes of Nanocrystals
It is already apparent from the discussion in section 2.1 that the shape of a
nanocrystal in relation to its crystal structure gives rise to specific crystal
facets. The example of a cubo-octahedron shape composed of atoms in a
face-centered cubic arrangement gives rise to {100} and {111} low-index
facets. In fact, the cubo-octahedron is one of many possible equilibrium
shapes of nanocrystals. Each facet has a measurable surface tension or
surface free energy such that the most stable facet has the lowest surface free
energy. Low-index facets tend to have lower surface free energy and are often
atomically smooth; whereas high-index facets are atomically rough and have
high surface free energy. At high temperatures, the dierences in the surface
free energy of facets are lower than thermal energy, and the nanocrystal
adopts the perfectly isotropic shape of a sphere. At lower temperatures, the
dierences are large enough to influence the equilibrium shape of the
nanocrystal. The ratio of the surface free energy of two facets is proportional
to the relative distance between the nanocrystal center and the face-centroids, which allows the theoretical construction of the equilibrium crystal
shapeknown as a Wul construction.22,23 If a nanocrystal shape deviates
from the Wul construct, then some other influence (for example, surface
stabilizing agent or catalyst) leads to the non-equilibrium shape. This idea is
fundamentally important in the design and synthesis of nanocrystals.
So, an origin of structure sensitivity is the arrangement of atoms on specific facets. For the face-centered cubic cubo-octahedron, the atoms on the
{111} face are found within a hexagonal 2D array of atoms wherein each
atom has six in-plane nearest neighbors and six three-fold hollow sites,
which of course diers significantly from the atoms on the {100} face that
are found within a square 2D array wherein each atom has eight in-plane
nearest neighbors and four four-fold hollow sites. Geometric dierences
between surface facets can have enormous implications for their chemical
properties. Examples include the extremely structure-sensitive nature of CO
dissociation on rhodium,24 or ammonia synthesis catalyzed on iron single
crystal surfaces that dier in turnover frequency depending on the orientation of the surface plane.25,26 Comparison of five iron single crystal surfaces showed the Fe(111) surface was B500 times more active than the
Fe(110) surface. The Fe(111) surface is rough compared with the Fe(110)
surface; however, it also has a high ratio of C7 sites. The Fe(211) surface also
shares these features and exhibits a high turnover frequency for ammonia
synthesis.
One of the principal challenges defining nanocatalysis is the ability to
engineer nanocrystals with uniform size and shape that possess characteristics optimized for specific catalytic reactions. Some recent advances in the
literature include the synthesis of well-defined nanocrystals with high-index
facets that have reactive surfaces.27,28 High-index facets feature surface
atoms at step-edges with lower coordination numbers that contribute to
higher reactivity.
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2.2.3
Chapter 2
Surface Restructuring
The shapes of nanocrystals are not static. At high temperatures, a nanocrystal will morph into the thermodynamic equilibrium shape. The temperature at which a Wul construct shaped nanocrystal becomes spherical is
often stated as the nanocrystal melting point, and can be determined using
transmission electron microscopy with high temperature stage capability.
The melting point of nanomaterials generally decreases dramatically in
comparison with bulk materials. This is because surface atoms, which make
up a higher atom fraction of nanomaterials than bulk materials, are mobile
and can desorb from the surface. At high temperatures, it is possible for interparticle atom migration to occur as thermal energy mobilizes atoms. On
surfaces, this phenomenon leads to sintering of the nanoparticles characterized by an increase in average particle size. This eect reduces surface area,
leads to loss of control in surface site types, and is detrimental to catalysis.
Surface restructuring and reshaping of nanocatalysts is a common phenomenon in heterogeneous catalysis to optimize bonding between adsorbed
atoms and surface atoms. Dierent atomic termination and crystal planes
revert to thermodynamically more stable structures at higher temperatures
and pressures during catalysis. Surface restructuring has been studied extensively and can occur upon adsorption of molecules on the surface or
formation of thin films. Surface science techniques including LEED, STM,29
and XPS are powerful tools used to characterize such processes, and these
studies have contributed enormously to the understanding of catalysis.3032
Recent studies in the research of surface restructuring via oxide layer
formation in bimetallic, metallic, and metal oxide nanocrystals have been
described. In situ crystal plane controlled surface restructuring during
CO oxidation on Cu2O NPs has been investigated using XPS, TEM, HRTEM,
SEM and H2-TPR.33 The fcc Cu2O nanocrystals with octahedral or cubic
shapes with exposed {111} and {100} facets, respectively, do not show any
oxidation under ambient conditions. During CO oxidation, the Cu2O octahedra and Cu2O cubes show activation energies and conversion rates of
73.4 2.6 kJ mol1, 91.5% and 110 6.4 kJ mol1, 45.1%, respectively,
under similar reaction conditions. During catalysis, XPS data show Cu(II)
in both nanocrystals, indicating complete oxidation of the Cu(I) in the assynthesized nanocrystals. Electron microscopy results show that the nanocrystals retain their original octahedral or cubic shape; however, with
rounder corners and rougher edges on the surface. HRTEM shows that the
inner region maintains the same lattice fringe structures as Cu2O. Together,
the data indicate an in situ formation of CuO thin films during catalytic
oxidation of CO. Theoretical studies show that the faster rate of catalytic
oxidation of Cu2O octahedra over Cu2O cubes is associated with the existence of coordinatively unsaturated Cu atoms in {111} planes that are more
prone to surface oxidation.
High pressure STM experiments on Pt(110) single crystals show the flexible nature of the surface.32 Exposure to 1.6 atm H2 led to a missing row
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13
reconstruction in which random rows of apex atoms were missing, resulting

in slightly deeper valleys on the surface. After exposure of the surface to
1 atm O2, the pits become deeper and result in (111) microfacets. Exposure to
1 atm CO led to regeneration of the (110) surface void of the (111) microfacets or the missing rows. In a separate investigation, Pt(110) single crystals
were subjected to CO/O2 atmospheres at high temperatures and studied
within a combined UHV-high-pressure surface X-ray diraction (SXRD)
chamber.34 Clean Pt(110) exhibited missing-row reconstruction after ionbombardment and annealing cycles. Exposure to 100 mbar CO at 600 K led
to regeneration of the bulk-terminated surface within minutes. The surface
was brought to room temperature and exposed to 10 mbar CO and 500 mbar
O2. The sample was heated to 650 K, which led to the formation of a distorted PtO2 layer. A PtO2 layer forms over the missing row reconstructed
surface, but with high disorder. The Pt(110) crystal with more ordered PtO2
layer was exposed to 500 mbar O2, then pulses of CO were introduced that
instantly underwent oxidation to CO2. Formation of CO2 was simultaneous
with the consumption of oxygen on the PtO2 layer that caused increasing
disorder. A suciently long pulse of CO led to complete consumption of the
PtO2 layer and regeneration of the bulk-terminated Pt(110) surface. When
PCO/PO2 was set to approximately 0.2, the catalyst showed its high activity
again; however, the PtO2 layer recovered after 20 minutes. It was found that
the active surface in this case was Pt(110) with carbonate ions. Under O2-rich
conditions, CO oxidation was fast and PtO2 or the Pt(110)carbonate layer
was found on the single crystal surface; whereas, under O2-lean conditions,
surface O was steadily depleted until the bulk-terminated Pt(110) surface was
restored. This surface was 25 times less active for CO oxidation.
Structural and chemical changes on bimetallic nanoparticles in oxidizing
and reducing environments at ambient pressure were demonstrated.35 Ambient pressure X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (APXPS) was used to analyze
the in situ structure in the bimetallic system at dierent depths from the
surface at gas pressures higher than usual limits. The reduction (CO, H2),
oxidation (NO, O2) and catalytic reaction (NO, CO) environments led to surface
restructuring on 15 2 nm Rh0.5Pd0.5 and Pt0.5Pd0.5 bimetallic nanoparticles.
As synthesized, the Rh0.5Pd0.5 nanoparticle surface is Rh-rich and the core is
Pd-rich. During catalysis, Rh0.5Pd0.5 shows dramatic segregation and reversibility during catalytic reactions: (a) oxidation results in the formation of RhOy
on the surface due to its higher surface free energy compared to that of Pd; (b)
reduction results in migration of Rh to the core and migration of Pd to the
surface. On the other hand, Pt0.5Pd0.5 undergoes restructuring without substantial segregation and reversibility. As synthesized, the Pt0.5Pd0.5 nanoparticle surface is Pd-rich and the core is Pt-rich. During catalysis, Pt0.5Pd0.5
does not show segregation and reversibility during catalytic reactions. Pt has a
higher surface energy and is less prone to oxidation. Thus, oxidation results in
PdOy on the surface while reduction leads to regeneration of Pd metal on the
surface. The two contrasting behaviors are explained by the dierences of
surface energy in the metals and metal oxides.
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14
Chapter 2
Atomic restructuring was found to occur within a sample of 1.3 nm Rh

particles exposed to hydrogen.36 The particles were synthesized by reduction
of [Rh(m-Cl)(C2H4)2]2 with vanadocene in the presence of polyvinylpyrrolidinone. As synthesized, the Rh particles exhibit polytetrahedral
atomic organization. After exposure to 6 bar H2 for 1 day, the atoms restructure into single crystalline Rh nanoparticles (1.3 nm diameter) with the
fcc structure.
2.2.4
Mobility of Surface Adsorbates
Platinum and rhodium catalyze ethylene hydrogenation with high TOF;

however, introduction of CO poisons the catalyst with a large increase in
activation energy. A high-pressure scanning tunneling microscopy experiment in which H2, ethylene, and CO were co-adsorbed on Pt(111) or Rh(111)
provided an important insight into the mechanism of CO poisoning.37
Addition of ethylene and H2 to the metal surfaces at room temperature is
known to lead to the formation of strongly bound ethylidyne; however, it is
impossible to resolve any surface structure with STM due to the high surface
mobility. Upon introduction of CO, ordered structures form on the catalyst
surface. The implication is that catalysis occurs when mobility of surface
adsorbates is high. Immobile surface structures block surface sites, whether
these are adsorbates on single crystals or nanoparticle catalysts (i.e. surfactants or polymers).
2.2.5
Change in the Electronic Structure of Solids at the

Nanometre Scale
The interaction between light and matter (spectroscopy) is fundamentally

important in the understanding of the electronic structure of materials. The
theory of excitons was developed in the 1930s to explain the absorption of
UV-visible light by solids.3842 In the 1950s, Dresselhaus described an
eective mass approximation for excitons,43 and theoretical eorts were
attempted to reconcile Frenkel and Wannier type excitons.44 In particular,
the formulation of intermediate type excitons may have laid the foundation
for later descriptions of confined excitons.45 Experimental work with thin
film semiconductor spectroscopy in the 1960s began to provide new data to
test exciton theory. Detailed theoretical descriptions of confined excitons were
put forth ca. 1980.4649 If the diameter of the semiconductor nanocrystal is
less than the Bohr exciton radius, then there is quantum confinement in the
system. Quantum confinement leads to a blue-shift of the absorption and
emission spectra of a material, and is an example of how fundamental
properties of nanomaterials dier from bulk materials.50,51 In metal clusters,
there is a transition from metallic to non-metallic behavior.5255
Experimental verification of quantum confinement appeared when
Ekimov observed a quantum size eect in the optical absorption spectra of
CdS and CuCl nanocrystals.5658 The semiconductor crystallites were trapped
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15
within a glassy matrix. The optical spectra were shown to depend on crystallite size approaching the Bohr exciton radius of the semiconductor.
A major advance came with the development of synthesis methods to
produce measurable quantities of uniform, processable nanocrystals.5961
The quantum dots were composed of CdSe and were synthesized via a nonhydrolytic molecular precursor route in which surfactants mediated nanocrystal growth and stabilized the nanocrystal surface. From this seminal
discovery, in addition to the discovery of fullerenes and the ongoing study of
colloids, was born the systematic investigation of uniform, high-quality
nanocrystals from synthesis, characterization, and applications. These developments touched o a firestorm of research activity to develop easy, lowcost, robust methods for uniform, high-quality nanocrystals and other types
of nanomaterials that have given rise to the fields of nanoscience or
nanotechnology. While spherical quantum dots show size-dependent
electronic structures, more recent studies have also shown shape-dependent
electronic structures.62
2.2.6
Example to Illustrate Anomalous TOF Behavior: Ethane

Hydrogenolysis on Rhodium
We end section 2.2 with an example from the catalysis literature that illustrates the size-dependent properties of matter. Yates and Sinfelt reported the
results of ethane hydrogenolysis on Rh/SiO2 catalysts.63 The catalysts were
synthesized by impregnation of RhCl3 onto Cabosil, followed by H2 reduction. Rhodium particle sizes of 11, 12, 20, 23, 41, and 127 were obtained. Hydrogen chemisorption was used to determine the Rh particle
sizes. Unsupported Rh powder was found to have an average particle size of
2560 . The specific activity of catalytic ethane hydrogenolysis varied dramatically over this size range. Rh particle sizes of 11 and 12 exhibited a
specific activity of 4 mmol C2H6 converted/hr/m2Rh. The activity was about
four-fold higher for Rh particle sizes of 20, 23, and 41 , and decreased 20 to
40-fold for large particle sizes. A peak in TOF was observed for Rh crystallite
sizes close to 2 nm.
Schmidt and co-workers64,65 prepared Rh/SiO2 catalysts by wetness
impregnation of RhCl3 on Cabosil. The Rh loading was varied as 1, 5, and
15 wt% on SiO2, and led to Rh particle sizes of 12, 32, and 44 nm, respectively. The pretreatment procedure had a significant influence on the catalyst
structure and activity. Briefly, when Rh/SiO2 samples were calcined in O2, the
particles were oxidized to Rh2O3. The samples were then reduced at dierent
temperatures under hydrogen. Reduction at 300 1C in H2 caused the oxide
particles to fracture into smaller particles of 520 , separated by channels or
cracks 510 wide. Increased reduction temperature caused the small particles to become annealed, and resulted in a reformation of the original Rh
particle size at 600 1C. The particle structure was characterized with TEM.
Intermediate states between fractured particles and fully annealed particles
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Chapter 2
were observed, when reduction temperatures of 400 1C and 500 1C were

used. Catalytic ethane hydrogenolysis on the Rh/SiO2 materials was studied.
The rate was recorded for the annealed particles, oxidized particles, fractured particles, and partially annealed particles. Interestingly, the rate was
highest for the samples annealed at 300 1C, and decreased with increasing
annealing temperature. It is also worth noting that the fully annealed particles (600 1C) with sizes of 12, 32, and 44 nm exhibited nearly identical TOFs
for ethane hydrogenolysis. The low activity observed for large Rh particle
sizes is consistent with the results of Yates and Sinfelt, discussed earlier.
Datye and co-workers examined alkane hydrogenolysis over supported Rh
particles and Rh single crystals.66,67 The Rh(111) and Rh(100) surfaces were
selected, and annealed under hydrogen at 773 K. A study of n-pentane
hydrogenolysis showed that these surfaces exhibited a large dierence in the
TOFs and activation energies. Supported Rh particles on silica were annealed at identical conditions, and exhibited a TOF that was similar to the
Rh(111) crystal. Oxidative pretreatment (O2, 773 K) causes the crystal, and
particle, surfaces to roughen through the formation of polycrystalline Rh2O3.
Mild reduction (H2, o573 K) resulted in the conversion of the Rh2O3 to Rh,
and a highly disordered, non-equilibrium structure was retained. The
roughened surfaces were much more active than highly ordered surfaces,
which were annealed under H2 at 773 K.
2.3 Synthesis and Properties of Well-defined

Nanocrystals
Many industrial catalysts are composed of high surface area porous oxide
supports with highly dispersed (or finely divided) metals deposited on the
surface. The dispersed metal can be formed on addition of an aqueous metal
ion to the support followed by high temperature reduction. The metal particles formed from wetness impregnation typically have a broad size or
shape distribution that makes it dicult to assign quantitative relations
between properties of matter and catalytic activity. In nanocatalysis, there is
an added level of rational design with careful control of uniform, highquality nanocrystals that allows detailed structureactivity relationships to
be documented. The synthesis of nanoparticles can be achieved using a
variety of methods, which have been organized within several important
review articles.6870 The careful investigation of nanocrystal synthesis has
yielded numerous important findings.
Nanoparticles can be amorphous, polycrystalline, (multiply)twinned
crystals, or single crystals with various degrees of quality in purity and defects such as stacking faults or point defects. The theory of nanocrystal
synthesis shows that there is a nucleation event along the reaction coordinate followed by growth.71,72 The nucleation event should be confined to
a single, narrow time domain followed by controlled growth to form
monodisperse nanocrystals. During the growth phase, the precursor
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concentration should be kept low, but non-zero, to achieve size-focusing;

otherwise the sample tends to drift to a broader size distribution.73 At high
temperature and without preferential stabilization of facets, isotropic
monodisperse spherical nanocrystals form. Remarkable control has been
demonstrated such that spherical metal nanocrystals with size distributions
within 5% can be routinely synthesized. Such samples self-organize into
colloidal crystal thin films or 3D colloidal crystals.74
Studying the kinetics and mechanism of nanocrystal nucleation, growth,
and aggregation/agglomeration is exceptionally challenging due to the difficulty of monitoring the reaction in situ in a well-defined system. To address
this, a platform for investigation of nucleation and growth of metal nanoparticles from molecular precursors was devised that includes a reporter
reaction that provides real-time data. The work stemmed from the important observation that late transition metal molecular homogeneous
catalysts (polyoxoanion-supported Rh(I) or Ir(I); (Bu4N)5Na3[(1,5COD)MP2W15Nb3O62)] under reducing conditions (H2) gave rise to metal
nanoparticles.75 Hydrogenation of cyclohexene was utilized as a convenient
in situ probe for the kinetics of metal cluster formation.76 The reaction was
characterized by a significant delay in the onset of activity that gives rise to a
sigmoidal kinetics curve. The product mixture after hydrogenation contained monodisperse metal nanocrystals with a magic number of metal
atoms. The formation of the metal particles and the sigmoidal kinetics curve
could be modeled precisely with a 2-step nucleation (A-B) and autocatalytic
growth mechanism (A B-2B).77 The 2-step mechanism was demonstrated
for Rh(I),78 Ir(I),77 and likely operates initially for reduction of Pd(II), Pt(IV),
Ru(III), Rh(III), Ag(I), Au(III), Cu(II), and Ir(III) in the presence of a base.79 After
further investigation, a 4-step mechanism became apparent that included
agglomeration (B B-C) and autocatalytic agglomeration (B C-1.5
C).80,81 The 4-step mechanism was demonstrated for Pt(II),80,81 Ir(I),82 and
Au(III).83 In the case of Ir, the size of cluster B (IrB900) and C (ZIrB2000) could
be estimated.82 Most recently, the 2-step mechanism was shown to operate
for the reduction of supported metal complexes of Ir or Pt on Al2O3.8485 The
kinetics studies provide unprecedented insight into the formation of
nanocrystals and supported nanocrystals, and could potentially lead to
rational synthesis of nanocatalysts by design.
A high degree of shape control of nanocrystals is possible.86,87 Surfactants,
or other agents such as metal ions, can be chosen that preferentially stabilize
a facet of the nanocrystal. In this case, an isotropic shape can form that
deviates from the equilibrium spherical shape. Many examples exist of
cubes, tetrahedral, octahedral, cubo-octahedra, icosohedra, tetrahexahedra,
and other shapes. Another strategy to achieve isotropic non-equilibrium
shapes is to passivate a facet upon adsorption of a metal ion. At lower
temperatures, anisotropic growth of the nanocrystal can occur due to the
dierence in activation energy of growth in various crystallographic directions within the nanocrystal, which can lead to nanorods or multipods. It
has been shown that twin planes in nanocrystal seeds can be used to control
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Chapter 2
the shape of nanocrystals. Pt tripod nanocrystals form from seeds with a

twin plane and stable {111} facets. Overgrowth occurs at the reactive corners
in the o2 1 14 directions.88
In some cases, the presence of surfactant on the nanocrystal can induce
disruptions of the crystalline order. High quality Ru nanocrystals with
weakly bonding acetate stabilizing ligands were synthesized.89 After exchange with an alkylthiol ligand, the nanoparticles were highly amorphous.
Ru nanocrystals stabilized with alkylamine ligands that bind more strongly
than acetate and less strongly than alkylthiol were prepared.90 The nanocrystals show much weaker ligand-induced eects, with only a few stacking
faults. Alkylamine stabilized Ru hourglass nanocrystals were found to form
through a highly disordered intermediate that crystallizes with time.91
2.4 The Dawn of Nanocatalysis and Case Studies

Nanocatalysis involves an intentional imbuement or perturbation of catalytic
properties (via selection of an electronic structuresurface topology combination) upon synthesis of specific well-defined nanocrystals. Based on the
well-developed synthetic methods for nanocrystals, a wide range of tunable
morphological properties can be achieved and set as independent variables
in carefully designed experiments, such as a catalytic reaction. Therefore,
scientists can establish the dependent variables (catalytic activity or selectivity) as a function of morphology in three-dimensional high surface area
model catalyst systems. This is the birth of nanocatalysis, which has a
foundation built from the convergence of many fundamental principles
encapsulated within a vast pyramid of investigation and oers the potential
to design optimized catalysts.9294 We now highlight some important work
in the area of nanocatalysis.95
2.4.1
CO Oxidation on Au
Gold clusters can be grown on the surface of rutile TiO2 (110) single crystal
surfaces under ultra-high vacuum conditions. A tungsten filament wrapped
with high purity Au wire provides Au atoms with well-calibrated flux. The Au
atoms are deposited on the TiO2 surface at 300 K followed by annealing at
850 K for 2 minutes. With this method, Au clusters (16 nm diameter) with
relatively narrow size distributions can be formed in which size depends on
the initial Au coverage.96
The clusters were characterized using scanning tunneling microscopy and
scanning tunneling spectroscopy to establish their size and electronic
structure. A quantum eect was clearly observed for the set of Au particles.
Particles with diameter x height greater than 3.5 nm1.0 nm showed
metallic properties. Below this size, the Au clusters exhibit an increasing
band-gap. Clusters with band-gaps in the 0.20.6 eV range were found in the
2.53.0 nm range.
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The Au clusters supported on TiO2 (110) were exposed to CO : O2 mixtures

and resulted in CO oxidation at 350 K. The reaction was highly structuresensitive, and the turnover frequency of the reaction peaked for clusters with
diameter B3.0 nm. The results correlate with data obtained for supported
Au-TiO2 catalysts prepared by wetness impregnation of TiO2 with HAuCl4.97
2.4.2
TiO2 Nanocrystals with Reactive Facets
Most anatase TiO2 crystals are dominated by the thermodynamically stable

{101} facets.98 Several studies have focused on the preparation of anatase
TiO2 with reactive facets, such as {100} and {001}. This has been achieved
significantly by the selection of capping agents, solvents and other experimental conditions. Computational investigation found that fluoride-termination led to a reversal in the stability such that the {001} facet was more
stable than the {101} facet. The theoretical prediction was followed by experimental synthesis of anatase TiO2 in the presence of fluoride that showed
a high percentage of {001} facets.99 Liu et al developed a modified hydrothermal synthesis of anatase TiO2 nanocrystals with exposed {001} and {110}
facets.100 The system shows enhanced photocatalytic activity for degradation
of methylene blue under UV irradiation. High thermal stability allowed the
removal of fluorine from the surfaces without altering morphology and the
fluorine free samples are used to estimate catalytic activity.
Shape and size controlled uniform anatase TiO2 nanocuboids enclosed by
active {100} and {001} facets were synthesized using the ionic liquid 1-butyl-3methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate ([bmim][BF4]) as the capping agent.101
The fluoride ion preferentially stabilized the {001} facet while [bmim]1 stabilized the {100} facet. The obtained nanocrystals exhibit high thermal stability and enhanced photocatalytic activity. The nanocrystals were suciently
stable to allow removal of the surface fluoride, which was critical to achieve
the high photoactivity that exceeded the performance of Degussa P25.
A fluorine-free strategy was developed in which TiO2 nanoparticles with a
tetragonal bipyramidal shape enclosed by {101} facets were transformed to
truncated tetragonal bipyramids enclosed by {001} and {101} facets, to sixteen-faceted polyhedral particles with exposed {103} and {101} facets, and
finally to low aspect ratio tetragonal bipyramidal particles enclosed exclusively by {102} facets.102 The activity via degradation of methylene blue
was compared and the order of reactivity was {001}4{102}E{103}4{101}.
The {102} and {103} facets are similar in surface structure.
The photocatalytic activity of anatase nanocrystals with varying ratios of
{101}, {001}, and {010} facets to generate OH and H2 under UV irradiation
was reported.103 Similar rates of evolution of OH radicals or H2 were observed in all three samples with fluorine-terminated surfaces. Removal of
surface fluorine revealed photoactivity (in both reactions) to be in the order
of {010}4{101}4{001}. Both {010} and {001} facets possess 100% Ti5c surface sites that were considered important to photocatalytic activity. Analysis
of the electronic band structure led the authors to conclude that the {010}
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20
Figure 2.2
Chapter 2
Selective growth of PbO2 on the {011} facets of rutile modified with

platinum on the {110} facet.
Reprinted from ref. 94 with permission from the Royal Society of
Chemistry.
terminated crystal has higher activity due to the slightly larger band-gap;
though, the dierences are only on the order of a few tens of millivolts.
Exposed facets of nanocrystals influence the trapping and interfacial
transfer of photogenerated carriers. UV irradiation of rutile nanocrystals
with {011} and {110} facets in aqueous hexachloroplatinate led to deposition
of platinum on the {110} facets while water oxidation occurred on the {011}
facets. UV irradiation of the Pt-TiO2 powder in aqueous Pb21 led to the
growth of PbO2 on the {011} facets (Figure 2.2).104 Similar behavior was
observed with anatase TiO2; however, platinum deposition required addition
of isopropanol as a sacrificial oxidant. The platinum was preferentially deposited on the {101} facet of anatase, and PbO2 growth occurred on the {001}
facet. The results indicate separation of electrons and holes on dierent
facets of the nanocrystal during irradiation. The eect was stronger for rutile
particles than for the anatase particles.
A similar result was found when anatase TiO2 nanocrystals with {101} and
{001} facets were evaluated for mineralization of aqueous phenol in the
presence of O2. Charge trapping centers on the catalyst surface (Ti31, O,
and O2) that formed upon UV irradiation were quantitatively evaluated
using EPR spectroscopy.105 During exposure to vacuum conditions, the
trapped holes (O centers) increased with higher proportions of {001} facets;
while the Ti31 sites were associated with the {101} surfaces. Such a mechanism can allow for separation of the self-trapped polarons, which could
provide a big advantage in photocatalysis. Otherwise, their proximity on the
same facet could make recombination more competitive. The photooxidation of phenol was found to increase with nanocrystals that had higher
proportions of {001} facets. Because of the correlation between trapped holes
and increased activity with increasing ratio of the {001} facet, the mechanism for photooxidation appeared to be driven by trapped holes. The Ti31
sites act as reduction centers that form superoxide in the presence of O2 and
contribute to the mineralization of phenol. It remains to be elucidated
whether the improved photooxidation of nanocrystals with {100} facets was
due to separation of charge-trapped centers that allow simultaneous
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oxidation via O traps and O2 (from Ti traps) or if the improvement is

only dependent on the concentration of O traps. These investigations have
important implications for future work in nanophotocatalysis.
2.4.3
Catalysis on Shape-controlled Pt Nanocrystals
Electron transfer between hexacyanoferrate(III) and thiosulfate on Pt nanocrystals with tetrahedral, cubic, or spherical shape was studied.106 The tetrahedral particles are bound by {111} facets whilst cubic particles are bound
by {100} facets. The near spherical particles are likely a statistical distribution of truncated octahedra that feature both facets. The reaction was
conducted near room temperature and, consequently, there was little change
in the shape of the nanocrystals during catalysis. The activation energy of
catalytic electron transfer was 14.0 kJ mol1, 22.6 kJ mol1, and 26.4 kJ
mol1 for tetrahedral, spherical, and cubic particles, respectively. The result
shows that electron transfer was facet- (and therefore shape-) dependent,
which is consistent with established structural eects in electrocatalysis on
Pt single crystal electrodes.107
Monodisperse PVP-stabilized platinum nanocrystals with three shapes
cubes, cubo-octahedra, and octahedrawere synthesized.108 Shape control
was achieved with careful addition of an Ag1 ion that enhances the crystal
growth rate along [100]. The PVP stabilizer, however, is dicult to remove
from the Pt surface and blocks adsorbates thereby lowering catalytic activity.
Cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) stabilized Pt nanocrystals were
synthesized with cubic, cubo-octahedral, and dendritic shapes.109 CTABPt
particles were an order of magnitude more active than PVPPt particles for
ethylene hydrogenation. Benzene hydrogenation was found to be shapedependent on the CTABPt nanocrystals.110 Cyclohexane and cyclohexene
were formed on cubo-octahedral nanoparticles; whereas, only cyclohexane
was produced on cubic nanoparticles. The results are consistent with data
obtained from single crystal studies.111 These findings implicate nanocrystal
morphology as a way to control selectivity in catalysis.
Turnover frequency of ethane hydrogenolysis on platinum supported on
mesoporous silica was studied. Monodisperse PVP-stabilized platinum
nanoparticles were synthesized with sizes 1.7 7.1 nm and added to
mesoporous silica supports.112,113 This model catalyst system diers from a
conventional catalyst in its synthesis approach. The Pt nanoparticles were
synthesized first using precise chemical methods that yielded monodisperse
particle samples. A conventional approach, such as wetness impregnation,
can yield much larger particle size distributions. This is a distinction between nanocatalysis and a more conventional catalysis study. Two routes
were used for the addition of Pt particles to the support. In the capillary
inclusion method, the PVPPt particles were combined with SBA-15 and
sonicated at room temperature for 3 hours; whereas, in the nanoparticle
encapsulation method, the PVPPt particles were added to the triblock
copolymer surfactant mixture in which mesoporous silica condenses.
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Chapter 2
The latter method was devised to yield a catalyst with more even distribution
of particles throughout the support. The catalysts were calcined at 623723 K
to remove the PVP stabilizer. Chemisorption analysis with H2, O2, CO, and
H2O2 titration were performed to measure dispersion of the catalyst. The
activity for ethylene hydrogenation was measured as a means to calculate
dispersion due to its structure-insensitive nature. The dispersions measured
from chemisorption were compared with data from TEM and powder XRD
measurements, which establish the number of surface sites. The correct
tabulation of surface sites is required for the calculation of turnover frequency that enables a true comparison of the catalysts. Ethane hydrogenolysis, known to be a structure-sensitive reaction, was studied on the Pt/
SBA-15 catalysts. The turnover frequency increased with decreasing particle
size. This was attributed to the higher surface roughness in the smaller
particles; however, an electronic structure eect cannot be ruled out.
The catalytic hydrogenation of pyrrole was studied on several Pt catalysts.114 A series of uniform Pt nanocrystals with a cubic shape with sizes of
5, 6, 7, and 9 nm were prepared, as well as rounded polyhedra with sizes of
3.5 and 5 nm. The nanocrystals were supported on MCF-17 large-pore
mesoporous silica. The activity of the catalysts for ethylene hydrogenation
exhibited a turnover frequency of B6 s1 (10 Torr C2H4, 100 Torr H2, and 298
K) that is similar to Pt(111), and demonstrated active catalyst materials and
the structure-insensitive nature of the reaction. Pyrrole hydrogenation can
proceed step-wise to form pyrrolidine, n-butylamine, and butane/ammonia
wherein the latter products arise from CN bond scission. The reaction was
studied in the temperature range 385415 K. Over this temperature range,
cubic Pt nanocrystals showed high selectivity for n-butylamine. Interestingly,
at lower temperatures, the rounded polyhedra Pt catalyzed formation of
n-butylamine/pyrrolidine in approximately 2 : 1 ratio that became increasingly selective to n-butylamine at higher temperatures. SFG investigation of
pyrrole hydrogenation on Pt(111) and Pt(100) suggested a preference for
n-butylamine on the Pt(100) surface. In comparison, hydrogenation of pyrrole on B1 nm Pt particles over the same temperature range exhibited very
dierent selectivity, and pyrrolidine was the major product.115 The B1 nm
particles were formed from a dendrimer template that confines the size of
the metal domain within a very narrow size range. The small particles do not
feature any long range surface facets, so the preferential stabilization of
n-butylamine on Pt(100) was not possible.
Particle shape was found to be important in controlling the cistrans
isomerism of olefins.116 The interactions of cis- and trans-2-butene were
compared for Pt(111), Pt(557), Pt(100), and Pt(110)-(2 1) surfaces. Except in
the case of Pt(110), cis-2-butene desorbs from Pt surfaces at a higher temperature than the trans isomer, which indicates a higher stability of the cis
isomer on the surface. DFT calculations show deformation of the Pt(111)
surface on adsorption of 2-butene. The deformation involves movement of a
Pt atom out of plane toward the olefin, and is more severe (and energetically
unfavorable) for the trans isomer. The dierence in surface deformation is
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23
likely the reason for the slightly higher stability of the cis isomer. The data
suggest that olefin isomerization on Pt should lead to conversion to the cis
isomer, as long as the catalyst surfaces exhibit the preferential stabilization
of the cis isomer. To this end, tetrahedral Pt nanocrystals were prepared and
deposited on silica xerogel. The Ptxerogel SiO2 catalysts were calcined at 475
K, 525 K, and 575 K. At 475 K, the tetrahedral shapes were retained; however,
at 575 K, the particles had become spherical in shape. Isomerization of
2-butene at 375 K was studied over the three catalysts with tetrahedral,
intermediate, and spherical shapes. The catalyst with tetrahedral Pt particles
exhibited selectivity for the cis isomer that greatly diminished with increasing population of spherical particles.
2.4.4
Advanced Templating Methods for Nanocrystal

Synthesis
The use of dendrimers has emerged as a tool for the highly precise preparation of nanoparticles in the 12 nm range.117 Dendrimers are somewhat
like highly pre-organized micelles. They are polymers that grow radially from
a starting molecular block and repeating units that branch. Due to the
geometric expansion of the dendrimer with successive generations, their size
tends to be limited yet uniform. Functional groups, typically amines, on the
repeating units can coordinate metal ions. In this way, the core of a dendrimer can be filled with metal ions, and subsequent reduction leads to formation of a nanoparticle within the dendrimer. Due to the high uniformity of
the dendrimer, the nanoparticles are monodisperse. More importantly, it is
straightforward to synthesize well-defined bimetallic nanoparticles simply by
adjusting the metal ion ratio in the dendrimer.118 Such control is typically not
possible in untemplated nanoparticle synthesis. For example, random alloys
of Pt/Cu, Pd/Cu, Pd/Au, Pt/Au, and Au/Cu DENs were synthesized.119 These
materials were used to catalyze reduction of p-nitrophenol to p-aminophenol
by NaBH4. Theoretically, combinations of metals should exhibit unique
binding energy to p-nitrophenol that governs the reaction rate. Experiments
showed this to be true for metal combinations with matching lattice constants; however, metals with lattice mismatch showed bimodal distribution of
binding energies. This is an excellent example of synergism between theory
and experiment in the design and testing of model nanocatalysts. Whereas
dendrimers are limited in size, star-like block copolymers oer the advantages
of micellular pre-organization over a larger size range.120 Both of these phenomena are made possible through the use of uniform, high-quality polymers, and there is an interesting parallel between monodisperse polymers
and the ability to organize matter at the nanoscale.
2.4.5
Hybrid Nanocrystal Catalysis
Hybrid nanocrystals are nanoparticles that feature multiple crystal phases,

and are synthesized by a seeded growth mechanism wherein the seed and
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Chapter 2
growing nanocrystal are of dierent compositions and crystal phases. Reactive facets or surface defects on the seed crystal serve as nucleation sites to
form the hybrid nanocrystal. Given the seed is a well-defined nanocrystal, it
is theoretically possible to construct the hybrid nanocrystal through a rational approach upon selective nucleation of the new phase at specific
positions on the seed. Hybrid nanocrystals that consisted of CdSe nanorods
with Au tips were synthesized according to this principle.121 Other examples
have appeared in the literature, and excellent reviews can be found in the
literature.122 An attractive feature of hybrid nanocrystals is the ability to join
completely dierent materials at small length scales. For instance, one may
combine a semiconductor particle with a magnetic particle to build a
multifunctional nanocrystal. From a catalysis perspective, there is an enormous opportunity to capitalize on studying the eect of material combinations in catalytic reactions.
Metalsemiconductor hybrid nanocrystals have attracted attention as
photocatalyst materials.123 Excitation of the semiconductor component results in an exciton that can become separated as the electron becomes
trapped on the metal domain. Careful selection of the metal and semiconductor domain in which they catalyze reduction and oxidation half-reactions, respectively, should give rise to an enhanced photocatalytic eect.
This idea was the impetus for the study of modified titania colloids that
could achieve water splitting.124 New metalsemiconductor hybrid nanocrystals based on semiconductor nanorods can oer the specific advantages
of high longitudinal mobility of charge carriers and well-defined sites for
selective nucleation of catalyst particles. Ultrafast charge separation in
matchstick type AuCdS hybrid nanocrystals was studied using an optical
time-resolved pump probe technique and probing the light-induced change
of their optical response.125 Electronhole pairs photoexcited in the semiconductor part of the nanohybrids are shown to undergo rapid charge separation with the electron transferred to the metal part on a sub-20 fs
time scale.
2.5 Conclusion
Catalysis began with a tradition of empirical work that evolved into a rational
design of materials to attain improved performance. The development of
model systems has been critical to the understanding of catalytic processes.
The study of chemistry on surfaces has had profound implications, such as
identification of surface species, the role of crystal facets in adsorption energy or reaction rates, restructuring processes, and surface mobility. Model
three-dimensional systems were lacking until it became possible to synthesize monodisperse nanocrystals. Advances in nanocrystal synthesis
methods extend the limits of model catalyst systems, and will surely open
the door to new performance possibilities in catalysis. The ability to precisely
control matter at the nanoscale, therefore its electronic structure and surface
features, is at the heart of nanocatalysis.
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25
While numerous opportunities for study exist to evaluate the catalytic

performance of existing series of nanocrystals with tunable morphological
properties, there is a parallel opportunity to learn how to arrange the
nanocrystal components in space and develop multifunctional materials.
The focus of this chapter was to illustrate size- and shape-eects in nanocatalysis; however, studies in this field should not be limited to this idea.
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CHAPTER 3
New Strategies to Fabricate

Nanostructured Colloidal and
Supported Metal Nanoparticles
and their Ecient Catalytic
Applications
KOHSUKE MORIa,b AND HIROMI YAMASHITA*a,b
a
Division of Materials and Manufacturing Science, Graduate School of

Engineering, Osaka University, 2-1 Yamada-oka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871,
Japan; b ESICB, Kyoto University, Katsura, Kyoto 615-8520, Japan
3.1 Introduction
Among the various catalyst materials, metal NPs (1 to 100 nm) in particular
are gaining increasing attention because of their existence on the borderline
molecular states with discrete quantum energy levels.13 Thus, NP-based
catalysts are considered to bridge the gap between mononuclear metal
complexes and heterogeneous bulk catalysts; this system is often referred to
as a quasihomogeneous system.4 Their large surface area-to-volume ratio
and the high concentration of low coordination sites and surface vacancies
allow eective utilization of expensive catalyst metals.
The general routes to NP synthesis are based on the chemical reduction of
metal precursors with the appropriate reducing reagents in the presence of
30
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New Strategies to Fabricate Nanostructured Colloidal and Supported Metal NPs
31
stabilizing organic ligands. Control of the primary structures, such as size,

composition and morphology, is widely utilized to tune their catalytic activities and selectivities. Protective ligands can also impart their selective
solubility, resistance to aggregation and derivatization with functional
groups. Promising synthetic methods providing suitable NPs responsible for
target catalytic reactions are extremely important. The NP-based catalysts are
key components of catalytic activities, but they often encounter deactivation
caused by sintering and/or particle agglomeration during the catalytic reactions. Moreover, their applications in liquid suspensions are limited due
to the diculties with product separation and catalyst recycling. In order to
overcome these drawbacks, catalytic NPs have generally been immobilized
on solid supports (e.g., carbon, metal oxides and zeolites) or stabilized by
capping with large polymers.5,6
Supported NP catalysts are widely recognized as an important class of
industrial catalysts that are closely related with versatile key technologies in
the petrochemical industries, in the conversion of automobile exhausts, in
chemical sensors, and in the manufacturing of fine and specialty chemicals.
There are a number of criteria for practical supported metal catalysts including specific catalystsupport interaction, resistance to agglomerization,
site isolation, good accessibility of substrate molecules, mechanical robustness and low synthetic cost, etc. The most convenient methods for attaining the immobilization of metal NPs on high surface area support
materials are the incipient wetness technique and the ion-exchange method,
in which the support material is impregnated with metal precursors in the
solution phase, followed by activation under a reducing atmosphere.7,8
Owing to its inherent simplicity, this is successful for the large scale production of catalysts, but often results in non-uniform distribution of the
active phase on the support. A novel and radically dierent approach for
the generation of supported metal catalysts is desirable in order to develop
ecient and practical catalysts.
In this chapter, we highlight our recent advancement in the design and
architecture of the NP-based catalysts and their ecient application. Owing
to the dramatic growth of this research field, we sincerely hope that this
review can oer a helpful overview of this fascinating area to the readers.
3.2 New Route for the Preparation of Supported

Metal Nanoparticle Catalysts
3.2.1
A Photo-assisted Deposition Method Using a Single-site

Photocatalyst
Single-site photocatalysts, exemplified by Ti-containing zeolites and Ticontaining mesoporous silicas, have been shown to exhibit exceptional
photocatalytic activities compared to bulk TiO2.911 These dierences can be
explained by considering their photo-excitation mechanism. In the case of
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32
Figure 3.1
Chapter 3
(A) Excitation by UV light and charge separation in the semiconducting

bulk TiO2. (B) Formation of charge-transfer excited state in the singlesite photocatalyst under UV light irradiation and its application for the
synthesis of nano-sized metal particles.
bulk TiO2, electrons and holes in the conduction and valence bands formed
via photoexcitation contribute to the reduction and oxidation reaction, respectively (Figure 3.1A).12 On the other hand, in the case of single-site
photocatalysts, excitation by light at around 230270 nm brings about an
electron transfer from the oxygen to Ti41 ions, resulting in the formation of
pairs of trapped hole centers (O) and electron centers (Ti31).13,14 These
charge transfer excited states, i.e. the electron hole pair state which localize
quite near to each other compared with the electrons and holes generated in
TiO2, play a crucial role in photocatalytic reactions (Figure 3.1B). It can be
expected that the metal precursor species can be easily deposited on the
excited state of a single-site photocatalyst to form well-controlled metal NPs
from the mixture of single-site photocatalysts in the aqueous solution of
metal precursors. Recently, we have successfully utilized single-site photocatalysts as a platform for the synthesis of nano-size metal catalysts by the
advanced photo-assisted deposition (PAD) method.1520
Under UV-light irradiation of a slurry of Ti-containing zeolites (TS-1,
Pd/Ti 0.6) in an aqueous PdCl2 solution, the Pd metal can be successfully
deposited on the TS-1. No Pd deposition was observed both on the silicalite zeolite without Ti-oxide under UV-light irradiation and the TS-1 zeolite
without UV-light irradiation. These results suggest that the Pd precursor
underwent anchoring on the single framework Ti41 center of TS-1 under UVlight irradiation. The subsequent calcination at 723 K for 5 h and reduction
with H2 at 473 K for 1 h generates nano-sized Pd metal particles (PAD-Pd/TS-1).
The TEM images showed that the PAD-Pd/TS-1 exhibits nano-sized Pd
metals with a mean diameter of ca. 2.1 nm and has a narrow size distribution, while the imp-Pd/TS-1, which was prepared by a conventional impregnation method, had Pd metal particles with various sizes within the
range of 215 nm. These results clearly suggest that the size of the Pd metal
particles depends on the preparation method, and that the smaller Pd metal
particles are formed on the photo-deposited catalyst rather than on the
impregnated catalyst.
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Figure 3.2
33
The eect of catalysts on concentration of H2O2. Reaction conditions:

catalyst (0.1 g), 0.01 M HCl (50 mL), 293 K, 6 h, H2 and O2 (80 ml min1,
H2 : O2 1 : 1).
The nano-sized Pd catalysts can be applied to catalytic reactions with high

eciency. With the flow of H2 and O2 into an aqueous slurry of Pd/TS-1
under atmospheric pressure at room temperature, H2O2 can be produced.
The PAD-Pd/TS-1 can exhibit higher activity than the imp-Pd/TS-1
(Figure 3.2). The high dispersion of Pd metal particles in the PAD-Pd/TS-1 is
preferable for the formation of H2O2.
The PAD method also provides PdAu bimetallic nanoparticles from an
aqueous solution of a mixture of PdCl2 and HAuCl4.21 The TEM image of
PAD-PdAu/TS-1 exhibited larger particles that ranged in size from 1215 nm
with a composition of 80 mol% Au 20 mol% Pd. Pd K-edge and Au LIII-edge
XAFS results support the existence of Au-rich bimetallic particles by the
present PAD method. For the structural model of the PdAu nanoparticles, it
is reasonable to suggest that most of the Au atoms are preferentially located
in the core region, while the Pd atoms are preferentially located in the shell
region, since the reduction potentials of Au ions are more positive than Pd
ions (E0(Pd21/Pd0) 0.63 V, E0(Au31/Au0) 1.0 V vs. NHE).22
As shown in Figure 3.2, PAD-PdAu/TS-1 exhibited the highest H2O2 formation rate, which was significantly better than that of imp-PdAu/TS-1 and
PAD-Pd/TS-1. The reaction rate of pure PAD-Au/TS-1 was extremely low under
identical reaction conditions. The enhancement eect was almost negligible
when the physical mixture of pure PAD-Pd/TS-1 and PAD-Au/TS-1 was employed. These results indicate that a synergic eect exists between Au and Pd
atoms for the TS-1-supported catalysts prepared by photo-irradiation. The
main origin of the enhanced catalytic activity can be explained by the higher
selective formation of H2O2 due to the electronic promotion of Pd by the
addition of Au.
The PAD method also enables the preparation of nano-sized Pd-Ni bimetal
particles with a narrow size distribution on Ti-containing mesoporous silica
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Chapter 3
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23
(Ti-HMS). The PAD-PdNi/Ti-HMS catalyst exhibited specifically higher hydrogenation activity than imp-PdNi/Ti-HMS prepared by conventional
methods. In particular, it was proven that the PAD-PdNi/Ti-HMS with
Ni/Pd 1.5 mol% exhibited a strong synergistic eect. These studies
verified a promising approach for the preparation of supported metal catalysts, and we expect that this synthetic strategy will be extendable in the
preparation of other bimetallic nanoparticles as unique catalysts and/or
photocatalysts.
3.2.2
A Microwave-assisted Deposition Method
Microwave dielectric heating has been attracting a great deal of attention as

a new and promising method in the organic and inorganic synthesis fields.
It is widely accepted that microwave irradiation enables rapid, uniform, and
energy ecient heating, and it is also applicable to the simple preparation of
metallic nanostructured materials.24,25 As a supported system, carbon-supported and polymer stabilized colloids have been synthesized26. Although
much studies dealing with the preparation of metal colloids and clusters are
reported, the microwave-assisted synthesis of metal particles supported on
silica based porous materials is unexplored so far.
We have found that Ti-containing mesoporous silica (Ti-HMS) also acts as
a promising platform to deposit uniform and small metal particles under
microwave irradiation (500 W, 2450 30 MHz).27 The precursor of Pt metal
can be successfully deposited on the Ti-HMS under microwave irradiation of
a slurry of Ti-HMS in an aqueous H2PtCl6 solution. On the other hand, the Pt
metal precursor could not be deposited on the HMS support without Tioxide moieties under identical conditions. Without microwave irradiation
conditions, the deposition hardly occurred on the Ti-HMS support. These
results suggested that the existence of the tetrahedrally coordinated Ti-oxide
moieties and microwave irradiation were indispensable for attaining the
deposition of Pt precursors. Characterization by CO adsorption, XAFS, and
TEM analysis revealed that the size of metal particles depends on the
preparation methods and that smaller metal particles were formed on the
microwave-assisted metal catalysts compared to the conventionally prepared
impregnated catalysts. These nano-sized metal catalysts are useful as ecient catalysts for various reactions such as the hydrogenation of nitrobenzene and oxidation of CO.
The Mw heating method was also found to be applicable to semiconducting anatase-type TiO2 to exploit the highly ecient photocatalyst for
the formation of hydrogen (H2) and nitrogen (N2) gases from aqueous ammonia (NH3) as harmful nitrogen-containing chemical waste.28 The eect of
the Pt deposition method on the photocatalytic activity was examined using
0.3 wt% Pt-TiO2 prepared by various methods (microwave: Mw, PAD, equilibrium adsorption: EA, imp). As shown in Figure 3.3, PAD-, EA- and imp-PtTiO2 also exhibited stable H2 and N2 formation activities and stoichiometries
as those of Mw-Pt-TiO2, but the H2 and N2 formation activities decreased in
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Figure 3.3
35
Eect of preparation method of 0.3 wt% Pt-TiO2 and Pt metal average

particle size on the photocatalytic decomposition of aqueous NH3
under UV-light irradiation.
the order of Mw4PAD4impEEAD. It should be noted that the order of gas

formation activity was in close agreement with the order of decreasing Pt
nanoparticle size calculated using pulsed CO adsorption measurements. The
small and highly dispersed Pt nanoparticles loaded on TiO2 exhibited a high
surface area and low photonic shielding eect by the Pt particles in the
photocatalytic reaction, resulting in a more ecient reaction.
Moreover, in the presence of surface-modifying ligands possessing different carbon chain lengths such as sodium laurate (C, 12) and sodium
stearate (C, 18), size-controlled Cu nanoparticles with average particle sizes
of 4.5, 6.3, and 7.3 nm can be prepared on ZnO/SBA-15 mesoporous silica by
microwave-assisted alcohol reduction29 and the ecient hydrogenation reaction of p-nitrophenol to p-aminophenol was achieved by Cu/ZnO/SBA-15
with Cu nanoparticles. It should be noted that the order of hydrogenation
activity was in close agreement with the order of decreasing Cu
nanoparticle size.
3.2.3
Deposition of Size-controlled Metal Nanoparticles as

Colloidal Precursors
A rational synthetic method of supported metal catalysts has also been

realized by employing Ag NPs with a mean diameter of ca. 10 nm stabilized
by 3-mercaptopropionic acid (3-MPA) as a colloidal precursor solution.30 The
synthetic strategy is illustrated in Figure 3.4. In solution at higher pH values,
the proton of the carboxyl group at the opposite side to the thiol group was
electrolytically dissociated to form a carboxylate anion (COO) and negative electric potential was formed on the surface of the Ag NPs. Such Ag NPs
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Figure 3.4
Chapter 3
Schematics of the assembly-dispersion mechanism of the colloidal Ag

NPs with 3-MPA at dierent pH regions and their deposition onto an
Al2O3 support.
can demonstrate a high dispersion state without aggregation because of the

electrostatic repulsion between Ag NPs. At a lower pH, the Ag NP surface
becomes electrostatically neutral to lose the driving force of dispersion and
the hydrophobic interactions between Ag NPs predominate, because the
proton of the weak acid carboxyl group of 3-MPA cannot be ionized. It can
be envisioned that such pH-triggered assembly-dispersion properties of
the Ag NPs provide a possibility to control the particle size of the supported
metal catalysts.
As expected, several colloidal Ag NP aqueous solutions, whose pH was
adjusted with HCl (pH 2.9, 3.2, 3.4 and 3.7), were smoothly deposited on
an Al2O3 surface by electrostatic attraction while keeping their dispersion
state. After deposition of Ag NPs, the samples were calcined at 823 K to
remove the surface-attached 3-MPA and further treated with H2 at 473 K.
UV-vis diuse reflectance spectra showed the characteristic plasmon absorption peak of Ag NPs at around 450 nm. TEM images revealed that the Ag/
Al2O3(3.7) showed smaller Ag NPs, where the average diameter was determined to be 12.1 nm. The average diameter gradually increased with decreasing the pH value in the preparation sequence; the average diameters at
pH 3.4, 3.2 and 2.9 were estimated to be 15.5, 19.2 and 26.3 nm, respectively.
HR-TEM images did not show significant grain boundary, revealing that the
Ag NPs deposited on Al2O3 were not the assemblages of the original small NPs
but the single crystal.
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Figure 3.5
37
Schematics of the assembly-dispersion mechanism of the colloidal

Ag NPs with a flavylium cation generated under light irradiation.
The reaction rate increased with increasing the pH value of the prepared
colloidal solution, and the Ag/Al2O3 (3.7) with the smallest Ag NPs exhibited
higher activity in the reduction of 4-nitrophenol in the presence of NaBH4,
because the higher dispersion of Ag metal NPs is preferable for the catalytic
reactions.
We also exploited the size controlled deposition of Ag nanoparticles on
Al2O3 with the assistance of a photo-induced chromic reaction.31 2-Hydroxychalcon derivatives are known to be one of the organic photochromic
compounds. By light irradiation to trans-2-hydroxychalcon derivatives under
slightly acidic conditions, flavylium cations are photochemically produced
via cis-2-hydroxychalcon and flav-3-en-2-ol, as shown in Figure 3.5.32 In the
presence of trans-2-hydroxychalcone, the photo-irradiation gradually neutralized the negative electric charge of 3-MPA-stabilized Ag NPs owing to the
formation of flavylium cations, which induced the assembly of Ag NPs. We
demonstrated that such photo-induced assembly-dispersion control of Ag
NPs enables a size selective deposition on an Al2O3 support by varying the
photo-irradiation time while keeping their inherent aggregated form. After
calcination and reduction processes, the assemblage of Ag NPs transforms
into monocrystalline Ag particles with dierent diameters. From the TEM
image, the average diameter gradually increased with increasing the irradiation time in the preparation sequence; the average diameters after 0, 2, 4,
and 8 hours of irradiation times were estimated to be 10.2, 12.3, 15.9,
and 20.5 nm, respectively. It can be concluded that these preparation
methods based on the precise control of the assembly-dispersion state of the
colloidal NPs enable a strong protocol to create supported metal catalysts
with dierent diameters. The present strategy provides great flexibility in
the selection of the kind of metals as well as primary NP sizes. Introduction
of these features into the catalyst design enables the achievement of desired
supported metal catalysts for the target catalytic reactions.
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Chapter 3
3.3 Multifunctional Catalysts Based on Magnetic

Nanoparticles
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3.3.1
Coreshell Magnetic FePt@Ti-containing Silica

Spherical Nanocatalyst
It is widely accepted that the activity of a solid catalyst suspended in a liquid

phase can benefit greatly from the use of smaller catalyst particles (o1 mm) to
avoid mass-transfer limitations. However, the diculties in recovering small
particles from the reaction mixture severely circumvent their industrial applications. Although NP-based catalysts possessing extremely large surface
areas are also key components of catalytic activity, the separation step becomes a more troublesome issue as the size of the particles decreases to the
nanometre scale. In order to overcome these drawbacks, the separation of
suspended magnetic catalyst bodies from the liquid system using an external magnetic field is a promising strategy.3336 We have developed coreshell type Ti-containing silica (Ti-SiO2) encapsulating superparamagnetic fcc
FePt NPs (FePt@Ti-SiO2). The inner magnetic FePt cores are shielded from
the external environment by an impermeable coating, which prevents sintering and agglomeration of metal NPs under catalytic conditions. The catalytically active Ti-oxide moieties are located on the external surface of the
coating and are considered to be highly dispersed at the atomic level.
The following synthetic procedure for the FePt@Ti-SiO2 was used
(Figure 3.6). Uniformly distributed FePt NPs were synthesized by decomposition of Fe(CO)5 and reduction of Pt(acac)2 in the presence of oleic
acid and oleylamine. Next, (3-mercaptopropyl)-triethoxysilane (3-MPTS) was
added to the hexane solution of as-synthesized FePt NPs. Ligand exchange
with 3-MPTS made the FePt NPs dispersible in the alcoholic solution. Finally, precursors of Ti-SiO2 (TEOS and TPOT) were added to the FePt NPs
dispersed in ethanol and stirred at room temperature, aording FePt@TiSiO2.
Figure 3.6
Schematics of the procedure for the synthesis of FePt@Ti-SiO2.
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Figure 3.7
39
TEM imageof FePt@Ti-SiO2.
TEM images show that the spherical particles have a 4550 nm thick TiSiO2 shell (Figure 3.7). Each Ti-SiO2 sphere encapsulates one FePt NPs, although a small fraction of the particles possesses either two or zero FePt
NPs. The average diameter of FePt NPs was determined to be ca. 6 nm. Ti
K-edge XAFS spectra also confirm the formation of isolated and tetrahedrally-coordinated Ti-oxide moieties within the silica shell framework.
The catalytic ability of the FePt@Ti-SiO2 was investigated in the epoxidation of cyclooctene using 30% H2O2 as a simple test reaction. The results
of this reaction indicated that the corresponding cyclooctene oxide was
obtained in 499% selectivity and the turnover number (TON) based on
Ti approached 48 after 24 h. A more important advantage of the FePt@TiSiO2 is the facile recovery from the reaction mixture and the high reusability.
Upon completion of the oxidation reaction, the magnetic properties of the
FePt@Ti-SiO2 can aord a straightforward means to isolate the catalyst from
the colloidal solution. By applying an external permanent magnet, the
catalyst was attracted. The recovered catalyst could then be recycled in the
epoxidation of cyclooctene at least three times while maintaining identical
inherent activity to the initial run.
3.3.2
Water-soluble FePt Magnetic NPs Modified with

Cyclodextrin
The synthesis of cyclodextrin (CD)-stabilized metal NPs represents research

on the functionalization of NPs. CDs are a group of cyclic oligosaccharides
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Figure 3.8
Chapter 3
Photograph of a two-phase mixture of FePt NPs stabilized by (a) oleic

acid/oleylamine and (b) g-CD. The top layer is hexane and the bottom
layer is aqueous solution.
composed of six (a-CD), seven (b-CD), or eight (g-CD) a(1,4)-linked glucopyranose units. The cavity exhibits a hydrophobic character, which allows
CDs to form inclusion complexes with hydrophobic molecules that fit into
the cavity.37 We present a CD-stabilized FePt magnetic NP exhibiting catalytic activity under aqueous conditions,38 in which the composition of FePt
NPs was controlled to form FecorePtshell by the first decomposition of Fe(CO)5
to form the Fe core, followed by the successive reduction of Pt(acac)2 in the
presence of oleic acid and oleylamine. Elemental analysis confirmed that the
average composition of the NPs was Fe48Pt52.
As shown in Figure 3.8, the as-synthesized FePt NPs can be dispersed in
nonpolar hexane solvent due to the presence of oleic acid and oleylamine.
A mixture of a hexane suspension of as-synthesized FePt NPs and an equal
volume of g-CD aqueous solution was stirred vigorously at room temperature. After stirring for 24 h, the top hexane layer becomes colorless, confirming the existence of water-compatible g-CD as host molecules
(Figure 3.8.). It can be said that the surface properties of the NPs have been
modified through the formation of an inclusion complex between surfacebound organic molecules and g-CD. The surface coverage of g-CD on the
FePt NPs was roughly estimated to be ca. 60 % by CHN elemental analysis.
The aqueous reaction of allyl alcohol using FecorePtshell NPs capped with
g-CD proceeded smoothly to give the corresponding n-propanol. It should be
noted that the reaction using the FeshellPtcore NPs as well as Fe NPs stabilized
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41
by g-CD hardly occurred because Fe atoms do not accelerate the aforementioned hydrogenation reaction, confirming that our FePt NPs consists of
an Fe-rich core and a Pt-rich shell. More interestingly, the reaction rate
performed with FePt NPs capped with g-CD in water was three times higher
than hydrophobic FePt NPs stabilized by oleic acid/oleylamine in THF.
Similar results were observed in other organic solvents, such as toluene and
hexane. We suppose that the hostguest complexation of organic substrate
(allyl alcohol) with g-CD on FePt NPs is the major driving force for the enhancement of the catalytic eciency under aqueous conditions. Such a
driving force is lost in the case of the hydrophobic FePt NPs stabilized
by oleic acid/oleylamine in an organic solvent as the reaction medium,
resulting in a low catalytic activity.
3.3.3
FePd Magnetic NPs Modified with a Chiral BINAP

Ligand
With a similar strategy for catalyst design, the FePd NP with an Fe-rich core
and a Pd-rich shell have been modified with chiral 2,2 0 -bis(diphenylphosphino)-1,1 0 -binaphthyl (BINAP) through the simple ligand exchange procedure (Figure 3.9).39 In the FT-IR spectrum, the peaks due to the methylene
n(CH) stretch vibration of oleic acid and/or oleylamine disappeared, accompanied with the appearance of the aromatic ring n(CH) stretch vibration of BINAP ligand at around 28003000 cm1. The circular dichroism (CD)
spectra of (S)-BINAP-modified NPs in CHCl3 showed a negative cotton eect,
while (R)-BINAP-modified NPs showed a positive cotton eect. For the
structural model of the FePd NPs, the XAFS results suggested that most of
the Pd atoms were preferentially located in the shell region, while the Fe
atoms were preferentially located in the core region.
It was found that the FePd NPs modified with (S)-BINAP served as a
chiral nanocatalyst in the SuzukiMiyaura coupling reaction of 1-bromo2-methylnaphthylene (1) and naphthylboronic acid (2) aord the
corresponding (S)-binaphthalene (3) in 499% yield with a moderate enantioselectivity of 48% (Figure 3.9). Since Fe atoms do not accelerate these
coupling reactions, our FePd NPs are thought to consist of an Fe-rich core
and a Pd-rich shell. In the case of (R)-BINAP, (R)-binaphthalene was obtained
with the same level of chemical yield and enantioselectivity, revealing
that the absolute configuration of the coupling products is determined
by the employed ligands. Periodic monitoring of the coupling reaction
showed no induction period or degradation: the enantioselectivity appeared
to be independent of the conversion level and remained unchanged
during the reaction, suggesting that racemization of the product did not
take place.
Figure 3.9 Ligand exchange procedure of FePd NP from oleic acid/oleylamine to chiral BINAP and asymmetric SuzukiMiyaura coupling reaction.
The red blue core is Fe rich and the yellow shell is Pt rich.
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Chapter 3
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42
Figure 3.9
3.3.4
Ligand exchange procedure of FePd NP from oleic acid/oleylamine

to chiral BINAP and asymmetric SuzukiMiyaura coupling reaction.
The dark grey core is Fe rich and the light grey shell is Pt rich.
Coreshell Nanostructured Catalyst for One-pot

Reactions
As mentioned earlier, the direct synthesis of H2O2 from H2 and O2 over

supported Pd-based catalysts has attracted significant attention. The key
problem is stabilizing the resulting H2O2, because H2O2 simultaneously
undergoes hydrogenation and/or decomposition to water by the same catalysts employed for its formation. This undesirable feature causes a slow
H2O2 formation rate and prevents the accumulation of high H2O2 concentration. In order to overcome this problem, the utilization of in situ generated H2O2 from H2 and O2 to subsequently oxidize organic reactants in the
same reaction vessel (one-pot oxidation reaction) could be an alternative
strategy. It is possible to use the unstable H2O2 immediately without
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43
isolation/purification steps, which would contribute to saving energy and

time as well as avoiding the risk of transportation of the concentrated H2O2.
We predict that the key to constructing a one-pot oxidation system is the
ecient dispersion of H2O2 generated on Pd NP sites to the neighboring
catalytically active oxidation sites before any undesirable conversion to water
can occur. Therefore, the primary requirement is the precise architecture of
the two types of active sites. Considering this, we present a new type of core
shell structured catalyst to enable the one-pot oxidation, in which a uniform
SiO2 core supporting Pd NPs was covered with a Ti-containing mesoporous
silica shell (Pd/SiO2@TiMSS).40 Although the inner Pd NPs are located at the
boundary of the coreshell structure, reactants can penetrate to the Pd NPs
through the mesoporous shell. The Ti-oxide moieties located within the
mesoporous region are catalytically active toward oxidation with H2O2 and
are considered to be highly dispersed at the atomic level.
To elucidate the eect of the location of the Pd NPs on the enhancement
of one-pot oxidation using in situ generated H2O2, two reference samples,
SiO2@Pd(R)/TiMSS and SiO2@Pd(S)/TiMSS, were synthesized. In the case of
the SiO2@Pd(R)/TiMSS, where (R) indicates random, the Pd NPs are randomly distributed within the mesoporous structure. In the case of
SiO2@Pd(S)/TiMSS, where (S) indicates the surface, most of the Pd NPs are
deposited on the outer surface of the mesopores. The HR-TEM images of all
samples show that the spherical NPs consist of nonporous SiO2 cores, Ticontaining mesoporous shells with channels oriented perpendicular to the
core surface, and Pd NPs. The thickness of the shell was determined to be
approximately 30 nm. The Pd NPs were apparently present at the intended
sites; the boundary between the SiO2 core and mesoporous silica shell,
randomly distributed within the mesopores, and the surface of mesoporous
shell in Pd/SiO2@TiMSS, SiO2@Pd(R)/TiMSS, and SiO2@Pd(S)/TiMSS, respectively. The average size of the Pd NPs is 3.5 nm and no significant differences in the Pd NP size are observed in the three samples.
It should be emphasized that, as expected, the relative position between
the H2O2 generation sites and the oxidation sites has a significant eect on
the catalytic activity in the one-pot oxidation of methyl phenyl sulfide into
methyl phenyl sulfoxide. Pd/SiO2@TiMSS is the most eective catalyst
among those investigated; the reaction rate for Pd/SiO2@TiMSS is almost
three times higher than those for SiO2@Pd(S)/TiMSS and SiO2@Pd(R)/TiMSS
(Figure 3.10). The high catalytic activity of Pd/SiO2@TiMSS can be ascribed
to the ecient utilization of H2O2 for the subsequent sulfide oxidation,
where in situ generated H2O2 within the mesoporous channels can promptly
react at the neighboring Ti sites before H2O2 can be dispersed into the
solvent. On the contrary, H2O2 is mainly produced at the outer surface of
SiO2@Pd(S)/TiMSS and it is dicult for the generated H2O2 to enter the
mesoporous channels to interact with the Ti species; therefore most of the
H2O2 is decomposed by the Pd catalyst used in its formation. In the case of
SiO2@Pd(R)/TiMSS, the random distribution of the Pd NPs within the
mesoporous channels may inhibit the diusion of reactants to both types of
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44
Chapter 3
Figure 3.10
Kinetics of methyl phenyl sulfide oxidation using in situ generated

H2O2.
active site. With further optimization of the pore diameter and thickness of
the Ti-MS shell, enhancement of the catalytic activity can be attained by a
factor of 6.41 Therefore, the coreshell catalyst is considered to be a promising structure for one-pot reactions.
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23/06/2014 08:14:50.
CHAPTER 4
Organometallic Approach for

the Synthesis of Noble Metal
Nanoparticles: Towards
Application in Colloidal and
Supported Nanocatalysis
SOLEN KINAYYIGITa,b AND KARINE PHILIPPOT*a,b
a
Laboratoire de Chimie de Coordination, CNRS, LCC, BP 44099, 205 Route de

de Toulouse, UPS,
Narbonne, F-31077 Toulouse cedex 4, France; b Universite
INPT, LCC, F-31077 Toulouse, France
4.1 Introduction
Catalysis is an important area of chemistry in which metal nanoparticles
(MNPs) are considered as promising substitutes of catalysts; both for
homogeneous (molecular complexes) and heterogeneous (bulk metals on
supports) ones.14 MNPs with their small size are highly interesting systems
due to their high proportion of surface atoms that oer numerous active
sites and to their unique electronic properties at the frontier between the
molecular and metallic states.5 Furthermore, the surface chemistry of MNPs
can be tuned by addition of a stabilizer or by using a support. Polymers,
dendrimers, ionic liquids, surfactants, ligands etc. used as capping agents
can transfer their own properties such as solubility or chirality whereas
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Chapter 4
widely used supports such as ceria, titania, alumina, silica, or carbon materials can give a synergy to the nanoparticle systems to orientate a catalytic
reaction.6,7 There are some examples in literature that focus on both aspects
by combining the ligands with supports. With intensive studies over the past
two decades, nanocatalysis has emerged as a modern domain of catalysis at
the borderline between homogeneous and heterogeneous ones. However,
from an industrial point of view regarding sustainable and economical
concerns, the use of MNPs as catalysts is still hampered by two important
drawbacks: the stability of the particles and the recovery/recyclability of the
catalyst.8,9 To overcome these problems, several approaches have been developed, such as the design of appropriate stabilizing agents or the immobilization of MNPs in a magnetic solid support, which allows an easy
separation of the nanocatalyst from the reaction mixture. Regardless of the
method followed for the preparation, promising alternatives to increase
stability and recycling of the nanocatalysts have been reported.
4.2 Organometallic Synthesis of Noble Metal

Nanoparticles
Nowadays, two important concepts are being considered in nanocatalysis in
order to develop ecient catalytic systems, namely the bottom-up approach
for the synthesis of nanoparticles (NPs) well-controlled in size/shape and the
molecular approach to obtain more selective nanocatalysts. The bottom-up
strategy allows the building of metallic NPs from the monometallic species.10,11 Intensive research is currently devoted to this approach with the
belief that carefully designed NPs with well-defined size, shape, composition
and surface chemistry should be able to display the benefits of both
homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts in terms of high eciency and
selectivity.12 The introduction of ligands as NP stabilizers is of special
interest as it focuses on the precise molecular definition of the catalytic
surface. This strategy potentially allows optimization of the parameters that
govern eciency in catalysis, including enantioselectivity and solubility in
organic or aqueous media.13,14 Since ligands are expected to modulate both
the electronic and the steric environment at the surface of the particles, it is
of key importance to analyze the influence of ligands on the stabilization of
NPs and on their surface properties in order to develop more active and
selective nanocatalysts. Therefore, significant eorts are presently directed
towards the preparation of metallic NPs stabilized by ligands of various
nature to study their influence on catalytic performances.
In this context of modern nanocatalysis, we are using the tools of molecular chemistry in order to develop an organometallic approach for the
synthesis of MNPs. Our methodology that was first introduced by Chaudret
in the 90s is based on the decomposition of metalloorganic complexes as
the metal source. The main advantage of these precursors is that their decomposition can be easily achieved under the mild conditions of solution
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Organometallic Approach for the Synthesis of Noble Metal Nanoparticles
Figure 4.1
49
Schematic representation of the organometallic approach for the synthesis of MNPs by hydrogen decomposition of a metalloorganic
complex.
chemistry. The decomposition step is performed through reduction or ligand displacement from the metal coordination sphere, most often in tetrahydrofuran (THF) solution and in the presence of a stabilizer (see
Figure 4.1).1517 This allows the control of particle size, shape and surface
state in order to reach a monodisperse assembly of NPs with the desired
properties. This method can also be applied to bimetallic systems.18,19 The
choice of the stabilizing agent is fundamental as it will govern the growth,
the stability and the catalytic performance of the MNPs.20 Various functional
organic molecules such as polymers,21,22 alcohols,23,24 ionic liquids2527 and
various ligands2830 can be used for this purpose. Immobilization of NPs
using supports like alumina, silica31 or carbon materials is also possible and
they allow the easy orientation of the catalytic reaction and facilitate the
recovery of the nanocatalysts. During these eorts, simple spectroscopic
methods derived from molecular chemistry, such as infrared (IR) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), both in solution and in the solid state, aid
in precisely characterizing the metallic surface.3237
In the following parts of this chapter, we will present an overview of the
recent developments in the organometallic synthesis of noble metal nanoparticles for application as catalysts in solution or supported conditions.
This review is not an exhaustive report but aims to show the progress obtained recently. The results are reported taking into account the targeted
catalytic reaction, with the emphasis on either the nature of the stabilizing
ligand (ionic liquids, organic solvent- or water-soluble ligands) for nanocatalysis in solution or of the support for supported catalysis.
4.3 Nanoparticles for Colloidal Catalysis

For the past few years, our research has widely focused on the preparation of
well-defined metallic NPs stabilized by ligands of dierent nature.20 Our aim
was to better understand the influence of the ligand on the size and the
stability of the NPs as well as on their surface chemistry, and consequently
how they aect the catalytic performance of NPs, depending on their
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Chapter 4
interaction with the metallic surface. Another interest for us in using ligands
was their potential to orientate the course of a catalytic reaction by their
selectivity, a well-known phenomenon in homogeneous catalysis. Numerous
eorts have been devoted to the use of simple ligands but also to more sophisticated ones as these parameters are major for the development of
nanocatalysts with improved catalytic performances in comparison to
known homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts.
Studies in the improvement of the NP synthesis mainly involved ligands
containing nitrogen (aminoalcohols, oxazolines), phosphorus (phosphines,
diphosphites) or carbon (carbenes) as coordinating atoms to the metal
surface. Ionic liquids were also proven to be very ecient stabilizers to obtain size-controlled MNPs, and the coaddition of ligands could oer new
perspectives in this way. Some of our NP systems have been applied in
catalysis, mainly in hydrogenation reactions, but also in the dehydrogenation of amine-boranes, carboncarbon coupling and hydroformylation
reactions.
4.3.1
Hydrogenation Reactions
A high number of papers describe the preparation of various MNPs in suspension for their application as catalysts in the hydrogenation of substrates
mainly of olefin and arene derivatives in addition to the carbonyl substrates
such as ketones.38 The asymmetric hydrogenation of prochiral substances is
also a domain explored with nanocatalysts.
4.3.1.1
Ligand Stabilized Nanoparticles as Catalysts
4.3.1.1.1 Aminoalcohol- and Oxazoline-stabilized Ru Nanoparticles. In

a collaboration with Gomez et al., we used chiral aminoalcohol- and oxazoline-stabilized ruthenium NPs as catalysts in the hydrogenation of
unsaturated prochiral substrates such as acetophenone, ortho- and paraanisoles and dimethyl itaconate.39 The nanocatalysts were prepared by decomposition of the [Ru(COD)(COT)] precursor under mild conditions
(3 bar H2; r. t.) and in the presence of optically pure ligands, namely baminoalcohols, amino(oxazolines), hydroxy(oxazolines) and bis(oxazolines)
to give stable RuNPs with a mean size between 1.6 and 2.5 nm. Their catalytic behaviour was examined in comparison with that of Ru molecular complexes prepared in situ with the same ligands (see Figure 4.2). For the
hydrogen transfer of acetophenone, only the Ru/amino(oxazoline) colloidal
system gave asymmetric induction with a modest value of ca. 10% ee. In contrast to the molecular system, no enantioselectivity was achieved in the hydrogenation of dimethyl itaconate with the same nanocatalyst despite
observing a 100% conversion. Finally, when the same catalytic system was
applied in the reduction of ortho- and para-anisoles (methanol; 50 1C; 40 bar
H2; 6 h), cyclohexanes were detected as the main products (ca. 57% for orthoanisole and 87% for para-anisole) while the corresponding molecular
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Figure 4.2
51
aminooxazoline-stabilized RuNPs and their catalytic behavior in hydrogenation of ortho- and para-anisoles.39
catalyst was found to be inactive. In both cases, the trans-isomer was favoured, with a transcis ratio up to 19. The very low asymmetric induction
encountered with this colloidal catalyst suggested a fluxional behaviour of
the ligands at the surface of RuNPs, as previously described for Ru/amine
colloids.22
4.3.1.1.2 Diphosphite-stabilized Ru, Rh and Ir Nanoparticles. In a coln, Claver and Roucoux, 1,3-diphoslaboration with the groups of Castillo
phites derived from carbohydrates were used as stabilizers for the
preparation of Ru, Rh and Ir NPs for their investigation in asymmetric hydrogenation reactions.40,41 These ligands allowed the formation of very
small Ru, Rh and Ir NPs in mild conditions (THF; 3 or 6 bar H2; r.t.) from
[Ru(COD)(COT)], [Rh(Z3-C3H5)3] and [Ir(COD)Cl]2 complexes, respectively.
Structural modifications in the diphosphite backbone were found to influence the NP size, dispersion and catalytic activity. In the hydrogenation of
ortho- and meta-methylanisoles, the RhNPs were shown to display the
highest activity while the IrNPs presented the lowest one. In contrary with
the results previously described for the aminooxazoline-stabilized RuNPs,
the hydrogenation of o-anisole gave total selectivity for the cis-product in
all cases. However, the ee of the product was always less than 6%.
A maximum of 81% cis-selectivity was obtained for the hydrogenation of
m-anisole, but with no enantioselectivity.
4.3.1.1.3 Carbene-stabilized Ru Nanoparticles. In a collaborative work
with van Leeuwen et al., RuNPs stabilized by N-heterocyclic carbenes
(NHC), namely N,N-di(tert-butyl)imidazole-2-ylidene (ItBu) and 1,3-bis(2,6diisopropylphenyl)imidazole-2-ylidene (IPr),42 were used as catalysts in the
hydrogenation of several substrates under various reaction conditions
(solvent, substrate concentration, substratemetal ratio, temperature). The
Ru/NHC NPs appeared as active catalysts in the hydrogenation of aromatics and showed an interesting ligand eect; Ru/IPr NPs were generally
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Figure 4.3
Chapter 4
Synthesis of Ru/NHC NPs and their catalytic performance in hydrogenation of ortho-methylanisole (0.5 M) in dierent solvents (Ru/IPr0.2
(0.3% Ru); 40 bar H2; 298 K : pentane (black), THF (red), methanol
(blue), no-solvent (green, 0.1% Ru).43
more active than Ru/ItBu NPs.43 The influence of the reaction parameters
(changes in solvent, temperature, etc.) was also studied (see Figure 4.3).
4.3.1.2
Water-soluble Nanoparticles as Catalysts
Due to concerns about sustainability issues, we have been interested in the

synthesis of water-soluble MNPs for their use as catalysts in water or under
biphasic liquidliquid conditions. For this purpose, we took inspiration
from organometallic catalytic systems in water and considered common
ligands employed to stabilize complexes such as 1,3,5-triaza-7-phosphaadamantane (PTA) and sulfonated diphosphines.
4.3.1.2.1 PTA-stabilized Pt and Ru Nanoparticles. The synthesis of PTAstabilized Ru and PtNPs was carried out by decomposition of [Ru(COD)
(COT)] and [Pt(CH3)2(COD)] precursors in the presence of 0.8 equiv. of PTA
(P(H2) 3 bar; THF; 70 1C) (see Figure 4.4).44 The resulting NPs displayed
a spherical shape and low size dispersity. They were purified by washing
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Published on 12 June 2014 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:1
Figure 4.4
Synthesis of PTA-stabilized NPs and TEM images in THF and in water for Ru NPs (left) and Pt NPs (right).44
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Table 4.1
Chapter 4
Hydrogenation of olefins and aromatic derivatives with aqueous Ru/PTA
and Pt/PTA colloidal solutions.a
Catalyst
Substrate
P H2 (bar)
Time (h)
Conversion (%)f
Pt/PTAb
Pt/PTAb
Pt/PTAc
Pt/PTAc
Pt/PTAc
Pt/PTAc
Octene
Octene
Toluene
Toluene
m-Methylanisole
m-Methylanisole
1
1
10
10
10
10
2
2
2
16
2
16
100
68g
8
100
15
100
Ru/PTAd
Ru/PTAd
Ru/PTAe
Ru/PTAe
Dodecene
Octene
Toluene
m-Methylanisole
1
10
10
10
5
1
16
16
100h
100
100
60
Reaction conditions: [substrate][metal] 100, T 201C stirred at 1500 mn1.

Pt (0.0119 mmoL); substrate (1.19 mmoL).
c
Pt (0.0122 mmoL); substrate (1.22 mmoL).
d
Ru (0.0159 mmoL); substrate (1.59 mmoL).
e
Reaction conditions: Ru (0.020 mmoL); substrate (2 mmoL).
f
Substrate conversion determined by gas chromatography analysis.
g
Recycling of the aqueous suspension of entry 1.
h
Determined by 1H and 13C NMR.
a
b
with pentane and filtration, and were further dissolved in water without
any change in dispersion and in their mean diameter, with a value of B1.4
nm and B1.1 nm for the RuNPs and the PtNPs, respectively. Aqueous suspensions of these NPs were stable for weeks when kept under an argon atmosphere. 1H, 13C, 31P solution and solid-state NMR studies showed the
strong coordination of PTA at the surface of the particles by the
phosphorous atom.
Biphasic liquidliquid hydrogenation was investigated with model olefins
and aromatic substrates using aqueous colloidal solutions of Ru/PTA and
Pt/PTA NPs as catalysts, with Roucoux et al. (see Table 4.1).45 Octene and
dodecene were totally converted into the corresponding alkanes (r.t.; 1 bar H2),
with moderate activities. An increase in the hydrogen pressure (P(H2) 10 bar)
was not detrimental for the colloidal suspension stability. Complete hydrogenation of toluene into cyclohexane was observed overnight with Ru/PTA NPs
whereas 60% of m-methoxymethylcyclohexane was formed from methoxymethylanisole. In comparison, the reduction with Pt/PTA NPs was achieved
after 16 h even if very low conversions were obtained after 2 h with 8% and 15%
cyclohexyl derivatives, respectively. In summary, these PTA-stabilized Ru and
Pt NPs were active in the hydrogenation of olefinic and aromatic compounds
under mild conditions despite the change of environment that they underwent after their dissolution into water.
4.3.1.2.2 Sulfonated Diphosphine-stabilized Ru Nanoparticles. By applying the same procedure as previously described with the PTA ligand
(see Figure 4.5), we used sulfonated diphosphines to stabilize RuNPs.46 In
this collaborative work with Roucoux et al. and Monflier et al., the RuNPs
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Figure 4.5
Synthesis and TEM images of sulfonated diphosphine-stabilized RuNPs in water with (a) dppb-TS (b) dppp-TS, and (c) dppeTS with [L][Ru] 0.1.46
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Chapter 4
were prepared from [Ru(COD)(COT)] and the diphosphines in THF (3 bar H2;
r.t.). Dierent diphosphines, (1,4-bis[(di-m-sulfonatophenyl)phosphine]butane dppb-TS, 1,4-bis[(di-m-sulfonatophenyl)phosphine]propane
dppp-TS, 1,4-bis[(di-m-sulfonatophenyl)phosphine]ethane dppe-TS), and
ligandRu ratios were employed in order to analyze the eect of the backbone
and the diphosphine concentration on the stability and the size of the NPs
and thus on their catalytic properties. Depending on the ligand amount,
well-crystallized RuNPs in a mean size range of 1.21.5 nm were formed. The
coordination of the sulfonated diphosphines at the surface of the RuNPs
allowed their further dispersion in water giving rise to very homogeneous
and stable aqueous colloidal solutions (up to several months) without any
change in their mean sizes.
The catalytic behaviour of these aqueous colloidal solutions showed
promising results in terms of reactivity when tested for the hydrogenation of
unsaturated substrates (tetradecene, styrene and acetophenone) in biphasic
liquidliquid conditions. Interestingly, minor structural dierences in the
diphosphine ligands, such as the alkyl chain length, influenced the catalytic
activity in styrene hydrogenation significantly, in addition to the positive
eect of an increase in temperature (from 20 1C to 50 1C) or pressure (from 1
to 10 bar H2) (see Table 4.2). As the [ligand][Ru] ratio increased, conversion
and selectivity (expressed as ethylbenzene (EB)ethylcyclohexane (EC) ratio)
Table 4.2
Hydrogenation of styrene Ru/sulfonated diphosphine aqueous colloidal

solutions.a
Ru NPs
H2
ST
EB
EC
Nanocatalysts
T (1C)
Time (h)
Product selectivity (%)

ST
EB
EC
Ru/dppb-TS
20
20
20
1
20
40
25
0
0
75
45
3
0
55
97
Ru/dppp-TS
20
20
20
1
20
40
59
0
0
40
47
2
1
53
98
Ru/dppe-TS
20
20
20
1
20
40
75
0
0
24
41
1
1
59
99
Ru/dppb-TS
50
50
50
1
2
3
10
0
0
90
82
0
0
18
100
Reaction conditions: [ligand][Ru] 0.1; ruthenium (3.9 105 mol), styrene (3.9 103 mol),
1 bar H2, water (10 mL).
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57
also increased at short reaction times. The best results were obtained with
the dppb-TS ligand with the longest alkyl chain, giving rise to 75% EB after
1 h compared to 40% EB and 20% EB with dppp-TS and dppe-TS, respectively. As all the RuNPs display similar mean sizes, the observed dierences
in their catalytic properties were correlated to the dierence in the flexibility
of the alkyl chain. Due to having the highest number of carbon atoms, the
dppb-TS ligand had the highest flexibity and therefore favoured a better
diusion of the substrate towards the metal surface. Although the mean size
(1.25 nm) of the RuNPs did not alter with the increase of [dppe-TS][Ru] from
0.2 to 0.5, the variation in selectivity was explained by a limited access of the
aromatic substrate to the NP surface due to increased steric hindrance when
more ligands were coordinated. A molar ratio of 0.1 appeared to be a good
compromise between the stabilization and the catalytic activity of the NPs.
Finally, as also observed for Ru/PTA NP systems, preliminary results of recycling were encouraging for the recovery of these water-soluble Ru/sulfonated diphosphine nanocatalysts.
4.3.1.3
Ionic Liquid Stabilized Nanoparticles as Catalysts
Providing more environmentally-friendly conditions than traditional solvents,

the use of ionic liquids (ILs), acting as both the solvent and the stabilizer,
is emerging as an alternative for the preparation of nanocatalysts.9,47,48
Both experiments and simulations reported in literature have evidenced
the segregation phenomenon that exists between polar and non-polar domains in imidazolium-based ILs.49,50 In collaboration with Santini et al., we
investigated the stabilization of RuNPs in the presence of imidazoliumderived ionic liquids.2527,5153 The synthesis of RuNPs was first performed
in 1-butyl-3-methylimidazoliumbis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide ([RMIm]
[NTf2]; R C4H9).25 The nanoparticles were prepared by decomposition of
[Ru(COD)(COT)] under 4 bar of H2 without adding any further stabilizer, but
varying the reaction temperature (0 1C and 25 1C) and the stirring rate, to
study their influence on the NPs formed. At 25 1C under stirring, the RuNPs
were homogeneously dispersed with a mean size of B2.4 nm. At 0 1C, the
RuNPs had a smaller size of B0.9 nm but in agglomerations of big clusters of
23 nm. When no stirring was applied at 0 1C, the NPs displayed a slightly
larger mean size, B1.1 nm, but without any agglomeration. These results
showed the influence of the temperature on the mean size of the NPs with
the smallest ones being obtained at low temperatures. The size of RuNPs is
governed by the degree of self-organization of the imidazolium-based ionic
liquid. Since the 3D organization of the ionic liquid is better maintained at
low temperature, the Ru nuclei are confined inside to a greater degree,
giving smaller nanoparticles as a result.
This observation was further confirmed by using a series of imidazoliumderived ionic liquids: [RMIm][NTf2] (R CnH2n11 with n 2, 4, 6, 8, 10),
[R2Im][NTf2] (R Bu) and [BMMIm][NTf2] (with BMMIm 1-butyl2,3-dimethylimidazolium) (see Figure 4.6).26 In all ILs, the size of the RuNPs
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58
Chapter 4
Figure 4.6
Influence of the ionic liquid chain length on the size of the RuNPs.26
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Figure 4.7
59
(a)General HREM image of C4OA-stabilized RuNPs in C1C4ImNTf2,

(b) HREM image of an isolated and well-crystallised C4OA-stabilized
RuNP with (c) FFT.51
was smaller at 0 1C than at 25 1C, and the stirring induced their agglomeration. Additionally, the increase in alkyl chain lengths was found to be linearly proportional to the mean size of the RuNPs.
The influence of added amines on the size control of IL-prepared RuNPs
and on their stability was also studied.51,52 RuNPs are commonly used as
catalysts in hydrogenation reactions but IL-stabilized RuNPs are generally not
stable in the necessary catalytic conditions. The ionic liquids [RMIm][NTf2]
(R CnH2n11, n 2, 4, 6, 8, 10) and two amines, octylamine (OA) and hexadecylamine (HDA), were used as added stabilizers. The synthesis of the
NPs was performed following the previously described conditions, but with
0.2 molar equiv. of the chosen ligand. Regardless of the alkyl chain length of
the IL, well-dispersed and well-crystallized NPs were obtained with a mean
size in the range of 1.11.3 nm (see Figure 4.7). These RuNPs displayed a
better size dispersity than the corresponding pure amine-stabilized RuNPs.
The IL prevents particles from agglomeration through a confinement eect
but amines also play an important role in controlling their size and dispersion. This demonstrates the interest in combining the properties of ionic
liquids to confine nanoparticles in non-polar domains (nanoreactors) with the
presence of a ligand that stabilizes the particles at a very small size.
The hydrogenation of toluene was first performed with the RuNPs synthesized in C1C4ImNTf2 in the presence of octylamine, at dierent temperatures (see Table 4.3). The conversion obtained was low but reproducible.
A temperature of 75 1C was further chosen for studying the reaction with the
other colloids. Since Ru/HDA and Ru/OA NPs have similar size and shape,
the slightly lower conversion obtained by hexadecylamine was explained by
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60
Chapter 4
23/06/2014 08:14:50.
Table 4.3
Hydrogenation
of
toluene
C1C4ImNTf2 octylamine.a
with
RuNPs
synthesized
in
Nanocatalyst
IL/ligand
T
(1C)
PhMe/
RuT
PhMe/
RuS
RuS/
RuT
Conversion
(%)
TONa kinitialb
C4 OA
C4 OA
C4 OA
C4 OA
C4 HAD
C4 OA
C6 OA
C8 OA
C10 OA
30
50
75
100
75
75
75
75
75
38/1
38/1
38/1
38/1
38/1
38/1
38/1
38/1
38/1
46/1
46/1
46/1
46/1
52/1
46/1
49/1
49/1
52/1
0.82
0.82
0.82
0.82
0.73
0.82
0.77
0.77
0.73
4
9
17
17
14
17
16
11
14
2
4.5
8
8
6.5
8
8
5.5
7
12 1
12 1
81
51
71
Reaction conditions: P(H2) 1.2 bars; reaction time 5 h; RuT total amount of Ru atoms;
RuS amount of surface Ru atoms. aTurn over number (moles of product converted per mol
of RuS).
b
Estimated initial rates in 102 mol L1 h1.
the viscosity changes in the reaction mixtures and/or by a higher steric hindrance of HDA compared to that of OA once coordinated on the RuNP surface.
These systems were also tested in the hydrogenation of 1,3-cyclohexadiene
(CYD), styrene (STY) and R-()-limonene (LIM). The results evidenced that
for the hydrogenation of 1,3-CYD, STY and LIM, the activity of the RuNPs
increased with s-donor ligands such as C8H17NH2 and H2O, but decreased
with the bulkier and p-acceptor ligands, PPhH2 PPh2H and CO. This underlined the pseudo-molecular nature of NPs with sizes o3 nm since their activity can be tuned by the s-p-ligand character as in homogeneous catalysis.
In summary, the confinement properties of ionic liquids based on imidazolium cations help to control the growth of RuNPs, and their catalytic
performance can be further improved by the addition of a stabilizing ligand.
4.3.2
Dehydrogenation Reactions of Amine-borane
Among the hydrogen storage materials, amine-boranes are interesting candidates due to their high hydrogen content (19.6 wt %).54 Recent studies have
shown that the catalytic dehydrogenation of dimethylamine-borane
(Me2NHBH3; DMAB) can be achieved under mild conditions. In a collaborative
zkar, we studied the catalytic performances of 3-amiwork with the team of O
nopropyltriethoxysilane-stabilized Ru nanoclusters (Ru/APTS) with dierent
sizes in this reaction (see Figure 4.8).55,56 The mean particle size of Ru/APTS
NPs decreased with increasing APTS ligand concentration (see Table 4.4).
After the addition of DMAB into a THF solution of Ru/APTS 3, the
hydrogen evolution started immediately with an initial turnover frequency
(TOF) of 53 h1 and continued until 1 equiv. H2 per mol DMAB was released.
In order to dierentiate between homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis,
Hg(0), a poison for heterogeneous metal(0) catalysts, was added into the
reaction mixture. The suppression of the catalysis by Hg(0) was evidence of
heterogeneous catalysis (see Figure 4.9). The initial TOF value of 53 h1
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Figure 4.8
(a) Synthesis of Ru/APTS NPs, (b) TEM and HRTEM images of Ru/APTS
NPs (B1.7 nm) immediately after the synthesis.55
Table 4.4
Size of Ru/APTS NPs with dierent [APTS][Ru] ratios.56
Nanocatalyst
[APTS][Ru]
Mean size (nm)a
Ru/APTS
Ru/APTS
Ru/APTS
Ru/APTS
Ru/APTS
0.25
0.50
1.0
2.0
4.0
2.36 0.61
1.96 0.44
1.67 0.41
1.29 0.31
1.16 0.30
61
1
2
3
4
5
The no. of atoms was estimated by using the equation N NOpV/101.7,

where No 6.022 1023, p 12.2 g cm3 and V (4/3)p(D/2)3.
Figure 4.9
(a) Dehydrogenation of dimethylamine-borane catalyzed by Ru/

APTS NPs in THF at r.t., (b) mol H2/mol DMAB vs. time graph
([Ru] 2.24 mM; [DMAB] 54 mM; 240 eq. of Hg(0) after B50% conversion of DMAB), and (c) TEM image of Ru/APTS NPs (B2.9 nm) after
the third catalytic run.56
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62
Figure 4.10
(a) The rate of dehydrogenation of 55 mM DMAB vs. [APTS][Ru] ratio,

using Ru/APTS 15 NPs, (b) plot of mol H2/mol DMAB vs. time for the
dehydrogenation rxn (55 mM DMAB; 25 mM Ru/APTS 3).56
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63
obtained with this system was comparable to that of the prior best heterogeneous catalyst of rhodium nanoclusters (TOF 60 h1). Moreover, it was
the first example of an isolable, bottleable and reusable transition metal
nanocatalyst for the dehydrogenation of dimethylamine-borane.
An increase of APTS concentration caused a significant decrease in the
catalytic activity as a result of a higher coverage of metallic surface (see
Figure 4.10 (a)). The maximum catalytic activity was achieved with Ru/APTS
3 NPs, which appeared to have the best compromise between the NP mean
size and the surface accessibility. The influence of temperature on the
hydrogen generation rate using Ru/APTS 3 NPs gave high activity even at low
temperature (see Figure 4.10 (b)).
4.3.3
Carboncarbon Coupling Reactions
Pd nanoparticles have attracted a great deal of interest as catalysts for CC

coupling reactions, especially in Heck and Suzuki couplings. The first Heck
type coupling reaction that was catalyzed by PdNPs stabilized with tetraoctylammonium bromide was reported by Beller et al.57 Such PdNPs were
also eective for Suzuki coupling reactions as well as the ones protected with
dendrimers in the work of Narayanan et al.58 Despite the progress in
asymmetric catalysis, there are few examples of nanocatalysts displaying an
enantioselective catalytic activity. Pt(Pd)/cinconidine and Pd/BINAP colloids
were used for the hydrogenation of ethyl pyruvates59,63 and the asymmetric
hydrosilylation of styrene,64 respectively.
4.3.3.1
Pd Nanoparticles Stabilized by Chiral Diphosphite

Ligands
mez, Castillo
n and Claver et al., chiral
In a collaborative project with Go
diphosphites were used as ligands for the synthesis of PdNPs and corresponding molecular complexes for a comparative study in catalytic allylic
alkylation (see Figure 4.11).65,66
PdNPs stabilized by the chiral xylofuranoside diphosphite ligand, L1,
were achieved by decomposition of [Pd2(dba)3] (THF; P(H2) 3 bar; r.t.)
and were investigated in the allylic alkylation of rac-3-acetoxy-1,3-diphenyl1-propene (rac-I) with dimethyl malonate (see Table 4.5). With the Pd/L1
nanocatalyst, this reaction proceeded with only one enantiomer of
the racemic substrate (495% ee), while the corresponding molecular species stabilized with the same ligand yielded both enantiomers. These
results demonstrated a very high degree of kinetic resolution with
Pd/L1 NPs.
Modifications in the diphosphite ligands changed the selectivity of the
reaction, drastically. For instance, Pd/L2 NPs (see Figure 4.11) did not
induce any selectivity under the same conditions. When the carbohydrate
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64
Figure 4.11
Table 4.5
Chapter 4
Chiral diphosphite ligands and the corresponding organometallic

synthesis of PdNPs.66
Asymmetric allylic alkylation of rac-3-acetoxy-1,3-diphenyl-1-propene
(rac-I) catalyzed by molecular and colloidal Pd systems containing
chiral diphosphite L1.
Catalyst
IPdL1
Moleculara
Colloidalb
Colloidalb
Colloidalb
Colloidalb
Colloidalb
100
100
100
100
100
100
a
b
:
:
:
:
:
:
1
1
1
1
1
1
:
:
:
:
:
:
1.25
0
0.2
1.05
0.2
1.05
t(h)
Conv. (%)
ee II (%)
ee rac-I (%)
1.5
24
24
24
168
168
83
2
56
56
59
61
90 (S)
nd
97 (S)
97 (S)
97 (S)
97 (S)
0
0
89
89
89
89
(S)
(S)
(S)
(S)
Molecular system generated in situ from [Pd(C3H5)Cl]2 and L1*.

20% or 125% of free ligand added into the reaction mixture.
skeleton was substituted by the flexible alkyl 2,4-dimethylpentyl backbone

(L3) for less hindrance, the Pd/L3 nanocatalyst appeared highly active and
selective towards the allylic alkylation of rac-I, similar to the Pd molecular
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65
complex synthesized with the same ligand. However, alkyl substituted

allyl acetates were not alkylated in contrast to rac-I in the presence of
stable Pd/L1 and Pd/L3 NPs. This result was consistent with the strong
anity between the metallic surfaces and the aryl groups, most likely
due to the p-coordination between the metallic surface and the aromatic
group.
These results demonstrated that: (i) catalysis by NPs may be very eective
in terms of kinetic resolution; (ii) the system is much more sensitive to the
adjustment between the metal, the ligand and the substrate than the corresponding molecular catalysts, in a way which may resemble enzymatic
systems. This may explain the very limited number of enantioselective
catalytic systems that involved MNPs. Further studies in this field need
tuning on these features.
4.3.3.2
Pd Nanoparticles Stabilized by Pyrazole Ligands
n et al., a new family of hybrid pyrazole

In collaboration with Garca-Anto
derived ligands containing alkylether, alkylthioether or alkylamino moieties
was used in the preparation of PdNPs and their corresponding molecular
complexes in order to compare their catalytic performance in Suzuki
Miyaura and homocoupling reactions (see Figure 4.12).67
Since the best conversions for both iodo- and bromo-toluene were
achieved with Pd complexes with ligands, L2 (Y S) and L3 (Y NH), most
likely due to their strong coordination. PdNPs stabilized with these ligands
(Pd/L2 and Pd/L3 NPs) were fully investigated in the SuzukiMiyaura crosscoupling reaction, using Pd/C as a reference nanocatalyst (see Table 4.6).
When 4-iodotoluene was used as a substrate, complete conversion was
achieved for both nanocatalysts Pd/L2 and Pd/L3 (0.4 mol% Pd) and
4-methylbiphenyl (BT) was the main product, together with a significant
amount of toluene. Pd/C yielded similar chemoselectivity with a lower conversion. A higher load of substrate (0.04 mol% Pd) with Pd/L3 NPs improved
the conversion and the chemoselectivity, significantly. 4-Bromotoluene as
the substrate yielded only 4,4 0 -dimethylbiphenyl (TT) due to the homocoupling of 4-bromotoluene and some toluene as the side product. Homocoupling reactions were also investigated in the absence of phenylboronic
acid using Pd/pyrazole colloidal solutions. Pd/L3 nanocatalyst gave a
remarkable increase in the yield of homocoupled product with a full and
70% conversion to toluene for 4-iodotoluene and 4-bromotoluene as a substrate, respectively. Homocoupling reactions in the absence of the phenylboronic acid using Pd/L3 NPs led to a 70% and full conversion to toluene
for 4-bromotoluene and 4-iodotoluene, respectively (see Table 4.6).
For all Pd/pyrazole nanocatalysts, catalytic activity was observed both for
the CC coupling reaction and the dehalogenation of the substrate. The
dependence of the chemoselectivity of the reaction on the nature of the
catalyst strongly suggested that the homocoupling reaction takes place on
the surface of the heterogeneous systems.
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CC coupling reaction using Pd/pyrazole colloidal solutions.a
[Pd complex] or
Pd MNPs, tBuOK
B(OH) 2
66
Table 4.6
DMF/H 2O (4:1)
X= I, Br
+
BT
PhMe
When Pd MNPs used, in some cases:

+
TT
Catalyst [PhB(OH)]/[Pd]
Pd/L2
315
Pd/L3 315
Pd/C
315
Pd/L3d
3125
Pd/L2
Pd/L3
Pd/C
XI
Convb (%)
BTc
TTc
Yield BTe (%)
X Br
Convb (%)
BTc
TTc
PhMec
Yield TTf (%)
100
69
31
69
12
14
86
100
31
61
65
39
35
61
20
37
84
17
53
46
47
37
20
39
100
90
10
90
100
100
18
24
76
100
100
64
70
30
45
100
99
83
41
59
34
PhMec
Reaction conditions: 1102 mmol Pd, 2.5 mmol 4-halogenotoluene, 5.0 mmol tBuOK, 0.5 mmol naphthalene as internal standard, 8.0 ml DMF2.0 mL
H2O, 100 1C.
b
Conversion after 6 h.
c
Product distribution after 6 h.
d
4-Halogenotoluene tBuOKPd 2500 : 5000 : 1.
e
Yield of 4-methylbiphenyl (BT).
f
Yield of 4,4 0 -dimethylbiphenyl (TT).
a
Chapter 4
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Figure 4.12
4.3.4
Synthesis of PdNPs stabilized by pyrazole derived ligands with

[Lx]Pd 1.0.67
Hydroformylation Reactions
n and Claver et al., RhNPs were prepared by

In collaboration with Castillo
decomposition of [Rh(Z3-C3H5)3] and [Rh(m-OMe)(COD)]2, in the presence of
diphosphite ligands (1 or 2; RhL 1 : 0.2; THF; P(H2) 3 bars; r.t.) (see
Figure 4.13).68 For both, TEM micrographs of Rh1 and Rh2 NP samples
derived from [Rh(Z3-C3H5)3] revealed good dispersion of spherical NPs with
similar small sizes (Rh1: B3 nm and Rh2: B2 nm). Rh3 and Rh4 NPs synthesized from [Rh(m-OMe)(COD)]2 showed large and sponge-like spherical
superstructures (Rh3 NPs: B50 nm and Rh4 NPs: B35 nm) with a tendency
to agglomerate. Images at higher magnification revealed small individual
NPs in the superstructures (B4 nm).
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68
Synthesis of RhNPs from [Rh(Z3-C3H5)3] and [Rh(m-OMe)(COD)]2 in the presence of chiral diphosphite ligands 1 and 2.68
Chapter 4
Figure 4.13
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Table 4.7
69
Styrene hydroformylation with diphosphite-stabilized RhNPs.a,68

CHO
*
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H2/CO
CHO
+
cat.
Catalyst
RhLSb
t(h)
% Conversionc
% Regioselectivityd
% ee
Rh3
Rh3
Rh4
Rh4
1
1
1
1
24
24
24
24
28
11
95
80
57
499
54
90
0
40 (S)
13 (S)
24 (S)
:
:
:
:
: 200
0.2 : 200
: 200
0.2 : 200
Reaction conditions: 3 mg RhNPs, 80 1C, p 20 bar pCOH2 1, RhS 1 : 200 styrene 5.8 mmol,
10 ml toluene.
b
Molar ratio between rhodium, excess ligand added to the catalysis and substrate.
c
% Conversion styrene G.C.
d
% 2-Phenylpropanal.
Rh3 and Rh4 NPs were investigated in the asymmetric hydroformylation

of styrene (see Table 4.7). Rh3 NPs showed low conversions while Rh4 ones
were more active. The addition of free ligand in the reaction media led to
less active but more regioselective catalytic systems. The enantioselectivity
was also aected by the addition of the free ligand: from 0% to 40% (S) for
Rh3 NPs and from 13% to 24% (S) for Rh4 NPs.
In order to shed some light on the exact role of these nanocatalysts,
catalytic reactions were performed in similar conditions with molecular
complexes prepared with the same ligands. The corresponding molecular
catalysts displayed higher activity than the colloidal ones but slightly lower
enantioselectivities. Since poisoning tests (addition of CS2 or Hg) did not
induce significant change in the activity and selectivity for both molecular
and colloidal catalytic systems, the formation of molecular complexes was
envisaged. This was confirmed by high-pressure NMR studies under catalytic
conditions which revealed the presence of [RhH(CO)4] in the nanosystem.
So, molecular species formed during the reaction were most likely responsible for the observed catalytic activity, even if some activity coming from the
RhNPs could not be excluded. The higher enantioselectivities reached with
Rh nanocatalysts could be explained by RhNPs acting as a reservoir for the
formation of molecular species. The dierence in enantioselectivity from
pure molecular complexes is then attributed to the close proximity of such
molecular species to the RhNP surface.
4.4 Nanoparticles for Supported Catalysis

In the last fifteen years, the application of supported metal nanoparticles as
catalysts in organic synthesis has received a renewed interest. This interest
derives from the expected synergistic eectwhen a metal is associated to a
support, it can help to orientate catalytic reactions. Using supported gold
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70
Chapter 4
NPs in carbon monoxide oxidation reactions is a good example of this

phenomenon.69 The recyclability and recovery from reaction media are still
major barriers to the widespread use of NPs in catalysis. To overcome these
problems, the immobilization of MNPs on solid supports appears to be a
promising alternative. Synthetic methods are also being developed to
achieve the direct synthesis of MNPs in the presence of a support in a
controlled manner. Intensive work is carried out on the functionalization of
the support to increase the anchorage of the particles, inspired by the nature
of the ligands that are used to stabilize MNPs in solution.
The organometallic approach for the synthesis of MNPs can also be applied for the preparation of composite materials. Some results were obtained
using alumina membranes, mesoporous silica and carbon materials as
templates for the deposition of MNPs, mainly for hydrogenation and oxidation reactions. Metal oxide nanoparticles could be obtained after a calcination step on the preformed nanoparticles under air without change in
size and dispersion. The inclusion of MNPs was performed following two
dierent approaches, either by impregnation of the support using a colloidal
solution of pre-formed NPs or by direct synthesis of the NPs in the presence
of the support, with or without a ligand.
4.4.1
Alumina as a Support for Hydrogenation and Oxidation

Reactions
In collaboration with Schmid et al., the filling of nanoporous alumina membranes of various pore widths has been carried out from [Ru(COD)(COT)]
decomposed in THFMeOH mixtures without any stabilizer in two dierent
ways.70 The first approach involved the impregnation of an alumina support
with colloidal solutions of RuNPs in dierent sizes, which were dependent on
the ratio of MeOHTHF in the reaction mixture. Colloidal solutions were
transferred into membranes by vacuum induction. Very few agglomerates
were observed outside the pores whereas there were dense areas within
the membrane channels. The second approach consisted of decomposition
Figure 4.14
TEM images of RuNPs in the pores of alumina membranes by two

methods: (a) impregnation and (b) in situ decomposition.70
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71
under 3 bar of H2 after the deposition of [Ru(COD)(COT)] inside the pores.

In this way, homogeneous materials displaying well dispersed RuNPs were
obtained in the pores of alumina membranes (see Figure 4.14). The size of
the particles depended on the pore diameter of the template.
These materials were tested in the catalytic hydrogenation of 1,3-butadiene and in CO oxidation in the gas phase and showed an increase in activity with a decrease in particle size.71
4.4.2
Silica as a Support for Hydrogenation and Oxidation

Reactions
4.4.2.1 Hydrogenation of Olefins (Cyclohexene and Myrcene)
With the aim of improving the stabilization of supported PdNPs in the
use of hydrogenation catalysis, a hybrid terpyridine ligand was designed
to functionalize a magnetic support in a collaborative project with Rossi
et al.72 The magnetic support consisted of a magnetite core surrounded
by a silica shell. Direct decomposition of [Pd2(dba)3] on the terpyridinemodified magnetic support provided well-dispersed Pd NPs (B2.5 nm)
(see Figure 4.15). This new composite nanomaterial appeared as a highly
active catalyst under mild conditions for the hydrogenation of cyclohexene, reaching turnover frequencies up to ca. 58 000 h1 or 129 000 h1
Figure 4.15
Synthesis of PdNPs onto the terpyridine-functionalized magnetic

silica support for application in the hydrogenation of myrcene.72
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72
Chapter 4
when corrected for surface Pd atoms. Furthermore, this nanocatalyst

was highly selective for the formation of monohydrogenated compounds
in the hydrogenation of b-myrcene. The activity and the selectivity of
the nanocatalyst were largely increased in comparison with a similar
nanocatalyst that consisted of PdNPs supported on an amino-modified
magnetic support or onto Pd/C. This work showed how the design of a
hybrid ligand for the functionalization of the support can strongly influence the catalytic properties of the nanomaterial. In terms of green
chemistry, the magnetic character of the nanocatalyst makes it easily
recoverable.
4.4.2.2
Oxidation of Carbon Monoxide and Benzyl Alcohol
In collaboration with Corriu et al., organized mesoporous silica materials

containing phosphonate groups were used as a host for controlling the
growth of RuNPs.73 [Ru(COD)(COT)] was first impregnated into the support and then decomposed (3 bar H2; r.t.). The phosphonate groups
present in the pores of the solid acted as a stabilizer for the Ru/SiO2 NPs
and allowed their organization in the channels of the host material.
A calcination step (air; 400 1C) led to a RuO2/SiO2 nanomaterial (see
Figure 4.16).
The use of RuO2/SiO2 composite nanomaterials as catalytic filters for gas
sensors revealed successful catalytic behavior for the preferential detection
of propane in a propaneCONO2air mixture. The eciency of the propane
sensing was dependent on the metal content of the nanocomposite materials: higher Ru/Siw induced higher SC3H8SCO sensitivity ratios (see
Figure 4.17). The RuO2/SiO2 nanomaterials partially removed CO from the
gas mixture by its selective oxidation into CO2, leaving the hydrocarbon
content unaltered.
To control the size of the NPs inside the silica matrix, the organometallic
approach was combined with the solgel method for the preparation of
RuO2/SiO2 nanocomposite materials (see Figure 4.18).74 The key point of this
new methodology was to use a ligand ((PhCH2)2N(CH2)11O(CH2)3Si(OEt)3;
benzenemethanamine; L) that has the dual role of being a stabilizing agent
for the synthesis of NPs and a precursor for the silica matrix. Hybrid
materials with high Ru contents displaying well-dispersed and small
sized RuNPs in the silica matrix were obtained by this way. A calcination
step (air; 400 1C) gave rise to mesoporous silica materials containing
RuO2 NPs. The [L][Ru(COD)(COT)] ratio helped to control the mean
size of the NPs (see Figure 4.19). Moreover, the addition of tetraethylorthosilicate (TEOS) to the initial [L][Ru(COD)(COT)] solution led to
materials with higher proportions of silica, also giving higher specific
surface areas to the RuNPs. These hybrid nanomaterials displayed a good
dispersion inside the silica matrix and interesting surface specific area
properties, which made them attractive materials to be used as catalytic
filters for gas sensors.
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Figure 4.16
Synthesis and TEM images of Ru and RuO2NPs inside the pores of a phosphonate-functionalized mesoporous silica.73
73
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74
Chapter 4
Figure 4.17
(a) Schematic representation of the gas sensors, (b) sensitivity variations of the gas sensor under dierent gas compositions with (black
line) or without (grey line) an on chip filter layer, and (c) the role of
filter for CO.73,74
Figure 4.18
Synthesis of Ru and RuO2 NPs embedded in silica using a polycondensable amine.74
The extension of this methodology to 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane and

11-aminoundecyltriethoxysilane, gave rise to very small and reactive RuO2
NPs.75 Preliminary studies in the aerobic oxidation of benzyl alcohol
showed promising results for further development of these types of
nanomaterials.
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Figure 4.19
4.4.3
75
(a) TEM image of Ru/SiO2 nanocomposites with LRu(COD)(COT) ratio

of 2. (b) Distribution histograms of Ru/SiO2 NPs. (c) TEM image of
RuO2/SiO2 NPs with LRu(COD)(COT) ratio of 0.5. (d) Distribution
histograms of RuO2/SiO2 nanocomposites with LRu(COD)(COT) 2,
1, 0.5, 0.25 (scale bars of TEM images 50 nm).74
Carbon Materials as Supports for Hydrogenation and

Oxidation Reactions
Today, carbon materials are used often for the immobilization of MNPs
since they oer several advantages as solid supports. These include easy
availability, relatively low cost, high mechanical strength and chemical stability. In addition, their porous structure makes them attractive for surface
chemistry as it enables easy modifications, such as its functionalization in
order to suit the immobilization needs of the NPs.
4.4.3.1
Hydrogenation of Cinnamaldehyde
In a collaborative work with Serp et al., the eect of the confinement of

MNPs inside carbon nanotubes (CNTs) on their catalytic properties was
studied. The synthesis of RuPtL/CNTs (L 4-(3-phenylpropyl)pyridine) from
the organometallic precursors, [Ru(COD)(COT)] and [Pt(CH3)2(COD)], was
performed using various functionalized CNTs in dierent reaction conditions (see Figure 4.20).76 One option consisted of the preparation of the
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76
Chapter 4
Figure 4.20
Top left: schematic representation of the confinement of the RuPt NPs

in the channels of the CNTs. Bottom left: TEM images of the RuPt/L/
CNTs nanomaterials with (a) 11% w/w PtRu/L/CNT, (b) 5% w/w
PtRu/L/CNT-COOH, (c) 23% w/w PtRu/L/CNT-CO-NH-R (impregnation) and (d) 5% w/w PtRu/L/CNT-COOH (direct decomposition).
Right: synthesis and HRTEM image of the RuPt/L NPs.76
NPs through stabilization by the ligand first and then their impregnation on
the CNTs. An alternative route was the co-decomposition of the two organometallic precursors in the presence of both the ligand L and the CNTs.
The best results in terms of confinement of the particles were obtained by
the impregnation method employing amide-functionalized CNTs. The resulting hybrid material had B22.5 nm NPs which were located inside the
CNTs (80% of NPs for a 23 wt% of metal). All the prepared systems, in
addition to the non-supported RuPt/L NPs, were tested as catalysts in the
hydrogenation of cinnamaldehyde (see Table 4.8). The catalytic activity and the
selectivity of CNT-supported RuPt/L NPs were higher than those of the nonsupported ones. In the case of the NPs mainly located inside the CNTs, a remarkable selectivity towards the formation of cinnamyl alcohol was achieved.
4.4.3.2
Oxidation of Benzyl Alcohol
NP/carbon hybrid systems were obtained by the impregnation of dierent

mesoporous carbons with colloidal solutions of RuNPs or PdNPs prepared
previously by the decomposition of [Ru(COD)(COT)] or [Pd2(dba)3], (P(H2)
3 bar; THF) in the presence of 4(3-phenylpropyl)pyridine or triphenyl- and
trioctylphosphine as ligands, respectively.77 The supported Ru and PdNPs
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Table 4.8
Catalytic hydrogenation
nanomaterials.a,76
of
NPs dmean (nm)
cinnamaldehyde
77
with
RuPt/CNT
Catalyst
inside/outside
% NP int.
TOF (h1)
HCAL
HCOL
COL
PtRu/L NPs
PtRu/CNT2
PtRu/CNT1
PtRu/CNT3
2.2
2.2/2.2
1.6/2.2
2/2.5
10
30
80
30
56
75
85
50
33
18
0
15
8
12
5
35
59
69
95
Reaction conditions: isopropanol; 20 bar H2; 343 K; 2 h.
Figure 4.21
Preparation of RuNPs/carbon and PdNPs/carbon nanomaterials for

the oxidation of benzyl alcohol in water and recycling of the
nanocatalysts.77
are well dispersed on the carbon materials and display mean sizes of 1.21.3
nm and 1.92.2 nm, respectively. These hybrid systems were successfully
used as catalysts in the oxidation of benzyl alcohol in water at 80 1C, giving
rise to excellent conversion and selectivity (499%) towards the aldehyde
for both metals (see Figure 4.21). The recyclability studies showed that carbon-supported PdNPs can be used in up to eight successive reaction cycles
without significant loss in activity. The catalytic activity of these systems was
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78
Chapter 4
Table 4.9
Hydrogenation of furfural catalysed by carbon-supported PdNPs/carbon

under microwave conditions.a,78
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Cat.
Cat.
-CO
(decarbonylation)
Nanocatalyst
Reaction
time (min)
Conversion
(mol%)
Selectivity in
furan (mol%)
Selectivity in
THF (mol%)
No catalyst
MB-H2O2
MB-1500
Pd(TOP)/MB-H2O2
Pd(TOP)/MB-1500
Pd(TPP)/MB-H2O2
Pd(TPP)/MB-1500
Pd/MB-H2O2
Pd/MB-1500
60
60
60
30
30
30
30
45
45
490
75
69
65
70
45
15
20
10
o10
30
35
80
72
85
80
70
65
H2
hydrogenation
Reaction conditions: 2 mmol furfural, 1.5 mL formic acid, 1.5 mL water, 0.1 g catalyst, 100 1C,
microwave power 100150 W, P 150200 psi (developed in the systems).
found to be influenced by the hydrophilicity of the carbon support. However,

the significance of this influence depended on the hydrophobic character of
the ligand used to stabilize the MNPs.
4.4.3.3
Versatile Dual Hydrogenationoxidation Reactions
The previously described carbon-supported PdNPs appeared as ecient dual

hydrogenationoxidation catalysts, such as in the hydrogenation of furfural
and the selective oxidation of benzyl alcohol in water under microwave irradiation. Nanocatalysts based on trioctylphosphine and triphenylphosphine-stabilized PdNPs on oxidized carbon supports were found to be the
most active ones.78 The presence of oxygen groups on the surface of the
carbon support, particularly those of acidic character, improved the immobilization of the PdNPs as well as the water anity, giving rise to high
catalytic performances (see Table 4.9).
4.5 Conclusion and Perspective

In this chapter, we presented an overview of the major results obtained in
the synthesis of metal nanoparticles from organometallic complexes and
their investigation in catalysis for various reactions. Despite the poor
handling of metalorganic precursors which are highly sensitive towards
oxygen and moisture, the organometallic approach is still a versatile method
in the preparation of both soluble and supported MNPs. It allows us to tune
the nature of the MNPs for the precise control of size, shape, composition
and surface state according to the aim of the catalytic reaction.
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79
In solution, the control of the characteristics of the MNPs is governed by

a ligand that is stabilizing by nature and by controlling the key parameters of
the syntheses such as the rate of nucleation and the rate of growth. With the
experience gained from homogeneous catalysis, the ligands already known to
orient catalytic properties, such as phosphine and carbene derivatives, can
also be used for very small nanocatalysts. Moreover, ligands can be specifically chosen for their advantageous properties such as solubility or enantioselectivity. For instance, water soluble NPs are prepared using amphiphilic
ligands. Enantioselective catalysis could also be achieved by using oxazoline
or diphosphite ligands, but keeping in mind the low chiral induction. Concerning the immobilization of MNPs onto supports, the most promising
results evidenced the important role of the functionalization of the support to
increase the anchorage of the particles and consequently their catalytic performance by increasing the selectivity and the recovery of the catalyst.
The preparation of nanocatalysts displaying desirable catalytic performance is one of the challenges which remain to be met in nanocatalysis.
Although numerous eorts with various capping agents have been made over
the past few years by researchers all over the world, future progress will
probably necessitate the design of molecules more appropriate for the metal
surface to induce higher catalytic properties in terms of selectivity. The
recycling and the recovery of the nanocatalysts are still to be improved at
this point.
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23/06/2014 08:14:51.
CHAPTER 5
Nickel Nanoparticles in the

Transfer Hydrogenation of
Functional Groups
FRANCISCO ALONSO
nica, Facultad de Ciencias and Instituto
Departamento de Qumica Orga
nica (ISO), Universidad de Alicante, Apdo. 99 E-03080
de Sntesis Orga
Alicante, Spain
5.1 Introduction
The catalytic transfer hydrogenation of organic compounds1,2 is an advantageous methodology with respect to other reduction methods for several
reasons: (a) the hydrogen source is easy to handle (no gas containment or
pressure vessels are necessary), (b) possible hazards are minimized, (c) the
mild reaction conditions used can aord enhanced selectivity and, (d)
catalytic asymmetric transfer hydrogenation can be applied in the presence
of chiral ligands. Among the dierent types of hydrogen donors, 2-propanol
is probably the most popular since it is cheap, non-toxic, volatile, possesses
good solvent properties, and it is transformed into acetone, which is environmentally friendly and easy to remove from the reaction medium. Some
other sources of hydrogen, such as formic acid derivatives or hydrazine, are
in less common use.
Transition metal catalysis is dominated by the elements of the three triads,
where ruthenium, rhodium, iridium and, above all, palladium, generally
stand out from the others because of their incomparable catalytic activity and
83
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70
62.3
60
/mmol
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50
43.0
40
34.4
30
20
12.5
8.2
10
0
Rh
Figure 5.1
Au
Ir
Pd
Ru
0.086
0.007
Ni
Fe
Relative prices for some transition metals (Sigma-Aldrich, 2012).
eciency. These noble metals have obscured the role of the first triad metals
in catalysis until the recent revival of iron.3 Indeed, methodologies based on
modest transition metals that can promote organic transformations typically reserved for noble metals are challenging and praiseworthy. This assertion gains points when we compare the relative prices of some transition
metals compared to the corresponding anhydrous chlorides. Thus, rhodium,
gold, and iridium are extraordinarily expensive; palladium and ruthenium
are somewhat cheaper, whereas nickel and iron are about 100-fold and 1000fold cheaper than ruthenium, respectively (Figure 5.1).
It is noteworthy that the combination of inexpensive transition metals
with green and safe sources of hydrogen has been practically unexplored
until recently. In this sense, the potential of nickel has been undervalued in
favor of more exotic and attractive catalytic systems containing noble
metals. On the other hand, in recent years, nano-catalysis has emerged as a
sustainable and competitive alternative to conventional catalysis since the
metal nanoparticles possess a high surface-to-volume ratio, which enhances
their activity and selectivity, while at the same time maintaining the intrinsic
features of a heterogeneous catalyst.47
This chapter summarizes the application of catalytic systems based on
nickel nanoparticles as an alternative to noble-metal catalysts in the
hydrogen-transfer reduction of functional groups. In particular, we will deal
with the transfer hydrogenation of olefins, carbonyl compounds, and the
reductive amination of aldehydes.
5.2 Antecedents
In 1996,8,9 due to our incipient interest in active metals,10,11 we discovered
the NiCl2 2H2O-Li-arene(cat.) combination as a useful and versatile mixture
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Nickel Nanoparticles in the Transfer Hydrogenation of Functional Groups

H
H
H C C H
23/06/2014 08:14:51.
H
C C
Y
R
C C
C C
[Y = CH, N]
Scheme 5.1
CH NH
C O
C N
N O
NiCl2 2H2 O-Li-arene(cat.), THF, rt
RH
Ar
R'
R
Ar
R
NH
N NH
N N Ar
Ar
RHal
ROSO2
Y
H
CH OH
85
ArNH2
Ar N N Ar
Ar N N Ar
or ArNH2
Reduction of organic functionalities with the NiCl2 2H2O-Li-arene

(cat.) system.
able to reduce a broad range of functionalities bearing carboncarbon

multiple bonds, as well as carbonheteroatom and heteroatomheteroatom
single and multiple bonds (Scheme 5.1).1214 Two dierent and independent
processes were postulated to take part in the reduction pathway:13 (a) the
reduction of nickel(II) to nickel(0) by the action of the radical anion and/or
the dianion derived from the activation of metal lithium by the arene (which
acts as an electron carrier), and (b) the generation of molecular hydrogen by
reaction of excess lithium and the crystallization water present in the nickel
salt. The combination of this molecular hydrogen with the highly reactive
nickel(0) would lead to a sort of nickel hydride species, which was considered to be the real reducing agent. Interestingly, the analogous deuterated
combination, NiCl2 2D2O-Li-arene(cat.), allowed the easy incorporation of
deuterium in the reaction products. In addition, a polymer-supported arene
could be used as an electron transfer agent instead of the free arene; this
methodology facilitates the recovery and reuse of the arene component. Alternatively, almost the same type of functionalities as those mentioned could
be reduced by catalytic hydrogenation utilizing active nickel, generated from
anhydrous nickel(II) chloride, and external molecular hydrogen at atmospheric pressure [NiCl2-Li-arene(cat.)-H2 or NiCl2-Li-polymer-supported arene)(cat.)-H2].15,16
Some years later, we demonstrated that the highly reactive nickel, obtained by reduction of anhydrous nickel(II) chloride with lithium powder and
a catalytic amount of DTBB (4,4 0 -di-tert-butylbiphenyl) in THF at room
temperature, was in the form of nanoparticles (2.5 1.5 nm).17 Similar
systems to NiCl2-Li-DTBB(cat.), utilized in reduction reactions, such as
NiCl2-Li-copolymer(cat.)-H2, NiCl2 2H2O-Li-DTBB(cat.), NiCl2-Li-DTBB(cat.)EtOH, or NiCl2-Li-copolymer(cat.)-EtOH, were also seen to generate nanosized metallic nickel in the absence of any anti-agglomeration additive or
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18
nucleation catalyst at room temperature. The introduction in the reducing

system of an alcohol as a source of molecular hydrogen, by reaction with Li,
was a very convenient method for the highly selective semihydrogenation of
alkynes and dienes,19,20 and conjugate reduction of a,b-unsaturated carbonyl compounds21 under mild reaction conditions. We observed, however,
that a hydrogen-transfer process might be operating, at least in part, in the
reactions involving an alcohol. From this finding, we envisaged the possibility of applying the nickel nanoparticles (NiNPs) in hydrogen-transfer
reactions.22
5.3 Hydrogen-transfer Reduction of Alkenes

The transfer hydrogenation of olefins has been studied little in comparison
with that of carbonyl compounds, using alcohols, formic acid or hydroaromatic compounds, mainly in the presence of noble-metal catalysts.2325 To
the best of our knowledge, only two reports describe the application of nickel
and 2-propanol to the transfer hydrogenation of olefins. In the first, Raney
nickel (1050 wt% of total substrate) was used under reflux, showing high
conversions for cinnamates and cyclic olefins and low conversions for acyclic
olefins.26 In the second report, activated metallic nickel, prepared by thermal decomposition of in situ generated nickel diisopropoxide in boiling
2-propanol, was more eective in the reduction of non-functionalized and
non-activated olefins (1030 mol% Ni, 95100 1C).27
We demonstrated that NiNPs [prepared from anhydrous nickel(II) chloride, metal lithium, and a catalytic amount of DTBB (5 mol%), as an electron
carrier] can eectively catalyze the heterogeneous transfer hydrogenation of
olefins using 2-propanol as the hydrogen donor.28 Raney nickel behaved in a
similar way to the NiNPs in the reduction of 1-octene but a longer reaction
time was needed in order to achieve the same conversion at 76 1C, while the
activity of the former drastically dropped at room temperature. Other commercially available nickel catalysts, such as Ni-Al, Ni/SiO2-Al2O3, and NiO,
were totally inactive under these conditions. A variety of non-functionalized
and functionalized olefins were successfully reduced under the optimized
reaction conditions (20 mol% NiNPs, i-PrOH, 76 1C) (Scheme 5.2). The
process was shown to be highly chemoselective for substrates that are prone
to undergoing isomerization (allylic alcohols) or hydrogenolysis (allyl benzyl
ether or allylcyclohexylamine), where a clear superiority of the NiNPs was
demonstrated with respect to other nickel catalysts. Moreover, the monoterpene ()-linalool, which contains both a mono- and a tri-substituted
carboncarbon double bond, was transformed into tetrahydrolinalool in a
moderate isolated yield after prolonged heating. Unfortunately, an important decrease in the conversion of the olefins was observed in the second
cycle when reutilization of the catalyst was attempted, due to progressive
deactivation.
The transfer hydrogenation of styrene derivatives was reported by Pitchumani
et al. using hydrazine as the hydrogen source and a catalyst consisting of
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C C
20 mol% NiNPs
>99%, 3 h
H C C H
i-PrOH, 76 C
Ph
>99%, 2 h
Ph
60%, 1 h
87
>99%, 2 h
Ph
Ph
>99%, 1 h
Ph
>99%, 1 h
Ph
>99%, 4 h
CO2 Et
89%, 2 h
>99%, 2 h
>99%, 72 h
>99%, 5 h
MeO
CO 2Et
>99%, 2 h
HO
MeO
>99%, 3 h
OMe
>99%, 48 h
OH
OH
Ph
O
>99%, 4 h
96%, 2 h
90%, 3 h
OH
H
N
Ph
O
>99%, 3 h
>99%, 2 h
51%, 72 h
Scheme 5.2
Transfer hydrogenation of olefins catalyzed by NiNPs in 2-propanol.

The dashed bond indicates the original position of the carboncarbon
double bond.
clay-entrapped NiNPs.29 The NiNPs were entrapped in montmorillonite

K10 by reducing Ni12-exchanged montmorillonite K10 with hydrazine in an
aqueous alkaline medium. Characterization of the NiNPs by various means
revealed that they consisted of pure nickel with face-centered-cubic structure
and an average particle size of 1520 nm. Apparently, the nitrogen gas
evolved from hydrazine during the reaction created an inert atmosphere
that prevented the oxidation of the NiNPs. Besides styrenes, other substrates,
including cyclohexene, a,b-unsaturated carbonyl compounds (conjugate
reduction), an imine, phenylacetylene (to ethyl benzene), and allyl phenyl
thioether (to phenyl propyl thioether), were also reduced in moderate-tohigh yields using 5 mol% NiNPs and hydrazine hydrate in ethanol at 70 1C
for 8 h (Scheme 5.3). Interestingly, the catalyst could be reused for three
consecutive runs without any appreciable loss of activity.
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C C
5 mol% NiNPs/mont K10

H2 NNH 2H 2O, EtOH, 70 C, 8 h
H C C H
MeO
82%
68%
74%
88%
O
MeO
79%
52%
91%
CO2 Me
81%
74%
Scheme 5.3
48%
S
79%
Transfer hydrogenation of olefins with hydrazine hydrate catalyzed by

NiNPs entrapped in montmorillonite K10.
5.4 Hydrogen-transfer Reduction of Carbonyl

Compounds
The transfer hydrogenation of carbonyl compounds has been mostly accomplished using 2-propanol as a hydrogen donor, under homogeneous
conditions in the presence of noble-metal complexes (such as those of Ru,
Rh, Ir).30 In this field, ruthenium complexes have been by far the most
studied catalysts, especially for the asymmetric transfer hydrogenation of
aromatic ketones31 and from a mechanistic point of view.32,33 Nickel has
been used either under homogeneous34,35 or heterogeneous conditions,27,35,36 mainly for aromatic substrates. In all these cases, the addition
of an external base was mandatory for the reaction to take place. More recently, an excess of Raney nickel in refluxing 2-propanol, containing a trace
of HCl, reduced a series of aliphatic aldehydes37 and ketones38 to the corresponding primary and secondary alcohols, respectively.
We reported on the application of NiNPs (ca. 1.75 1.00 nm) to the
transfer hydrogenation of an array of carbonyl compounds with 2-propanol
in the absence of added base at 76 1C. Both a stoichiometric39 and a substoichiometric (20 mol% Ni)40 version were studied and compared. Modestto-good yields of the corresponding alcohols were obtained in relatively
short reaction times. The reduction of substituted acetophenones was
shown to be dependent on the electronic character and position of the
substituent (Scheme 5.4), whereas, in general, better yields were attained for
aliphatic ketones (Scheme 5.5). The reducing system was shown to be diastereoselective for most of the cyclic ketones studied, with the stereoselectivity
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O
Ar
OH
NiNPs (1 or 0.2 equiv.)

R
i-PrOH, 76 C
Ar
OH
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89
R2
OH
OH
OH
Ph
82%, 1 h
(80%, 1 h)
OH
72%, 1 h
(40%, 3 h)
Scheme 5.4
F3 C
MeO
57%, 1 h
(73%, 3 h)
OMe
34%, 24 h
(33%, 3 h)
73%, 1 h
(72%, 4 h)
OH
OH
OH
51%, 1 h
(52%, 5 h)
Ph
73%, 1 h
(52%, 4 h)
Ph
Ph
86%, 1 h
(63%, 3 h)
Ph
OH
42%, 2 h
(30%, 3 h)
Transfer hydrogenation of aromatic carbonyl compounds catalyzed by

NiNPs in 2-propanol. Data in parentheses refer to 20 mol% NiNPs.
The dashed bond indicates the original position of the carboncarbon
double bond.
achieved with 20 mol% NiNPs being somewhat lower than that achieved with
stoichiometric NiNPs. The NiNPs exhibited a superior performance in
comparison with other forms of nickel under the same reaction conditions.
Moreover, the NiNPs could be easily separated by decantation with an extra
amount of 2-propanol and reutilized up to four times (with 1 equiv. NiNPs, 1
h, 9495%) or five times (20 mol% NiNPs, 1 h, 8777%) in a very simple
reaction medium composed of the NiNPs, 2-propanol and the substrate,
with no base. Deactivation of the catalyst with further repeated reuse was
ascribed to surface oxidation.41 According to some deuteration experiments,
the reaction seemed to proceed through a dihydride-type mechanism, in
which the two hydrogens of the donor are transferred to the metal, thus
losing their original identity and becoming equivalent (Scheme 5.6). After
our work, several reports emerged describing the application of supported
NiNPs, prepared by dierent methods, to the transfer hydrogenation of
carbonyl compounds with isopropanol (see below).
Laboratory-made magnetic nano-ferrites were surface-modified with dopamine followed by the addition of NiCl2 at basic pH and reduction with NaBH4.
The resulting Ni-coated nano-ferrite (1013 nm) was used in the transfer hydrogenation of aromatic ketones in the presence of KOH and isopropanol at
100 1C under microwave irradiation (45 min (Scheme 5.7).42 Although high
yields were generally attained, brominated acetophenones (either on the ring or
a position) underwent hydrodebromination whereas nitroacetophenones were
transformed into the corresponding anilines. The catalyst could be recovered
magnetically and reused, after simple treatment (washing with MeOH and
drying at 60 1C for 30 min), five times with no apparent loss of activity (9895%).
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O
1
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R1
i-PrOH, 76 C
OH
4
OH
NiNPs (1 or 0.2 equiv.)

2
R2
OH
OH
OH
73%, 1 h
(73%, 4 h)
92%, 1 h
(76%, 4 h)
53%, 48 h
83%, 1 h
(90%, 3 h)
OH
HO
OH
58%, 1h, exo/endo 85:15
(81%, 4 h, exo/endo 80:20)
H
64%, 1 h, t rans/cis 90:10
(78%, 3 h, t rans/cis 66:34)
72%, 1 h, t rans/cis 85:15

(70%, 3 h, tr ans/cis 78:22)
OH
OH
OH
H
H
H
H
HO
HO
84%, 1 h, d.r. 1:1
79%, 2 h
(34%, 1 h)
89%, 1 h, d.r. 1:1
OH
n-C 9H 19
OH
39%, 1 h, t rans/cis 8:92
Scheme 5.5
62%, 1 ha
Transfer hydrogenation of aliphatic carbonyl compounds catalyzed

by NiNPs in 2-propanol. Data in parentheses correspond to 20 mol%
NiNPs. aDiastereomeric ratio: ()-mentholneoisomentholneomenthol 77 : 9 : 14.
O
Ph
OH
O
- acetone
O
Ph
Ph
OH
+
OH
NiNPs, THF, 76 C
(CH3)2CDOH
Ph
45% D
The dihydride-type mechanism.
Ph
H
50%
50%
[H-M-H]
Scheme 5.6
OH
40%, 1 h
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O
Ar
KOH, i-PrOH, MW 100 C, 45 min
OH
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OH
7 mol% Ni/nano-Fe2 O3
2
91
R2
Ar
OH
OH
OH
Ph
98%
Cl
Br
NH2 OH
NH2
95%
98%
NH2 OH
80%a
O
OH
Br
Ph
NH2
80% a
Scheme 5.7
Br
5%
98%
5%
Transfer hydrogenation of aromatic ketones catalyzed by nanoferriteNi in 2-propanol. aStarting from the nitrocompound.
O
OH
0.05 mol% NiNPs/SiO2
NaOH, i-PrOH, 100 C, 1 h
93%
Scheme 5.8
Transfer hydrogenation of acetophenone catalyzed by nickel-silica

hybrid nanostructures.
The group of Song prepared NiNPs by thermal decomposition of nickeloleylamine complexes, which were successfully coated with silica using the
microemulsion method. The nickel cores inside silica shells formed nickel
phyllosilicate with an urchin-like morphology under hydrothermal conditions, and NiNPs (24 1 nm) were regenerated on the silica spheres by
hydrogen reduction.43 The resulting morphology of the Ni/SiO2 nanostructure can be regarded as active NiNPs embedded in the silica support.
Acetophenone was converted into 1-phenylethanol in a high yield (93%),
using only 0.05 mol% of the catalyst and NaOH in isopropanol at 100 1C for
1 h (Scheme 5.8). The catalyst could be easily separated from the reaction
medium by centrifugation and reused five times without any loss of catalytic
activity (9792%).
The same group reported the synthesis of Ni@SiO2 yolkshell nanocatalysts with nickel cores of ca. 3 nm. The NiNPs were coated with silica through
the microemulsion method, with the resulting Ni@SiO2 yolkshell NPs
being subjected to partial etching by acid treatment. Uniform yolkshell
nanocatalysts were obtained after calcination of the NPs.44 The transfer
hydrogenation of cyclohexanone and a series of aromatic ketones was effected with low catalyst loading (0.03 mol%) and NaOH (20 mol%) at 150 1C
for 30 min (Scheme 5.9). Although the yields and TOF (6000 h1) were high,
the reaction conditions are rather harsh and might be incompatible with the
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O
R1
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OH
NaOH, i-PrOH, 150 C, 30 min
OH
R1
Ph
93%
OH
Ph
83%
94%
80%
OH
86%
OH
OH
MeO
98%
87%
R2
OH
OH
Ph
Scheme 5.9
OH
0.03 mol% Ni@SiO 2 yolk-shell NPs

R2
OH
Cl
75%
94%
Transfer hydrogenation of ketones catalyzed by a Ni@SiO2 yolkshell

nanocatalyst.
O
OH
1 mol% NiNPs/montmorillonite
NaOH, i-PrOH, 76 C, 4 h
98%
Scheme 5.10
Transfer hydrogenation of acetophenone catalyzed by NiNPs on

acid-activated montmorillonite.
presence of other functional groups. Nonetheless, the catalyst could be reused for six cycles maintaining an excellent performance (9290%).
The impregnation of Ni(OAc)2 into the nanopores of two acid-modified
montmorillonite supports, followed by polyol reduction (with ethylene glycol) provided the corresponding catalysts of NiNPs (o18 nm) diering in the
time of activation of the support.45 The catalyst with the longer activation
time (2 h) reached a higher yield and selectivity in the hydrogen-transfer
reduction of acetophenone, using low catalyst loading (1 mol% Ni) and
NaOH in isopropanol at 76 1C under nitrogen (Scheme 5.10). The higher
catalytic activity of the latter was related to the wider specific pore volume of
the catalyst matrix. The presence of base and absence of oxygen were
mandatory for the reaction to take place. The catalyst could be recovered by
filtration and reused (after washing with water and drying) in three runs with
a decline in the conversion (9864%).
More recently, a highly ecient transfer hydrogenation catalyst was prepared by incorporation of NiNPs into a mesoporous aluminosilicate framework.46 The latter was obtained by the solgel method, followed by calcination
at 800 1C. Reduction of the impregnated support with hydrazine gave rise to
the nickel aluminosilicate nanocomposite. The catalyst was fully characterized, and the powder XRD pattern showed the presence of nickel oxide with a
fcc lattice and a crystallite size of ca. 5 nm. The TPR profile indicated that the
major portion of the original NiNPs is on the surface of the framework and
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O
1
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KOH, i-PrOH, 90 C, 30 min or 3 h
OH
Ph
OH
85%
OH
O2N
13%
OH
OH
O2N
N
Cl
83%
41%
MeO
OH
OH
OH
N
82%
Cl
Cl
OH
58%
OH
OH
OH
OH
Ph
Ph
>99%
Cl
84%
83%
Ph
94%
MeO
71%
71%
OH
S
Scheme 5.11
NO 2
98%
88%
99%
R2
Br
OH
OH
OH
Cl
98%
H2N
OH
0.026 mol% NiNPs/aluminosilicate

2
93
OH
46%
N
96%
OH
48%
Transfer hydrogenation of aldehydes (30 min) and ketones (3 h)

catalyzed by NiNPs on aluminosilicate.
was oxidized to NiO in the atmosphere. The catalyst exhibited a high performance in the transfer hydrogenation of aldehydes and ketones with 0.026
mol% Ni, KOH (2 equiv.) at 90 1C for 30 min (aldehydes) or 3 h (ketones)
(Scheme 5.11). GC yields 482% were generally recorded for aromatic and
heteroaromatic aldehydes as well as for ketones, though cyclohexanone was
shown to be more reluctant to react. The process was highly chemoselective,
with the reaction conditions being compatible with the presence of halogens
(Cl and Br), nitro, methoxy, or amino groups. Furthermore, the catalyst was
recyclable for four cycles with no significant loss in activity (9492%).
Kidwai et al. prepared NiNPs by reduction of Ni(II) to Ni(0) in a reverse
micellar system containing an aqueous solution of Ni(NO3)2 and an alkaline
solution of NaBH4. The NiNPs (1085 nm) were eciently applied to the
transfer hydrogenation of aldehydes47 and ketones,48 using ammonium
formate as a hydrogen source. The maximum reaction rate was recorded for
an average particle diameter of about 20 nm. All reactions proceeded in
relatively short reaction times at room temperature (for aldehydes,
Scheme 5.12) or 4550 1C (for ketones, Scheme 5.13) in THF under nitrogen
and were high yielding. Moreover, the NiNPs could be recycled, with a
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O
1
10 mol% NiNPs
H
23/06/2014 08:14:51.
OH
85%
NC
OH
O2 N
OH
HO
OH
MeO
93%
72%
MeO
93%
OH
OH
OH
MeO
92%
90%
89%
OH
78%
Scheme 5.12
OH
Br
97%
NO2
OH
OH Br
OH
Ph
R1
HCO2 NH 4, THF, rt, 1.4-6 h
OH
O
60%
S
88%
OMe
93%
Hydrogen-transfer reduction of aldehydes with ammonium formate

catalyzed by NiNPs.
O
R1
OH
10 mol% NiNPs, HCO 2NH4

R2
THF, 45-50 C, 1.4-4.2 h
R1
R2
OH
OH
Ph
93%
Br
OH
OH
OH
Ph
Ph
78%
OH
Cl
Br
84%
91%
OH
OH
O
93%
Scheme 5.13
90%
93%
84%
Hydrogen-transfer reduction of ketones with ammonium formate

catalyzed by NiNPs.
decrease in the catalytic activity of up to 76% after the sixth cycle, which was
attributed to partial particle agglomeration.
5.5 Hydrogen-transfer Reductive Amination of

Aldehydes
The reductive amination of aldehydes and ketones, an important transformation in biological systems, is a direct and convenient route to amines.49,50
Reductive amination with metal hydrides51,52 or by catalytic hydrogenation53,54 are widespread methods, whereas transfer hydrogenation is more
restricted to the reduction of pre-formed imines.55 It is worth noting that, in
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95
contrast with other transition metals, nickel has been scarcely used in reductive aminations or in the transfer hydrogenation of imines. Reductive
aminations involving nickel were performed with hydrazine and borohydride exchange resin-nickel acetate56 or with stoichiometric nickel boride in
methanol.57 On the other hand, the transfer hydrogenation of pre-formed
imines was carried out with 2-propanol and an excess of aluminium isopropoxide in the presence of Raney nickel (the reaction failed in the absence
of aluminium isopropoxide),58 or with sodium isopropoxide catalyzed by a
nickel(0)N-heterocyclic carbene complex.59
To the best of our knowledge, however, nickel-mediated reductiveamination reactions by transfer hydrogenation had not been reported
previous to our work. We proved that NiNPs can catalyze the reductive
amination of aldehydes by transfer hydrogenation, using 2-propanol as the
hydrogen source in the absence of any added base (Scheme 5.14).60 The
20 mol% NiNPs
R 1CHO + R2 NH 2
R1
i-PrOH, 76 C
R2
N
H
OMe
Ph
Ph
N
H
73%, 9 h
Ph
Ph
N 7
H
90%, 10 h
N
H
65%, 10 h
Ph
N
H
Ph
N
H
43%, 24 h
Ph
N
H
97%, 4 h
N
H
99%, 12 h
Ph
N
H
N
H
44%, 6 h
MeO
98%, 8 h
Ph
H
N
O
Ph
30%, 48 h
30%, 48 h
99%, 12 h
H
N
Ph
80%, 24 h
MeO
36%, 6 h
Scheme 5.14
N
H
N
H
N
H
MeO
N
Ph
H
92%, 12 h
Ph
MeO
N
H
Ph
iBu
87%, 10 h
Ph
40%, 24 h
N
OMe
H
80%, 8 h
N
Ph
H
77%, 8 h
85%, 6 h
N
H
Ph
Ph
N
H
Ph
70%, 12 h
Hydrogen-transfer reductive amination of aldehydes catalyzed by

NiNPs.
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Chapter 5
process was especially eective in the reductive amination of aromatic aldehydes, most of the corresponding secondary amines being obtained in
good-to-excellent yields. The application to aliphatic aldehydes was, however, more limited. Although any attempt to reuse the NiNPs failed, this
methodology can be considered advantageous because (a) the preparation
step of the imine is avoided, aldehydes and amines being used directly as
starting materials, (b) the source of hydrogen is 2-propanol, a cheap and
environmentally friendly solvent, and (c) the NiNPs were shown to be superior to other nickel catalysts in this reaction.
5.6 Conclusions
In view of the above results, we can state that NiNPs are a real alternative to
noble-metal based catalysts in hydrogen-transfer reactions. Simple catalytic
systems, such as that composed of NiNPs and 2-propanol, exhibited a high
performance in the transfer hydrogenation of olefins, carbonyl compounds,
and reductive amination of aldehydes. This represents the first transitionmetal catalyzed transfer hydrogenation in 2-propanol performed in the absence of any base or acid. Other unsupported NiNPs also succeeded in the
transfer hydrogenation of carbonyl compounds with ammonium formate at
room temperature. However, NiNPs immobilized on inorganic supports are
more stable and allow the reactions to proceed with very low metal loadings,
albeit the presence of a base is mandatory. It must be underlined that, due to
the heterogeneous nature of all the catalytic systems shown herein, they can
be easily recovered and reused in 36 cycles maintaining high catalytic activities and displaying a reactivity superior to other nickel catalysts, including Raney nickel. The results presented herein open an array of
possibilities for further research in reactions where the more expensive, and
sometimes sophisticated, noble-metal catalysts might be replaced by the
cheaper and, generally, easy-to-prepare NiNP-based catalysts.
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23/06/2014 08:14:56.
CHAPTER 6
Ammonium Surfactant-capped
Rh(0) Nanoparticles for
Biphasic Hydrogenation
AUDREY DENICOURT-NOWICKI*a,b AND ALAIN ROUCOUX*a,b
a
rieure de Chimie de Rennes, CNRS, UMR 6226,

Ecole Nationale Supe
e de Beaulieu, CS 50837, F-35708 Rennes cedex 7, France;
11 alle
b
enne de Bretagne, France
Universite Europe
*Email: [email protected]; [email protected]
6.1 Introduction
In the drive towards the development of environmentally-friendly and economically viable processes, nanometre-sized metallic species, finely dispersed in water, have appeared as an unavoidable family of active and
reusable catalysts under biphasic conditions.1 Thus, soluble metal nanoparticles have emerged as sustainable alternatives to conventional molecular
catalysts, potentially being easily recycled as heterogeneous systems.24 These
nanocatalysts have proved to be ecient and selective for various reactions,
owing to a great number of potential active sites and an original surface
reactivity.57 In particular, they have showed great promise in arene hydrogenation reactions,8,9 presenting high activities in mild conditions, especially
with Rh(0) nanoparticles. Recently, the preparation of metal particles in
green solvents, such as water, ionic liquids, fluorous medium or supercritical
fluids, has received great attention.10 Among them, water has appeared as a
relevant alternative to conventional organic media for economic and environmental reasons,11,12 as well as the easy catalyst recovery through a
99
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Chapter 6
biphasic approach thanks to its absence of miscibility with the usual organic
phases.13,14 Since naked nanoparticles tend to aggregate, protective agents
are usually used and chosen according to the reaction media. Besides the use
of ligands (polymers, cyclodextrins, dendrimers, etc.) as stabilizers,1,15 surfactants, such as ammonium salts, are widely known as ecient protective
agents for electrosteric stabilization of particles within the aqueous phase,
thanks to their amphiphilic character. Generally, nanospecies with wellcontrolled size were obtained, providing pertinent reactivity in catalysis.
In this chapter, we will mainly focus on the use of Rh(0) nanoparticles in
hydrogenation reactions in pure biphasic liquidliquid conditions, namely
when a liquid substrate constitutes the only organic phase (no solvent
added).
6.2 Nanoparticles as Relevant Catalysts for Biphasic

Hydrogenation
Surfactants, and particularly quaternary ammonium salts,16,17 proved to be
relevant protective agents of various transition metal nanospecies for catalytic applications in pure biphasic conditions.
In that field, Roucoux and co-workers have largely contributed to the ecient stabilization of Rh(0) nanocatalysts through the design of a library
of easily tunable N-(hydroxyalkyl)ammonium salts (HAAnX). These ionic
compounds (Figure 6.1) could be easily synthesized by quaternarization of
N,N-dimethylethanolamine with the corresponding functionalized halogenoalkanes for the HEA series18,19 or of hexadecylamine with chloroethanol for
THEA16Cl.20 Based on cetyl-ammonium chloride salt as a common skeleton,
N,N-dimethyl-N-cetyl-N-(3-hydroxypropyl) ammonium chloride (HPA16Cl)
containing a hydroxypropyl head group was also reported.21 Various structural parameters of these ionic compounds could be modulated such as:
(i) the length of the lipophilic chain (C12C18),22 (ii) the nature of the polar
head (mono- or poly-hydroxylated with various lengths)20,21 and (iii) the
nature of the counter-ion thanks to anionic metathesis.18,23,24 Surfactants
Figure 6.1
Library of N,N-dimethyl-N-alkyl-N-(hydroxyalkyl)ammonium salts as

ecient protective agents of Rh(0) nanoparticles (HEA
hydroxyethylammonium, HPA hydroxypropylammonium, THEA
trishydroxyethylammonium).
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101
(CH3SO3),
possessing halogens (F , Cl , Br , I ), mesylate

tetrafluoroborate
(BF4), hydrogen carbonate (HCO3), triflate (CF3SO3), bis(trifluoromethane)sulfonimidate (NTf2) or hexafluorophosphate (PF6) as counterions were reported by our group.
These ammonium compounds bearing a lipophilic alkyl chain of 16
carbons display surfactant behaviour (Table 6.1) and self-aggregate into
micelles above the critical micellar concentration (cmc). The cmc values
decrease according to the increase in the length of the lipophilic chain
and to the nature of the counter-ion in the following order:
F4Cl4Br4CH3SO34BF4EHCO34CF3SO34I in the HEA16
series.18,22,23 The larger and more polarisable anions tend to decrease the
electrostatic repulsions between the polar groups, thus promoting micelle
formation. Compared to HEA16Cl and HPA16Cl,21 micelles are formed at
lower concentrations with THEA16Cl,20 probably owing to its more sterically
hindered polar head. The decrease in the surface tension of these aqueous
solutions of surfactants below the cmc is related to their adsorption at the
waterair interface according to Gibbs law.
Aqueous suspensions of metallic rhodium(0) colloids were easily synthesized at room temperature by chemical reduction of rhodium trichloride
with sodium borohydride in dilute aqueous solutions of quaternary hydroxylated ammonium salts (Figure 6.2). From optimization studies, the stabilization of Rh(0) nanoparticles depends on the alkyl chain length of the
protective groups. Indeed, eective electrosteric stabilization was achieved
owing to a suciently lipophilic C16 chain, combined with a highly hydrophilic hydroxylated polar head. Moreover, based on the molar ratio
[surfactant]/[metal] investigation,22 a value of 2 proves to be an optimal
choice to prevent aggregation of nanoparticles within the aqueous phase and
to provide a pertinent activity. Thanks to thermogravimetric analyses,18 the
Table 6.1
Physico-chemical properties of some N-cetyl-ammonium derivatives

and their predicted aggregate geometry (adapted from ref. 18, 21, 23).
Entry
Surfactant
CMCa
(mmol L1)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
HEA16Cl
HEA16F
HEA16HCO3
HEA16BF4
HEA16CF3SO3
HPA16Cl
THEA16Cl
1.23
2.12
0.6
0.62e
0.25
2.00
0.63
gCMCb
(mN m1)
Ac (2)
CPPd
Geometry
40.5
43.2
40.3
30.3
32.0
36.9
33.5
33.4
87.1
46.6
37.3
49.6
91
128
0.63
0.24
0.45
0.55
0.42
0.23
0.16
Bilayers
Spheres
Rods
Rods
Rods
Spheres
Spheres
CMC critical micellar concentration measured at 296K.

gCMC surface tension at CMC.
c
A area of polar head per molecule.
d
CPP critical packing parameter, spherical micelles for CPP o12, cylindrical or rod-like micelles
for 13 oCPP o 12, bilayers with CPP 4 12.
e
CMC measured at 303 K.
b
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102
Chapter 6
Figure 6.2
Preparation of surfactant-capped Rh(0) colloids and a representation of

the bilayer structure on the particles surface.
(a) Rh(0)@THEA16Cl
Figure 6.3
(b) Rh(0)@HEA16HCO3
(c) Rh(0)@HEA16BF4
TEM pictures of Rh(0) nanocatalysts capped with various quaternary

hydroxylated ammonium surfactants (adapted from ref. 18, 20).
authors presume that the surfactants self-organize in a bilayer structure at

the nanoparticles surface, as already described in the case of ammonium
salt-stabilized Cu and Ni nanoparticles or Au nanorods by Chen25 and El
Sayed.26 The inner layer of the surfactants is bound to the particles surface
via the charged groups and is connected to the outer layer through hydrophobic interactions while the polar groups of the last one are directed
towards the aqueous solution. Finally, the potential zeta z, measured from
dynamic light scattering (DLS) analyses, possesses an apparently positive
charge in the range 4050 mV for the colloids coated with various surfactants
in solution.18 These values are in agreement with cationic protective types
and show the primordial role of electrostatic repulsion (coulombic interaction) in nanocluster stabilization.
TEM studies have revealed the influence of the protective agent (nature of
the counter-ion and of the polar head) on the average particle size and
morphology of various Rh(0)@HEA16X nanosystems (Figure 6.3). Usually, a
mean diameter in the range of 23 nm was obtained depending on the
counter-ions nature. While spherical geometries were observed with
THEA16Cl or HEA16X (X Cl, Br, HCO3) as protective agents, the use of
HEA16BF4 and HEA16CF3SO3 led to worm-like structures. In the case of
Rh(0)@HEA16F NPs, spherical and elongated NPs were obtained, probably
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103
owing to a weaker stabilization of the spherical particles inducing a sintering

of the nanospecies.18
The surfactant-capped Rh(0) NPs proved to be very active in the hydrogenation of various arene derivatives, at atmospheric hydrogen pressure and
room temperature, under biphasic water/substrate conditions. Optimization
studies showed that an optimal turnover frequency (TOF) was achieved when
the surfactant concentration was proximate to the cmc value.27
A comparison of various protective agents of Rh(0) colloids in benzene reduction is presented in Table 6.2.
Ammonium-capped Rh(0) colloids, acting as micellar nanoreactors,
proved to be reference catalysts for this reaction with quite high TOF values.
The catalytic activity was mostly influenced by a pertinent combination of a
cetyl lipophilic chain (C16) with the counter-ion and a mono- or polyhydroxylated polar head. In the case of HEA16I, no reduction occurred due
to the simultaneous formation of iodine, well-known as a poison for
nanospecies.23 In most cases, an increase in hydrogen pressure gave rise to
an activation of the catalytic suspension.18 The use of these nanocatalysts
was extended to various aromatic derivatives (alkylated, functionalized and
disubstituted arenes),21 heteroaromatics28 and halogenoarenes.29 Some of
the results are gathered in Table 6.3, considering the usual Rh(0)@HEA16Cl
system under mild biphasic conditions.
The ammonium-capped Rh(0) nanoparticles showed remarkable activities
towards a large variety of alkylated or functionalized aromatics (entries 13)
and oxygen- or nitrogen-containing heteroaromatics (entries 48). The
selective reduction of disubstituted arenes, such as xylene isomers (entries
911), leads to the major formation of the thermodynamically less stable cisproduct, as usually observed with heterogeneous catalysts.30 This selectivity
could be attributed to a continuous coordination of the substrate to
the catalysts surface during the reaction, thus favouring the addition of
Table 6.2
Biphasic benzene hydrogenation under 1 bar of H2 and 20 1C using

various ammonium-protected Rh(0) colloidsa (adapted from ref. 18,
2123).
Entry
Surfactant
t (h)
TOF
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
HEA18Br
HEA16Br
HEA16Cl
HEA16F
HEA16BF4
HEA16HCO3
HEA16CH3SO3
HEA16CF3SO3
HPA16Cl
THEA16Cl
9.1
5.3
3.6
6
3.7
6
3.7
3
5
1
33
57
83
50
81
50
81
100
60
300
(h1)
Reaction conditions: Rh (3.8 105 mol), [substrate]/[metal]/[surfactant] 100 : 1 : 2, 10 mL

H2O, 1 bar H2, 20 1C.
b
Turnover frequency determined by number of moles of consumed H2 per mole of Rh per hour.
a
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Table 6.3
Biphasic hydrogenation of arene derivatives with HEA16Cl-capped Rh(0)

colloidsa (adapted from ref. 21, 28, 29).
Entry Substrate
Product yield (%)
t (h)
TOF c
(h1)
1
2
Toluene
Anisole
3.6
4
83
75
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Ethyl benzoate
Aniline
Furan
Pyridine
Quinoline
1,3,5-Triazine
o-Xylene
m-Xylene
p-Xylene
Chorobenzene
2-Chloroanisole
Methylcyclohexane (100)
Methoxycyclohexane (70)
cyclohexanone (30)
Ethylcyclohexanoate (100)
Cyclohexylamine (100)
1,2,3,4-Tetrahydrofuran (100)
Piperidine (100)
1,2,3,4-Tetrahydroquinoline (100)
1,3,5-Hexahydrotriazine (100)
1,2-Dimethylcyclohexane (cistrans: 91 : 9)
Cyclohexane (100)
Methoxycyclohexane (53)
cyclohexanone (47)
4.7
10
2.1
3.9
9.1
1.7
5.3
6.8
4.1
1.7
11
64
30
95
77
22
176
57
44
73
34
Reaction conditions: Rh (3.8 105 mol), [substrate]/[metal]/[surfactant] 100 : 1 : 2, 10 mL H2O,

1 bar H2, 20 1C.
b
Determined by gas chromatography.
c
Turnover frequency determined by number of moles of consumed H2 per mole of Rh per hour.
a
OMe
OMe
Cl
H2
- HCl
Figure 6.4
OMe
+ 2H 2
OMe
+H
+ H2 O
-H
HO
OMe
O
+ MeOH
Proposed mechanism of cyclohexanone formation during the chloroanisole hydrogenation (adapted from ref. 29).
hydrogen atoms to only one face of the arene.31,32 The formation of the
minor trans diastereoisomers could be explained through a roll-over mechanism, in which the partially hydrogenated intermediate dissociates from
the catalysts surface and then re-associates through the opposite face before
further reduction occurs.30,33 In all cases, the nanocatalysts proved to be
easily recycled by simple extraction of the product with the adequate solvent
(alkanes or ether), during several successive reduction reactions with similar
TOFs and no metal leaching. In the case of halogenoarenes (entries 1213), a
tandem dehalogenationhydrogenation reaction occurred with Rh(0) colloids.34 Moreover, the hydrodechlorination of halogenoanisoles as model
substrates of endocrine disruptors (entry 13) yielded the relatively non-toxic
saturated product and added-value cyclohexanone in a significant amount
(nearly 50% GC yield).29 The formation of the ketone could be attributed to
the decomposition of the hemiacetal intermediate, generated from the
partially hydrogenated product in acidic conditions due to the release of HCl
during the dehalogenation step (Figure 6.4). However, in some cases, a
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105
deactivation and an aggregation of the catalyst were observed owing to a

chlorine poisoning eect of the catalyst surface, which could be circumvented by a heterogeneization of the colloidal suspensions onto inorganic
supports such as SiO2 or TiO2.29,35,36
To conclude, quaternary hydroxylated ammonium surfactants, used as
protective agents of Rh(0) nanospecies, provide pertinent micellar nanoreactors for benzene derivative hydrogenation under mild pressure and
temperature conditions in biphasic liquidliquid media, with high activities
and a good recyclability.
6.3 Asymmetric Nanocatalysis: a Great Challenge

In the last decades, soluble metal nanoparticles have showed great potential
in many catalytic reactions owing to their unique surface properties. However, their use as eective catalytically active species in asymmetric processes
remains a challenge in nanocatalysis.37 In this approach, the catalytic
reaction takes place on the particles surface and the enantiocontrol will
depend on the way that the capping agents will transmit their chiral information to the substrate in the vicinity of the chirally modified particles.
Generally, this methodology has no equivalent in homogeneous asymmetric
catalysis, thus rendering these systems challenging but also valuable.38 Although some examples of metallic nanospecies modified by chiral ligands
were reported for asymmetric allylic alkylations39,40 and arene hydrogenations,41,42 the use of finely dispersed metallic nanoparticles in neat water,
stabilized by water-soluble protective agents, has been far less described.
Following their approach based on the electrosteric stabilization of
nanospecies through the use of quaternary hydroxylated ammonium salts,
Roucoux and co-workers developed a new library of water-soluble and optically active ammonium salts possessing various polar heads, derived from
N-methylephedrine, N-methylprolinol or cinchona derivatives, in combination with dierent counter-ions, such as Br, HCO3, (S)- or (R)-lactate
(Figure 6.5).43,44 The bromide surfactants were easily synthesized from
commercially available precursors by quaternarization with the corresponding bromoalkane with high yields (7095%). The other ammonium
X
N
N
10
N
13
(1S,2S)-NMeProl16X
HO
(1R,2S)-NMeProl16X
(1S,2S,4S,5R)-QCI16X
HO
13
13
OH
13
OH
(1R,2S)-NMeEph12X
OH
(1S,2R,4S,5R)-QCD16X
X = Br, HCO3, (R)- or (S)-lactate
Figure 6.5
Optically active ammonium surfactants as protective agents of Rh(0)

NPs. N-Dodecyl-N-methylephedrium (NMeEph12)1 salt, N-hexadecylN-methyl-L-prolinolinium (NMeProl16)1 salt, N-hexadecyl-quicorinium
(QCI16)1 salt, N-hexadecyl-quicoridinium (QCD16)1 salt (adapted from
ref. 43, 44).
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Chapter 6
(a) Rh(0)@(-)-NMeEph12Br
Figure 6.6
(b) Rh(0)@(-)-NMeEph12HCO3 (c) Rh(0)@(-)-NMeProl16Br
TEM pictures of chirally modified Rh(0) nanocatalysts (adapted from

ref. 43, 44).
derivatives, presenting a hydrogenocarbonate (HCO3) or a lactate

(CH3CH(OH)COO) as a counter-ion, were obtained by an anionic metathesis reaction starting from the bromide salt. Depending on the polar head,
the length of the lipophilic chain was modulated to provide ecient watersolubility.
These optically active surfactants proved to be ecient protective agents
for the stabilization of spherical rhodium(0) nanospecies with mean sizes in
the range of 0.82.5 nm and narrow size distributions, according to the
surfactants nature (Figure 6.6). The chirally modified colloidal suspensions
showed a positive apparent charge in solution, ranging from 38 to 73 mV.
These optically active amphiphilic ammonium salts were tested in the
enantioselective reduction of ethyl pyruvate as a model reaction to evaluate
the catalytic performances of Rh(0) nanoparticles as well as the diastereoselective hydrogenation of prochiral 3-methylanisole as a challenging
reaction.
6.3.1
Ethylpyruvate
In a first set of experiments, the obtained nanocatalysts were investigated in

the asymmetric hydrogenation of ethylpyruvate in neat water. Various parameters, such as the nature of the counter-ion in the N-methylephedrinebased surfactants and of the polar head in the bromide series, and the
hydrogen pressure, were optimized. The use of cinchonidine, already known
as a promising external chiral inducer in the presence of Pt nanoparticles
capped with an achiral surfactant, was also investigated.45 The results are
gathered in Table 6.4, considering an optimum 40 bar H2.
First, concerning the optically active polar head, the steric hindrance
seems to govern the enantiocontrol, the best results being achieved with the
N-methylephedrinium salt. In the Rh(0)@()-NMeEph12X series, the bromide and the (S)-lactate counter-ions proved to be the most eective in terms
of asymmetric induction up to 13% e.e. (entries 1 and 5). The best value of
15% e.e. was obtained with the dextrorotatory enantiomer ()-NMeEph12Br
(entry 2). The use of ()-cinchonidine as an external inducer did not significantly improve the enantiomeric excess, with e.e. up to 18% (entry 12).
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Table 6.4
107
Enantioselective hydrogenation of ethylpyruvate with Rh(0)

nanoparticles capped with optically active ammonium salts in neat
watera (adapted from ref. 43, 44).
Entry
Surfactant
t (h)
Conversionb (%)
e.e.b (%)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
(1R,2S)-()-NMeEph12Br
(1S,2R)-()-NMeEph12Br
(1R,2S)-()-NMeEph12HCO3
(1R,2S)-()-NMeEph12(R)-lactate
(1R,2S)-()-NMeEph12(S)-lactate
(2S)-()-NMeProl16Br
(1S,2S)-()-NMeProl16Br
(1R,2S)-()-NMeProl16Br
(1S,2S,4S,5R)-()-QCI16Br
(1S,2R,4S,5R)-()-QCD16Br
(1R,2S)-()-NMeEph12Brd
(1R,2S)-()-NMeEph12(S)-lactated
1
1
1.5
1
1
0.5
1
1
2c
2
1
1
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
60
100
100
12
15
4
9
13
1
3
5
1
0
15
18
(R)
(S)
(R)
(R)
(R)
(S)
(S)
Reaction conditions: Rh (3.8 105 mol), [substrate]/[metal]/[surfactant] 100 : 1 : 2, H2O (10mL),

40 bar H2, 20 1C.
b
Determined by gas chromatography analysis using a chiral column (Chiralsil-Dex CB).
c
Non-optimized.
d
Addition of ()-cinchonidine.
a
Unsatisfactorily, QCI, QCD and NMeProl derivatives demonstrated poor results with e.e. o5%.
The low asymmetric induction observed could be attributed to a lack of
steric hindrance around the rhodium(0) particles and also to the dynamic
behavior of the protective agent at the metals surface.
6.3.2
Prochiral Arenes
The stereoselective hydrogenation of monocyclic polysubstituted arenes

provides an elegant synthetic approach to optically active cyclohexyl compounds and remains one of the last challenging reactions in asymmetric
catalysts due the lack of ecient catalysts.46,47 In the drive towards ecocompatible chemistry, heterogeneous catalytic asymmetric processes are of
great interest. The first attempts described by Lemaire and co-workers, using
either a chiral lipophilic amine or a chiral auxiliary covalently bound to the
substrate, gave only low asymmetric induction in the hydrogenation of
2-methylanisole.48,49
More recently, Roucoux and co-workers have investigated Rh(0) nanoparticles capped with the previously described quaternary hydroxylated
ammonium salts in the reduction of 3-methylanisole as a model substrate, at
room temperature under pure biphasic conditions (Figure 6.7).43,44
The influence of several parameters, such as the hydrogen pressure and
the protective agent, has been studied (Table 6.5). First, reduction of the
aromatic ring under atmospheric pressure is kinetically slow (100% conversion in 3 days) and thus was performed under 40 bar H2, without
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Chapter 6
OMe
OMe
Me
Rh(0) NPs@Chiral ammonium surfactant
23/06/2014 08:14:56.
Me
H2O, H2, r.t.
Me
MeO
Me
cis
MeO
OMe
Me
trans
Figure 6.7
Hydrogenation of 3-methylanisole with chirally modified Rh(0)

nanoparticles.
Table 6.5
Asymmetric hydrogenation of 3-methylanisole with Rh(0) colloids

capped with optically active ammonium salts in neat watera (adapted
from ref. 43, 44).
Entry Surfactant
1
2
3
4
5
6
t (h)
(1R,2S)-()-NMeEph12Br
3
(1R,2S)-()-NMeEph12(R)-lactate
3
(1R,2S)-()-NMeEph12(S)-lactate
3
(2S)-()-NMeProl16Br
16c
(1S,2S,4S,5R)-()-QCI16Br
1
(1S,2R,4S,5R)-()-QCD16Br
1
Conv.b (%) Yield cistrans (e.e.) (%)b

100
100
100
100
82
55
62
65
66
60
70
70
(0)
(1)
(0)
(1)
(1)
(1)
:
:
:
:
:
:
38
35
34
40
30
30
(0)
(0)
(0)
(1)
(2)
(2)
Reaction conditions: Rh (3.8 105 mol), [substrate]/[metal]/[surfactant] 100 : 1 : 2, H2O (10mL),

40 bar H2, 20 1C.
b
Determined by gas chromatography analysis using a chiral column (Chiralsil-Dex CB).
c
Non-optimized.
a
modifying the selectivity in favor of the cis isomers (cistrans ratio 65 5 :

35 5).
These nanocatalysts were also active in the hydrogenation of
3-methylanisole, yielding high diastereoselectivity in the cis-product, but
without asymmetric induction. This selectivity essentially depended on the
chiral skeletons of head groups and varied in the following order:
() QCDE() QCI4()-NMeEphE()-NMeProl. No influence of the
(S)- or (R)-lactate counter-ion was observed with a similar cistrans ratio and
no asymmetric induction (entries 23). We could presume that optically
active ammonium surfactants could protect the metal nanospecies through
the adsorption of anions at the particles surface, as described in colloid
stabilization,50,51 and also through the cationic lipophilic tail, providing
steric stabilization and hindrance. However, contrary to coordinating
ligands, the interaction of ammonium salts within the metallic surface
remains weak, allowing the displacement of the protective agents by incoming
substrates, and thus lowering the enantiofacial discrimination.
6.4 Conclusions
In summary, hydroxylated ammonium surfactants have been widely applied
as protective agents for the ecient electrosteric stabilization of rhodium(0)
nanoparticles in neat water. The easy modulation of the skeleton such as the
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109
lipophilic chain length, and the nature of the associated counter-ion or the
polar head allow tuning of the stability of the aqueous suspensions and finally the hydrogenation catalytic properties. The obtained micelles are able
to confine metallic species within their cores, thus acting as promising
nanoreactors. In contrast to homogeneous species, these nanocatalysts
proved to be active in the reduction of arene derivatives under mild conditions and easily recyclable under biphasic conditions (water/substrate).
Undoubtedly, the development of asymmetric catalysis with well-defined
nanospecies will constitute an ambitious goal in the field of catalysis, which
remains unexplored in neat water.
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CHAPTER 7
Pd Nanoparticles in CC
Coupling Reactions
DENNIS B. PACARDO AND MARC R. KNECHT*
Department of Chemistry, University of Miami, 1301 Memorial Drive,
Coral Gables, Florida 33146
7.1 Introduction
Transition metals have played an important role in synthetic chemistry as
they have the unique capacity of activating various organic compounds
towards chemical transformation and/or generation of new bonds. As such,
organic ligand-stabilized metal catalysts based on Mg,14 Fe,59 Ni,1016
Au,1723 Ag,2430 Pd,3142 and Pt4349 have been synthesized to aord industrially important transformations such as carboncarbon (CC) coupling
reactions, alkylation, hydrogenation, oxygen and nitro-group reduction, and
carbon dioxide oxidation. These reactions, however, typically involve the use
of organic solvents, high temperatures, and high metal loadings. Furthermore, these processes also produce toxic by-products and are becoming
economically unsustainable and environmentally unviable.50,51 As such, new
processes are being developed to reduce the energy consumption and ecological impact of these reactions that are essential to maintain current
technological advances.52
One reaction that has garnered significant attention over the past decade
is the CC coupling reaction using Pd-based catalysts due to its applications
in pharmaceutical, natural products, and materials synthesis.5356 The
coupling reaction, shown in Scheme 7.1, typically involves the formation of a
112
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Pd Nanoparticles in CC Coupling Reactions
Scheme 7.1
113
General mechanism of Pd-catalyzed CC coupling.
new CC bond between an electrophile (usually an aryl or vinyl halide) and a

nucleophile (either an olefin or organometallic reagent), using zerovalent Pd
metal to drive the reaction. The first step in the coupling is oxidative addition wherein Pd0 reacts with the electrophile by insertion between the CX
bond to form an organopalladate complex, oxidizing the Pd0 to Pd21. The
nucleophilic component will then attack the organopalladate complex either
through transmetalation or alkene insertion, positioning the two carbon
groups closer to each other on the metal surface. After reductive elimination,
the new CC bond is formed, the product is released, and the Pd21 is reduced back to Pd0.
The modern use of Pd catalysts for CC coupling reactions was pioneered
by Heck with the publication of his work in 1972 on Pd-catalyzed arylation of
olefins to produce substituted olefinic compounds.57 In this reaction, catalytic quantities of Pd were used to form new CC bonds between aromatic
and olefinic compounds producing a standard protocol for metal-catalyzed
coupling reactions.57 For many years thereafter, several Pd-catalyzed coupling reactions (Scheme 7.2)52,58 were developed by dierent groups by
modifying the nucleophilic component of the reaction. Sonogashira used
alkynes instead of alkenes for cross-coupling reactions with aryl halides.59
Stille, on the other hand, initiated the use of organometallic reagents as the
nucleophile by using organostannane compounds for the Pd-catalyzed
coupling reaction with aryl halides;60 however, the toxic nature of tin compounds limited their large-scale use. As an alternative to tin reagents, less
toxic organometallic compounds such as organozinc was used by Negishi in
the coupling reaction generating a mild and highly selective transmetalation
agent that can tolerate a variety of functional groups.61 Kumada used organomagnesium reagents for transmetalation,62 although the highly reactive
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Scheme 7.2
Chapter 7
Select Pd-catalyzed CC coupling reactions.
Grignard reagent also restricted their applications to a selection of functionalities. As an alternative to highly toxic tin and highly reactive Grignard
transmetalation agents, Suzuki developed boron-based organometallic reagents for coupling reactions with aryl halides,63,64 generating a non-toxic
and practical alternative that can be used under mild reaction conditions. In
this reaction, activation of organoboron by a base is required to produce the
boronate intermediate that initiates transmetalation, where a wide variety of
functional groups can be employed.
The importance of Pd-catalyzed CC coupling reactions in organic and
material synthesis, as well as industrial applications, was recognized by the
2010 Nobel prize in chemistry for the pioneering works of Heck, Suzuki, and
Negishi.65,66 In more recent times, technological advancements have led to
novel synthetic approaches for producing highly active Pd catalysts by using
dierent types of organic-based stabilizers that can control the reactivity and
selectivity of the metal catalyst. Furthermore, these new Pd materials have
unique characteristics and properties that enable their use in catalytic
transformations for a wide array of applications in material,6769 natural
products,7075 and pharmaceutical synthesis.54,76,77
With the advent of nanotechnology, new synthetic strategies for the generation of Pd nanocatalysts have been developed with particular emphasis
on the control of the particle size, shape, and functionality.7883 Since
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nanomaterials encompass the gap between the atomic level and bulk materials, interesting physical, chemical, electronic, and optical properties can
be obtained,81,84,85 thereby generating a new class of structures for specific
applications. Modern synthetic methods allow for the production of nanosized catalysts with optimized surface-to-volume ratios, allowing for more
ecient catalytic reactivity as compared to traditional small molecule materials. The use of Pd nanoparticles for CC catalysis marks a transition from
using traditional organic solvent-based and high temperature reactions
toward more ambient conditions such as aqueous solutions, mild temperatures, and low catalyst loadings.8688 This is achieved by employing
highly functionalized stabilizers such as dendrimers,33,86,8993 proteins,31
peptides,87,88,94 and other small molecules.9598 These materials allow for
size-specific interactions, as well as control over the nanoparticle shape,
thereby generating solution stability, but at the same time exposing active
sites for interaction with substrates.
This chapter will cover select recent advances regarding the use of Pd
nanoparticles for CC coupling reactions. Due to the large volume of work
done in this area, this report will mostly focus on homogeneous Pd nanoparticles; however, it will not discuss bimetallic catalysts for coupling reactions. Emphasis will be given to Pd nanoparticles used in energy-ecient
and environmentally benign catalytic reactions, as well as information regarding their catalytic mechanisms.
7.2 Synthetic Scheme for the Fabrication of Pd

Nanoparticles
There are several common methods employed for the synthesis of Pd
nanoparticles such as chemical reduction,37,38,86,94 vapor phase deposition,99101 laser ablation,102105 sonochemical reduction,106110 electrochemical methods,39,111113 seed-mediated approaches,35,114 and microwave
reduction.40,115117 For this review, however, we will focus on the chemical
reduction approach, which typically involves the use of metal salts as a
precursor, organic and/or biological ligands as surface passivants, and a
reductant to reduce the metal ions to the zerovalent state. Using this
method, the metal precursor, which is usually K2PdCl488 or K2PdCl6,118 is
dissolved in aqueous solution and added to a separate ligand solution. In
this process, the interaction of metal ions and ligands can lead to a ligandto-metal charge transfer band in UV-vis analysis.88,119,120 Upon addition of a
reducing agent, typically NaBH4, the metal ions are reduced to form metallic
Pd nanoparticles as evidenced by the formation of a dark brown solution
with a broad absorbance spectrum.86,88,94 During the reduction process,
several nucleation sites are generated, thus resulting in rapidly growing
nanoparticles that can ripen and precipitate as bulk metal in the absence of
stabilizing agents. As such, the ligands present in the reaction prevent
particle agglomeration and control the size and shape of the resulting
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Chapter 7
nanoparticles. By design, these stabilizing agents do not completely coat

the nanoparticles, which, therefore, allows for surface accessibility by
the substrates in the reaction; however, the porous network of ligands can
also be designed to control access to the metal surface to develop catalytic
selectivity. Commonly used stabilizers in Pd nanoparticle synthesis are
amine-,121123 thiol-,124127 and phosphorus-based ligands,128130 polymers,34,38,96,97 dendrimers,86,89,90,92,119 surfactants,131133 ionic liquids,134137 and biomacromolecules such as peptides.87,88,94
While this method has produced a variety of homogeneous nanocatalysts
for dierent CC coupling reactions, their wide scale application in industry
has not yet been realized due to the diculty in recovering and recycling the
catalyst. In this regard, attaching the nanoparticles to a solid support oers
an alternative process for easier catalyst recovery and recyclability. Although
there are many advantages for homogeneous catalysts such as eciency and
selectivity,138140 supported nanocatalysts can be more practical, easily separated, and cost-eective in large-scale use. They also greatly reduce the
amount of metal impurities in the isolated products, thus lowering the degree of separation required post reaction. Solid supports such as carbon
nanotubes,141144 metal oxides,145148 silica,149151 alumina,152154 zeolites,155157 clays,158 polymer coatings,159161 molecular sieves,162 aerogels,163,164 and naturally occurring porous diatomite165 have been used to
immobilize Pd nanoparticles. The synthesis of a solid-supported nanocatalyst generally involves the adsorption, grafting, or attachment of the stabilizing agent to the solid material, after which Pd ions are introduced to
interact with the ligands, followed by reduction. The solid materials can be
easily separated via filtration, washed to remove excess ligands, and redispersed in various solvents for catalytic application.
7.3 CC Coupling Reaction Mechanism for Pd

Nanocatalysts
Nanoparticles have gained significant attention due to their enhanced surface-to-volume ratio generating more ecient exposure of the catalytic materials. In CC coupling, the nature of the nanocatalyst and the actual
catalytic mechanism remain a subject of intense debate. The colloidal nature
of Pd nanoparticles suggests that they can act as homogeneous or heterogeneous catalysts in solution and, as such, two catalytic mechanisms are
possible. On one side, researchers suggest that the reaction occurs directly at
the surface of the nanoparticles without inducing changes in the material
structure, size, and shape, indicating a purely heterogeneous nature of the
catalyst.52,166 On the other hand, substrates could interact with the active
metal surface and abstract atoms from the nanoparticle surface, from which
the catalytic cycle could then occur in solution. This homogeneous process,
often referred to as the atom-leaching mechanism, results in the nanoparticles serving as a reservoir of active catalytic species.52,167 In this process,
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Pd atoms are abstracted from the surface of the nanoparticles during oxidative addition.
A thorough study of the leaching mechanism of Pd nanoparticles in coupling
reactions was investigated using a 2-compartment reactor, shown in
Figure 7.1(a).168,169 This system separates the two compartments with an
Figure 7.1
(a) Photograph of the two-component reactor separated by an alumina

membrane and (b) schematic diagram of the reactor showing the
cluster-exclusion process.168
Reproduced with permission from M. B. Thathagar, J. E. ten Elshof and
G. Rothenberg, Angew. Chem., Int. Ed., 2006, 45, 28862890. Copyright
r 2006 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.
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Chapter 7
alumina membrane that only allows for passage of metal species of o5 nm.169
As such, the nanocluster exclusion process was achieved in which only small
Pd clusters, Pd0 atoms, and/or Pd21 ions can traverse the alumina membrane, thereby monitoring and analysis of the leached species was possible.
Pd nanoparticles were prepared by mixing the metal precursor, Pd(OAc)2,
with tetraoctylammonium glycolate (TOAG) acting as both a stabilizer and a
reducing agent to produce B14 nm particles.169 The CC coupling initially
studied using the unique reaction system was the Heck reaction between nbutyl acrylate and iodobenzene using DMF as the solvent and NaOAc as the
base to generate n-butylcinnamate as the product. The two starting materials
were added to both sides of the reaction chamber, except the solid base was
placed only in side B and the Pd nanoparticles were fully contained in side A
at the initiation of the reaction.169 NaOAc base was necessary for the Heck
coupling to occur so no product formation was expected in side A. Control
studies showed that the solubility of NaOAc in DMF was negligible thus base
diusion from side B to side A was not observed.168 In this system, however,
diusion of the active Pd species to side B through the mesoporous membrane will allow the reaction to proceed. To this end, Heck coupling was
observed for the reaction at side B generating 88% of the n-butylcinnamate
product after 120 h, although a small amount of the product (4.9%) was also
formed in the opposite side of the reaction chamber, which was attributed to
the diusion of the product from side B to side A.169
To further verify the leaching of the Pd species through the membrane,
another reaction was performed using the Suzuki coupling between phenylboronic acid and p-iodotoluene with the same conditions as the Heck
coupling. Approximately 50% of the total anticipated product was formed on
side B after 250 h of reaction time, indicating that the catalytic Pd species
was abstracted from the nanoparticle cluster during oxidative addition and
subsequently transferred from side A to side B; however, diusion of the
product from side B to side A was also observed to be similar to the Heck
reaction albeit at a greater yield of B20%.169
The nature of the leached species was then investigated to determine
whether Pd0 species, small Pd0 clusters, or both were released through the
membrane. Initially, Pd nanoparticles were added to the DMF solvent in side
A of the chamber while only DMF was placed in side B.169 The leaching
process was then monitored for 144 h at 100 1C by taking small aliquots of
the reaction mixture in side B and analyzing the particles using inductively
coupled plasma (ICP) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM).169 TEM
results indicated that small Pd clusters do not diuse through the membrane, whereas only 20% of the total Pd was found on side B after 144 h, as
determined by ICP analysis.169 Only the Pd0 species was observed in side B,
forming irregular shaped aggregates stabilized by the presence of TOAG ions
that were released from the nanoparticle surface and diused through the
membrane due to concentration gradient.169 This was verified by a UV-vis
experiment using samples from both sides of the reaction chamber, wherein
only a broad spectrum was observed for side B indicating the presence of Pd
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aggregates, while an absorbance shoulder at 390 nm was obtained from

samples in side A suggesting the presence of Pd clusters in solution.169
Another experiment was performed to probe the leaching of Pd21 as a
result of oxidative addition in the presence of aryl halides. To accomplish
this study, iodobenzene was dissolved in DMF and placed on both sides of
the reaction chamber with Pd nanoparticles added only to side A.169 After
24 h, aliquots were taken from both reactions wherein it was observed that
the black solution in side A turned into a dark reddish color while the reaction in side B turned dark red after another 24 h indicating the migration
of Pd species from side A to side B. As such, leaching of catalytically active
Pd0 atoms from the nanoparticles was observed in the presence of an oxidizing aryl iodide substrate, which supports an atom-leaching mechanism
during oxidative addition for Pd nanoparticles.169
From these studies, three dierent scenarios could occur for the transfer
of Pd species from one side of the reactor to the other through an alumina
membrane (Figure 7.2).169 The first mechanism involves the fragmentation
of Pd nanoparticles into smaller nanoclusters, which can then pass through
the porous membrane; however, the results indicate that this process was
not occurring as there were no small Pd nanoclusters observed in side B of
the reactor. Although the fragmentation of Pd nanoparticles results in the
formation of small Pd clusters, these do not appear to be able to pass
through the alumina membrane. In the second mechanism, Pd0 atoms were
leached from the nanoparticles under non-oxidizing conditions and then
transferred to side B through the porous membrane as indicated by the
experimental results. In contrast, the third mechanism involved the leaching
of Pd species from the nanoparticles surface under oxidizing conditions due
to the presence of aryl halides in solution. In this process, the oxidative attack of the aryl halides resulted in leaching of Pd species and formation of
Pd21 complexes that were then transferred to side B. These Pd21 complexes
can then pass through the porous membrane and continue with the catalytic
cycle in side B if the coupling components were present. To this end, transfer
of Pd species from side A to side B and their corresponding catalytic activity
can be attributed to the leached Pd0 atoms and/or the Pd21 complex.
In another study by Niu et al., the design of Pd nanoparticles was employed
to probe the catalytic mechanism promoted by oxidative addition in the
presence of aryl halide substrates.170 Observations of tunable characteristics
of the nanocatalysts, such as crystallinity, composition, and surface structure,
were used for qualitative scrutiny of the reaction mechanism by employing two
dierently synthesized particles: 1. poorly crystalline (disordered) Pd nanoparticles and 2. bimetallic PdAu nanocrystals.170 Using highly disordered
nanoparticles in the coupling reaction, the overall change in the structure and
crystallinity of the particles after the reaction was monitored from which information regarding the mechanism could be obtained. Meanwhile, using
bimetallic PdAu nanoparticles provided evidence concerning the catalytic
mechanism by the formation of Pd nanostructures via phase segregation in
the reaction as a result of leaching during oxidative addition.170
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Figure 7.2
Possible transfer mechanisms of leached Pd species in a twocomponent reactor. (a) Nanoparticle fragmentation and transfer of
small clusters does not occur, (b) leaching of Pd0 atoms and ensuing
transfer, and (c) formation of Pd21 complexes during oxidative addition
and subsequent leaching and transfer.169
Reproduced with permission from A. V. Gaikwad, A. Holuigue, M. B.
Thathagar, J. E. ten Elshof and G. Rothenberg, Chem.Eur. J., 2007, 13,
69086913. Copyright r 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA,
Weinheim.
As illustrated in Scheme 7.3, these nanoparticles were employed in the

Suzuki coupling reaction between iodoanisole and phenylboronic acid using
Na2CO3 as a base. In the case of the poorly crystalline Pd nanoparticles,
HRTEM analysis, shown in Figure 7.3(g) and (h), after the reaction illustrated
sintering and crystallinity enhancements of the particles, which were very
dierent from the original nanocatalysts (Figure 7.3(d)).170 High resolution
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Scheme 7.3
121
Representation of changes in crystallinity and morphology of Pd and

Au-Pd nanoparticles as a result of the atom-leaching mechanism
in Suzuki coupling.170
Reproduced with permission from Z. Niu, Q. Peng, Z. Zhuang, W. He
and Y. Li, Chem.Eur. J., 2012, 18, 98139817. Copyright r 2012
WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.
TEM (HRTEM) and selected area electron diraction (SAED) experiments

still did show some poorly crystalline nanoparticles, suggesting that not all
of the materials were involved in the catalytic cycle. The crystalline nanoparticles ranged from spherical to irregularly shaped structures with sizes
between 322 nm, where SAED and energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) analyses
confirmed the formation of pure Pd nanocrystals as shown in Figure 7.3(f)
and (j), respectively.170
To further probe the improved crystal structure of the Pd nanoparticles in
the reaction, several control experiments were performed wherein the results
indicated that the presence of aryl halides was responsible for crystallinity
enhancement. In this process, the aryl halides abstract Pd atoms from the
surface of the disordered nanoparticles during oxidative addition, generating nanoparticles with an enhanced crystalline structure. To this end,
when aryl halides were removed from the reaction system, retention of poor
crystallinity was observed for the Pd nanoparticles.170 In a separate study, in
a reaction system where only the aryl halide was present in the absence of
the transmetalation reagent, nanoparticle crystallinity enhancement was
again observed due to Pd leaching during oxidative addition.170 These results suggest that the catalytic mechanism driven by the Pd nanoparticles
follows an atom-leaching process wherein the aryl halides oxidatively abstract Pd0 atoms. Following this, the leached complexes undergo transmetalation and reductive elimination, releasing the coupling product and free
Pd0 atoms in solution. The Pd0 atoms can then undergo nucleation and
growth to produce crystalline nanoparticles with no size and shape control
due to the absence of stabilizing agents in the reaction system.170 On the
other hand, if the catalytic mechanism was exclusively a surface-based reaction, only minimal to no changes in nanoparticle morphology should be
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Figure 7.3
(a, b) TEM images, (c) SAED pattern, (d) HRTEM image, and (e) XRD
analysis of the Pd nanoparticles before catalysis. (f) TEM image and
SAED pattern (inset), (g and h) HRTEM images, (i) size distribution
histogram, and (j) EDX spectrum of Pd nanoparticles after catalysis.170
Reproduced with permission from Z. Niu, Q. Peng, Z. Zhuang, W. He
and Y. Li, Chem.Eur. J., 2012, 18, 98139817. Copyright r 2012 WILEYVCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.
observed, with no formation of irregular shaped, crystalline Pd

nanoparticles.170
Inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) analysis was also
performed to measure the concentration of soluble Pd species in the reaction solution with and without the aryl halide. Using the poorly crystalline
Pd nanoparticles as the catalyst, 60 ppb Pd species were determined to be in
solution for the reaction containing 4-iodoanisole; however, only 9 ppb Pd
species were found in the reaction without the aryl halide substrate.170 These
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results suggest that oxidative addition in the presence of aryl halides causes
abstraction of Pd species from the nanoparticle surface, thereby increasing
the amount of Pd released to solution. On the other hand, only minimal
leaching was observed without aryl halides, which can be attributed to the
inherent instability of the nanoparticles.
While the crystallinity results suggest leaching of Pd atoms during oxidative addition, further evidence was obtained using a bimetallic Pd-Au
nanoparticle system. In this case, co-reduction of Pd and Au metal precursors was achieved by adding oleylamine at 230 1C to produce spherical
nanoparticles with a B9 nm average diameter size.170 HRTEM and
EDX mapping analysis revealed that the particles were composed of a 31 : 69
PdAu ratio with lattice spacings between the expected value for face-centered cubic (fcc) Pd and Au. Catalytic reactions between 4-iodoanisole and
phenylboronic acid were used to probe the leaching process driven by the
Pd-Au nanoparticles. TEM analysis of the bimetallic nanocatalyst after the
reaction revealed that the shape and size of the particles remained the same;
however, EDX results showed the PdAu atomic ratio to be 19 : 81, indicating
a decreased amount of Pd atoms in the nanoparticles. Interestingly, highly
crystalline Pd nanoparticles B5 nm in size were formed in this system, as
confirmed by TEM and EDX, suggesting that the Pd atoms were selectively
abstracted from the bimetallic nanoparticle during the coupling reaction.170
To verify the role of oxidative addition by the aryl halide in the leaching
process, control reactions were done without 4-iodoanisole, wherein the EDX
analysis of the materials after the process displayed a PdAu ratio of 27 : 73,
which was similar to the original bimetallic ratio.170 These results indicate
that the aryl halides leached the Pd0 species during the oxidative addition
process in the catalytic reaction.
Overall, the results of these studies indicated that the atom-leaching
mechanism promoted by oxidative addition of the aryl halide was the likely
catalytic process for Pd nanoparticles in the Suzuki coupling reaction. These
results oer direct evidence using various analytical techniques and dierent types of Pd nanoparticles wherein atom abstraction during the catalytic
cycle was both qualitatively and quantitatively analyzed. Aside from indirect
processes such as monitoring the TOF values, these studies provided physical validation of an atom-leaching process for Pd nanoparticles.
The other side of the debate regarding the catalytic mechanism of Pd
nanoparticles centers on the argument that the entire reaction occurs directly on the surface of the particles in a straightforward heterogeneous reaction. To this end, evidence of surface-based Suzuki coupling catalyzed by
Pd nanoparticles was examined by monitoring the local coordination environment of the metal in real time using a recirculating reactor set up for
operando fluorescence X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) illustrated in
Figure 7.4(a).171 Polymer-stabilized Pd nanoparticles were prepared by
refluxing H2PdCl4 and polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) with water and ethanol to
generate 1.84.0 nm Pd0 particles.171 Suzuki coupling between iodoanisole
and phenylboronic acid was monitored for these studies wherein the
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Figure 7.4
Chapter 7
(a) Schematic diagram of the recirculating reactor setup for XAS, (b)
normalized TOF data for Suzuki coupling reaction showing rate dependence on correct active sites and not on particle size.171 Reproduced
with permission from P. J. Ellis, I. J. S. Fairlamb, S. F. J. Hackett K.
Wilson and A. F. Lee, Angew. Chem., Int. Ed., 2010, 49, 18201824.
Copyright r 2010 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.
catalytic activity was expressed as turnover frequency (TOF) values. When the
reactivity of the nanocatalyst was monitored with respect to particle diameter, the TOF values decreased as the size of the nanoparticles increased as
expected; however, when the TOF values were normalized with respect to the
edge and vertex atoms on the surface of the nanoparticles, statistically
similar TOF values were obtained regardless of particle size
(Figure 7.4(b)).171 This suggests that the reactivity of Pd nanoparticles is
associated with the defect atoms on the particle surface.
As such, monitoring of the possible leached species was performed using
XAS, which can sensitively measure the average PdPd coordination number
(CN), as well as provide information concerning the particle size and
morphology. From the extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS)
intensities for simulated 1.8 nm Pd nanoparticles, a PdPd CN value of 9.46
was calculated, which is in agreement with the observed value of 9.58.171
Leached Pd species, however, were not observed as there was neither sintering nor dissolution of Pd atoms since there is no change in the CN, which
supported the stability of the nanoparticles in the reaction. HRTEM analysis
before and after the reaction also illustrated no change in the size and shape
of the nanoparticles.171 Simulation of analogous 1.8 nm particles with 48 Pd
defect atoms removed into the solution would lead to a drop of CN to 7.23;
however, this phenomenon was not observed, which indicated that there was
no solubilization and homogeneous contribution of catalytically active Pd
species.171
To further probe the system with regards to leached Pd atoms, trace
amounts of dissolved Pd(OAc)2 were added to the reaction, which was expected to enhance the catalytic activity of the particles; however, no such
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171
125
enhancement was observed. On the other hand, adding Hg as a selective

catalyst poison immediately inhibits the catalytic activity, suggesting that a
surface-based process was occurring for the PVP-Pd nanoparticles. Analysis
of the nanocatalyst using ex situ X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS)
showed a 1 : 1 ratio between surface Pd and Hg atoms indicating full coverage of the active catalytic sites.171 When the reaction was deliberately
spiked with Pd(OAc)2 atoms after addition of Hg, no additional catalytic
activity was observed. These results indicated that the catalytic activity for
PVP-Pd nanoparticles happens at the metal surface, while the additional
Pd(OAc)2 species were not catalytically reactive.
One final method was employed to study this leaching process. For this,
thiolated porous silica was used to probe the nature of the active species
wherein the sulfur-containing substrate should interact with soluble Pd
species abstracted from the nanoparticles and prevent catalysis if the leached atoms were responsible for the reaction. Using these functionalized
silica materials, the catalytic reaction of the nanocatalyst decreased; however, this was due to nanoparticle entrapment inside the pores of the silica
beads and not due to the sequestration of Pd species by thiols.171 To this
end, employing unfunctionalized silica with identical pore sizes over the
thiolated silica resulted in the same catalytic rate decrease, indicating that
the coupling reaction was inhibited by the nanocatalyst being trapped within
the porous material, as confirmed via TEM, XAS, and XPS analyses.171 Kinetic studies comparing the reactivities of PVP-Pd nanoparticles and Pd(OAc)2
showed a first-order dependence on Pd concentration for the former and
negative-order dependence on the latter, suggesting that a surface-based
catalytic reaction was at play.171 Furthermore, if the reaction was based on
the dissolved or leached Pd species, a decrease in coupling rate would be
observed as the amount of Pd loading was increased; however, the opposite
results were obtained wherein increases in initial rates were directly proportional to the increased Pd concentration. Overall, the results of these
studies oered a strong argument that the catalytic mechanism for CC
coupling catalyzed by PVP-capped Pd nanoparticles happened at the metal
surface in a heterogeneous fashion.
The studies of the reaction mechanism of Pd nanoparticles provide two
dierent theories regarding the nature of active catalytic species wherein the
reaction either proceeds exclusively in a heterogeneous or homogeneous
manner. In purely heterogeneous catalysis, the transformation reaction occurred at the surface of metal nanoparticles and, as such, changes in the
morphology, crystallinity, and size of the nanocatalyst were minimal. On the
other hand, in a homogeneous catalytic mechanism, the active species was
abstracted from the nanoparticle surface during the oxidative addition resulting in morphological and crystallinity changes, as well as Pd black formation. These theories presented conflicting explanations regarding the
catalytic mechanism of Pd nanoparticles in a CC coupling reaction. Although both of these explanations are plausible, further studies are required
to fully elucidate the catalytic reactivity of Pd nanoparticles for CC coupling.
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Understanding the actual reaction mechanism can provide valuable information for the design of new synthetic routes for the production of more
ecient nanocatalysts.
7.4 Pd Nanoparticles in the Stille Coupling Reaction

The Stille coupling process was first reported in 1978 as a reaction between
acid chlorides and organostannane reagents in the synthesis of ketones,
catalyzed by phosphine-stabilized Pd catalysts.60 Since then, various modifications to the phosphine ligands have been reported for this reaction,172174 which takes advantage of the air- and moisture-stable
nucleophilic partner to aord CC bond formation with substrates containing dierent functional groups. Typically, this transformation is performed at elevated temperatures (70120 1C), in organic solvents, and with
catalyst loadings of 41 mol% Pd, which can be reduced in situ.175 In the age
of nanotechnology, however, milder reaction conditions are employed due to
the nature of the ligand employed in material production. For example,
using dendritic materials for the synthesis of Pd nanoparticles, Stille coupling was performed in water at room temperature with only 0.10 mol% Pd as
the catalyst.86 In this system, the Crooks group used hydroxyl-terminated
fourth generation PAMAM dendrimers to encapsulate Pd nanoparticles
using a 40 : 1 molar ratio of the PdCl4 metal precursor and the dendrimer
(Figure 7.5(a)).86 Upon reduction, B40 Pd atoms were contained within the
dendrimer, producing a nanoparticle with an average size of 1.7 0.4 nm.86
These dendrimer-encapsulated Pd nanoparticles (Pd DENs) were employed
for Stille coupling between 4-iodobenzoic acid and phenyltin trichloride,
generating a new CC bond in the 4-biphenylcarboxylic acid product, as
shown in Figure 7.5(b). Quantitative yields were reported after a 15 h reaction time with constant stirring at room temperature. Aryl halides with
dierent halogen species and functional groups were also employed in the
Stille reaction using the Pd DENs with results corresponding to the expected
Figure 7.5
(a) Synthesis of dendrimer-encapsulated Pd nanoparticles, (b) Stille

coupling reaction using Pd DENs.
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reactivity of each substrate. To this end, the aryl halide substrates with
electron-withdrawing (COOH) and iodide groups were more reactive than
the corresponding bromide-substituted and phenolic substrates. TOF values
of 2000 200 mol product (mol Pd h)1 for 4-iodobenzoic acid were obtained, suggesting a highly ecient nanocatalyst.86
An interesting control reaction was performed using Pd nanoparticles
generated without the DENs to evaluate the role of the dendritic cage in
catalytic reactivity. As such, K2PdCl4 was reduced with NaBH4 in the absence
of the dendrimers, thus producing polydisperse particles that generated
a TOF value slightly lower than that of Pd DENs (1800 mol product
(mol Pd h)1).86 This result suggests that the size control provided by the
DENs enables the catalyst to have a higher surface area than the particles
without DENs to provide better catalytic reactivity.86 TEM analyses of the Pd
DENs before and after the catalytic reaction were performed, which showed a
moderate increase in particle size and dispersity from 1.7 0.4 nm to
2.7 1.1 nm.86 These results indicated partial aggregation of the Pd nanoparticles as a consequence of the catalytic reaction that was attributed to
leaching of Pd atoms during the catalytic cycle. To confirm this, the Pd DENs
were added to an identical reaction solution but without the substrates and
allowed to proceed for 24 h. TEM analyses of the nanoparticles before and
after the reaction showed statistically similar particle diameter indicating
that the catalytic reaction was responsible for an increase in nanoparticle
size.86
When the Pd DENs were employed in Stille couplings at elevated temperatures, catalyst aggregation was observed by the appearance of a black
precipitate.86 As such, product yields under these reaction conditions were
lower than the reactions at room temperature, which could arise from
dendrimer degradation. Finally, the recyclability of the Pd DENs was also
evaluated using sequential Stille coupling between two dierent substrates.86 For this, the second substrate was added after the reaction of the
initial substrate was concluded. Specifically, a reaction solution containing
4-iodophenol and phenyltin trichloride was added to the Pd DENs and
allowed to proceed for 15 h. After reaching completion, another reaction
solution containing 4-iodobenzoic acid and phenyltin trichloride was added
to the first mixture and allowed to proceed for 15 h such that in the end,
two possible products can be observed if the Pd DENs remain active. Gas
chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis of the reaction demonstrated the quantitative formation of the two anticipated products
(4-phenylphenol and 4-biphenylcarboxylic acid), indicating that the Pd DENs
were still catalytically active after the initial cycle.86 These studies showed
that Pd DENs catalyzed Stille coupling under ambient reaction conditions,
which could serve as a model for designing catalytic systems.
In a separate study, the eect that the dendrimers possessed over the
catalyst reactivity and selectivity was studied by comparing dierent precatalysts, namely: Pd DENs, Pd(OAc)2, and Pd21-PAMAM complexes.90
In Stille coupling reactions employing the same system, which Crooks
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Chapter 7
and coworkers employed at higher temperatures of 40 1C and 80 1C, results

indicated that both Pd DENs and Pd(OAc)2 have similar reactivity
with quantitative product yields after 24 h; however, the unreduced
Pd21-PAMAM complex only generated 18% product.90 Furthermore, the
DENs showed 100% selectivity for the conversion of 4-iodobenzoic acid
to 4-biphenylbenzoic acid, while Pd(OAc)2 generated both the anticipated
Stille coupling product and the undesired homocoupling biphenyl. When
using less water-soluble substrates, such as activated 4-iodoacetophenone,
almost quantitative yields were obtained using the naked precatalyst at
40 1C, while a higher temperature of 80 1C was necessary for the DENs to
generate 66% of the product with 100% selectivity. Similar trends were determined using aryl halides with dierent functional groups, indicating that
the simplest catalyst, Pd(OAc)2, is the fastest system, but it was not selective
for generating CC bonds.90 When the same precatalysts were used in recycling experiments, the materials were inactive after the initial catalytic
cycle; however, the DENs were able to complete several reaction cycles with
slightly diminished reactivity after multiple reactions.90 TEM images taken
after the fourth catalytic cycle showed an increase in the Pd nanoparticle size
from 1.6 0.3 nm to 2.3 0.6 nm as a result of the reaction.90 These indicated that the dendrimer was able to retain most of the Pd species to prevent
bulk Pd black formation, but that migration of Pd materials between the
dendrimers occurred.
In contrast with the aqueous-based Pd DENs, organic solvents have also
been used in the preparation of dendrimer-stabilized Pd nanoparticles. The
structural dierence between DENs and dendrimer-stabilized materials is
that DENs encapsulate the nanoparticle within the void space of the polymer, while dendrimer-stabilized materials bind multiple dendrimers to the
particle surface to impart material stability. This system was prepared by codissolving phosphine-oxide dendrimers and a metal precursor, Pd(acac)2, in
THF at room temperature as shown in Figure 7.6(a).93 The resulting complex
was then reduced by H2 at 60 1C overnight producing a black solution of
GnDenP-Pd (n 13) with sizes of 5.0 0.4 nm, 4.6 0.5 nm and 3.2 0.5 nm
for G1DenP-Pd, G2DenP-Pd and G3DenP-Pd nanoparticles, respectively.93
The dendritic-phosphine-based Pd nanoparticles were then used for Stille
coupling using methyl-4-bromobenzoate and tributyl(phenyl)stannane
(Figure 7.6(b)) with 1.5 mol% nanocatalyst at 40 1C and DMFwater as the
solvent.93 Excellent yields of 98% after 5.0 h were reported for this model
reaction, while 7898% yields were obtained for an array of aryl bromides
containing electron-donating and withdrawing substituents and heteroatomcontaining substrates.93 Reactivity over such a wide variety of reagents signifies the versatility of the GnDenP-Pd system for practical applications in
organic synthesis. Furthermore, when the Stille reaction using aryl chlorides
was used at 110 1C, formation of products was observed with excellent yields
ranging from 7895%.93 This was quite remarkable as aryl chlorides are
dicult to get to participate in CC couplings. This suggests that the
GnDenP-Pd system presents a robust, highly ecient nanocatalyst with
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Figure 7.6
129
(a) Scheme for the synthesis of GnDenP-Pd nanoparticles and (b) their
use in the Stille coupling reaction between methyl-4-bromobenzoate
and tributyl(phenyl)stannane.93
industrial and pharmaceutical applications for organic and materials

synthesis.
As a complement to the dendrimer-based systems, an aqueous-based
synthesis of Pd nanoparticle catalysts has also been accomplished using
polymer ligands such as polyethylene glycol (PEG). In this process, K2PdCl4
interacted with the PEG, which was reduced by drop wise addition of a
Fisher carbene complex, generating 710 nm spherical Pd nanoparticles.97
For these materials, the Stille coupling between an aryl bromide and phenyltributylstannane was performed in an aqueous solution of K2CO3 at 80 1C
for 23 h. Product yields of Z88% were obtained using dierent aryl bromide
substrates with varying functional groups, indicating applicability in a wide
array of reagents.
Imidazolium-based ionic polymers have also been used to stabilize Pd
nanoparticles as a functionalized ionic liquid, producing 5.0 nm particles
after NaBH4 reduction.135 The Pd nanocatalyst (Pd-IP-IL) was used in
coupling reactions between dierent aryl halides and an organostannane
reagent at 80 1C, producing quantitative yields for aryl iodides with a variety
of functional groups. The recyclability of the Pd-IP-IL nanoparticles was established wherein no loss of activity was reported after five reaction cycles.
This indicated that the catalyst was stable at elevated temperatures and is
potentially viable for industrial use. Amine-rich ionic liquids, tetrabutylammonium bromide and tetrabutylammonium acetate, were also employed for the preparation of monodisperse, coreshell Pd nanoparticles
composed of a 3.3 nm metallic core and stabilized by tetrabutylammonium
cations, Br, and [PdBr4]2.134 These nanoparticles were used for Stille
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coupling using bromo- and chloro-arenes with tetrabutylphenylstannane.

The starting materials were reacted in tetraheptylammonium bromide at
elevated temperatures between 90130 1C.134 High product yields were
generated from aryl bromides and activated aryl chlorides at 90 1C, while
higher temperatures of up to 130 1C were needed to generate modest yields
for deactivated electron-rich aryl chlorides. Recycling experiments were
performed after the initial catalytic cycle by first extracting the Pd nanoparticles with cyclohexane and the resulting viscous mixture was added with
fresh starting materials.134 The nanocatalyst was recycled five times with
minimal loss of activity, suggesting a practical, easily recoverable and reusable catalyst, which were the main advantages of ionic liquid based Pd
nanoparticles.
Another ligand system employed for nanocatalyst synthesis is Pd-substituted
Keggin-type
polyoxometallates.
The
precursor
species,
K5[PdPW11O39] 12H2O, was reacted with acetophenone at 200 1C for 4 h
with an applied H2 pressure of 30 bar, which produced a blue-black solid.176
Due to the polymers high anionic charge, the polymer-capped Pd nanoparticles were electrostatically stabilized, forming spherical clusters of B15
20 nm in size. The Stille reaction between 4-bromotoluene and tetraphenyltin was performed using these materials in a 50 : 50 DMFH2O mixture at 110 1C for 12.0 h.176 Under these conditions, the reaction generated a
nearly quantitative yield of 93% for the 4-methylbiphenyl product. Similarly,
coupling between 1-chloro-4-nitrobenzene and tetraphenyltin produced 92%
4-nitrobiphenyl under similar conditions. Together, this suggests that these
materials are highly reactive catalysts due to their reactivity with chlorobased reagents.
More recently, biological molecules have been employed for the synthesis
of solvent-dispersible nanocatalysts due to their ability to interact and
bind with target materials. The bioticabiotic interaction displayed by the
biological molecules and inorganic substrates was also observed in
the silan proteins that precipitate silica in the cell walls of diatoms. The
ger group isolated and identified the R5 peptide from the diatom
Kro
Cylindrotheca fusiformis bearing multiple basic residues (sequence SSKKS
GSYSGSKGSKRRIL).177,178 This peptide self-assembles due to the hydrophobic RRIL motif to form a bioscaold that can interact and stabilize metal
nanomaterials as illustrated in Figure 7.7(a).87 In this regard, peptide-templated Pd nanostructures were synthesized by co-dissolving Pd21 with the
R5, followed by addition of NaBH4 as the reducing agent.87 Several Pd
peptide ratios were prepared, resulting in the generation of dierently
shaped materials, as shown in the TEM images of Figure 7.7.87 Using a 60 : 1
Pdpeptide ratio (Pd60), nearly monodisperse and spherical nanoparticles
were formed with an average diameter of 2.9 0.6 nm (Figure 7.7(b)).87 For a
90 : 1 ratio (Pd90), linear nanoribbons were observed with a width of
3.9 0.8 nm (Figure 7.7(c)), while nanoparticle networks (NPNs) were generated at a 120 : 1 ratio (Pd120) with an average width of 4.1 1.2 nm
(Figure 7.7(d)).87
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Figure 7.7
131
(a) Schematic representation of the R5-templated synthesis of Pd NPNs,

and TEM images of Pd materials produced using dierent Pdpeptide
ratios: (b) Pd60, (c) Pd90, and (d) Pd120.87 A. Jakhmola, R. Bhandari,
D. B. Pacardo and M. R. Knecht, J. Mater. Chem., 2010, 20, 15221531.
Reproduced by permission of The Royal Society of Chemistry.
The catalytic activity of these nanocatalysts was initially tested using the
Stille coupling reaction between 4-iodobenzoic acid and phenyltin trichloride. Quantitative yields were observed after 24 h for reactions using low
catalyst amounts (Z0.01 mol% Pd for all Pdpeptide ratios), suggesting
that these materials were highly ecient under ambient conditions.87 TOF
analysis of the dierent peptide-templated structures generated modest
values of B450 mol product (mol Pdh)1 for both Pd60 and Pd120, while a
value of B350 mol product (mol Pdh)1 was obtained for Pd90.87 Although
these TOF values are lower than those reported by Crooks and colleagues86
using the same reaction, it is worth noting that for the R5-templated Pd
nanoparticles, lower catalyst amounts were required to generate quantitative
product yields.
Employing biological molecules as tools for the biomimetic synthesis of
metal nanoparticles could generate a model system for green nanocatalysis.
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Chapter 7
As shown in the R5-templated Pd nanoparticles, highly active nanocatalysts

with dierent morphologies can be generated by exploiting the scaold-like
nature of the biomolecules; however, there are limited numbers of naturallyoccurring biomolecules with anity for inorganic substrates. Furthermore,
biological molecules exhibit unspecific interactions with dierent metal ions
as exemplified by the R5 template, which showed templating/stabilizing
ability in the synthesis of SiO2,179 TiO2,180 Pd,37,87 and Au181 nanomaterials.
To overcome these limitations, bioselection techniques such as phage display182 have been employed to generate a library of biomolecules having
strong and specific interactions to a metal surface. In phage display, a
combinatorial library of B109 peptides are expressed as fusion proteins with
the viral minor coat protein.182 As such, the nearly random peptide sequences were exposed on the outer phage surface enabling their interaction
with a target metal surface. After a series of steps to remove non-specific and
weakly bound species, peptide sequences with great anity for the target
can be isolated. To this end, a 12-mer peptide termed Pd4 (TSNAVHPTLRHL)
has been identified through phage display to bind strongly to Pd metal.88
Computational studies indicate that the histidine residues at positions 6 and
11 have the strongest interaction with Pd to anchor the biomolecule to the
surface, generating a kinked conformation.183 As a result of this structure,
particle stability can be achieved, which provides substrate access to the
active metal.
Pd4 peptide-capped Pd nanoparticles were synthesized by chemical reduction of the Pd4-Pd21 complex using NaBH4 to generate 1.9 0.3 nm
spherical nanoparticles.88 The catalytic reactivity of the nanocatalyst was
quantitated using the coupling reaction between select aryl halides and
phenyltin trichloride in an aqueous solvent at room temperature, using low
catalyst loadings. From the reaction employing 4-iodobenzoic acid as the
aryl halide substrate, quantitative amounts of the 4-biphenylcarboxylic acid
product were generated after 24 h using Z0.005 mol% Pd,88 similar to the
results generated by the R5-Pd nanoparticles.87 For the catalyst eciency
analysis, however, TOF values of B2400 mol product (mol Pdh)1 were
observed using the Pd4-capped Pd nanocatalysts, indicating more ecient
reactivity.88
Further studies of the peptide-capped Pd nanoparticles for Stille coupling
indicated its reactivity with aryl iodides containing electron-donating and
electron-withdrawing groups. As expected, slower reactivity was observed for
aryl bromides and no reaction was obtained using aryl chlorides.88 Interestingly, when the reaction was performed with a mild temperature increase
to 40 1C, conversion of the aryl bromide substrate reached B75 % after 24 h,
suggesting that minor thermal activation may be required to initiate coupling using aryl bromides.184 As such, the reactivity of the peptide-capped Pd
nanoparticles was expanded to elevated temperatures up to 60 1C, after
which a further increase in temperature resulted in decreased catalytic efficiency due to the formation of Pd black.184 In this reaction, the aryl halide
substrate was anticipated to interact with the nanoparticles during oxidative
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addition and abstract the active metal from the particle surface, from which
the catalytic cycle was completed, indicating an atom-leaching mechanism.
After reductive elimination when the product was released, the free, highly
active Pd0 generated in solution could proceed along three dierent paths, as
illustrated in Figure 7.8(a): (1) reused catalytically until all starting materials
are consumed, (2) quenched by the remaining nanoparticles, or (3) aggregated with other leached Pd atoms to generate Pd black.184 To probe this
catalytic mechanism, TOF analyses using dierent Pd loadings were performed. Based on the results shown in Figure 7.8(b), the TOF values are
constant at B2400 mol product (mol Pdh)1 when using r0.05 mol% Pd;
however, higher Pd loadings generated a decreasing trend in TOF values.184
This indicates decreased catalyst eciency due to the formation of catalytically-inactive Pd black at the higher reaction concentrations.
The fate of the Pd0 atoms after the individual Stille catalytic cycle was
explored using competition experiments containing combinations of two
dierent aryl halides in a single Stille reaction. For this, 4-iodobenzoic acid
and 4-bromobenzoic acid were co-dissolved in water and added with phenyltin trichloride and the peptide-capped Pd nanoparticles at room temperature.185 The results indicated that only the aryl iodide substrate reacts at
room temperature even though the highly reactive Pd0 atoms were present in
solution after the initial cycle. When the reaction temperature was increased
to 40 1C, consumption of the aryl bromide was observed along with an increase in the amount of product generated. Furthermore, when the same
bicomponent reaction was heated to 60 1C after the addition of nanocatalyst
(i.e. no substrate conversion had begun), coupling for both iodo- and bromosubstrates was observed, demonstrating a loss of catalyst selectivity.185 These
results suggest that substrate selectivity can be thermally controlled at rather
lower temperatures wherein the iodo-components reacted at room temperature while the bromo-component required thermal activation to
Figure 7.8
(a) Scheme demonstrating the atom-leaching mechanism for peptidecapped Pd nanoparticles and (b) TOF analysis for Stille coupling using
dierent Pd loadings.184 D. B. Pacardo, J. M. Slocik, K. C. Kirk, R. R.
Naik and M. R. Knecht, Nanoscale, 2011, 3, 21942201.
Reproduced by permission of The Royal Society of Chemistry.
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proceed. Unfortunately, no reactivity was observed for comparable chlorohalides. Similar degrees of selectivity were observed for Stille coupling using
aryl dihalides; however, the attachment of electron-donating or withdrawing
groups modulated the catalyst selectivity.185
7.5 Pd Nanoparticles in the Suzuki Coupling

Reaction
The Suzuki reaction was first reported in 1979 where the cross-coupling of
alkenylboranes with aryl halides was performed using a phosphine-stabilized Pd catalyst in the presence of a base.64 This provided a new synthetic
strategy to produce stereoselective arylated alkene products from dierent
aryl halides with activated alkenylboranes as the nucleophilic partner. The
main advantages of this coupling reaction are the ability to tolerate dierent
functional groups attached to the aryl ring, as well as the relatively low
toxicity of the boron reagent.64 In this reaction, the presence of a base is
important as it converts the boronate species into its active form for transmetalation to occur; absence of the base results in no product formation.64
In a separate paper, Suzuki and coworkers reported the coupling of alkenylboranes with alkenyl halides in the presence of a base and a catalytic
amount of tetrakis(triphenylphosphine) Pd to produce decent yields of
conjugated dienes and enynes with high regio- and stereoselectivity.63 From
these simple borane compounds, the application of the Suzuki reaction was
expanded to dierent organoboranes such as boronic acids, boronate ester,
and arylboranes, providing a wide array of applications in organic synthesis.
The application of Pd nanoparticles for Suzuki coupling was first introduced by the Reetz group.186 For this, tetrabutylammonium (R4N1)- or (PVP)stabilized Pd nanocatalysts were employed for the reaction between aryl
bromides and aryl chlorides with phenylboronic acid producing biaryl
products. The R4N1 Pd clusters of 23 nm were initially employed for the
Suzuki coupling reaction between bromobenzene and phenylboronic acid in
DMF at 100 1C for 3.5 h.186 The results of these studies demonstrated 100%
conversion of the starting material based on GC and thin layer chromatography (TLC) analyses with a 53% isolated yield for the product. Similar
conversion capabilities were obtained from the same reaction using PVPstabilized Pd materials, although significantly lower isolated yields were
achieved.
In separate work, PVP-stabilized Pd nanoparticles were synthesized by ElSayed and coworkers for applications in Suzuki coupling reactions in
aqueous solution.96 The TEM analysis displayed the formation of B3.6 nm
Pd nanoparticles after heating a solution of H2PdCl4 and PVP in 40% EtOH
for 3.0 h. Cross-coupling reactions between aryl iodides and arylboronic
acids were performed in 40% EtOH and in the presence of Na3PO4 as
the base under reflux conditions for 12 h using a lower catalyst loading of
0.3 mol% Pd.96 In the reaction involving iodobenzene and phenylboronic
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acid, 95% yield of the biphenyl product was generated. On the other hand,
using sulfur-containing starting materials such as 2-iodothiophene or
2-thiopheneboronic acid, resulted in decreased product yields ranging from
26% to 92%. The decrease in product yield can be attributed to poisoning
of the nanocatalyst by the thiol groups in the reactants. Although these
reactions showed decent product yields for most of the substrates used,
precipitation of Pd black was noted during the reaction, which was attributed to the high reaction temperatures. In another experiment, the initial
rate of the coupling reaction between phenylboronic acid and iodobenzene
in acetonitrilewater solvent was determined.96 The results indicated that
the reaction rate was directly proportional to the concentration of PVP-Pd
nanocatalyst, from which the authors suggested that CC bond formation
occurred at the catalyst surface. While the PVP-Pd nanoparticles were
eective Suzuki coupling catalysts, the formation of Pd black decreased the
overall eciency of the catalyst.
Another polymer ligand used for the synthesis of Pd nanoparticles is the
block copolymer polystyrene-b-poly(sodium acrylate) (PS-b-PANa).187 The
polymer structure was composed of a hydrophobic polystyrene component
and a hydrophilic poly(sodium acrylate) component. This amphiphilic
polymer generates a micellar structure in solution that provides steric stabilization of nanoparticles. The block copolymer-stabilized Pd nanoparticles
were synthesized by refluxing PS-b-PANa with H2PdCl4 in EtOH, producing a
clear dark brown solution containing 3.0 0.7 nm particles based upon TEM
analysis.187 Suzuki coupling reactions between 2-thiopheneboronic acid and
iodobenzene were performed using a 0.6 mol% Pd catalyst loading with NEt3
or NaOAc as the base, generating yields of 85% or 88%, respectively after
12.0 h under reflux. Incidentally, the base influenced the stability of the Pd
nanoparticles; NEt3 provided additional nanoparticle stabilization, while
NaOAc resulted in particle precipitation. As such, NEt3 was used as a base in
subsequent Suzuki couplings between phenylboronic acid and bromothiophene using 3 : 1 acetonitrilewater as the solvent. In this reaction, competitive formation of the product (2-phenylthiophene) and homocoupling
product (bithiophene) was observed, generating similar yields of 16% with
no precipitation of Pd black.187 In contrast, when PVP-Pd nanoparticles were
employed for a similar reaction between bromothiophene and phenylboronic acid, only homocoupling products were generated; however,
comparing the catalyst stability as a function of ligands, the PS-b-PANabased nanoparticles were more stable than the PVP at these conditions as Pd
black was not produced in the reaction.187
PEG-stabilized Pd nanoparticles have also been employed for Suzuki
coupling reactions in an aqueous medium between aryl halides and phenylboronic acid using K2CO3 as the base.97 Initially, the reaction between
p-bromoacetophenone and phenylboronic acid in a 1 : 5 dimethoxyethane
(DME)water solvent at room temperature generated the expected product
with 95% isolated yield after 3.0 h. Subsequent reactions were performed
in pure water using aryl halides with dierent electron-donating and
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electron-withdrawing groups, producing excellent yields within 2.0 h of

reaction.97 For instance, near quantitative yields were obtained for aryl
iodides within 0.5 h of reaction at room temperature, indicating a superior
catalytic reactivity for the nanocatalyst. On the other hand, higher temperatures were required for conversion of sterically hindered aryl bromides,
while aryl chlorides were unreactive. Recycling of the catalyst was studied
using the aqueous extract retained from product purification. Unfortunately,
significant loss of catalytic activity was recorded from these systems with
decreased yields from 90% to 40%.97 This was attributed to metal leaching
or incomplete extraction of the nanocatalyst.
Imidazolium-based ionic polymer-stabilized Pd nanoparticles in the
functionalized Pd-IP-IL described earlier were also used in Suzuki coupling
at 100 1C.135 Aryl iodides, containing electron-donating or electronwithdrawing groups, were reacted with phenylboronic acid generating coupled products from 82% up to 499% using a 1.0 mol% Pd loading. As expected, lower yields were observed for substituted aryl bromides using
similar reaction conditions, ranging from 6% to 99%. On the other hand,
when iodobenzene and bromobenzene were used, 90% and 55% yields were
produced after 6 h of reaction. Consequently, when the reaction was performed in water at 35 1C using aryl benzoic acids, the amount of Pd nanocatalyst required was reduced from 1.0 mol% to 0.5 mol%. Interestingly, the
yields of the expected products for the aqueous-based reactions were similar
to the yields of reactions in ionic liquids such that 499% yield was generated
for iodobenzoic acid and 57% yield for bromobenzoic acid. This suggests
that the solvent played only a minor role in controlling the reactivity.
Seed-mediated nanoparticle synthesis methods in the ionic liquids were
also used to prepare larger diameter (B1020 nm) Pd nanoparticles (termed
Pd-IP-IL-2).135 These materials were then employed for Suzuki coupling between aryl iodides and phenylboronic acid wherein almost quantitative
yields were obtained, similar to the yields noted for the initial Pd-IP-IL
nanocatalysts. As expected, significantly lower yields were obtained when
aryl bromides were employed as the substrate instead of the iodo-derivatives.
TEM analysis of the nanocatalyst after the coupling reaction revealed that
the particle size decreased to B5.0 nm, suggesting that the reaction was
driven via the catalytic leaching mechanism.
A unique polymer-stabilized Pd nanocatalyst was prepared using polyaniline nanofibers (PANI), shown in Figure 7.9(a), that function as both
the reducing agent and particle support.188 The synthesis was accomplished
by incubating the metal precursor (Pd(NO3)2) with an aqueous dispersion of
PANI nanofibers for one day. This reaction results in the formation of polycrystalline particles (Figure 7.9(b)) with a bimodal size distribution with two
populations centered at B2 nm and B75 nm. Once fully characterized, the
Pd-PANI nanocatalyst system was then used for the coupling of aryl chlorides
and phenylboronic acid with NaOH as the base in water at 80100 1C for 26 h.
Using a highly activated substrate, 4-chlorobenzaldehyde, almost quantitative
yields were obtained in the Suzuki reaction with phenylboronic acid. On the
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Figure 7.9
137
(a) SEM image of PANI nanofibers, TEM images of Pd-PANI nanoparticles (b) before the reaction, (c) halfway through the reaction, and
(d) after two reaction cycles. (e) Suzuki coupling reaction between
1,4-difluorobenzene and phenylboronic acid using Pd-PANI nanoparticles.188
Reproduced with permission from B. J. Gallon, R. W. Kojima, R. B.
Kaner and P. L. Diaconescu, Angew. Chem., Int. Ed., 2007, 46, 7251
7254. Copyright r 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA,
Weinheim.
other hand, when a deactivated substrate, such as 4-chlorophenol, was used

for the reaction, a significant yield of 88% was generated. Hetero-substituted
substrates, such as pyridyl chloride, also generated yields of 89% and 96% of
the expected coupling products from 4-chloropyridine and 2,6-dichloropyridine substrates, respectively. The eect of changing the boronic acid substituent was also explored using the Pd-PANI nanoparticles such that when
activated 3,5-di(trifluoromethyl)phenylboronic acid was used, a 92% yield was
generated, while using 2,4-dimethoxyphenylboronic acid only produced a
70% product yield.188 Taken together, these results indicate that this approach
generated a highly reactive nanocatalyst, as aryl chlorides do not usually
undergo coupling reactions under such mild conditions.
To further test the reactivity of the Pd-PANI nanoparticles, 1,4-difluorobenzene was used as a substrate for coupling with phenylboronic acid as
illustrated in Figure 7.9(e). As expected, the Suzuki reactions using the
fluoro-substituted substrates were much slower compared with the aryl
chlorides due to the stronger CF bond. Remarkably, after 24 h at 100 1C,
60% product yield was obtained, whereas when fluorobenzene and phenylboronic acid were used for the coupling reaction, 80% yield of the
biphenyl product was generated.188 Finally, recycling of the nanoparticles
was also accomplished, as studied using the coupling of 4-acetylphenyl
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chloride and phenylboronic acid. For this, minimal loss of activity was observed after ten reaction cycles, generating Z89% product yields with no
noted catalyst aggregation as observed in the TEM analysis of the particles
after two reaction cycles.188 The decreased product yield was attributed to
the degradation of the nanofiber support after several catalytic cycles.
While synthetic PANI was an excellent support for the catalytic nanoparticles, biologically derived nanofibers, such as bacterial cellulose (BC),
can also be used.189 BC was produced by fermentation of Acetobacter xylinum
with glucose as the carbon source. The three-dimensional nanofibers
interacted with metal ions to serve as a support for nanoparticle production.
The one-pot synthesis involved mixing of metal precursors with BC nanofibers under an N2 atmosphere at 140 1C.189 Once complete, NaBH4 was
added, producing polydispersed, B20 nm Pd nanoparticles deposited on the
nanofibers (termed Pd-BC). Initial catalytic analysis of the materials was
performed using the coupling of iodobenzene and phenylboronic acid,
generating almost quantitative yields of 98% after 3.5 h at 85 1C. Recycling
experiments using the same reactants showed no loss of activity after two
reaction cycles with no visible Pd aggregation as observed by TEM; however,
similar to the Pd-PANI nanoparticles, a decline in the quality of the nanofiber support was observed after extended recycling runs that resulted in
lower product yields.189
Suzuki reactions using aryl iodide and substituted phenylboronic acids
were also studied with the Pd-BC nanocatalyst, which generated excellent
yields between 8899% of the expected coupling products depending
on the substituent attached on the nucleophile.189 To this end, when
3-methoxyphenylboronic acid was used in the reaction with iodobenzene, a
99% yield was obtained, whereas using 4-cyanophenylbenzoic acid generated a yield of only 88%. Recycling experiments were again performed for
the Pd-BC nanoparticles using the substituted nucleophiles wherein product yields 486% were obtained after five catalytic cycles. To further explore
the reactivity of Pd-BC nanoparticles, the least reactive substrate, aryl
chloride, was employed for Suzuki coupling with dierent substituted
phenylboronic acids. Surprisingly, product yields between 7592% were
recorded, indicating that an extremely ecient nanocatalyst was developed.189 Finally, leaching of the active catalyst was also studied using
inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES) analysis wherein the amount of Pd species before and after the five reaction
cycles was quantitated. The results showed that the Pd concentration before
the reaction was 5.29% and 5.26% after the reaction, indicating a negligible
amount of Pd was leached during the reaction.189 As such, the results of
elemental analysis suggested that the BC nanofibers are good protecting
ligands for the nanoparticles.
The Pd-substituted Keggin-type polyoxometallate-based nanoparticles,
described earlier, were also used for the Suzuki reaction.176 For this, aryl
bromides and phenylboronic acid were reacted in an EtOHwater solvent
with diisopropylamine as the base. Nearly quantitative yields of the expected
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biaryl coupling products were obtained for a variety of aryl bromide

substrates in the reactions, which were heated to temperatures between
8085 1C. For example, the coupling reaction between 1-bromo-4-nitrobenzene and phenylboronic acid generated 499% yield of 4-phenylnitrobenzene product, while using 4-bromotoluene gave an 89% yield of
4-phenyltoluene, revealing the eects of electron-withdrawing and electrondonating groups on substrate reactivity.176 On the other hand, when
1-chloro-4-nitrobenzene was employed as the starting material under similar
reaction conditions, a 98% product yield was generated, demonstrating the
reactivity of the materials toward dicult to use substrates.
The eects of dierent stabilizers on the reactivity of Pd nanoparticles for
the Suzuki reaction were also investigated using hydroxyl-terminated
PAMAM dendrimers.187 The preparation of dendrimer-encapsulated Pd
nanoparticles was similar to the process described by Crooks and coworkers,
albeit with some modifications.187 To this end, the hydroxyl-terminated
PAMAM-dendrimer solution was added with an appropriate amount of
K2PdCl4; prior to reduction, the pH of the solution was adjusted to 4.0 using
HCl to ensure the coordination of Pd21 ions with the interior tertiary amines
of the polymer. Upon reduction using NaBH4, 1.4 nm particles were formed
using third (G3-OH(Pd)) and fourth generation (G4-OH(Pd)) hydroxylterminated dendrimers, while bigger nanoparticles (3.6 nm) were formed
from second generation dendrimers (G2-OH(Pd)). The Pd nanoparticles were
then employed in the Suzuki coupling of phenylboronic acid (or 2-thiopheneboronic acid) and iodobenzene in 40% EtOH under reflux for 24.0 h. The
results demonstrated that the G4-OH(Pd) nanoparticles were less ecient,
generating r35% of the expected products, compared with the G3-OH(Pd)
and G2-OH(Pd) nanoparticles, which produced Z69% yields. Interestingly,
precipitation of inactive Pd black was generated during the reaction when
using G3-OH(Pd) and G2-OH(Pd) nanoparticles; however, no such catalyst
aggregation was observed for the G4-OH(Pd) nanoparticles catalytic reaction. These results suggested that a trade o between catalyst stability and
eciency existed, wherein the fourth generation nanoparticles were more
stable with limited substrate access to the metal surface; however, for the
lower generation structures, higher catalytic eciency and diminished stability was noted.187 Among these materials, the third generation dendrimer
provided the optimal mix of material stability and catalytic eciency, although Pd black formation was observed when using 2-thiopheneboronic
acid as the substrate. This eect is possibly due to Pd leaching during the
reaction or through the thiol moiety of the substrate coordinating to the
metallic material.
In another study of the hydroxyl-terminated dendrimer materials, Christensen and colleagues prepared the same dendrimer-based Pd nanoparticles using fourth generation dendrimers, where particles of B3 nm were
generated.190 These structures were then employed for the coupling of
iodobenzene and p-tolylboronic acid at 78 1C using EtOH as the solvent.
From this study, product yields of 98% were determined, thus a more
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ecient catalytic system was obtained using the nearly identical dendrimerbased materials, which may arise from the dierent reagents employed.
Interestingly, no precipitation of Pd black was noted during the reaction.
Aryl bromides were also studied using this system; however, they were not as
reactive as the iodo-based substrates, requiring higher temperatures and
longer reaction times. Aryl chlorides were also shown to be completely unreactive.190 Finally, the recyclability of the nanocatalyst was studied using
the coupling of ethyl-4-iodobenzoate and p-tolylboronic acid wherein formation of Pd black during the subsequent reactions was observed resulting
in decreased product yield, from 99% to 80%, after the third reaction
cycle.190
The Astruc group has developed a unique dendrimer-stabilized Pd nanoparticle system using 1,2,3-triazolylsulfonate dendrimers, synthesized
through click chemistry.191 In this system, Pd21 was introduced to the triazole ligands producing two absorption bands in the UV-vis spectrum at 208
and 235 nm. Upon addition of NaBH4, Pd nanoparticles of B23 nm in
diameter were generated using three dierent dendrimer generations
(Pd-DSN-G0, Pd-DSN-G1, Pd-DSN-G2).191 TEM analysis showed that the
nanoparticles sizes were larger than the size of the ligands, thus leading to a
large degree of polydispersity from the materials as the generation of the
dendrimers increases. Room temperature Suzuki coupling reactions between iodobenzene and phenylboronic acid in a waterethanol solvent were
used to examine the reactivity of the dendrimer-stabilized materials. Using a
0.1 mol% Pd loading, product yields of 96%, 95%, and 70% were obtained
using Pd-DSN-G0, Pd-DSN-G1 and Pd-DSN-G2, respectively, suggestive of a
decrease in catalytic eciency with respect to increasing dendrimer generation.191 Similar trends were observed when lower Pd loadings (0.01 mol%)
were used in the reaction. TOF analysis employing the Pd-DSNs indicated
that there was no significant dierence in the values based upon dendrimer
generation; however, significantly higher TOFs of 11671533 mol PhI
(mol Pdh)1 were obtained for the reaction employing 0.01 mol% Pd, while
TOF values of 117167 mol PhI (mol Pdh)1 were generated when using
0.1 mol% Pd, demonstrating an eect based upon the Pd loading.191 From
these results, the catalytic mechanism of Pd-DSNs was suggested to follow
an atom-leaching process wherein the TOF values of the reaction decrease as
the amount of Pd loading increases. Quantitative yields were also obtained
in the coupling reaction using bromobenzene, but the reaction needed to be
heated to 100 1C.191
The phosphine-based dendrimers, GnDenP-Pd, whose synthesis was discussed earlier, have also been used for Suzuki coupling.93 The reaction between bromobenzene and phenylboronic acid was initially tested with
dierent bases such as NEt3, NaOAc, K2CO3, and K3PO4 to optimize the reaction conditions. As such, K3PO4 was determined to be the best base for the
Suzuki reaction using GnDenP-Pd in dioxane as the solvent under refluxing
conditions. Aryl iodides and aryl bromides with electron-withdrawing or
electron-donating groups were reacted with dierent phenylboronic acids,
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which generated nearly quantitative yields (Z94%) of the expected coupling

products using G2DenP-Pd nanoparticles; however, when the reaction was
performed using electron-deficient arylboronic acids, slightly lower yields
of 88% to 92% were obtained.93 Interestingly, sterically hindered orthosubstituted aryl halides generated excellent product yields between 8699%.
Expanding the scope of GnDenP-Pd catalytic activity to coupling reactions
between dierent aryl chlorides and phenylboronic acid using G3DenP-Pd
nanoparticles resulted in good to excellent yields (8194%) even with deactivated or ortho-substituted substrates.93 Using heteroaryl bromides and
chlorides as substrates in Suzuki coupling also generated excellent yields
using G3DenP-Pd nanoparticles, such as those shown in the coupling between pyridine-derived aryl bromide and phenylboronic acid to generate a
phenylpyridine product. Interestingly, even pyridine-derived aryl chloride
produces the expected product with an 82% yield.93
The recyclability of the G3DenP-Pd nanoparticles was also explored using
0.2 mol% of the catalyst in a model reaction between 4-hydroxyphenyl iodide
and phenylboronic acid.93 Using these materials, no loss of activity was
observed during the first four cycles. Lower reaction yields were recorded
after the fifth run (79% yield), but when the subsequent cycles were allowed
to proceed at longer reaction times (from 20 h to 48 h), excellent product
yields (94%) were generated for three cycles before decreased activity was
observed, generating only a 75% yield after the ninth cycle. Furthermore,
only a very small amount of Pd was leached during the recycling activity, as
measured by inductively coupled plasma X-ray fluorescence (ICP-XRF);
however, TEM analysis of the nanoparticles after nine runs showed an increased particle size with irregular shape, which was suggestive of particle
aggregation.
The role of GnDenP-Pd nanoparticles in the coupling reaction was
further probed by using a bulky dendritic aryl bromide substrate and
4-acetophenylboronic acid (Figure 7.10) to determine the catalytic mechanism.93 The bulky substrate was anticipated to ascertain if the catalytic
reaction occurred on the metal surface inside the dendritic cage or through
potentially leached Pd species. To this end, the formation of the coupling
product will be minimized if the reaction mainly occurs on the nanoparticles surface. On the other hand, Suzuki coupling between the dendritic
aryl halide and phenylboronic acid will proceed smoothly if the reaction
follows the atom-leaching mechanism. Interestingly, the results generated
96% yield of the coupling product, suggesting that the Suzuki reaction could
not occur completely inside the dendritic box due to the bulky aryl substituent.93 As such, the catalytically active Pd atom species must be leached
from the G3DenP-Pd nanoparticles during the reaction, resulting in near
quantitative yields for the dendritic aryl halide substrate. To validate the
results, a homogeneous catalytic complex, Pd(PPh3)4, was employed to drive
a control analysis using the same bulky aryl halide and phenylboronic acid
under similar reaction conditions. The results from this study provided a
79% yield of the expected product, which was lower than the yield for
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Figure 7.10
Suzuki coupling reaction using dendritic bromobenzene and 4-acetylphenylboronic acid.93
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Figure 7.11
143
Perthiolated cyclodextrin-capped Pd nanoparticles used in the Suzuki

coupling reaction between iodoferrocene and phenylboronic acid.98
G3DenP-Pd nanoparticles.93 These results suggested that the catalytic

mechanism for G3DenP-Pd nanoparticles was similar to the homogeneous
catalyst although the former was much more ecient than the latter.
In a dierent synthetic approach, Pd nanoparticles were generated using
perthiolated cyclodextrin (b-SH-CD) as surface passivants, where the materials were reactive for Suzuki coupling (Figure 7.11).98 In this process, the
metal precursor was added to a solution containing NaBH4 and b-SH-CD in
DMF, which resulted in the formation of 3.5 nm CD-capped Pd nanoparticles. The Suzuki coupling between aryl halides and arylboronic acid in a
1 : 1 (v/v) acetonitrilewater solvent were performed using the Pd nanoparticles under reflux for 2 h. Nearly quantitative yields were obtained
for aryl iodides with dierent functional groups and, as expected, lower
yields were obtained from aryl bromides even after longer reaction times.98
TOF analysis demonstrated values ranging from 7.8 to 48 mol product
(mol Pdh)1. These decreased values were likely due to the covalently
bound CD ligands, which covered B50% of the active surface, thus making
it inaccessible for substrate interaction.98
Another unique Suzuki reaction using these materials was performed
using iodoferrocene, which can interact to form stable inclusion complexes
with the surface-bound CD, as illustrated in Figure 7.11.98 In the presence of
Ba(OH)2 as the base under an N2 atmosphere, the coupling reaction between
iodoferrocene and phenylboronic acid was performed using 1 mol% CDcapped Pd nanoparticles, generating a 70% isolated product yield of the
product, phenylferrocene.98 The attachment of the iodoferrocene to the CD
receptor on the nanoparticle surface trapped the substrate at the active
metal site, thus generating high product yields. In this regard, a control
reaction was performed wherein ferrocene was added to the system to
compete with iodoferrocene for available CD receptors, resulting in a much
lower product yield. This nanoparticle system employed CD receptors as
both a nanoparticle stabilizer and as a reagent gatekeeper wherein the
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specific binding between the receptor and substrates controlled the reactivity, leading to high degrees of specificity.
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7.6 Pd Nanoparticles in the Heck Coupling Reaction

Development of Pd nanoparticles for Heck coupling was pioneered by Reetz
and coworkers wherein they used tetraalkylammonium salts such as
(C8H17)4NBr instead of organic phosphine, as stabilizers for soluble Pd
clusters.186 Synthesis of the ligand-stabilized Pd nanoparticles was described
wherein 23 nm particles were produced.186 Heck coupling between iodobenzene and the acrylic acid n-butyl ester was performed using these materials in DMF at 30 1C to produce cinnamic acid ester. Nearly quantitative
product yields were generated after 14 h, providing initial catalytic results for
the phosphine-free Pd nanocatalysts.
In expanding the scope of reactivity in Heck coupling using Pd nanocatalysts, another stabilizer was employed for the synthesis of nanoparticles using
an electrochemical method and thermolysis.192 For this, propylene carbonate
(PC) was used for the production of Pd nanoclusters through electrochemical
methods involving anodic dissolution of a Pd sheet at 60 1C, which formed
monodisperse, nearly spherical, highly crystalline particles of 810 nm in
diameter.192 In a separate process, Pd(O2CMe)2 was mixed with PC at 100 1C
while sonicating to form 810 nm particles with similar shapes through
thermal decomposition. The catalytic activities for the PC-Pd nanoparticles
were tested using the Heck reaction between aryl halides and styrene in
the presence of a base at temperatures ranging from 130160 1C.192 The results showed excellent product yields of 96% and 97% for the activated
4-bromonitrobenzene substrate in the presence of PC-Pd nanoparticles using
NEt3 and NaO2CMe as the base, respectively. On the other hand, chlorobenzene was also able to generate significant product yields between 40%
to 58%, but longer reaction times were required.192
Dendrimer-based Pd nanoparticles have also been used for the Heck reaction; however, the higher temperatures that were required to accomplish
the coupling necessitated the use of highly stable dendrimers.193 As such,
poly(propylene imine) (PPI) dendrimers were employed to passivate the Pd
nanoparticles for reactions that require refluxing. The perfluorinated polyether-derivatized PPI DENs (third and fifth generation) were exposed to Pd21
ions to coordinate to the dendrimer interior. Addition of a reducing
agent resulted in the production of nearly monodisperse Pd nanoparticles of
B23 nm in diameter according to TEM analysis.193 The PPI-Pd nanoparticles
were then used for Heck coupling between dierent aryl halides and nbutylacrylate to generate n-butyl-formylcinnamate using a fluorocarbon
hydrocarbon solvent and Et3N as the base at 90 1C. The results indicated that
the PPI-Pd nanocatalyst was able to drive the coupling reaction generating
modest yields; however, regioselectivity of the product was established to be
100% selective toward trans-n-butyl-formylcinnamate.193 Interestingly, the
fifth generation PPI-Pd nanoparticles catalyzed higher product yields
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compared with the third generation PPI-Pd nanoparticles even though the
diameters of the particles were similar. These results suggested that the fifth
generation dendrimers provided larger encapsulated space wherein the
coupling reaction could occur leading to the observed regioselectivity and
higher product yields. In contrast, the third generation dendrimers contained
less interior room such that slower reactions occurred, lowering the product
yields. Nevertheless, product regioselectivity was maintained. As anticipated,
lower yields were obtained when using aryl bromides compared with aryl
iodides and no activation of aryl chlorides was noted. Finally, para-nitrosubstituted aryl bromides generated lower product yields compared with
unsubstituted aryl reagents, which was attributed to the repulsive forces between the electron-donating nitro-group and the perfluorinated polyether
dendrimer groups, making substrate incorporation dicult.193 Taken together, these results suggested that Heck coupling using the PPI-Pd nanoparticles occurred at the dendrimer interior.
Since the reaction using the dendrimer nanocatalysts was performed in a
fluorocarbonhydrocarbon solvent, separation and recovery of the PPI-Pd
nanoparticles was easily achieved.193 To this end, the nanocatalysts remained dissolved in the fluorous phase of the solvent, as shown by the retention of the dark color of the catalyst, while the organic phase that
contained the product was colorless. Recyclability of the nanocatalyst was
performed using the separated particles in the fluorous phase wherein significant loss of activity was observed with each reaction cycle. This loss in
reactivity was attributed to changes in the morphology of the Pd nanoparticles due to the redox cycling of Pd atoms in the Heck reaction. Control
reactions were also performed to determine the eect of base identity on the
reaction. These results showed that even in the absence of Et3N in the reaction, Heck coupling still occurred due to the interior tertiary amines in the
dendrimers that acted as the base. Overall, the results of these initial studies
of Pd DENs for Heck coupling showed highly regioselective intradendrimer
catalytic reactivity under relatively ambient reaction conditions.
Further DEN eects for Pd nanoparticles were performed by Kaneda et al.,
wherein the Pd complex was immobilized inside the dendrimer through
ionic bonds (Figure 7.12).91 Initially, the peripheral amino groups of PPI
dendrimers were functionalized with decanoyl chloride and 3,4,5-triethoxybenzoyl chloride to produce alkylated and arylated dendritic materials,
respectively. On the other hand, Pd nanoparticles were exposed to 4-diphenylphosphinobenzoic acid as ligands, which can then form ionic bonds
between the carboxylic acid moiety and the internal amino groups of the
dendrimers. To this end, the phosphine-stabilized Pd nanoparticles were
encapsulated at the interior of the functionalized PPI dendrimers and employed as nanocatalysts in the Heck reaction.91 Initially, the coupling between iodobenzene and n-butyl acrylate in toluene with KOAc was performed
with the PPI modified Pd DENs. The results of the reaction showed that
the dendrimer generation directly aected the reactivity where the reaction
rate increased with higher generations; however, when the molar ratio of
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Figure 7.12
Chapter 7
Schematic illustration of the Pd complex immobilized inside the

dendrimer.91
Reprinted (adapted) with permission from M. Ooe, M. Murata,
T. Mizugaki, K. Ebitani and K. Kaneda, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2004, 126,
16041605. Copyright 2004 American Chemical Society.
phosphine ligandPd in the 5th-generation PPI Pd nanoparticles was increased from 1 to 4, product yields decreased from 92% to 19%.91 These
results suggested that the large amounts of amino groups in higher generation dendrimers provided complexation with the active species and as such
led to high stability and catalytic reactivity.
To further probe the reactivity, as well as the selectivity of the nanocatalyst, a second Heck coupling reaction was employed using p-diiodobenzene
and n-butylacrylate with two possible products, mono- and di-substituted
benzene.91 The results showed that in the presence of the nanocatalyst, only
n-butyl-p-iodocinnamate, the mono-substituted product, was formed, indicating a highly reactive (86% yield) and selective (92%) nanocatalyst. Furthermore, the allylic amination of cinnamyl methyl carbonate was also
catalyzed by the Pd DENs, demonstrating that the catalytic materials were
quite versatile. Finally, the recyclability of the catalyst was established
wherein minimal loss of activity was observed after four reaction cycles.
Expanding the scope of reactivity of the PPI-Pd nanoparticles for Heck
coupling under environmentally friendly conditions was achieved using
supercritical CO2 (scCO2) as the solvent.194 The PPI dendrimer end groups
were functionalized with a perfluoro-2,5,8,11-tetramethyl-3,6,9,12-tetraoxapentadecanoyl perfluoropolyether chain to enhance solubility with
scCO2, generating 12 nm Pd particles after reduction.194 The modified PPIPd nanoparticles were then used as the coupling catalyst between iodobenzene and methylacrylate with Et3N as the base at 75 1C and 5000 psi.194
Formation of the possible products, methyl-2-phenylacrylate and cis/transcinnamate, was monitored using GC wherein 57% of the aryl iodide was
consumed after 24 h.194 Characterization of the reaction solution by 1H NMR
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revealed that only the methyl-2-phenylacrylate product was formed and no

cinnamate products or impurities were generated. These results indicated
high selectivity for the nanocatalyst, which was attributed to the steric environment of the dendrimer system.194
Calculation of the turnover number (TON) generated a value of B22 mol
substrate/mol Pd only, which was suggestive of a slow reaction using the
modified-PPI Pd nanoparticles.194 A notable change in color of the scCO2
solution containing the nanoparticles from dark-brown to dull-orange was
observed after the reaction, which likely arises from Pd0 oxidized to Pd21.194
Upon treatment of this solution with NaBH4, the formation of a dark-brown
solution was observed, consistent with metal reduction and nanoparticle
formation. The oxidation of the catalytically active Pd species explained the
low catalytic conversion driven by the modified PPI-Pd nanoparticles. When
the reaction was extended to 52 h, no visible Pd precipitation was observed.194
In contrast to the low TON values obtained in the Heck coupling reaction
using the modified PPI-Pd nanoparticles, drastically higher TONs were
generated using Pd-DENs with hydroxyl-terminated PAMAM dendrimers;
however, the reaction was performed using DMA as the solvent instead of
scCO2.92 In this system, the reaction between aryl halides and acrylic acid
was employed to determine the reactivity of Pd@[PAMAM G4-OH] in the
presence of NaOAc as the base at 140 1C. Two dierent Pddendrimer ratios,
Pd60 and Pd40, were used for the reaction, where similar product yields were
obtained for both systems.92 The results of the coupling reaction showed
significantly higher TON values depending on the halogen group in aryl
halides such that iodobenzene gave a value of 30 000 mol product/mol Pd,
while bromobenzene generated a TON of 14 000 mol product/mol Pd.92 No
product formation was observed for chlorobenzene. As expected, electronwithdrawing substituents on the aryl halide generated higher product yields
and TONs, while decreasing the catalyst loading resulted in the corresponding decrease in yields and TON values.
Aside from Pd DENs, other ligand stabilized Pd catalysts have also been
employed for Heck coupling. For instance, PEG-Pd nanoparticles were used
for the coupling of t-butylstyrene with aryl iodides and aryl bromides in the
presence of K2CO3 in water under refluxing conditions (80100 1C).97 The
results demonstrated excellent yields of 9092% for the reaction using activated iodo- and bromo-arenes. Interestingly, even sterically hindered orthosubstituted aryl bromides generated relatively good yields of 7280%, while
the meta-substituted substrates produced poor (5%) product yields when
coupled with t-butylstyrene.97 Overall, the PEG-Pd nanoparticles showed
high reactivity for Heck coupling under relatively mild reaction conditions
with water as the solvent, indicating a positive development towards environmentally friendly, but highly ecient nanoparticle catalysts.
Another polymer-based catalytic system used for Heck coupling was the
ionic polymer-ionic liquid stabilized Pd nanoparticles, Pd-IP-IL.135 The 5 nm
Pd-IP-IL nanoparticles were used in the Heck reaction between aryl halides
and ethyl acrylate using tributylamine as the base in the ionic liquid at 80 1C.
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Chapter 7
The results displayed that quantitative yields (499%) of the expected products were obtained from activated aryl halides after only 2 h. Iodobenzene,
on the other hand, only managed to generate 49% of the product after 1.5 h,
while increasing the reaction time to 4 h showed a corresponding yield increase to 81%.135 These results indicated that the ionic liquid was a great
solvent for the Heck reaction and the use of Pd-IP-IL nanoparticles shows
excellent reactivity under ambient reaction conditions.
Finally, the Keggin-type polyoxometallate-stabilized Pd nanoparticles were
also employed for the Heck coupling reaction.176 Initially, the reaction between bromotoluene and styrene was performed employing diisopropylamine as the base in a waterethanol solvent. Interestingly, excellent yields of
95% were obtained for the Heck coupling product, stilbene, at 8085 1C after
16 h. When activated aryl chloride, 1-chloro-4-nitrobenzene, was used under
similar reaction conditions, a 91% product yield was obtained.176 Similarly,
for the Heck reaction between aryl halides and methyl acrylate, an almost
quantitative yield (97%) of methyl cinnamate was generated from aryl
bromide, while a 94% product yield was obtained using aryl chloride.176 The
mild reaction conditions employed in the coupling reaction suggested a
highly ecient nanocatalyst that was operational under environmentallyfriendly conditions.
7.7 Summary and Conclusions

In this chapter, we presented the recent advances in Pd nanoparticle research with regards to their applications in select CC coupling reactions.
Significant numbers of studies have been devoted to the development of new
nanomaterials over the past few decades, leading to the production of remarkably ecient nanocatalysts. The advantages of nanomaterials in catalytic transformations include the use of very low metal loading, their ability
to catalyze reactions under ambient conditions, their use in energy-ecient
reactions, and their recyclability with minimal activity loss; however, the
catalytic mechanism driven by these Pd nanoparticles remains a subject of
debate with two dierent theories suggested for CC couplings. The surfacebased mechanism invokes a truly heterogeneous catalyst in which the reaction occurs directly at the surface of the nanoparticles. As such, minimal
morphological changes should be observed for these nanoparticles. In
contrast, the atom-leaching mechanism indicates that the active Pd0 atoms
are abstracted from the nanoparticle surface during the reaction. In this
process, changes in size, shape and crystal structure should be observed
during the catalytic cycle. Although each of these theories can be supported
by the available evidence, additional studies are necessary in order to verify
the reaction mechanism. Compounding this issue, dierent reaction
mechanisms may be possible for dierent materials, which may give rise to
the disparate set of results present in the literature. Nevertheless, Pd
nanoparticles have demonstrated excellent reactivities for CC coupling
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catalytic reactions, which may serve as model systems for the development of
sustainable materials for future chemical transformations.
23/06/2014 08:14:56.
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23/06/2014 08:14:59.
CHAPTER 8
Metal Salt-based Gold

Nanocatalysts
ZHEN MA*a AND FRANKLIN (FENG) TAO*b
a
Department of Environmental Science and Engineering,

Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433, P.R. China; b Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Notre Dame,
Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA
*Email: [email protected]; [email protected]
8.1 Introduction
Gold was traditionally regarded as non-reactive in chemistry and useless in
catalysis. Indeed, the chemical industry relies heavily on other metal catalysts, such as supported platinum, palladium, and silver catalysts. The fact
that bulk gold is stable in air does not mean that gold is not reactive in other
reaction media. Likewise, the fact that gold catalysts prepared inappropriately (with large gold particles dispersed on certain supports) are inactive in
catalysis does not mean that gold catalysts prepared properly (with small and
finely divided gold nanoparticles) are useless. In the 1980s, Haruta and
co-workers found that gold catalysts prepared by co-precipitation or
depositionprecipitation can be highly active for CO oxidation below room
temperature.1,2 Many gold nanocatalysts have been developed ever since,37
and some can catalyze CO oxidation below 80 1C.8,9
Catalytic CO oxidation is an important reaction in saving lives and for
purifying indoor air. The fact that a catalyst can catalyze CO oxidation below
80 1C does not mean we have to use a cooler in practical applications.
Rather, a high activity of a catalyst at a very low temperature usually dilates
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an even higher activity of the catalyst at or above room temperature, i.e. it

can convert a larger volume of contaminated air at room temperature or it
can achieve complete conversion at room temperature with a smaller
amount of catalyst. Room-temperature catalysis is energy-ecient. In addition, a high activity of a catalyst at low temperature hints that the catalyst
has extraordinary active sites. These active sites have been demonstrated to
be active in CO oxidation, and they may (or may not) be active in other reactions. Much can be done to explore the potential applications of these gold
nanocatalysts.1021
Supported gold catalysts are portrayed as gold nanoparticles dispersed on
solid supports. They are usually prepared by impregnation, co-precipitation,
depositionprecipitation, or colloidal deposition.3 Solid supports frequently
used for loading gold are usually oxides (e.g. TiO2, ZrO2, Al2O3, CeO2, SiO2)
and carbon.3 It was initially proposed that supports with redox properties
(e.g. TiO2, ZrO2, CeO2) can activate oxygen and are therefore good for making
gold catalysts active for CO oxidation, whereas non-reducible supports
(e.g. Al2O3, SiO2) are not good for making gold catalysts active for CO oxidation.22 However, later evidence showed that Au/Al2O323 and Au/SiO224,25
prepared appropriately can also be active for CO oxidation below room
temperature.
Metal salts are seldom used as supports for loading gold due to some pitfalls. Firstly, many metal salts (e.g. metal chlorides, metal nitrates, metal
sulfates) are soluble in water, whereas the preparation, storage, and application of supported catalysts often entails water or moisture. Secondly, some
metal salts (e.g. metal nitrates, metal sulfates) can decompose at elevated
temperatures. However, it is still interesting to develop metal salt-based gold
nanocatalysts because some metal salts (e.g. metal phosphates) are solid acids
useful in heterogeneous acid catalysis.26 The combination of acidic supports
and gold nanoparticles may lead to the development of bifunctional catalysts
that may achieve high activity and selectivity in organic catalysis. Such an
advantage is seldom seen with metal oxide-supported gold catalysts. Some
metal salt supports used to prepare supported gold catalysts include metal
carbonates, metal phosphates, metal sulfates, and heteropolyacid salts. Here,
we summarize the recent progress in this area.
8.2 Metal Salt-based Gold Nanocatalysts

8.2.1
Metal Carbonate-based Gold Catalysts
Metal carbonates have dierent solubilities in water and dierent decomposition temperatures. For instance, MgCO3 decomposes at 300 1C to
form MgO and CO2, whereas CaCO3 decomposes at 900 1C. It is possible to
prepare metal carbonate-supported gold catalysts, if the support is insoluble
in water and the preparation and operation temperatures of the gold catalysts are lower than the decomposition temperatures of selected metal carbonate supports.
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Zhang and co-workers prepared metal carbonate-supported gold catalysts

by a co-precipitation method, and studied their catalytic activities in CO
oxidation under dry and wet conditions.27 The type of metal carbonate
support and the calcination temperature aect the activity significantly.
The activity followed the sequence of Au/BaCO34Au/SrCO34Au/CaCO3, and
the presence of moisture further promoted the activity of these catalysts.
However, catalyst deactivation as a function of time on stream was still
observed, even though the testing period was short (6 h, Figure 8.1).27
Although potential deactivation mechanisms were not elucidated, this
work nicely showed that metal carbonates can also be used as supports for
making active gold catalysts.
Karimi and co-workers studied the aerobic oxidation of alcohols using
NaAuCl4 in the presence of Cs2CO3 in toluene at room temperature.28
Cs2CO3 was found to be a better additive than K2CO3, and toluene was a
better solvent than TFT, TFTwater, CH3CN, and CH2Cl2. The catalyst system
was not only eective for the aerobic oxidation of benzyl alcohol, but also
good for the oxidation of a wide range of alcohols. Although NaAuCl4 is not a
heterogeneous catalyst, the authors found that it converted to metallic gold
nanoparticles (1580 nm) on Cs2CO3 in the reaction mixture after a prolonged reaction time. The recovered Au/Cs2CO3 matrix exhibited high activity for the reaction, but it deactivated after prolonged use due to extensive
agglomeration.
Figure 8.1
CO conversions on Au/BaCO3-T catalysts under wet conditions at

25 1C.27 Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.
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We can see from these examples that certain metal carbonate-based gold
catalysts can catalyze CO oxidation and aerobic oxidation of alcohols.
However, the scope of application is very narrow, and the application in a
wide range of catalytic applications has not been demonstrated. Besides, in
the second example,28 the Au/Cs2CO3 was formed in situ, and the sizes of the
formed gold nanoparticles were quite large. It would be interesting to prepare a series of metal carbonate-supported gold nanocatalysts and test these
materials in the aerobic oxidation of alcohols in future research. Finally,
there has been some interest in the synthesis of nanosized metal carbonates
such as CaCO3, but the application of these materials in making gold catalysts has not been demonstrated.
8.2.2
Metal Phosphate-based Gold Catalysts
Metal phosphates are generally insoluble in water and have good thermal
stability. Some of them are considered to be solid acids but they also have
varied basic and redox properties.26 Therefore, metal phosphates themselves
can be used as solid catalysts. Alternatively, they can be used as supports for
loading metal nanoparticles. That way, the prepared catalysts may have both
the functionality originated from the support and the functionality bestowed
by the supported gold. The combination of dual functionalities is amazing,
considering that metal particles can catalyze oxidation and hydrogenation
reactions.
Dai and co-workers prepared Au/LaPO4 catalysts.29 LaPO4 nanoparticles
(6.8 nm, 111 m2 g1) were prepared by a sonication method, and gold was
loaded onto the support via depositionprecipitation. For comparison, a
commercial LaPO4 (10 nm, 55 m2 g1) was also used for loading gold. Both
catalysts, in the as-synthesized forms, showed high CO conversions below
0 1C, whereas the Au/LaPO4-nanoparticle catalyst exhibited better thermal
stability and activity after calcination at 500 1C. This work is interesting
because it showed that LaPO4, a metal phosphate, can also be used as a
support for making active gold catalysts.
Ma et al. developed an array of Au/metal phosphate (denoted as Au/M-P-O)
catalysts.30 Zirconium phosphate (denoted as Zr-P-O) was prepared by precipitation; other metal phosphates were purchased from Aldrich. Gold was
then loaded onto these supports via depositionprecipitation. It was found
that 200 1C-pretreated Au/M-P-O (M Fe, Co, Y, La, Pr, Nd, Sm, Eu, Ho, Er)
showed high CO conversions below 50 1C (Figure 8.2),30 and 500 1Cpretreated Au/M-P-O (M Ca, Y, La, Pr, Nd, Sm, Eu, Ho, Er) showed high CO
conversions below 100 1C. On the other hand, other Au-M-P-O (M Mg, Al,
Zn, Zr) catalysts were not particularly active in CO oxidation (Figure 8.2).30
This paper showed that metal phosphates other than LaPO4 can be used to
load gold.29 Nevertheless, the gold loadings on dierent supports were different, and further optimization of catalysts is still needed.
Ma et al. studied the influence of preparation methods on the performance of metal phosphate-supported gold catalysts in CO oxidation.31 Several
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Figure 8.2
CO conversion curves of Au/TiO2 and Au/M-P-O catalysts pretreated

at 200 1C.30
Reproduced with permission of Springer.
metal phosphates, either regarded as active supports (M-P-O, M Fe, La, Eu,
Ho) or inactive supports (M-P-O, M Al, Zn) were picked as typical metal
phosphate supports. Two methods were selected to load gold. In one,
dodecanethiol-capped gold nanoparticles were loaded onto these supports
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via colloidal deposition. In another, Au(en)2Cl3 (en ethylenediamine) was

used as the precursor. By comparing with the data reported previously,
several empirical conclusions were made.31 (a) Au/Al-P-O and Au/Zn-P-O always showed low activities in CO oxidation, no matter whether these catalysts were prepared by depositionprecipitation, colloidal deposition, or
using Au(en)2Cl3 as the precursor. (b) Au/La-P-O was always active for CO
oxidation, regardless of the preparation methods. (c) Au/Fe-P-O, Au/Eu-P-O,
and Au/Ho-P-O showed some activities in CO oxidation when the catalysts
were prepared by depositionprecipitation, whereas the catalysts were not
quite active when prepared using the other two methods. It seems that
depositionprecipitation is the best method to make metal phosphatesupported gold catalysts active for CO oxidation.
More recently, Dai and co-workers developed Au/LnPO4-MCFs catalysts for
CO oxidation.32 Here, LnPO4 represents LaPO4, CePO4, and EuPO4 nanorods
dispersed on the walls of mesostructured cellular foams (MCFs). The LnPO4/
MCFs supports were prepared by the controlled heterogeneous reaction of
highly dispersed lanthanide oxides embedded in MCFs with phosphate
ions in solution. Gold was loaded onto these supports via deposition
precipitation. The resulting catalysts showed high activities in CO oxidation
below room temperature (Figure 8.3).32
Overbury and co-workers carried out thorough work on the fundamental
aspects of CO oxidation on Au/FePO4.33 Their results indicated that cationic
gold species dominated the catalyst surface after pretreatment in O2 at
200 1C, whereas H2-pretreated Au/FePO4 had metallic gold but not cationic
gold. The cationic gold caused by O2-pretreatment can be partially reduced
upon room temperature CO adsorption. The authors identified two parallel
reaction pathways: (1) a redox pathway in which FePO4 furnishes active
oxygen, and (2) a direct pathway in which CO and O2 react via either a
LangmuirHinshelwood or EleyRideal mechanism.33 However, it is not
clear which pathway dominates the reaction mechanism.
Overbury and co-workers did further work on the reaction mechanisms of
CO oxidation on Au/LaPO4.34 No cationic gold was observed under both
oxidative and reductive conditions. Instead, metallic gold always dominated,
indicating that metallic gold was the active site. The non-reducible LaPO4supported gold catalyst catalyzed CO oxidation via two pathways: (1) a direct
pathway, and (2) a hydroxyl-mediated pathway in which surface hydroxyls
react with CO to form CO2 and H2. Evidence for the latter pathway came
from the evolution of CO2 during room temperature CO adsorption on the
catalyst and from the formation of CO2 and H2 during CO-TPR and isotope
labeling adsorption studies. By comparing the pathways and activities of
Au/FePO4 and Au/LaPO4 catalysts, the authors concluded that the most
important reaction pathway is the direct reaction pathway catalyzed by
metallic gold.34
We can learn from these examples that some metal phosphate-based gold
catalysts have recently been found to be active for CO oxidation, and the
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Figure 8.3
Light-o curves (a) and Arrhenius plots (b) for CO oxidation over
Au/LnPO4-MCFs pretreated at 300 1C.32
Reproduced with permission of the Royal Society of Chemistry.
reaction mechanism was studied in certain cases. However, the scope of

research is still quite narrow. It is worthwhile to use these new catalysts for
other more useful reactions, such as organic catalysis. The research along
this direction is still very preliminary. The influence of various preparation
details was not studied suciently, and the reaction mechanism on a
number of metal phosphate-based gold catalysts was not studied in detail.
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8.2.3
Chapter 8
Hydroxyapatite-based Gold Catalysts
Hydroxyapatite (HAP), with the formula Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2, is non-reducible,

insoluble in water, and has good thermal stability. The OH- ion can be
replaced by F- or Cl- to produce fluorapatite or chlorapatite. HAP can be
used as a catalyst.35 Alternatively, it can also be used to support metal
nanoparticles.
Scurrell and co-workers compared the performance of Au/HAP and
Ru/HAP catalysts in the watergas shift reaction (CO H2O CO2 H2).36
As shown in Figure 8.4,36 the activity of Au/HAP was higher than that of
Ru/HAP, given that the gold loadings of these catalysts were the same (3%).
In addition, the WGS activity of Au/HAP was stable as a function of time on
stream.
Au/HAP catalysts were found to be active for CO oxidation at or above
room temperature.30,3740 Cao and co-workers loaded gold on hydroxyapatite
via depositionprecipitation with urea, and investigated the influence of
calcination atmosphere on the performance of the catalyst in CO oxidation.39 The catalyst pretreated in He (denoted as Au/HAP-He) showed the
highest initial activity, due to the presence of very small gold nanoparticles,
but it deactivated obviously on stream. On the other hand, the catalyst
pretreated in O2 (denoted as Au/HAP-O2) showed the best stability on stream,
and aorded the highest steady-state conversion, due to its limited surface
basicity.
Figure 8.4
CO conversion in the watergas shift reaction on Au/HAP and Ru/HAP

catalysts, as a function of reaction temperature.36
Reproduced with permission of Elsevier.
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41
Kaneda and co-workers prepared an Au/HAP catalyst. This catalyst was

not only active for the deoxygenation of various tertiary and secondary
amides to the corresponding amines using silanes as reductants, but was
also able to catalyze the deoxygenation of sulfoxides and pyridine N-oxides
to the corresponding sulfides and pyridines, respectively. By conducting
FTIR experiments, the authors found evidence for the interaction between
Au/HAP and dimethylphenylsilane, and proposed that the deoxygenation
may proceed through a pathway initiated by the Ausilane interaction.
Tsukuda and co-workers used a HAP support to load gold clusters.4244
Au25(SC2H4Ph)18 clusters were deposited onto HAP, and the resulting gold
catalyst, after proper pretreatment to remove the glutathionate ligands, was
active for the selective epoxidation of styrene using TBHP as an oxidant.42
The authors also prepared gold catalysts by loading Au10(SC2H4Ph)10,
Au18(SC2H4Ph)14, Au25(SC2H4Ph)18, and Au39(SC2H4Ph)24 on HAP.43 The
average gold cluster sizes were estimated by HAADF-STEM to be 1.01.1 nm.
For comparison, large gold clusters (1.4 nm, corresponding to Au85) were
loaded onto HAP by a conventional adsorption method. The conversion on
these catalysts in the aerobic oxidation of cyclohexane increased as the n
went from 10 to 39, and was the lowest for the Au85 catalyst (Figure 8.5).43
Cao and co-workers explored the application of HAP-supported gold
catalysts in the direct tandem synthesis of imines and oximes.45 The HAP
support alone has an abundance of basic sites of medium strength and a
limited number of Lewis acid sites, whereas the loading of gold significantly
increases the overall number of both acidic and basic sites. A delicate cooperation between metallic gold and the acid/base sites of the support was
Figure 8.5
TOF values of Aun/HAP catalysts in the aerobic oxidation of cyclohexane

as a function of the cluster size n.43
Reproduced with permission of the American Chemical Society.
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Chapter 8
proposed by the authors to account for the tandem reaction that involves
alcohol oxidation and a subsequent condensation step (Figure 8.6).45
We can learn from this summary that the research on hydroxyapatitesupported gold catalysts is quite interesting. This kind of catalyst not only
catalyzes CO oxidation, it can also catalyze the conversion of various organic
substrates. The influences of pretreatment conditions, gold cluster sizes,
and organic substrates were investigated in detail, and some reaction
mechanisms were proposed. It is worthwhile to expand the scope of the
research and demonstrate the application of this kind of catalyst in other
reactions.
8.2.4
Hydroxylated Fluoride-based Gold Catalysts
Metal fluorides are barely used as supports for making gold catalysts.
Tomska-Foralewska and co-workers found that Au/MgF2 was not active for
CO oxidation between 30 and 300 1C.46 Coman and co-workers developed
Au/MgF2x(OH)x catalysts for the one-pot synthesis of menthol.47 The synthesis of menthol from citronellal usually involves two steps: (1) the cyclization of citronellal to isopulegol, and (2) the hydrogenation of isopulegol to
menthol (Figure 8.7).47 Here, MgF2x(OH)x was prepared by the reaction of
Figure 8.6
Scheme proposed for the tandem process on Au/HAP.45

Reproduced with permission of Wiley-VCH.
Figure 8.7
Scheme for the synthesis of menthol from citronellal in two steps (route
1A 2A) and in one pot (route B).47
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magnesium methoxide with a methanolic hydrogen fluoride solution. The

OH content can be controlled by the water content in the HF solution. When
the OH content is very low (xo0.1), the catalyst contains both Lewis (Mg21)
and Brnsted (OH) sites responsible for the diastereoselective isomerization
of citronellal to isopulegol. On the other hand, the catalyst that calcined at
100 1C contained cationic gold species responsible for the hydrogenation of
isopulegol to menthol. Therefore, the bifunctional catalyst was able to
catalyze the diastereoselective one-pot synthesis of menthol.
8.2.5
Metal Sulfate-based Gold Catalysts
Some metal sulfates can be used as solid acids, but they are seldom used as
supports to prepare gold catalysts. Dai and co-workers prepared BaSO4-MCFs
supports by dispersing BaO onto MCFs by impregnation, followed by sulfation of BaO using sodium dodecyl-benzenesulfonate (SDBS) as the sulfate
source.48 Highly dispersed BaSO4 nanocrystals were formed during calcination in air at 500 1C. For comparison, BaSO4-MCFs were also prepared using
KHSO4 as the sulfate source. The BaSO4 formed that way is in the form of
isolated rod-like particles with bigger sizes. Gold nanoparticles with small
sizes were highly dispersed on BaSO4-MCFs (SDBS), whereas the sintering of
gold nanoparticles on BaSO4-MCFs (KHSO4) was more obvious. The former
gold catalyst showed higher activity in CO oxidation than the latter
(Figure 8.8).48
Figure 8.8
CO conversions on Au/BaSO4-MCFs (SDBS) and Au/BaSO4-MCFs

(KHSO4) pretreated at 300 1C.48
Reproduced with permission of the Royal Society of Chemistry.
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8.2.6
Chapter 8
Heteropolyacid Salt-based Gold Catalysts
Heteropolyacids are a class of acids made up of a particular combination of

hydrogen and oxygen with certain metals and non-metals. Typical examples
include H4SiW12O40, H3PW12O40, and H6P2W18O62. They can be used as
homogeneous catalysts and heterogeneous catalysts.49,50 In particular, those
with the Keggin structure have good thermal stability, high acidity, and high
oxidizing ability. However, heteropolyacids are generally soluble in water,
which makes them unsuitable for preparing supported gold catalysts. Only
certain heteropolyacid salts that are insoluble in water can be used as heterogeneous catalysts or supports.
Han and co-workers prepared Au/Cs2HPW12O40 for the conversion of
cellobiose to gluconic acid in water.51 The reaction involves two steps: (1) the
hydrolysis of cellobiose to glucose, and (2) the oxidation of glucose to gluconic acid. The Cs2HPW12O40 support, insoluble in water, has strong acidity,
and therefore can catalyze the hydrolysis of cellobiose. On the other hand,
the supported gold nanoparticles can catalyze the oxidation of glucose.
Figure 8.9 shows the steps for the conversion on the Au/Cs2HPW12O40
catalyst.51 The Cs2HPW12O40 support also modulates the oxidative activity
Figure 8.9
Selective oxidation of cellobiose to gluconic acid with molecular oxygen

over Au/Cs2HPW12O40.51
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of gold nanoparticles, thus avoiding the further oxidation of the formed

gluconic acid.
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8.3 Summary
Catalysis by supported gold nanoparticle has been a hot topic recently. Most
supported gold catalysts have been prepared by loading gold on oxides or
carbon supports, but metal salts have been seldom used as supports to load
gold. Here, we have highlighted the development and applications of gold
nanoparticles supported on metal salts, including metal carbonates, metal
phosphates, hydroxyapatite, hydroxylated fluorides, metal sulfates, and
heteropolyacid salts. Compared with metal oxides, these metal salts are used
less frequently to make supported gold catalysts. Nevertheless, the results
summarized in this chapter have demonstrated that some metal salts can be
good supports to make active gold catalysts. Not only do they catalyze CO
oxidation, they can also catalyze some organic reactions. The latter aspect is
particularly interesting, considering that metal salt-supported gold catalysts
may be bifunctional, i.e. they not only possess the functionality furnished by
gold, they also possess the functionality furnished by supports. Thorough
experiments are still needed in the future to fine tune the functionalities via
changes in the composition of catalysts and preparation details, and the
potential of these catalysts in catalyzing a variety of organic reactions should
be studied in more detail. Reaction mechanisms can also been understood
based on thorough experiments. This will certainly entail a lot of work in the
future, and good advances are sure to come.
Acknowledgments
Z. Ma thanks the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos.
21007011 and 21177028) and the overseas returnees start-up research
fund of the Ministry of Education in China for financial support. F. Tao
acknowledges the University of Notre Dame, the U. S. Department of Energy
Basic Energy Sciences Catalysis Science Program and the ACS Petroleum
Research Fund for funding support.
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CHAPTER 9
Catalysis with Colloidal

Metallic Hollow
Nanostructures: Cage Eect
MAHMOUD A. MAHMOUD
Laser Dynamics Laboratory, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry,
Georgia Institute of Technology, 901 Atlantic Dr, Atlanta, Georgia 30332,
USA
9.1 Introduction
Noble metallic nanoparticles have been used in many applications such as
catalysis,1 sensing,24 drug delivery,5,6 optical switching,7,8 magnetization
switching in magneto-plasmonics,9,10 and the potential diagnosis and in vivo
treatment of cancer.1113 The great versatility of these nanoparticles comes
from the ability to fine-tune their optical,1416 catalytic,17 photothermal,15,1822 photoelectromagnetic,23 and photoacoustic24 properties
with changing their shape and size.
Nanoparticles of various shapes, sizes, and structures have been prepared
to be used in many applications. These shapes are isotropic such as
spheres,17 cubes,25 triangles,26 shells,27 hollow nanospheres,28 nanocages,25
and frames,29 while the anisotropic shapes are rods,30 wires,31,32 and stars.33
Unlike regular synthetic techniques for the synthesis of solid, shaped,
nanoparticles, which are based on the direct reduction of ions into metallic
nanoparticles, hollow nanostructures have been prepared by special
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35
techniques such as template mediated synthesis, Kirkendall eect and

galvanic replacement25 reactions.
Catalysis with nanoparticles is a rapidly growing field driven by progress
in materials research.3639 Important applications of nanocatalysis include
chemical production,40 sustainable energy (hydrogen production and fuel
cell catalysts),41 pollution reduction,42 and clean photocatalysis.43 The
nanoscale size of the catalyst causes two eects: changing the electronic
structure of the nanocatalyst (i.e. increasing the Fermi energy of the nanocatalyst leading to a lower reduction potential on the surface of the nanocatalyst)1,4446 and increasing the number of chemically unsaturated and
thermodynamically active surface atoms.38,39,47 It has also been suggested
that the type of exposed crystal planes, which can be controlled by the
nanocatalyst shape, can influence the activity and selectivity of the nanocatalyst.48 Although catalysts of nanoscale dimensions possess advantages,
problems that limit the future applications of using nanoparticles in catalysis result from the following: reshaping of the nanocatalyst during or after
the catalysis reaction,49,50 products depositing on the surface of the nanocatalyst decreasing their stability and limiting their recycling,51 capping
materials on the surface of colloidal nanocatalysts reduce their activity and
can aect their Fermi energy level,52 and aggregation of the nanocatalyst
especially in organic solvents.53 Many eorts have been put forth to overcome these problems and improve the eciency and selectivity of the
nanocatalysts. These eects include: loading the nanocatalysts on a support
(micro-scale materials,54 micro-gels,55 or zeolite supports56,57) for improved
stability and recyclability, and partially coating the surface with porous silica
or a brush type polymer to improve the stability of the nanocatalysts in
dierent media.58,59 Assembling the nanocatalyst on the surface of a substrate by the LangmuirBlodgett technique29,60 or fabrication of the nanocatalyst on the surface of a substrate by lithographic techniques61,62 are also
improving the applicability of the nanocatalysts. The surface of the nanocatalysts prepared by these methods is then cleaned by oxygen plasma or UV
irradiation to improve the interface with reacting materials.
Usage of the nanoparticles in catalysis can reduce the production cost as
small quantities of material are needed to obtain the same surface area and
activity as conventional bulk catalysts. Dierent techniques, such as DC
sputtering,63 laser deposition, the colloidal chemical method,64,65 and lithography,61,62 have been used for the preparation of nanocatalysts with different sizes starting from small clusters to a tenth of a nanometre. The
colloidal chemical method has been used successfully to prepare nanocatalysts with dierent shapes, sizes, and crystal structures.37,64,65
An important question that arises in the field of nanocatalysis is whether
catalysis with nanoparticles is heterogeneous6668 or homogeneous.38,39,69
The common and acceptable definition of colloidal nanocatalysis is heterogeneous when the reaction occurs on the surface of nanoparticles and
forms a complex on the surface atoms themselves. If the complex dissolves
away from the surface of the nanocatalyst, the reaction is homogeneous.
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The eciency of any nanocatalyst is based on the large surface to volume

ratio and the geometric shape. Nanoparticle shapes with sharp corners and
edges showed high activity due to the high thermodynamic activity of these
atoms on the corners and edges.49 When the nanocatalysts are fixed inside
an inert support with voids, such as porous metalorganic frameworks
(MOFs),70 empty polymer nanofibers,71 or yolkshell structures,72 their
catalytic activity is improved due to the confinement of the reactant inside
the hollow structure. In fact, similar activity was observed when the nanocatalyst itself was designed with hollow structures with porous walls made of
a single shell67,73,74 or double shells.67,7580
9.2 Synthetic Approaches to Hollow Metallic

Nanocatalysts
Solid nanoparticles with dierent shapes, sizes, and compositions have been
prepared by seedless81 and seed-mediated82 techniques. These two synthetic
methods involve the formation of small seeds, either in situ30 in the case of
seedless,17 or prepared separately, which are then allowed to grow in a new
solution. These techniques allow the seed of the nanoparticles to grow into
dierent shapes and sizes depending on the preferential binding of the
capping materials to the crystal faces and the thermodynamic stability of the
plane facets. These two variables guide the nanoparticle seed growth to
proceed in dierent ways, forming dierent shapes. The size of the nanoparticle is controlled by the rate of growth of the seed and the rate of capping
by the capping agent. The temperature plays an important role in the synthesis of nanoparticles, as higher temperatures induce thermodynamic
control.
Hollow nanoparticles have pores on their surfaces and an empty cavity.25
Therefore, it is not possible to use traditional synthetic techniques for solid
nanoparticles to prepare the hollow structure nanoparticles. Three dierent
techniques are applied to prepare hollow nanoparticles. The first method is
the template-mediated method, which was introduced by Mohwalds
group.34 This technique involves depositing metals on the surface of a
template made up of polymer or silica beads. The core is later etched away
using H2O2 and HCl to produce a hollow structure. Post-synthetic treatment
of the nanoparticle to remove the template limits the applicability of this
technique. The nanoparticles prepared by this method are not smooth and
their sizes depend on the sizes of the underlying bead templates, which are
typically no smaller than 100 nm. The second method is based on the
common metallurgical Kirkendall eect, which involves non-equilibrium
mutual diusion of counter atoms through a reaction interface.35,83 Since
the diusion flow rates and sizes of the elements are not similar, an internal
vacancy is formed inside the nanoparticle. This technique is limited to the
synthesis of composite hollow nanoparticles. Finally, the most applicable
technique for the synthesis of hollow nanoparticles is the galvanic
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25
replacement approach, which was introduced by Sun and Xia. This technique involves the galvanic oxidation of two or more atoms of template
nanoparticles by the metal ions of the cage materials, which will be reduced
to metal on the surface of the template. A typical galvanic replacement example is the synthesis of gold nanocages (AuNCs) using silver nanocubes
(AgNCs) as a template. AgNCs are mixed with gold salt in a boiling solution.
The gold ions oxidize the metallic silver and deposit on the nanoparticles
B
A
C
Figure 9.1
(A) SEM image of gold nanocages. (B) TEM image of platinum nanocages. (C) TEM image of palladium nanocages. (D) SEM image of gold
palladium double shell nanocages. (E) Magnified TEM image of
platinumpalladium double shell nanocages. (F) High-resolution
TEM mage of platinumpalladium nanocages. (G) EDX-SEM mapping
of goldplatinum double shell hollow nanoparticles, gold (green) and
platinum (red).
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Chapter 9
surface. Figure 9.1(A) shows the SEM image of 53 nm gold nanocages

(AuNCs) prepared by galvanic replacement. The AuNCs possess a hollow
interior and have pores on their surfaces.
In this technique, the following variables have to be controlled during the
synthesis of hollow nanostructures. (1) The shape of the template controls
the final hollow nanoparticles shape. (2) The capping material of the template should be compatible with the nanocage material in order to avoid the
aggregation of the hollow nanoparticles. (3) The lattice parameters of the
template and the deposited material should be similar to obtain a smooth
surface. (4) The oxidation potential of the atoms of the template has to be
higher than that of the hollow nanomaterial to make the galvanic replacement thermodynamically allowed. (5) To prevent a change in shape of the
hollow nanomaterials during the galvanic replacement, the surface of
the template should be cleared of excess capping materials. (6) The rate of
the galvanic replacement controls the pore size and the roughness of the
hollow nanomaterial. This rate depends on the activity of hollow nanomaterial ions, rate of addition, and reaction temperature.
The galvanic replacement technique was modified to prepare dierent
transition metal nanocages. Some of these hollow nanoparticles, such as platinum nanocages (PtNCs) and palladium nanocages (PdNCs), have catalytic
potential.67 This modification involves carrying out the galvanic replacement at
room temperature and controlling the rate of addition of the salt to the nanoparticle template. Figure 9.1(B) and (C) show the TEM images of PtNCs and
PdNCs prepared by the modified galvanic replacement technique. As shown in
the figure, the outer surface is smooth and the cage walls contain pores.
The galvanic replacement technique is used not only for the preparation of
single metal shelled hollow nanoparticles but also double shell hollow
nanoparticles. Hollow nanocages with a variety of plasmonic and nonplasmonic metals including goldplatinum (AuPtNCs), goldpalladium
(AuPdNCs), platinumpalladium (PtPdNCs), and palladiumplatinum
(PdPtNCs) have been prepared.67,74 Figure 9.1(D) shows the SEM image of
AuPdNCs. In order to analyze the composition of the double shell hollow
nanoparticles accurately, two imaging techniques were used (HR-TEM and
EDX-SEM mapping). Figure 1(E) shows the TEM image of single PtPdNCs.
The nanoparticles appear to have two shells. The HR-TEM image of the wall
shows three layers: an outer layer of pure platinum, a pure palladium inner
layer, and an alloy layer in between (Figure 1(F)). The second imaging
technique is EDX-SEM mapping. Elemental analysis of the cage shows that
two metals are present in dierent amounts and the EDX-SEM mapping
shows the outer metal. Figure 1(G) shows the EDX-SEM elemental mapping
of AuPtNCs revealing that the outer surface is pure gold.
9.3 Assembling the Nanocatalysts on Substrates

The main challenge that limits the usefulness of nanoparticles in catalysis is
their recycling, which is dicult due to their small size. Dierent solutions
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were proposed to overcome the handling problems. One of the suggested

solutions is to fabricate the nanoparticles on the surface of the substrate by
lithography such as electron beam lithography (EBL)84 or nanosphere lithography (NSL).85 The lithography technique involves fabrication of a polymer template of the nanoparticle on the surface of the substrate. The
nanomaterials are deposited inside these polymer templates, which are then
dissolved, leaving the nanoparticles on the surface of the substrate. In EBL,
the electron beam is used to make these templates on a polymer thin film
that coats the surface of the substrate. Although use of this technique led
to the fabrication of nanoparticles on the surface of a substrate, the high
cost, technical diculty, limited morphological scope, and the polycrystallinity of the product limits the scale-up of the technique. NSL involves
the monolayer self-assembly of nano and microsphere polymer beads on the
surface of a substrate. This produces a prismatic template in between the
polymer beads. This technique can only produce prisms but does allow for
size control by varying the size of the polymer beads.
Traditional colloidal chemical methods are the most ecient approach
for synthesizing nanoparticles. Many shapes, sizes, compositions, and
crystal structures have been prepared by these techniques. However, this
method presents problems when dealing with the stability and handling.
The following two methods are used to make colloidal nanoparticles more
applicable.
(1) Loading the nanoparticles on the surface of micro-size particle supports such as solid state particles or polymer beads. This method can be
carried out by two dierent techniques: in situ reduction of metal ions onto
the surface of the support or loading of already synthesized nanoparticles
onto the support. Reduction of the metal ions on the support produces
dierent shapes and sizes of nanoparticles. Recently, the solvent-controlled
swelling and heterocoagulation technique was introduced8688 to load different kinds of nanoparticles onto the surface of a polystyrene polymer bead
(PS) support. This method involves swelling the PS by an organic solvent
such as tetrahydrofuran or chloroform. Pores and channels are formed on
the surface of the PS beads due to the increase in size (size expansion is up to
200%). The capping materials of the nanoparticles anchor inside the pores
of the PS. After the PS is washed in a non-swelling solvent, it shrinks and the
nanoparticles are fixed on the surface of the PS through the capping materials. This technique was used to coat the PS with dierent nanoparticles
such as 30 nm and 80 nm polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) capped gold nanospheres. Figures 9.2(A) and (B) show the SEM images of 10 mm PS coated
with 30 and 80 nm gold nanoparticles, respectively. Figures 9.2(E) and (F) are
the dark field scattering images for the PS coated with 30 and 80 nm gold
nanospheres, respectively. This technique is applicable to other shapes, such
as silver nanocubes capped with PVP as seen in Figure 9.2(C) (SEM) and
Figure 9.2(G) (dark field). This technique is not only valid for nanoparticles
coated with polymers, but also for other cationic capping materials such as
trimethyltetradecylammonium bromide (TTAB). Figure 9.2(D) shows the
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Figure 9.2
Chapter 9
SEM images of nanoparticles coating 10 mm polystyrene beads: (A) 30 nm

gold nanospheres, (B) 80 nm gold nanospheres, (C) 60 nm silver
nanocubes, (H) platinum nanocubes. (D) TEM image of platinum nanocubes. Dark field images of 10 mm PS beads covered by metal NPs:
(E) 30 nm AuNPs, (F) 80 nm AuNPs, and (G) 60 nm AgNCs.
TEM image of 20 nm platinum nanocubes and the SEM image of the PS

coated with platinum nanocubes capped with TTAB.
(2) The LangmuirBlodgett (LB) technique is another method for assembling colloidal nanoparticles onto substrates. This technique produces a
particle monolayer but requires that the nanoparticles be dispersed in a
volatile solvent immiscible with the sub-layer liquid filling the LB trough
(such as chloroform solvent and a water sub-layer). The nanoparticles in a
volatile solvent are sprayed over the liquid sub-layer by micro-syringe. Due to
the surface tension of the sub-layer liquid, the nanoparticles will arrange
into a monolayer on the surface of the sub-layer as the solvent evaporates
(as postulated by Langmuir). The inter-particle separation distance between
the nanoparticles can be controlled by varying the available area that the
nanoparticles are dispersed on. The LB film can be transferred to a substrate
by the dipping method. Figure 9.3(A) shows AuNCs (dispersed in chloroform) sprayed over the surface of the water sub-layer of the LB trough. The
mechanical barrier separates the nanoparticles, which are blue in color
(left), from the cleaned water surface (right). The AuNCs are transferred to
the surface of a glass slide substrate by dipping the slide into the end of the
LB trough and slowly pulling it out. Figure 9.3(B) shows the glass substrate
after coating with the AuNCs from the SEM image shown in Figure 9.3(C).
The concentration of nanoparticles on the surface aects the surface tension
of the water sub-layer. Thus the coverage density can be measured by a
Wilhelmy plate attached to a pressure sensor. However, the relationship
between the surface pressure and the value of the sub-layer area that the
nanoparticles are distributed (isotherm) over determines how the nanoparticles interact with the sub-layer surface and with one another.89
Although recycling of the nanocatalyst at the end of the reaction is economically useful, keeping the activity of the catalyst after assembling it on the
surface of the substrate is also an important issue. There is no change in the
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Figure 9.3
179
(A) Picture of a LangmuirBlodgett trough after depositing a monolayer

of AuNCs on top of a water sub-layer. (B) AuNC monolayer deposited on
the surface of a glass slide. (C) SEM image of an AuNC monolayer
assembled on the surface of a silicon wafer at a surface pressure
of 0 mN m1, corresponding to 4% coverage of the substrate with
nanoparticles.
activation energy of the catalysis reaction catalyzed by platinum nanocubes in

colloids and supported on the surface of a PS bead substrate.88 However, the
rate of the reaction is decreased since one-sixth of the surface of the cube is
covered by the PS polymer. Unlike the silica and alumina support, this could
aect the activity of the catalyst supported on their surfaces.54
9.4 Hollow Nanostructures are Dierent in Catalysis

The eciency of any catalyst depends on two factors: the surface to volume
ratio (number of surface atoms) and the potential activity of the surface
atoms (number of saturated surface atoms surrounded by the fewest
neighbouring atoms). Therefore, nanoparticles with sharp corners and edges
show good catalytic eciency.39,49,90
Hollow metallic nanocatalysts have attracted the attention of many researchers due to their excellent physical and chemical properties.25,67 The
high catalytic eciency of the hollow nanocatalysts is due to three dierent
possibilities: (1) the hollow nanocatalysts include two surfaces (internal and
external), and pores on their walls, which increase the area to volume ratio.
(2) The inner surface could be rough and not covered by the capping agent
that is usually used during the colloidal nanoparticle synthesis as much as the
outer surface; this increases the available surface area. (3) The cage eect of
the hollow nanocatalyst, however, the reactant is confined inside the cavity of
the nanocatalyst, which increases the rate of collision with the inner surface
of the catalyst. Moreover, if the reaction is homogeneous, the cavity of the
hollow catalyst keeps the intermediate species inside it so it does not diuse
into the bulk of the solution, so increasing the eciency of the nanocatalyst.
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180
Chapter 9
Porous metalorganic frameworks (MOFs) prepared by Yaghi and his

coworkers70 are characterized by the presence of voids in their structures.
When the metallic nanocatalysts are supported inside the MOF and the
catalyst is used in catalysis, the reacting materials get confined and the
eciency of the nanocatalyst increases due to the cage eect.
In order to study the reason for the activity of the hollow nanocatalysts and
to prove that the catalysis takes place inside the nanocatalyst, the following
experiments were carried out:67,74,77,91 (1) Using hollow nanocatalysts with
two surfaces. The outer surface was not reactive while the inner surface was
reactive, for example, a Ag2O layer prepared inside gold nanocages. This
catalyst was examined for the photocatalytic degradation of methyl orange
dye and its activity was found to depend on the size of the nanocatalyst cavity
and the pore size. (2) Comparing the eciency of the spherical shape. The
solid and the hollow nanoparticle show a dierence in the reduction reaction pathway of Eosin Y from a two-electron reduction in the absence of
the nanoparticles to a one-electron reduction. (3) Synthesis of two hollow
double shell nanoparticles made with an inner shell of platinum and an
outer shell of palladium and vice versa in addition to pure PtNCs and
PdNCs.67,91 These nanocatalysts were used to catalyze the reduction reaction
of 4-nitrophenol by borohydride. The kinetic parameters of the double shell
catalysts were comparable to those of the pure nanocage made of the same
metal as that of the inner shell.67 (4) Hollow nanoparticles having an inner
plasmonic gold surface and an outer non-plasmonic catalytic layer have been
reported.74,91 The shift in the surface plasmon spectrum during the catalytic
reaction was used to prove the cage eect.74
9.4.1
Hollow Nanostructures with a Catalytically Active Inner

Surface and an Inactive Outer Surface
The catalyst is supported on the inner wall of an inert support of hollow

structures and does not aect the catalysis reaction. This support could be
silica, a polymer, or even a metal. In this case, the reacting materials are
confined with the catalyst inside the hollow support. The confinement of the
reactants inside polymer nanofibers with platinum and palladium nanocatalysts bound to their inner surface increases their catalytic activity in the
hydrogenation of organic compounds.92 An improvement in the catalytic
properties of nickel, cobalt, iron and their oxides was observed when they
were prepared inside a SiO2 shell in a yolkshell structure. In addition to the
excellent catalytic activity, the catalysts showed high thermal stability.93
Several semiconductor nanoparticles were used to photocatalyze the photodegradation of dyes via a free radical mechanism.94 The photocatalysis
reaction proceeds in an aqueous medium through the initial formation of
hydroxyl radicals, which attack the double bond of the organic dye.95 AuNCs
were shown to eciently catalyze the photodegradation of methyl orange dye
(MO), after exposure to oxygen gas. Thus the AuNCs would have remaining
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181
Ag on their interior walls, which are oxidized to silver oxide (Ag2O) upon
exposure to dissolved O2 in water. Figure 9.4(A) shows the schematic diagram of AuNCs after oxidation of the residual silver into a Ag2O layer.76 Upon
excitation of Ag2O, electrons are excited from the valence band to the conduction band, generating a hole in the valence band. Water molecules in the
solution are oxidized into hydroxyl radicals and protons by the holes in the
valence band, while the electrons in the conduction band reduce water
molecules into hydroxyl ions and peroxide radicals (Figure 9.4(B)). The
generated radicals attack MO molecules, resulting in MO radicals that
undergo a series of intramolecular fragmentations. The hydroxyl radical
generation process is depicted in Figure 9.4(B) and (C).76
There are a number of observations that strongly suggest the nanoreactor
cage eect. The Ag2O molecules that photocatalyze the reaction are present
only on the inner walls of the nanoreactor. The rate of the photocatalytic
reactions was found to be greatly dependent on the pore size in the wall of
the nanocage, due to diusion of reactant in and product out through the
pores of the cage, and the fact that solid Ag cubes have low significant
catalytic activity after exposure to O2 gas. Therefore, the optimum reaction
rate requires: a high surface area of Ag (which is oxidized to Ag2O) on the
inner wall of the AuNC; pores on the surface of the AuNC that are large
enough to allow the reactants and products to diuse in and out of the cavity
but small enough to keep the radical steady state concentration high; and
the cavity inside the cage being an appropriate size to allow an optimum
collision rate between the reactants. When the pore sizes and surface area of
silver oxide are in balance, the cavity can displaying a cage eect.76 This
means that the concentration of the dye molecules, or the reaction rate
determining species formed from them, has built up its concentration to
drive the observed kinetics of the reaction (Figure 9.4(C)). The hollow
structure nanocatalysts and the hybrid semiconductor metallic structures
showed high catalytic activity i.e. rutheniumcuprous sulfide hybrid inorganic nanocages proved to have ecient electrocatalytic properties due to
their high surface area and exciting electronic properties.75 In fact, the
electronic and catalytic properties of the hybrid material nanocatalysts are
Figure 9.4
Schematic diagram of: (A) AuNC with a remaining layer of silver oxide
at the inner wall, (B) the mechanism of photo-formation of the radicals
by silver oxide inside the AuNC nanoreactor, (C) the reaction and the
cage eect inside the AuNCsAg2O nanoreactor.
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Chapter 9
23/06/2014 08:15:00.
improved by the ruthenium and cuprous sulfide combination. Therefore,

one of the reasons for the ecient catalytic properties of Ag2O in the AuNCs
Ag2O double shell nanocatalyst is the gold outer shell. The gold in this case
increases the electronhole charge separations, scavenges the electrons and
increases the amount of generated hydroxyl radicals.
9.4.2
Comparing the Activity of Hollow and Solid

Nanocatalysts of Similar Shapes
The reactions catalyzed by the hollow nanocatalysts display ecient activity

for two possible reasons. Firstly, the confinement eect of the cage increases
the steady state concentration of the species in the rate determining step of
the reaction, and secondly, in some cases, the inner surface might not be as
well capped as the outer surface and thus is more catalytically active. Since
the wall thickness of the nanoreactor is small (a few nanometres), the
electron can transfer across the wall during the catalysis of electron transfer
reactions.73 The surface to volume ratio of the hollow nanocatalyst is higher
than any solid nanocatalyst, because the surface area of the cavity adds to
the outer surface area of the nanocatalyst. This is another factor enhancing
the catalytic property of the hollow nanoparticles. Nanoporous platinum
nanoparticles, which are prepared by de-alloying of a NiPt nanoparticle
alloy, showed excellent cathodic catalytic activity for the oxygen reduction
reaction, due to the cage eect.96
Eosin Y dye (EY2) has multiple reduced forms; however, it is reduced to
EY4 by borohydride (BH) accepting two electrons. In the presence of metallic nanocatalysts, such as AuNSs or AuHSs, the reduction reaction pathway
changes from accepting two electrons to accepting one electron to form
EY3.97,98 The two-electron reduction is possible also in the presence of the
nanoparticles since some of the EY2 molecules get reduced in the bulk of
the solution far from the surface of the nanocatalyst. The two reduction
pathways of EY2 by BH in the presence and in the absence of gold nanocatalysts are summarized in Figure 9.5(A) and (B). In the presence of the
nanocatalyst, the BH- reduction leads to the formation of a mixture of EY3
and EY4. The eciency of the gold nanocatalysts increases by increasing
the amount of the one-electron reduction species EY3 compared with the
two-electron reduction species EY4. In order to compare the eciency of
AuHSs and AuNSs, the percentage conversion of EY2 into EY3 was measured for each catalyst at dierent nanocatalyst concentrations. The concentrations of EY2 and EY3 were determined from optical measurements
and extinction coecients. The relationship between the concentrations of
the AuNSs and AuHSs and the EY3EY2 conversion ratios are shown in
Figure 9.5(C). This conversion relationship is linear for both catalysts with
slopes at 0.044 0.006 and 0.016 0.006 for AuHSs and AuNSs, respectively.
The slope for the relationship between the EY3EY2 conversion ratio and
nanocatalyst concentration for AuHSs is three times that for AuNSs, which
supports the idea that nanocages have an eect.
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183
0.85
AuHSs
AuNSs
10
15
20
25
30
Concentration of nanocatalyst (pM)
6
0
.00
0.75
44
00
0.60
pe=
0.0
0.65
0.
01
0.55
0.
Slo
EY3-/EY2-
op
e=
0.50
0.45
Sl
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0.70
0.80
0.40
0.35
Figure 9.5
9.4.3
35
The reduction pathways of EY2 by BH: (A) two electrons without a

nanocatalyst, (B) one-electron reduction in the presence of a gold
nanocatalyst. (C) The relationship between ratios of the one-electron
reduction species and the two-electron reduction species and concentrations of AuNSs and AuHSs.
Comparing the Activity of a Single Shell Hollow

Nanocatalyst with a Double Shell Consisting of a
Similar Inner Shell Metal
The catalytic eciency of a bimetallic nanocatalyst is better than that of a

catalyst containing a single metal. If the nanoalloy catalyst has a hollow
structure, the eciency will be enhanced further. Catalytic oxygen reduction
by a PdPt alloy hollow nanocatalyst proved to have enhanced activity.99 The
eect of the geometry and structure on the catalytic properties was confirmed by density functional theoretical calculations, where the results
proved that the electronic confinement greatly aects catalytic eciency.100
When a palladium nanocatalyst made up of nanotube structures was
examined using the Suzuki reaction, an exciting improvement in catalytic
eciency was seen.101
The values of kinetic parameters (rate constants, activation energies, frequency factors and entropies of activation) for any catalysis reaction are
characteristic for both the catalysis reaction and the surface of the catalyst.
Hollow nanocatalysts, such as PtNCs, PdNCs, PtPdNCs, and PdPtNCs, of
similar concentration were examined in a model catalysis reaction, the reduction of 4-nitrophenol (4NP) with BH.67 The kinetic parameter values for
the single shell metallic nanocatalysts (PtNCs and PdNCs) were compared to
those obtained with the double shell nanocatalysts (PtPdNCs and PdPtNCs)
with similar metallic inner shells. The results show that the kinetic parameter values of PdNCs and PtPdNCs (both have an inner shell made of Pd)
are comparable as shown in Table 9.1. Close kinetic parameter values were
obtained when using PtNC and PdPtNC nanocatalysts. Moreover, the reduction reaction initially proceeds at a slow rate, which then increases.
During the first 510 minutes, the reaction takes place on the outer surface
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Chapter 9
Table 9.1
The kinetic parameters of the reduction of 4NP with BH catalyzed by

PdNCs, PtPdNCs, PdPtNCs, and PtNCs of similar concentrations.
23/06/2014 08:15:00.
Rate constant at
Nanocatalyst 25 1C (min1)
PdNCs
PtPdNCs
PdPtNCs
PtNCs
0.0190 8.7104
0.0035 1.3104
0.0190 2.0104
0.0036 2.0104
Entropy of
Activation energy activation
Frequency
(cal/mol K1) factor (min1)
(kcal mole1)
22.6 1.5
20.7 1.8
18.5 1.3
16.2 1.1
67.8 5.0
61.4 6.0
50.4 4.2
43.2 3.6
5.101014
2.131013
8.80109
2.31109
and the reactants diuse inside the catalyst. These results prove that catalysis using a hollow nanocatalyst takes place inside the nanocatalyst and the
enhanced activity is due to the inner surface.67
9.4.4
Following the Optical Properties of Plasmonic

Nanocatalysts During Catalysis
Plasmonic nanoparticles interact with the electromagnetic radiation of a

resonance frequency; this leads to the generation of a localized surface
plasmon resonance (LSPR) spectrum.24 The resonance frequency of the
plasmonic nanoparticles is based on the dielectric function of the surrounding medium. When the dielectric constant of the medium is changed,
the LSPR spectrum peak red- or blue-shifts according to the value of the
dielectric constant.24 Hollow nanoparticles have two plasmonic surfaces,
the inner and outer.29 When the dielectric constant of the surrounding
medium located on the outer surface of the hollow plasmonic nanoparticles
changes, the LSPR peak will shift to a certain position. On changing the
dielectric constant of the medium on the inner surface, a further shift in the
LSPR is expected. This optical phenomenon of plasmonic nanocatalysts can
thus be used to confirm that catalysis with hollow nanoparticles takes place
on the inner surface of the nanocages, which is responsible for the activity of
the cage nanocatalyst. For this study, AuNCs (with inner and outer plasmonic surfaces) and AuPtNCs (with a gold outer plasmonic surface and a
non-plasmonic inner surface) were used to catalyze the reduction of 4NP
with BH, as a model reaction. This reaction proceeds through the formation
of hydrogen gas, therefore, during the catalysis reaction, the water molecules
(refractive index B1.33) on the surface of the nanoparticles will be replaced
with H2 gas (refractive index B1) and if the surface is plasmonic, the LSPR
will be blue-shifted. Figures 9.6(A) and (B) show the LSPR spectra of pure
AuNCs (inner and outer plasmonic surfaces) and AuPtNCs (outer plasmonic
surface only) after mixing with pure 4NP, pure BH, and a mixture of 4NP and
BH at 0 min and after 30 min of mixing, respectively.74 Two sequential blue
shifts of the LSPR peak are observed on using the AuNC hollow nanocatalyst,
one immediate and the other later on. The first shift is due to catalysis on
the outer surface and the rate of the catalysis reaction being slow; the rate
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0.7
626 nm
650 nm
0.7
gold nanocages
(AuNCs)
0.6
B
654 nm
185
gold-platinum double shell nanocages

(AuPtNCs)
775 nm
0.6
0.5
Extinction
Extinction
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0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.4
0.3
0.2
Pure AuNCs
Immediately after mixing
30 min after mixing
0.1
0.1
0.0
550
Figure 9.6
600
650
700
Wavelength (nm)
750
800
0.0
500
Pure AuPtNCs
Immediately after mixing
30 min after mixing
600
700
800
900
Wavelength (nm)
1000
1100
The localized surface plasmon resonance spectra of pure nanocatalysts

(black), and immediately after mixing with borohydride and 4-nitrophenol (red), and 30 min after mixing with borohydride and 4-nitrophenol (green): (A) AuNCs, (B) AuPtNCs.
increases when the second blue shift occurs due to the reaction on the inner
surface and the production of hydrogen gas.74 A single rapid LSPR blue shift
is observed when using a AuPtNC hollow nanocatalyst and the reaction begins at a slow rate, becoming faster after some time. This is consistent with
the presence of one plasmonic surface for AuPtNCs. Based on these results,
it can be deduced that the catalysis reaction on the inner surface is more
ecient than the catalysis on the outer surface of the hollow nanocatalyst
due to the cage nanoreactor eect.74
9.5 Proposed Mechanism for Nanocatalysis Based on

Spectroscopic Studies
Nanocatalysts are small and in some cases, they approach the size of the
reacting materials. It is useful to study the mechanism of nanocatalysis to
determine whether it is heterogeneous (in which the reaction takes place on
the surface of the nanocatalyst) or homogeneous (in which the reaction takes
place via the formation of a complex resulting from the reaction between one
of the reacting materials with the surface of the nanocatalyst, which reacts
with the other reacting material in the bulk of the solution). In order to
study the mechanism of nanocatalysis, the reduction reaction of hexacyanoferrate(III) (HCFIII) by thiosulfate (TS) in the presence of platinum
nanoparticles (PtNPs) was used as an example. Figure 9.7(A) shows the IR
spectrum of the HCFIII and TS reaction with molar concentration ratios of
0.5 : 0.05, 0.5 : 0.1, 0.5 : 0.5, 0.1 : 0.5 and 0.05 : 0.5, measured by attenuated
total reflectance (ATR) IR in situ during mixing of HCFIII with a PtNPs-TS
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Chapter 9
2114
10 to 1
5 to 1
1 to 1
1 to 5
1 to 10
0.40
0.20
2038
2140
0.25
2076
0.30
1117
2052
0.35
996
0.45
1046
A 0.50
Absorbance
23/06/2014 08:15:00.
mixture (solutions of HCFIII and PtNCs-TS flowed separately and were mixed
inside the ATR cell). The products of the HCFIII and TS reaction are tetrathionate and hexacyanoferrate(II) (HCFII);102 the bands corresponding to the
0.15
0.10
0.05
2200
2100
2000
1900
1200
Wavenumber
B O3S
S
PtNSs
1100
1000
(cm1)
O S
3
SSO3
+ 3 K3[Fe(CN)6]
Pt[Fe(CN)6]
PtNSs
+ 2K4[Fe(CN)6]
SSO3
- S4O62
+ 2 K3[Fe(CN)6]
PtNSs
SSO3
Pt
O S
3
Figure 9.7
(A) The FTIR spectrum of the hexacyanoferrate(III) and thiosulfate

reaction with concentration ratios of 0.5 M : 0.05 M, 0.5 M : 0.1 M,
0.5 M : 0.5 M, 0.1 M : 0.5 M and 0.05 M : 0.5 M at zero time (mixing the
reacting materials inside the ATR cell during detection). (B) Schematic
diagrams for the mechanism of the reaction of hexacyanoferrate(III) and
thiosulfate catalyzed by PtNP.
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187
reactant and the products are represented in the IR spectrum. The CN

stretching bands for HCFIII and HCFII are at 2114 and 2038 cm1, respectively.103 The band at 2052 cm1 corresponds to the CN stretching of the
Prussian blue analogue KPtII[FeIII(CN)6] complex, while that at 2074 cm1
corresponds to PtIV[FeII(CN)6] complex formation.103,104 The band at
2140 cm1 is assigned as bridged cyanide.94 The bands at 996 and 1117 cm1
represent the symmetric and asymmetric SO stretching of free thiosulfate,
respectively, while the adsorbed TS appears at 1046 cm1. Based on these
results, the mechanism of HCFIII-TS catalyzed by PtNPs takes place through
the adsorption of thiosulfate on the surface of the PtNP catalyst, and the
Prussian blue analogue is formed during the reaction. Since TS is capable of
forming a complex with platinum(II), the Prussian blue analogue will form
on the surface of the platinum nanocatalyst.
The mechanism of the reaction proceeds by the reaction of two HCFIII
molecules with a PtNP, leading to the oxidation of a platinum atom and
formation of a Prussian blue analogue complex with another HCFIII molecule. This complex binds to the surface of the PtNP through two TS ions.
The electron transfer takes place between the TS and the Prussian blue
analogue, leading to the formation of tetrathionate and Pt atoms, which
return to the surface leading to reshaping of the PtNS. The complete reaction
is described by eqns (1)(3), and the mechanism is summarized in
Figure 9.7(B).
2K3[Fe(CN)6] Pt(PtNPs) 2K1-Pt21 2K4[Fe(CN)6]
(1)
K3[Fe(CN)6] Pt21-2KPtII[FeIII(CN)6] 2K1
(2)
KPt[Fe(CN)6] 2S2O23 2K1-K3[Fe(CN)6] S4O26 Pt
(3)
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23/06/2014 08:15:01.
CHAPTER 10
Nanoreactor Catalysis
KYU BUM HAN, CURTIS TAKAGI AND AGNES OSTAFIN*
University of Utah Nano Institute, Department of Chemical Engineering,
36 S Wasatch Drive, Salt Lake City UT 84112
10.1 Introduction
A catalyst is a substrate that accelerates chemical reactions by reducing their
activation energy. The nanoscale catalyst has expanded the eciencies of
dierent industries via its greater active surface area, controllable physical
morphology and properties (via chemical approaches), and improved stability. Examples of successful nanocatalysts include dendrimers, polymer
microspheres and coreshell structures, microgels, liposomes, emulsions,
micelles and carbon nanotubes. Many of these materials contain protected
catalytic environments and so fall into the category of nanoreactor catalysts.
The nanocatalyst market has grown by an average 6.3% since 2004; the
global market has risen from US$ 3.7 billion in 2004 to US$ 5.0 billion in
2009.1 Petrochemicals, one of the major markets, is a US$ 742 million2
global industry that focuses on obtaining premium quality fuel and improving selectivity control. Refineries previously used lead and benzene to
increase the octane number of gasoline, but these materials were environmentally unfriendly. By adding nanoplatinum as a reforming catalyst with
other metals, such as tin or rhenium, higher octane can be achieved without
these additives. Zeolites are an early form of nanoreactor catalyst with customized cage-like structures B1 nm in size. The method for customizing the
structure was developed at Mobil in 1977. Methanol is reacted on aluminosilicate-based zeolite HZSM-5 to produce a mixture of hydrocarbons for
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gasoline blends (a mixture of branched alkanes and methylbenzenes).3,4

Because the zeolite structure has holes of a certain size, only the desired
molecules are allowed to react inside the cage.
These early nanocatalysts led to improved product quality and stability,
faster reactions, and reduced costs. A reduced catalyst size increased the
amount of surface available for reactions, and for some materials, changed
the surface energy and nature of thermodynamics to promote reactions that
ordinarily would not occur. Because the active surface was exposed, fouling
and agglomeration of catalysts remained a possibility. Nanoreactor catalysts,
such as zeolites, were aimed at controlling both the active surface area and
the local environment dimension and chemical/physical properties.
A smaller reaction environment changes the dynamics of molecule interactions with the catalysts, and can reduce unwanted reactions that lead to
less eective catalytic power. Depending on the physical nature of the space,
it is possible to control the molecular kinetics, specificity, and extend the
operating range of the catalyst.
10.2 Steric and Structural Eects

10.2.1
Dendrimers
Maintaining well-dispersed catalyst in the reaction medium, then separating

the catalyst from the final product is a particularly challenging task for
nanocatalysts. To engineer methods of particle separation while ensuring
phase cooperation to maximize catalytic eciency, dendrimers, polymer
coatings, and carbon nanotubes have been developed. These approaches
were aimed at showing improvement in performance and stability.58
However, either due to phase instability or molecular changes to the structure of the polymeric coating, the nanoparticles can still aggregate over time,
resulting in a lowered surface area and a lower catalytic eciency.
Dendrimers are a kind of highly-branched polymer whose completed size
is generally larger than that of the metal nanoparticle catalyst. It contains
many interior compartments that can act as a group of isolated nanoreactors
for various chemical reactions.915 Dendrimers can be customized to house
or to grow metallic nanocatalysts in situ and result in a system that behaves
as both a homogeneous and heterogeneous catalyst at the same time.
Practically, the metal nanoparticle size can be restricted to maximize catalytic eect, while the entire unit can be more easily handled and separated
from the product. The reaction interface between the catalyst and the
reactant in the surrounding solvent is somewhat protected as well.
Dendrimers maintain the catalytic eciency of metal nanoparticles, or
complexes, by keeping them isolated from each other, and controlling the
flow of reagents and product. For dendrimer systems, the metal nanoparticles are often created in situ by reduction chemistry in the dendrimer
pockets where steric and electrostatic forces terminate the synthesizing reaction.16 Catalyst growth can be initiated and stabilized through interactions
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between the p-electrons of the aromatic rings in the polymer, and vacant
orbitals of the metal species.17 Choosing the correct polymer functional
groups, with ionic or hydrogen bonds, for the interior regions of the
dendrimer, attracts and stabilizes the metal cation complexes in a relatively
high concentration in the interior of the dendrimer. For example, Ooe et al.
constructed a dendrimer system with interior amino groups that create a
polar environment around a Pd complex, which leads to higher reactivity
rates.10 Careful manipulation of the dendrimer nanoreactors has often
yielded higher catalytic eciencies than the normal monomeric catalysts.
This is because the catalytic site can force the reagents interacting with the
catalysts into a specific configuration that is similar to their reaction transition state, in a phenomenon which is considered to be similar to biological
enzyme mechanisms. This allows for increased selectivity in reactions
and higher eciencies, especially in reactions with two enantiomeric
products.12,18,19
One of the most promising features of the dendrimeric catalyst nanoreactor systems is the customizability of the dendrimer molecules and, in
eect, the properties of the reaction space and exterior periphery. The first
factor that must be considered is the number of generations, or layers, that
have been instilled in the structure. Dendrimers of high generations can be
so sterically crowded at the edges that they act as filter membranes. Inside,
the large open pores remain, but the exterior layers of the polymer itself
can easily control access to these ports.5,13,20,21 Control over the diusion
of species can be accomplished by keeping the dendrimer surface open
with dierent functional groups. Simple steps, such as protonation or
deprotonation of terminal groups, can open and close the pores at the
surface, and these can be tuned to only allow the diusion of specific reactants or products.5,20,21 Very large pores allow for greater mass transfer, but at
the same time the catalytic pockets can become saturated with reactants and
products, and the diusion kinetics are hindered.22,23 However, if the pores
are too small, then of course, there is not enough opportunity to bring in new
reagents while releasing the product. This is why the pore sizes on the surface
of the dendrimer need to be optimized, to optimize the catalytic properties.
Along with pore size, the peripheral molecules can also control the
solubility properties of the particle. For example, it is possible to have a polar
interior with a non-polar surface; this allows the system to incorporate
itself into an organic environment but catalyze reactions with polar
properties.24,25 This property allows for unconventional designs and ability,
and also it has improved the recoverability of the catalysts, leading to a
greener industry with higher recyclability
10.2.2
Microgels
The microgel catalytic nanoreactor systems are similar to the dendrimers,

except they are cross-linked linear polymer chains. They are generally more
sensitive to chemicals, temperature, and hydration rates, than their
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dendrimer counterparts. Microgels are very stable and highly customizable.26 Like the dendrimer systems, metallic nanoparticles are often embedded in the structures,2730 and access to these sites is controlled by other
external factors. Microgels can expand and contract with temperature
changes, or as they gain or lose water. This opens and closes the pores,
allowing for selectively and responsiveness. For example, poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPA) is soluble in water below 32 1C, due to the formation of hydrogen bonds; however, above this temperature the hydrogen
bonds are disrupted, the water escapes and the gel collapses.3135 Pich et al.
have demonstrated the capability of the microgel-supported catalyst by
embedding gold nanoparticles into a microgel system. They found that the
confined catalyst increased eciency to 100% by preventing aggregation of
the particles, and allowing for greater mass transport.30 Because of the high
water content that is possible in microgels, enzymes can also be placed inside rather than the metallic nanoparticle.36,37 This has been demonstrated
with glucose oxidase, which did not lose its catalytic activity when placed in a
water-saturated microgel system. This discovery could have huge industrial
implications where catalysis is needed, because natural enzymes are often
the most ecient and selective catalysts, but their complexity makes it difficult to synthetically duplicate.
10.2.3
Polymer Coreshell Structures
The concept of a polymer coreshell structure is similar to the dendrimer.

These systems typically consist of a solid core with a secondary polymer
molecule that resides on the surface.38 Often there are dierent environments throughout the structure to optimize the reaction space. Wei et al.
have demonstrated that a molecular brush structure with a Pd core can
perform well with the hydrophilic and hydrophobic substrates necessary for
conducting Suzuki reactions.39 The hydrophilic molecules stay within the
regions of the polymer while the hydrophobic substrates are adsorbed deeper, near the Pd core. It is not necessary, however, to have a metallic core
with the polymer brush. Lu and co-workers employed a nanoparticle embedding system, similar to that used in a dendrimer, to incorporate the
catalyst into a nanoreactor with a polystyrene core and PNIPA shell.40
10.2.4
Hydrophobichydrophilic Structures: Micelle,

Emulsion, and Liposome
The basic principle of these surfactant-supported structures is similar to

others such as dendrimers, microgels, and carbon nanotubes. They have
been commonly used as nanoreactors for increasing reaction rates. In systems where there are two dierent micellar structures, the micelles fuse
together to create a nanoreactor environment with high concentrations of
both reagents. The significant factor is that the smaller size of the micelles
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resulted in a higher number of mixed micelles and higher catalytic activity.

The advantage of using micelles, emulsions and liposomes as catalysts
is their recovery after the chemical product has formed. A water-soluble
Rh/TPPTS catalyst, for example, was used and the hydrogenation of PB-bPEO in mixed micelles was performed with an increase in eciency.41 Using
the small interior space of the micelle, a simple metal salt (ammonium
molybdate), was injected as an oxidation catalyst.
There are some advantages to the micelle catalyst, including an optimized
interfacial area between two immiscible solvents, the enhanced solubility of
hydrophobic substrates in an aqueous phase, and the conversion of a batch to
continuous manufacturing processes.42 Micellar support structures for metal
catalytic nanoparticles reduce aggregation, which increases the surface area
and also the catalytic potential. In addition, they also result in high solubility in
solution, and may improve the selectivity of metal nanoparticle catalysts.20,4346 Encapsulators are most commonly spherical in shape, but they can
also be fiber-like polymer. Polymer nanotubes with PdRh nanoparticles embedded in them catalyze the hydrogenation reaction of double and triple
bonds, control distribution of reagents, and also increase their stability.47
A maximum reaction rate is obtained at a certain emulsion size
(Bhundreds of nanometres). Generally, the particle size and reaction rate
are inversely proportional due to the reduced surface area to volume ratio.
Larger voids inside emulsions allow for nanoparticle placement with complexes, high selectivity and control of diusion with dierent layers at the
interface. Using computer simulations, the kinetics of the reaction were
shown to rely on the surface activity of reactants and the potential barrier to
the reaction.48 It was theoretically demonstrated that the concentration of
species inside the emulsion was higher than that of the bulk phase; consequently, the reaction rate was higher. Further, an optimal drop size was
determined so that the reaction rate was maximized. As the reaction proceeded, the substrate concentration decreased while the catalyst concentration remained constant. The relationship between the maximum radius
of the emulsion and the substrate concentration was inversely proportional.49,50 This principle was also applied to forming ZrO2, CeO2,
LiMn2O4, polythiophene nanoparticles, and Ba2YCu3O7,21,22 using crosslinked acrylic emulsion polymers. Further, heterogeneous Co(III)-salen
catalyst cores were more ecient and had quicker reaction times while requiring less catalyst, than when in homogeneous form. The hydrophobic
surface prevented water from penetrating the interior where it would interfere with the reaction and eventually stop it.
The reaction rate in a micelle can also be controlled by temperature. In a
recent study, Wang et al. synthesized gold nanoparticles using a supporting
micelle structure made of poly(N-isopropylacrylamide)-b-poly(4-vinyl pyridine) (PNIPAM-b-P4VP). This specific polymer combination is thermally responsive and allowed temperature controlled rates by altering the
coordination kinetics between AuCl4 and micelles.41 Below the lower critical solution temperature (32 1C) of the micelle, the PNIPAM segments were
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hydrophilic, allowing certain reactants, such as p-aminophenol and NaBH4,

to easily reach the catalyst surface (micelle). This resulted in an increased
reaction rate, and a more ecient method to produce gold nanoparticles.
After the particles were formed, the temperature was raised above 32 1C at
which point the PNIPAM folded back onto the gold nanoparticles and hindered the reaction.
An alternative method for particle synthesis is using a reverse micelle. The
basic principle of confining the reaction to increase the reaction rate is
maintained, but hydrogen-bonding at the interface of the micelles is utilized
to produce an enzymatic reaction. The catalytic eciency was higher in the
micelle system than in a bulk solution such as water. It was concluded that
the hydrolysis reaction occurred at the interior interface, resulting in the
conversion of 2-naphthyl acetate by a-chymotrypsin.51
The macroscale structure that results from the dispersion of micelles is
the nanogel, which is a network of cross-linked polymeric particles similar to
hydrogels. Since the gel phase has recently come into the spotlight, due to its
potential applications in drug delivery and nanoreactors, the nanogel has
been studied greatly along with its networks of dispersed micelles. The size
of the nanogel was controlled by both pH and irradiation of UV light. The UV
light-responsive nanogel was made by reversibly photo-cross-linking diblock
copolymer micelles. Then the pH was reduced and this allowed for the
collapse of the micellar solution into a more condensed gel state. Inside this
nanogel, gold nanoparticles were synthesized52 via atom transfer radical
polymerization (ATRP). However, cross-linking the polymer branches creates
a stabilized micelle, but changes the catalytic properties. Catalysts
biological and syntheticwere placed inside, and substrates were selectively
passed through the micelle membrane. The cross-linking caused a reduced
diusive flux across the membrane resulting in decreased reaction
eciency.53
An accelerated reaction in a confined space is not only true of micelles, but
also liposomes. Copolymer liposomes were made to house enzymes for
greater concentration capacity, protection from proteases, and for multistage enzymatic reactions. ABA copolymer, made of hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions, spontaneously forms a liposome-like structure that has
thicker and more rigid walls. Nardin et al. put an enzyme inside then inserted membrane channels to allow for adequate diusion across the
membrane. Due to the artificial nature of the system, the protein channels
were slower but still functional in the synthetic membrane.54
Polymersomes like liposomes have widely been used as a catalyst support
structure; they are formed by the self-assembly of amphiphilic block copolymers, which builds a bilayer. Since the polymersome system encapsulates species in a sterically small space, chemical reactions are accelerated
due to a higher concentration of species. However, their demerit is a low
permeability through the bilayer, which results in a high concentration of
product in the interior region. So people have attempted to synthetically
replicate the functions of natural enzymes, but natural enzymes are very
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complex. Attempts have been made to copy them by taking a molecule in the
transition state and stamping it into a polymer; the idea being that the most
energetic parts will be identified, and leave behind a stabilizing molecule on
the mold polymer. However, this seems very dicult and isnt as eective as
some metal nanoparticle based catalysts.55 In order to fix this problem,
channel proteins or proton pumps were placed in the bilayer so that substrate molecules could easily diuse in and out.56,57 Further, an easier synthesis method has been developed by incorporating an additional block
copolymer, which intrinsically provided the porous bilayer. Later, researchers improved the polymersomes as multifunctional nanocatalysts,
which allowed biochemical reactions not only inside the polymersomes but
also on the surface.5860
10.3 Absorbing Nanocatalyst Surface

10.3.1
Micelle and Emulsion
Since reactant concentrations are higher at interfaces in emulsions than in

the bulk phase, the interface of a droplet in an emulsion is a special medium
for an accelerated reaction. The locally high concentration of molecules
accelerates the reactions in which substrates and catalysts can be concentrated in micelles. In a modified approach, small polymer particles are
used to accumulate hydrophobic substrates. The reaction rate of poly(Nvinylcaprolactam-co-1-vinylimidazole) and poly(N-isopropylacrylamide-co-1vinylimidazole) was increased due to concentrated substrate at the interface
of aggregates, and obeyed theoretical MichaelisMenten kinetics.61 The reaction rate of p-nitrophenyl diphenyl phosphate increased the amount of
positively charged surfactant such as cetyltrimethylammonium chloride
(CTACI).62,63 Further, horseradish peroxidase (HRP) was attached on the
surface of polymersomes to convert 2,2 0 -azinobis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6sulfonic acid) (ABTA) into ABTS1.64
10.3.2
Carbon Nanotubes
In addition to the polymer-based support systems for catalysis, carbon

nanotubes (CNT) have demonstrated their ability to increase catalytic eciency. These increases in eciency can be due to improved protection of
the catalyst species, similar to the eects described for polymer systems
earlier, but additionally, the properties of the CNT can act as a stabilizing
force for reducing activation energies and increasing reaction rates.6567 Of
course, CNTs have unique mechanical properties, but they are also unique in
their electron configuration.68,69 Depending on the orientation of the CNT,
the electronic structure changes and, consequently, there are dierent
interactions with the catalysts inside SWCNTs.70 Li et al. suggested that the
electrons of bis(cyclopentadienyl) cobalt and bis(ethyl-cyclopentadienyl) cobalt nanoparticles encapsulated in CNTs are more readily transferred
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between the particle and interior surface than when on the outer surface.
For the control of metal nanoparticle catalysts, the chemical and catalytic
properties of atoms at corners or edges is dierent. So the way the CNT
(also applies to polymer-based structures) attaches may change the catalytic
properties.73 The walls of the CNT are polarized, which may seem odd for a
network of carboncarbon single bonds, but it is this dipolar interaction
between the CNT interior and the embedded catalytic species that can stabilize a transition state and promote more ecient product formation. The
Menshutkin reaction, an SN2 mechanism, showed significant increase in
reaction rate when conducted within a CNT, evidenced by a reduction in the
endothermicity and reaction energy barrier.74
10.4 Conclusion
The nanoscale catalyst has been developed within the last couple of decades,
in the hopes of making industrial processes cheaper, greener, and more
ecient. The nanospace inside nanoreactor structures accelerated chemical
and biochemical reactions due to increased concentrations; it also improved
the selectivity of reactions due to the dierent mechanisms of reagent isolation and selection. However, it is not necessary for these catalysts to be
confined to produce higher eciency rates; this can also be achieved by
increasing the surface area or by stabilizing the catalytic species, such as in
dendrimers and other stabilization procedures. More complex systems,
where a cascading eect that utilizes two or more catalysts, are currently
being developed, mainly for biological scenarios where an enzymatic chain
is desirable. The scale at which it is now possible to isolate and control
environments allows for greater eciency with less chemical waste, thus
allowing industries to expand their capability while maintaining the state of
the environment. Carbon nanotubes, dendrimers, polymers, and emulsion
systems, all work to exploit the dierences that occur at small scales. If
successful, the way certain industries operate can change dramatically, and
the desire to control various chemical reactions can be realized.
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CHAPTER 11
Nanoparticle Mediated Clock

Reaction: a Redox Phenomenon
TARASANKAR PAL* AND CHAITI RAY
Department of Chemistry, IIT Kharagpur, Kharagpur, West Bengal 721302,
India
In 1803 Berthollet introduced the concept of a reversible chemical reaction.

He questioned the deposition of sodium carbonate in one of the lakes in
Egypt and got the idea of a reversible reaction. In general, the hardness of
water due to CaCl2 is removed by Na2CO3. Soluble calcium ions are expelled
from a body of water as the insoluble precipitate CaCO3 and eventually, the
water becomes soft. However, in the lake, the reverse reaction was observed.
Naturally occurring limestone, CaCO3, was dissolved in the lake water,
bearing a high concentration of common salt, NaCl. Excess NaCl present in
the lake water reversed the familiar reaction. Thus Berthollet, for the first
time, proposed that there exists an equilibrium between the reactants and
products.
The familiar reaction is:
Na2CO3 CaCl2"2NaCl CaCO3k
This removes the hardness and a possible reversal of the reaction takes
place in lakes. This is an unique and natural consequence.
Theoretically, all reactions are now considered to be reversible, even if
the reaction is a redox one. However, if the free energy changes of a reaction
are large, the equilibrium constant, K, becomes large and the reaction is
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Chapter 11
considered to be irreversible. In an extreme case where one of the products

escapes as a volatile gas, then the reaction becomes irreversible.
There are certain classes of reactions that serve as an example of nonequilibrium thermodynamics. The reactions are theoretically important and
they show that chemical reactions do not have to be dominated by equilibrium thermodynamic behavior. A reactions in which the concentration of
one or more components changes periodically, or a certain property of the
reactant changes after a predicted time, is known as a clock reaction. The
clock reaction is a popular example of a redox reaction in which dramatic
color changes engross the viewers. One of the best known of these is the
Landolt clock reaction between sulfite and excess iodate, which dates back to
1886. After that, dozens of interesting redox reactions have been documented in the literature as a clock reaction. Quite often, these reactions are
simply crowd-pleasing demonstrations.
11.1 History
There are many reports of clock reactions in the field of chemistry describing
the reversible pathway of a process that takes place periodically. The following are popular demonstrations.
11.1.1
Iodine Clock Reaction
In 1886, Hans Heinrich Landolt reported the clock reaction between bisulfite
and excess iodate known as the iodine clock reaction. Here, two colorless
solutions are mixed and left for some time. After a short time lag, the colorless solution gradually turns dark blue. The reaction starts with an easily
available common reagent such as potassium iodate and an acidic solution
of sodium bisulfite (acidified with sulfuric acid) in the presence of starch.
In this protocol, an iodide ion is generated by the following slow reaction
between the iodate and bisulfite:
IO3 3HSO3-I 3HSO4
This is the rate determining step. Excess iodate will oxidize the iodide
generated in the last step to form iodine:
IO3 5I 6H1-3I2 3H2O
However, the iodine is reduced immediately back to iodide by the
bisulfite:
I2 HSO3 H2O-2I HSO4 2H1
When the bisulfite is fully consumed, the iodine will survive to form the
dark blue complex with starch.
The solution will repeatedly cycle from colorless to blue and back to colorless, until the reagents are depleted.1
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11.1.2
205
BZ Reaction
The BelousovZhabotinsky (BZ) reaction is one of a class of oscillating

chemical reactions. The only common element in these oscillating systems
is the inclusion of bromine and an acid.2 The discovery of the phenomenon
is attributed to Boris Belousov who mixed a solution of potassium bromate,
cerium(IV) sulfate, and citric acid in dilute sulfuric acid. The solution oscillates between a yellow solution and a colorless solution as the ratio of the
concentration of cerium(IV) to cerium(III) ions alternates; this is due to the
cerium(IV) ions being reduced by malonic acid to cerium(III) ions, which are
then oxidized back to cerium(IV) ions by bromate(V) ions. Later, in 1964,
Anatoly Zhabotinsky rediscovered this reaction sequence.3 In this case, ferroin, a complex of phenanthroline and iron, was used as a common indicator. Mainly, this is a cerium-catalyzed oxidation of malonic acid by a
bromate ion in the presence of dilute sulfuric acid. The overall equation is
given:
3CH2(CO2H)2 4BrO3-4Br 9CO2 6H2O
This process involves following three solutions: solution A contains
0.23 M KBrO3, solution B is a mixture of 0.31 M malonic acid and
0.059 M KBr and solution C consists of 0.019 M cerium(IV) ammonium nitrate and 2.7 M sulfuric acid.
This oscillatory cycle can be qualitatively described in the following way:
when a suciently high Ce(IV) concentration is present in the system, Br
will be produced rapidly and its concentration will also be high. As a result,
autocatalytic oxidation of Ce(III) is completely inhibited, and the [Ce(IV)]
decreases due to its reduction by malonic acid. Then, the concentration of
Br decreases along with that of [Ce(IV)]. When [Ce(IV)] reaches its lower
threshold, the bromide ion concentration drops abruptly. The rapid autocatalytic oxidation starts and rises [Ce(IV)]. When [Ce(IV)] reaches its higher
threshold, [Br] increases sharply and inhibits the autocatalytic oxidation of
Ce31. The cycle then repeats (Figure 11.1).48
The reaction turns from green to blue, purple, and red, which arise due to
the oxidation and reduction of iron and cerium complexes. When [Ce(IV)]
increases in the system, it oxidizes the iron of ferroin from the red Fe(II) to
the blue Fe(III). Ce(III) is colorless but Ce(IV) is yellow, which turns green in
the presence of blue Fe(III).
11.1.3
BrayLiebhafsky Reaction
William C. Bray described the first oscillating reaction in a stirred solution

for the first time in 1921. Here, the role of iodate was investigated in the
catalytic conversion of H2O2 to oxygen and water. Further, his student
Herman A. Liebhafsky investigated the involvement of free radicals in a nonradical step and the modified reaction is known as the BrayLiebhafsky
reaction.9,10
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Chapter 11
Figure 11.1
Schematic representation of a BZ reaction.
Fundamentally, in this reaction, the redox potential value of H2O2 enables

the simultaneous oxidation of iodine to iodate:
5H2O2 I2-2IO3 2H1 4H2O
And the opposite reduction reaction:
5H2O2 2IO3 2H1-I2 5O2 6H2O
The net reaction is:
2H2O2-2H2O O2
But the presence of a catalyst and IO3 are essential.
11.1.4
BriggsRauscher Reaction
In 1972, the BriggsRauscher reaction was discovered by replacing the bromate in the BZ reaction with iodate and hydrogen peroxide. Optionally,
starch is used as an indicator for the abrupt change in iodide ion concentration. This reaction is very important in demonstrating the purpose of an
oscillating chemical reaction in which a colorless solution is gradually
transformed to an amber solution and is suddenly changed into a dark blue
solution.
Initially, the aqueous solution consists of hydrogen peroxide, an iodate,
divalent manganese (Mn21) as a catalyst, a strong chemically unreactive acid
such as sulfuric acid (H2SO4) or perchloric acid (HClO4), and an organic
compound such as malonic acid with an active hydrogen atom attached to
carbon which will slowly reduce free iodine (I2) to iodide (I). The reaction
shows habitual cyclic changes, both gradual and sudden, which are visibly
slow changes in the intensity of color, interrupted by abrupt changes in
color. This demonstrates that a dicult arrangement of slow and fast reactions is taking place simultaneously. In the slow process, free iodine is
consumed by malonic acid involving an intermediate species, iodate.
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The second step involves a fast auto-catalytic process containing manganese

and free radical intermediates, which converts hydrogen peroxide and iodate
to free iodine and oxygen. The slow generation of the amber solution is due
to the formation of iodine through the second step. After completion of the
second step, a sudden increase in the concentration of iodide gives a dark
blue color in the presence of starch. But because the first step continues, the
blue color is slowly faded out.11 This reaction is generally used as an assay
procedure for antioxidants in foodstus.
11.1.5
The Blue Bottle Experiment
A chemical reaction in a closed bottle containing an aqueous solution of

glucose, sodium hydroxide, methylene blue and some air that transforms a
colorless reduced product to the blue colored methylene blue after gentle
shaking is described as the blue bottle reaction. The blue color of the
methylene blue is decolorized due to the reduction of methylene blue to
leucomethylene blue by glucose. Glucose itself is oxidized to gluconic acid,
which is converted into sodium gluconate under the alkaline conditions.
When the bottle is shaken in air, the oxygen in the air oxidizes the leucomethylene blue to methylene blue. After the solution comes to rest, glucose
again reduces methylene blue and the color of the solution disappears again.
This reaction is first order with respect to glucose, sodium hydroxide,
methylene blue and zero order with respect to oxygen in the air. If the solution is heated stepwise from 10 1C to a maximum of 50 1C, the color
change process requires less time. This incident agrees with the rules of
chemical kinetics, with the increase in temperature resulting in an increase
in reaction rate by a factor of two to four.12
11.2 Recent Work

Recently, many reports have appeared in print that circumvent reversible
redox reactions. Again, one such reaction may be described taking coinage
metals (Cu, Ag and Au) into consideration. The nobility of coinage metals
varies from copper through to gold. Their redox chemistry also diers
markedly. We know that gold is the noblest amongst these three coinage
metals. The same feature, i.e. nobility, of these three metals truly exists while
they are taken to their nanodimension (109 metres). Silver occupies an
intermediate position in the 11th group of the periodic table and it has redox
properties in between copper and gold. Consider that silver particles with
much smaller particles in solution would exhibit a yellow color with an intense band in the 380400 nm range in an absorption spectrum. This band is
attributed to a collective oscillation of the electrons in the particles, with a
periodic change in electron density at the surface (surface Plasmon absorption) of the particles. Copper, silver and gold nanoparticles show a rich
Plasmon band in the visible range, unlike the other noble metal hydrosols.
Platinum, palladium and other metallic nanoparticles show featureless
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absorption spectra in the visible region. Thus, a crowd-pleasing demonstration can easily be achieved from coinage metals, and the best of these is
the silver nanoparticle redox reaction. The Plasmon absorption, i.e. the coherent oscillation of the valence electron with the impinging electromagnetic radiation interacting with metal nanoparticle surfaces, is easily
demonstrated taking silver into consideration. The absorption maximum
due to stabilized metal nanoparticles varies with particle size, shape and also
with the dielectric medium that stabilizes the nanoparticles. The metal
nanoparticles become progressively reactive as the size decreases. Henglein
described a pushpull reduction method for the preparation of plausibly
monodisperse silver particles in aqueous solution.13 Slow particle growth is
achieved in this method by simultaneously reducing Ag1 ions and partially
oxidizing Ag particles. In particular, a narrow surface Plasmon band at
382 nm was generated for the formation of Ag(0) particles in the solution.
In this investigation, the particles used were prepared by the fast reduction
of Ag1 ions and they had a broader Plasmon absorption band. Figure 11.2
shows the absorption spectrum before and after addition of two concentrations of iodide to the silver sol. It can be seen that the absorption band is
broadened and slightly red-shifted.
Figure 11.2
Absorption spectrum before and after the addition of various concentrations of KI. At [KI] 10 pM, full coverage of the surface of the
particles was reached, as a further increase in the KI concentration
did not lead to additional changes in the shape of the absorption
band; the CTTS absorption band of free I- appeared at [KI]410 pM.
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Below a critical size, the coinage metal nanoparticles also show featureless
absorption curves in the visible region like platinum, palladium etc. These
particles (sub-nanometre particles) are called metallic clusters.14 It is very
dicult to deal with them in solution because of their pronounced reactivity,
identification and stabilization problems. It is also a dicult task to obtain
catalytic activity from these sub-nanometre particles because the easy access
to their surfaces is lost once they are stabilized by a capping agent.
Metal hydrosol bears a negative charge, which is the manifestation of the
capping agent present on the nanoparticles surface. A capping agent may be
replaced by a place exchange reaction with another suitable capping agent.
Still, they may remain as charged particles. Interestingly, the capping agent
may be replaced by neutral long chain amines, thiols, proteins etc. The metal
nanoparticles remain stable and retain their identity with these capping
agents. Then the particles are said to be sterically stabilized and the phenomenon is known as steric stabilization (Figure 11.3).
To elaborate on the fascinating reversible reaction, dilute AgNO3 solution
(104105 M) may be placed in a test tube as a representative coinage metal
salt. Dilute ice cold NaBH4 (0.01 M) has to be introduced into the test tube
with vigorous stirring. A transparent and stable yellow silver hydrosol would
be obtained.15 The sol particles as usual would bear a negative charge, which
makes the silver particles stable due to Coulombs interaction (Figure 11.4).
The maximum absorption of the solution would appear at B400 nm.
Excess BH4 would remain as adsorbed ions, i.e. the adsorbate BH4 on the
silver nanoparticles. Before the decomposition of BH4 ions, if some surfactant molecules are introduced, a dramatic reversible redox reaction may
be observed. Upon shaking the yellow solution, the color completely disappears and then reappears, keeping the solution for some time. The whole
operation may be summarized as a crowd-pleasing demonstration: NaBH4
reduces AgNO3 into small silver nanoparticles. The particles are in the
nanodimension (o50 nm) and they impart a yellow color (Plasmon absorption) to the solution. Excess BH4, more diusive than NO3 or OH,
would adhere onto the silver nanoparticle surfaces. This would shift the
Fermi level towards a more negative region (Figure 11.5).
Thus oxygen in the air would easily oxidize the silver particles surface.
Surfactant in the reaction medium would dissolve out the oxide layer
Figure 11.3
Steric stabilization.
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Chapter 11
Figure 11.4
Electrostatic stabilization.
Figure 11.5
Schematic representation of a shift in Fermi potential after adsorption

of a nucleophile (N).
successively from the silver particles surface. The oxidation and surfactantassisted removal of the oxide layer would take place after the oxidation of the
silver surface by air, but in the presence of a strong nucleophile, such as
BH4 (in the present case) or a cyanide ion (in the other). As a result of
oxidation, the silver nanoparticles would be smaller (more reactive) and finally would dissolve/disappear upon shaking. Oxygen in the air assists the
oxidation. Now, the unstirred colorless solution with argento cyanide, still
with excess NaBH4, would again evolve silver nanoparticles. This reversible
cycle would go on and on, just shaking and standing for oxidation (disappearance of the yellow color) and reduction (re-appearance of the yellow
color), respectively, for a crowd-pleasing demonstration (Figure 11.6). This
can even be demonstrated with Au(III) chloride.16
11.2.1
Clock Reaction of Methylene Blue
Methylene blue is a water-soluble, cationic, organic dye with a thiazine group

in its basic skeleton. Blue colored methylene blue is easily reduced to the
colorless leucomethylene blue by a reducing agent. The reduced form is
prone to oxidation by oxygen in the air after gentle shaking and is again
transformed into methylene blue. This visual color change for the oxidation
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Figure 11.6
211
Mechanism of the reversible formation and dissolution of silver

nanoparticles.
and reduction processes makes the clock reaction of methylene blue important in chemistry and biological systems.
Snehalatha et al.17 demonstrated the clock reaction of methylene blue
using ascorbic acid as a reducing agent. Here, a reduction was performed in
the presence of dilute sulfuric acid. It was observed that with an increase in
acid concentration, the time of reaction decreased, that is, the rate of the
reduction gradually increased. The clear and visible color change made the
reaction simple and so the mechanism of the reaction is easy to explain.
But in the absence of a catalyst, the reduction process becomes time
consuming. So, a methylene blue-ascorbate ion redox reaction has been
catalyzed by a micellar system in which catalysis occurred by the binding of
the substrates onto the micellar surface by hydrophobic and electrostatic
interactions. The rate of the reaction increases with an increase in the
possibility of encounters. In this case, the eect of various salting-in and
salting-out agents, size of reverse micellar water pool, and hydrophobicity of
the dye were studied and no change in reaction rate was found. The reversible electron-transfer reactions for the MB-AA- and MB-BH4- systems
become facile in the presence of coinage metal sol particles as catalysts
(Figure 11.7).18
Additionally, it has been shown that Au nanocrystals act as an eective
catalyst for the reduction of nitrobenzene to aniline and methylene blue to
leucomethylene blue in the presence of NaBH4 and N2H4, respectively, as
reducing agents (Figure 11.8).19
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Figure 11.7
Chapter 11
Model of the reaction conditions prevailing in a (a) cationic micelle,

(b) anionic micelle, and (c) neutral micelle.
Only a few noble metals in the elemental form are present in our Earths
crust. However, most metals combine with oxygen and form a binary
compoundan oxide. Oxides are robust and have proved to be excellent
catalysts. Proper tuning of an oxide structure might develop a good semiconductor. Then the semiconductor may be useful for scavenging solar light.
The bottle neck with most oxide materials is their tendency to be activated
under ultraviolet light. Thus, there is a necessity for tuning the size, shape
and/or doping the oxides to make them visible light photocatalysts. The
other aspect of oxide materials is their usefulness in chemical reactions. In
the present context, it may be shown that metallic oxides also exhibit reversible redox reactions.
The popular Fehling test for aldehyde detection and quantification results
in precipitating cuprous oxide, Cu2O. An orecuprite or red copper oxide,
Cu2Ooccurs in nature. This is an unique monovalent simple compound of
copper. In the bulk stage, red Cu2O gets stabilized as a robust crystal.
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Figure 11.8
213
Digital images of the decolorizationcolorization reaction of MB

(i.e., color fading and regeneration of MB) in the presence of an Au
catalyst.
One can restrict the growth of Cu2O in solution and in the nanodimension,
Cu2O remains as a yellow solid, which has been exploited as a catalyst to
exhibit reversible clock reactions.3 One challenge is to take bulk Cu2O to a
nanoregime and to stabilize it in solution. Cu2O in its nanoregime would act
as a photocatalyst. We report a new synthetic protocol to obtain monodisperse, stable, exclusively cubic Cu2O nanoparticles under surfactant-free
conditions and its catalytic action in the methylene blue (MB)-hydrazine
reaction in an aqueous medium. The blue color of the dye, MB, faded away
upon the addition of hydrazine, producing colorless leucomethylene blue
(LMB), indicating the progress of the redox reaction. The rate of this redox
reaction has been found to be enhanced in the presence of the nanocatalyst,
Cu2O. The success of the reaction demonstrates a simple clock reaction. An
oscillation between a blue MB color and colorless solution due to the formation of LMB is observed on periodic shaking. This oscillation continues
for over 15 cycles. Studies on the eect of bulk Cu2O and nanoparticles of
CuO and Cu(0) have not been successful for the demonstration of the clock
reaction. Thus, the importance of Cu2O nanoparticles in the clock reaction
is established beyond doubt. The electrochemical studies indicate that nanoCu2O shows a couple of redox peaks, which correspond to the redox Cu(II)
Cu(I) system. Kinetic studies authenticate a first-order reaction mechanism.
Further, quantum chemical calculations reveal that the nanoparticles reduce
the activation energy by B17 kcal mol1, thereby making the reaction
2.4107 times faster compared to the gas phase (Figure 11.9).20
Truncated Cu2O cubes have been successfully synthesized using a stable
Cu(II)-EDTA precursor and glucose as the reducing agent under alkaline
conditions and five minutes of microwave irradiation. Interestingly, in the
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Figure 11.9
Chapter 11
Schematic representation of the clock reaction (i.e. color fading and

regeneration of MB).
presence of Cu2O particles, the blue-colored methylene blue (MB) in aqueous

acidic (pHE1.0) solution is successively bleached to a colorless leucoMB
(LMB). The redox reaction generates a colorless solution that easily reverts
back to blue in air. The reversible color change, i.e. oscillation between a
blue MB solution and a colorless LMB solution, happens to be a periodic
phenomenon for more than 50 cycles and is reproducibly demonstrated as a
simple clock reaction. Under acidic (pHE3.0) conditions, redox phenomena favor zero-order kinetics. Dilute H2SO4 has been proven to be the best
choice to provide a passive reaction medium, and the undisturbed reaction
mixture showed oscillatory behavior even after one month (Figure 11.10).21
A clock reaction of methylene blue by sodium borohydride in the presence
of selenium nanowire with a metalloid as a catalyst has been carried out.
With the addition of borohydride solution in methylene blue solution containing a nanocatalyst, the color of the solution disappeared, confirming the
formation of leucomethylene blue. In air, after gentle shaking of the mixture,
the colorless solution turned blue, indicating air oxidation of leucomethylene blue. This amazing reversible color alteration went on for 30 to 50 cycles
depending upon the quantity of catalyst added. The same procedure was
followed for bulk selenium, but it failed to show the clock reaction. Again,
sodium borohydride solution could not bleach the color of methylene blue
in the absence of a nanocatalyst. This reduction reaction undergoes two
processes. In the first step, the rate of the reduction is slow. This step is
designated as the induction period, which occurred due to the surface
oxidation of the selenium nanowire in an aqueous medium. This reduced
the catalytic property of the catalyst, after which the rate became slow.
Then, the reducing agent donated an electron to the catalysts surface; after
that, the catalyst was capable of transferring electrons to methylene blue.
After this, the electron transfer rate of the reduction increased gradually.
Noble metal deposited selenium nanowire enhances the rate of the clock
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Figure 11.10
215
Schematic representation of the clock reaction involving MB and

Cu2O in acidic pH.
reaction compared to selenium nanowire due to the high conducting

property of the noble metal.
11.3 Mechanistic Approach

In the clock reaction, a reducing agent reacts with an oxidizing compound in
the presence of a solid catalyst surface. The reaction on the catalysts surface
proceeds via two steps: adsorption of one or more reactants on the catalysts
surface and product formation. One of the steps is the rate determining step.
To explain the above phenomenon, two mechanisms are proposed: the Eley
Rideal mechanism and the LangmuirHinshelwood mechanism.
11.3.1
EleyRideal Mechanism
Here, one of the reactants (A), generally a reducing agent, is adsorbed on the
catalysts surface and reacts with another reactant (B) present in the system.
Then the newly formed product desorbs from the catalysts surface
(Figure 11.11).22
A S (support)"AS
AS B-Product (P)
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Chapter 11
Figure 11.11
Representation of the EleyRideal mechanism.
Figure 11.12
Representation of the LangmuirHinshelwood mechanism.
11.3.2
LangmuirHinshelwood Mechanism
In this case, reducing agent (A) adsorbed on the catalystss surface, reacts
with the surface and transfers surface-hydrogen species to the catalysts
surface. Again, another reactant (B) is also adsorbed on the catalysts surface.
Both steps are assumed to be fast and also termed as Langmuir isotherm.
Now, reactant B reacts with the adsorbed surface-hydrogen species and is
reduced. After completion of the reaction, the new product apart from
catalyst and again the vacant catalyst surface is ready for repetitive reduction
cycles (Figure 11.12).23
A Support (S)"AS
B Support (S)"BS
AS BS-Product (P)
11.4 Applications
The clock reaction of methylene blue is used in various applications such as:
11.4.1
Water Purification
A plasma jet is used for water purification. A plasma jet produced in

water using a submerged ac excited electrode in a coaxial dielectric
barrier discharge configuration was studied. The set-up contains an
oxidationreduction indicator methylene blue dye to show the clearing of
the water visually and also spectrophotometrically.24
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11.4.2
217
Memory Facilitation by Methylene Blue and Brain

Oxygen Consumption
Incorporation of methylene blue improves memory in prevention avoidance

and appetitive tasks. It helps to restore impaired spatial memory by behaving
as an inhibitor of cytochrome oxidase. Methylene blue also develops the
memory by escalating the utilization of oxygen present in brain. In this case,
the reduced form, leucomethylene blue, is used as an indicator for brain
oxygen and it increased the oxygen consumption, whereas methylene blue is
involved in cytochrome C oxidation measurement.25
11.4.3
Novel UV-activated Colorimetric Oxygen Indicator
Oxygen plays an important and significant role in analytical chemistry and

in a variety of other areas. So, it is essential to detect and measure the
presence of oxygen in a gaseous phase or dissolved in solution, because
oxygen is an important feature in environmental analysis, patient monitoring and biotechnology. Methylene blue is used as an indicator for oxygen
detection where MB is reduced by triethanolamine using UV irradiation in
the presence of TiO2.26
11.5 Conclusion
In this chapter, we have described various types of clock reaction, which is
mainly controlled by a reversible redox mediated reaction. In most cases, the
oxidizing agent is a dye or colored molecule, which is reduced by a general
reducing agent; in this context, two reaction mechanisms are discussed in
the preceding section. To make the reduction process facile, various nanocatalysts are used. An investigation into the clock reaction with new catalysts
or dye molecules will be very fascinating.
References
1. H. Landolt, Ber. Dtsch. Chem. Ges., 1886, 19, 1317.
2. B. P. Belousov, Collection of Abstracts on Radiation Medicine, 1959,
147, 145.
3. A. M. Zhabotinsky, Biophysics, 1964, 9, 306.
4. R. J. Field, E. Koros and R. M. Noyes, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1972, 94, 8649.
5. R. J. Field and R. M. Noyes, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1974, 96, 2001.
6. I. R. Epstein and K. Showalter, J. Phys. Chem., 1996, 100, 13132.
7. Z. Nagy-Ungvarai, J. J. Tyson and B. Hess, J. Phys. Chem., 1989, 93, 707.
8. V. K. Vanag, L. F. Yang, M. Dolnik, A. M. Zhabotinsky and I. R. Epstein,
Nature, 2000, 406, 389.
9. W. C. Bray, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1921, 43, 1262.
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11. T. S. Briggs and W. C. Rauscher, J. Chem. Educ., 1973, 50, 496.
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12. L. Anderson, S. M. Wittkopp, C. J. Painter, J. J. Liegel, R. Schreiner,

J. A. Bell and B. Z. Shakhashiri, J. Chem. Educ., 2012, 89, 1425.
13. M. Gutierrez and A. Henglein, J. Phys. Chem., 1993, 97, 11368.
14. H. Xu and K. S. Suslick, Adv. Mater., 2010, 22, 1078.
15. J. A. Creighton, C. G. Blatchford and M. G. Albrecht, J. Chem. Soc.,
Faraday Trans. 2, 1979, 75, 790.
16. T. Pal, T. K. Sau and N. R. Jana, Langmuir, 1997, 13, 1481.
17. T. Snehalatha, K. C. Rajanna and P. K. Saiprakash, J. Chem. Educ., 1997,
74, 228.
18. T. Pal, S. De, N. R. Jana, N. Pradhan, R. Mandal, A. Pal, A. E. Beezer and
J. C. Mitchell, Langmuir, 1998, 14, 4724.
19. A. K. Sinha, M. Basu, S. Sarkar, M. Pradhan and T. Pal, J. Colloid Interface
Sci., 2013, 398, 13.
20. S. Pande, S. Jana, S. Basu, A. K. Sinha, A. Datta and T. Pal, J. Phys. Chem.
C, 2008, 112, 3619.
21. M. Basu, A. K. Sinha, M. Pradhan, S. Sarkar, A. Pal, C. Mondal and T. Pal,
J. Phys. Chem. C, 2012, 116, 25741.
22. Y. Khalavka, J. Becker and C. Sonnichsen, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2009,
131, 1871.
23. S. Wunder, F. Polzer, Y. Lu, Y. Mei and M. Ballau, J. Phys. Chem. C,
2010, 114, 8814.
24. J. E. Foster, B. Weatherford, E. Gillman and B. Yee, Plasma Sources Sci.
Technol., 2010, 19, 1.
25. P. D. Riha, A. K. Bruchey, D. J. Echevarria and F. Gonzalez-Lima, Eur.
J. Pharmacol., 2005, 511, 151.
26. S. Lee, M. Sheridan and A. Mills, Chem. Mater., 2005, 17, 2744.
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CHAPTER 12
Theoretical Insights into Metal

Nanocatalysts
PING LIU
Chemistry Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton,
NY 11973, United States of America
12.1 Introduction
Catalysis has been essential to life and as a frontier in science. Transportation
fuels, lubricants, chlorine-free refrigerants, high-strength polymers, stainresistant fibers, drugs, and many thousands of other products required by
modern societies would not be possible without the existence of catalysts.1
Most catalysts consist of nanometre-sized particles dispersed on a highsurface-area support. Metal nanocatalysts have a high surface-to-volume ratio
and very active surface atoms, and are very attractive for a wide variety of
reactions, compared to bulk catalysts.26 The nature of the active phase(s) in
these metal/support catalysts and the reaction mechanism are still unclear.
What are the eects of size, shape and support on the catalytic properties? It
is extremely dicult to obtain such necessary details from current experimental techniques, which has been an obstacle in understanding their
structure-dependent catalytic activity and selectivity and therefore hinders
further catalyst development.
Over the past few decades, advances in methodology, software and the
power of supercomputers have made computational approaches, specifically
density functional theory (DFT), capable of providing qualitative, and in
many cases quantitative, insights into catalysis.2,3,718 In this chapter, we will
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report our recent DFT studies on metal and supported metal nanocatalysts.
In section 2, DFT and DFT codes that we used will briefly be introduced.
Section 3 will address the DFT studies of catalysis on unsupported metal
nanocatalysts. The eect of support on the catalytic behavior of metal
nanocatalysts will be discussed in section 4. As you will see in this chapter,
theoretical studies play a very important role. It describes catalytic reactions
on nanocatalysts with the detail and accuracy required for computational
results to compare with experiments in a meaningful way. More importantly,
it gives insights into the size and shape eects of nanocatalysts on catalyst
activity and stability. Such understanding can lead to the rational design of
better catalysts.
12.2 Computational Method

Depending on the capability of describing the time scale of chemical reactions and the length-scale of materials, the computational method ranges
from quantum mechanics, molecular dynamics, kinetic theory and statistical mechanics to continuum theory. The accuracy increases from continuum theory to quantum mechanics, while the capable time scale
decreases from real time to pico-second and the length decreases from
macro-scale to the atomic scale. So far, DFT has been widely employed for
many catalysis applications.
dinger equation, where the
DFT was used to attempt to solve the Schro
kinetic and potential energies are transformed into the Hamiltonian and act
upon the wavefunction to generate the evolution of the wavefunction in time
and space.1921 It is derived directly from theoretical principles with no experimental data, providing accurate and reliable theoretical results with
reasonable computational costs. DFT permits more realistic models of the
intrinsic reaction than can be aorded by other quantum mechanical
methods and is likely the one that oers a compromise between accuracy
and computational cost as the system increases in size.
The DFT calculations reported below were carried out using DMol3,22,23
CASTEP,24 and VASP.2527 These codes utilize numerical (DMol3) or planewave (CASTEP, VASP) basis sets, and allow DFT calculations at the GGA level
with the PW91, PBE or RPBE functional. DMol3 can be used to study
molecules, nanoparticles, and periodic surfaces with the same level of
accuracy.22,23
12.3 Metal Nanocatalysts

Size and shape have been considered as the main parameters to explain
the dierent catalytic behaviors of metal nanoparticles from their parent
bulk materials.28,29 With the variation in size and shape, the intrinsic
catalytic properties of the material may change due to a combination of
localized coordination eects, surface site distribution, surface relaxation
and quantum size eects.30,31 However, even the most careful experimental
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measurements provide diculty in deconvoluting these eects. Thus, in

spite of the profound influence that these changes can have on catalytic
properties, they remain relatively poorly understood.
12.3.1
Copper Nanocatalysts for WaterGas Shift Reactions:

the Importance of Low-coordinated Sites
The watergas shift (WGS, CO H2O-CO2 H2) reaction is primarily used

to increase the H2 content as well as reducing the CO concentration in
synthesis gas and is an essential part of a hydrogen plant.32 Current industrial catalysts (Zn-Al-Cu oxides) are pyrophoric and require complex activation steps before usage.33 Recent studies show that the disadvantages of
the industrial catalysts can be overcome by the use of Cu nanoparticles
supported on an oxide (CeO2, TiO2, MoO2).7,10,11,3438 Various eects have
been proposed to be of fundamental importance to the catalytic activity of
the supported nanoparticles, including size, shape, the metal oxidation
state, the degree of reduction of the oxide support and/or the metaloxide
interactions. There is a clear need for a better understanding of the underlying mechanism of the WGS over metal and metal/oxide catalysts for optimizing their performance.
We employed DFT-GGA calculations to investigate the WGS on Cu surfaces
and nanoparticles, aiming to understand the role of Cu in the WGS reaction.3 To model a Cu nanocatalyst, a Cu29 model (Figure 12.1) is adopted
with a size of B1.2 nm. It exhibits a pyramidal structure formed by the
interconnection of the (111) and (100) faces of the bulk metals, which have
been observed on CeO2(111) with scanning tunneling microscopy.3 A distortion from a C4v pyramid to a C2v boat-shaped structure was observed for
Cu29 after full geometry optimization. This gives a high number of atoms
exposed in the (111) face, the most stable orientation for Cu. We checked
that the distorted geometry does not have any imaginary frequency and
therefore corresponds to a local minimum. Thus, Cu29 can be taken as a
reasonable models for unsupported nanocatalysts.
Figure 12.1 shows the lowest energy pathway for the WGS reaction on
Cu29. The catalytic cycle starts with a bare Cu29 nanoparticle and gas-phase
CO and H2O, which is followed by CO and H2O adsorption, H2O dissociation
to H and OH, CO oxidation with OH to form carboxyl HOCO species and
HOCO dissociation into CO2 and H. The cycle is closed with CO2 and H2
desorbed from the surface and the bare Cu29. The micro-kinetic modeling
based on the DFT calculations shows that the overall WGS rate is faster on
Cu29 than Cu(100). A similar trend is also observed for Au. The predicted
trend in WGS rate for Cu, Au nanoparticles and surfaces agrees well with the
experimental measurements on model catalysts (Figure 12.2).
According to the DFT calculations, H2O dissociation is the most dicult
step along the WGS reaction path for both surface and nanoparticle, which
slows down the overall WGS rate on Cu and Au. The enhanced WGS activity
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Chapter 12
Figure 12.1
DFT calculated energy profiles for the WGS on Cu29 (red) and Cu(100)
(black). Thin bar: intermediate; thick bar: transition state. Inset: CO,
H and OH adsorbed on Cu29. Brown: Cu; red: O; grey: C; white: H.
Adsorbed species are denoted by asterisks (*).
The figure is reproduced from ref. 3 and ref. 37.
Figure 12.2
Relative WGS rate with respect to Cu(100).

The experimental data are from ref. 2.
of the nanoparticles is associated with the low-coordinated corner and the

edge sites of the nanocatalysts, which are more active than the sites present
on the flat surfaces. In addition, the fluxionality of the particles also
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contributes to strengthening the bindings of the intermediates and transition states with the catalyst (Figure 12.1). Given that, the bottleneck water
dissociation becomes more facile when going from extended surfaces to
nanoparticles, which facilitates the overall WGS reaction.
The importance of low-coordinated sites of metal nanocatalysts was also
observed for other catalytic processes: methanol synthesis,39 CO oxidation,40
ammonia synthesis,41 methanation42 etc. Turnover rates and selectivity of
catalytic reactions can be influenced strongly by the size and shape of
nanoparticles, as their surface structures and active sites can be tailored at
the molecular level. For these reactions, the bond breaking of reactants or
reaction intermediates is the most dicult step that hinders the overall
conversion. Metal nanocatalysts with high surface areas can provide the sites
with the enhanced ability to chemisorb and activate bond cleavage as the
coordination number is reduced at corners and step edges. Consequently,
the reaction pathways leading to product yield and selectivity are in turn
aected. In this case, the catalytic activity is promoted when the size of
catalysts decreases to the nanoscale.
However, for the reaction that is hindered by the bond formation to
produce products or the removal of the products from the surface, the
strengthened interaction associated with the low-coordinated sites of metal
nanoparticles is likely to slow down the overall conversion. As you will see in
the following, the adsorbates may either stay on the surface as spectators
and poison the low-coordinated sites, or destabilize these sites and therefore
the nanocatalysts. In both cases, catalyst degradation with time and decreased activity are expected. That is, nano-sized catalysts may not always be
the choice of catalyst to achieve high performance.
12.3.2
Metal (Core)Platinum Shell Nanocatalysts for Oxygen

Reduction Reactions in Fuel Cells: the Essential Role
of Surface Contraction
Fuel cells are now widely accepted as the next step in power generation for
many applications including commercial power, automotive transportation
and portable electronic devices. Pt undoubtedly is the best elemental catalyst
in fuel cells. However, there are two main drawbacks that hinder the widespread use of fuel cells. One is the high cost of Pt; the other is the sluggish
kinetics, in particular for the cathodic reaction at low temperatures, i.e. the
oxygen reduction reaction (ORR), even on Pt.43,44 Large eorts have been
spent searching for non-Pt electrocatalysts to lower the cost while maintaining high ORR activity; however, the inadequate activity and stability remain a major obstacle.45,46 Recent studies show that coreshell
nanocatalysts consisting of a single-layered shell of Pt atoms on cores of
metal- or alloy- nanoparticles are able to achieve higher activity and stability
for ORR compared to pure Pt.6,4752 The monolayer concept facilitates
an ultra-low Pt content, high Pt utilization, and the possibility of tuning
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Chapter 12
the activity of the PtML shell through interactions with the supporting
nanoparticle cores.
To understand the enhanced activity and stability of the coreshell
nanocatalysts under the ORR condition, we developed a simplified model to
describe the nanoparticles in real size, which allows us to gain a better
understanding of the eects of size and shape on the stability and activity
under the ORR conditions. In our calculations, assuming that the shape of
the nanoparticle is symmetric, we constructed a semi-sphere-like nanoparticle model (Figure 12.3) to reduce the computational cost, considering
half of the nanoparticle should be representative for the whole. Dierent
from the slab model,5359 relaxations were allowed in both out-of-plane and
in-plane directions for the atoms, while only the Z directions of the atoms on
the bottom layer were fixed to keep the symmetry of the particle. As shown,
this simplified model is able to capture the surface contraction associated
with the particle size and shape with an aordable cost, which was not included in the previous slab model,5357 and aects the ORR activity and
stability significantly. As you will see, using this particle model, our DFT
calculations are capable of describing the experimental results on welldefined coreshell nanoparticles well. Note that for the ORR, the lowcoordinated sites of Pt-based nanoparticles are not active and are blocked by
the O-containing species due to the strong OPt interaction. Accordingly,
only the sites on the terrace, which bind O moderately, are considered for
describing the ORR activity.
(A)
Size Eect
To better understand the factors determining the ORR specific activity on

well-defined Pd(core)Pt(shell) nanoparticles, we carried out DFT calculations using the semi-sphere-like nanoparticle model as shown in
Figure 12.3.47 In agreement with the experimental findings, our DFT calculations for a Pt nanoparticle with a size of 1.8 nm demonstrate a considerable decrease in average in-plane spacing on the (111) terraces compared to
that on the extended Pt(111) surface (4.2%).6 While this nanosize-induced
Figure 12.3
Schematic illustration of surface models for (a) pure Pt, (b) solid Pd
core and PtML shell (PdcPt1), and (c) partially hollow Pd core and PtML
shell (hPd1Pt1). c, s, and 1 correspond to core, shell, and
1 monolayer (ML), respectively.
The figure is reproduced from ref. 47.
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in-plane contraction decreases with increasing particle size, the corresponding eect on the binding energy for oxygen (BE-O), a descriptor for the
ORR activity,56,60,61 cannot be ignored for particles of at least up to 5 nm. For
Pd(core)Pt(shell) nanocatalysts, the size and lattice mismatch (0.9%)
jointly determine the strain that aects the BE-O on the (111) facets.6 Considering the fact that the intrinsic ORR activity is largely determined by the
BE-O,5355 one can see that the particle size aects not only the fraction of
active sites at the surface, but also the turnover frequency (TOF) per active
site. The product of the two determines the specific activity. A previous study
of the ORR on transition metal alloys suggested that the best ORR electrocatalysts may bind oxygen more weakly, by about 0.2 eV,55 than Pt(111) does,
i.e. corresponding to 3.89 eV in our calculations (dashed line in
Figure 12.4). This value is reached on 1.8-nm Pt particles solely by the
nanosize-induced surface contraction. Larger particle sizes for optimal BE-O
were found using the 3.4-nm PdCPt3 and 4.4-nm PdCPt2 models, where a
reduced nanosize eect is compensated by the increased influence of the Pd
core. Therefore, the enhancements in specific activity are largely attributed
to the eect of nanosize-induced surface contraction on facet-dependent
BE-O. In accordance with the experiment, the DFT calculations suggest that
the moderately compressed (111) facet is most conducive to the ORR on
small nanoparticles. Our results indicate the importance of concerted
structure and component optimization for enhancing coreshell nanocatalysts activity and stability.
DFT calculations using the particle model were also performed to elucidate the observed high stability of Pd(core)Pt(shell) nanoparticles.47 Three
nanoparticle systems with dierent sizes were considered in our calculations
(Figure 12.3): pure Pt, a Pt monolayer shell with a solid Pd core (PdCPt1), and
a Pt monolayer shell with only a 1 ML Pd inner core (hPd1Pt1). The extended
Figure 12.4
Binding energy for oxygen on dierent sites calculated using the slab
model for extended surfaces (as a reference), and the nanoparticle
model for various coreshell nanoparticles.
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Chapter 12
surfaces were also considered as an extreme case to model big nanoparticles.

DFT calculations show that the relative shift in 1 ML Pt dissolution potentials for Pt and Pd (core)Pt (shell) nanoparticles depends strongly on
the particle size (Figure 12.5). For both Pt and Pd (core)Pt (shell) nanocatalysts, the big particles display the lower surface contraction and therefore a
higher dissolution potential than the small ones. The trend in dissolution
potential from Pt, PdCPt1 to hPd1Pt1 also varies with the size. For small
particles (oB3.5 nm), Pt shows the strongest binding to the Pt shell and the
highest dissolution potential among all. When the particle size is bigger
than B3.5 nm, hPd1Pt1 stabilizes the Pt shell the most (Figure 12.5). Our
calculations agree reasonably well with the experiment, which observes a
higher stability of the Pd (core)Pt (shell) with a size of 3.6 nm than Pt and
partial dissolution of Pd under the ORR condition. The theoretical results
imply that the particle size, the surface contraction, and the bonding activity
of the inner core layer directly interact with the shell interplay and play an
essential role in tuning the stability of the coreshell catalysts.
(B) Shape Eect

The shape of nanoparticles is also important. To understand the eect of
shape on the ORR activity of Pd(core)Pt(shell) nanocatalysts, both spherelike (SP) and tetrahedral (TH) shapes were considered.52 As shown in
Figure 12.6(a), to construct plausible surface models, we initially compared
the stability of PdTH and PdSP nanoparticles as a function of particle sizes.
The results show that at the same size the PdSP nanoparticles are more stable
than the PdTH ones, while the PdTH consists of a much smaller number of
atoms than PdSP (i.e. 220 versus 550 atoms of B2.5 nm particles, respectively). As shown in Figure 12.6(b), BE-O on PtMLPdTH is weaker than that on
Figure 12.5
DFT-predicted dissolution potentials of a 1 ML Pt shell from nanoparticles and extended surfaces of Pt, PdCPt1, and hPd1Pt1 as a
function of particle sizes.
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Figure 12.6
227
Comparison of stability of the PdTH (red triangle) and PdSP (blue

circle) nanoparticles using DFT calculations. The numbers labeled in
the figure correspond to the number of atoms of which the B1.7 nm
and B2.5 nm nanoparticles consist respectively. (b) The Pt specific
activity against BE-O on Pt1PdTH and Pt1PdSP nanoparticles. For the
binding energy of oxygen calculations, B1.7 nm nanoparticles were
used. The specific activities of the electrocatalysts were from experimental measurements.
PtMLPdSP (B0.5 eV). This agrees well with experimental observations,

showing a significant increase in ORR activity on moving from Pt1PdTH to
Pt1PdSP (Figure 12.6(b)). The weakened OPt interaction can be attributed to
the surface contraction. Pt1PdTH introduces more surface contraction (5.51%)
compared to that of Pt1PdSP and Pt (3.51% and 3.04%), resulting in the
lower-lying Pt d-band and therefore the weaker O adsorption is observed.
Overall, for small nanoparticles (o5 nm), both size and shape have a significant eect on the stability and ORR activity of the catalysts. As shown
above, the semi-sphere-like nanoparticle model we developed is able to
capture these features with an aordable computational cost, and describe
the experiments on the well-defined model systems well. Both the geometric
(the contraction in the Pt shell introduced by the core) and electronic
eects (the modification in the electronic structure of the Pt shell atoms
associated with the coreshell interaction) are found to play a key role in
promoting the ORR activity and stability of coreshell nanocatalysts. The
theoretical understanding of the promoting eects provides new insights
into the rational design of better Pt-based ORR nanocatalysts.
12.4 Supported Metal Nanocatalysts

Section 12.3 addresses the great promise of metal nanoparticles for heterogeneous catalysis and electrocatalysis. However, the poor thermal stability of nano-sized particles limits their use to low temperature conditions
and constitutes one of the key hurdles on the way to industrial application.62
A conventional approach towards stabilizing metal nanoparticles is to use a
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Chapter 12
support. Now, the question is: what role does the support play in the catalytic
performance of a catalyst? Tauster et al. used the term strong metal/support
interaction (SMSI) to describe the drastic changes that occur in the
chemisorption properties of Pt and other group VIII (810) metals when they
are dispersed on the surfaces of titanium oxide.63,64 The spreading of TiOx
aggregates on the surfaces of the supported metals could be responsible for
the reduction in their chemical and catalytic activity.64,65 By combining DFT
and kinetic modelling, our theoretical studies show a completely dierent
type of strong metal/support interaction, where supports substantially
enhance the catalytic activity of metal nanoparticles for many reactions,
e.g. the WGS reaction,10,35,66 desulfurization,8,67 CO oxidation68 and CO2
activation.69 In the following, we will show two examples to illustrate the
promoting eect of supports.
Associated with SMSI, supports can not only stablize the small metal
nanoparticles that are unstable in the gas phase, they can also produce large
electronic perturbations for the supported small particles and significantly
enhance the catalytic activity. This is the case for the WGS reaction on
Pt/CeO2.66 It is observed experimentally that upon adding Pt to CeO2(111),
there is a continuous increase in the catalytic activity until a maximum is
reached at a coverage of B0.2 ML. Comparing with the STM results reported
for the Pt/CeO2(111),70 one can conclude that the maximum activity corresponds to catalysts that contain Pt particles with a diameter smaller than
1.7 nm and a height below 0.4 nm. According to our DFT calculations, Pt(111)
has problems in adsorbing and dissociating the water molecule (Figure 12.7).
Figure 12.7
DFT calculated energy profile and the geometries for the dissociation
on Pt(111), Pt79 and Pt8 clusters, and Pt8 on CeO2. Blue: Pt; white: H;
red: O; cream: Ce.
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Water dissociation is a rate-limiting step for the WGS reaction on Pt(111)

and therefore it is not a good WGS catalyst.71 The exothermicity of the ratelimiting H2O dissociation increases when going from Pt(111) to free Pt79 and
even more on free Pt8, where the resulting OH can react with CO to eventually yield H2 and CO2 in the WGS. Similarly, as in the case of Cu shown in
Section 12.3, the corner atoms present in the Pt79 and Pt8 nanocatalysts
(Figure 12.7) facilitate the cleavage of OH bonds, and the smaller the Pt
particles, the easier the dissociation of water.66 However, in the gas phase,
the particles as small as Pt8 are not stable and are not practical as catalysts.
When Pt8 is deposited on a CeO2(111) surface or on a Ce40O80 nanoparticle,
the DFT calculations show an enhancement in the stablity and ability of Pt8
for the cleavage of OH bonds (Figure 12.7). The key to the chemical activity
of Pt8/CeO2(111) is in the electronic perturbations induced by ceria on Pt8,
which is observed using DFT and X-ray photoemission spectroscopy (XPS).
Thus, the ceria-supported Pt8 appears as a fluxional system that can turn the
geometry and charge distribution to better accommodate the adsorbates.
Small nanoparticles of Pt in contact with CeO2 can perform all the steps,
adsorption of H2O and CO, H2O dissociation and CO oxidation, of the
WGS reaction, making this system more active than Cu/CeO2, Au/CeO2 or
Ni/CeO2.66
Supports can also participate in the reaction directly by catalysing some of
the elementary steps, which are highly activated on the metal nanoparticles,
and therefore facilitate the overall conversion. For the WGS reaction, the
experiments show that Au/TiO2(110) is clearly a better catalyst than each
parent system as well as the commercial catalyst Cu/ZnO.10 To understand
the role of TiO2 support, the WGS on each component and the interface of
the composite catalyst are investigated using DFT. As demonstrated in
Section 12.3, water dissociation is a rate-limiting step for the WGS reaction
on a Au nanoparticle. TiO2(110) bonds H2O more strongly than Au, being
active for the first and the second OH scissions of H2O; however, due to the
strong OTiO2 interaction, the CO oxidation by the O from H2O dissociation
to form CO2 is rather dicult (Figure 12.8). That is, neither Au nor TiO2(110)
is good enough to catalyze the WGS reaction. Au bonds the H2O too weakly
to adsorb and dissociate H2O, while TiO2 is too active to produce CO2 from
CO oxidation. When the two components are combined to form the Au/TiO2
catalyst, the calculations indicate that it works as a bifunctional catalyst.
Both components participate in the reaction directly and work in a cooperative way. According to energetics, for the H2O dissociation, Au/TiO2
behaves dierently from Au, but as facile as TiO2(110). For the CO oxidation,
on other hand, Au/TiO2 acts more like Au, rather than TiO2, where no high
activation barrier is observed (Figure 12.8). As a consequence, the WGS reaction runs faster on Au/TiO2 than on each parent individual, in agreement
with experimental observations.10 According to the geometries, CO prefers
the Au sites; H2O adsorbs and dissociates on TiO2 and the rest of the steps
occur at the Au/TiO2 interface. The TiO2 support helps to release the
bottleneck H2O dissociation on Au and therefore facilitates the overall WGS
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Figure 12.8
Chapter 12
Potential energy diagram for the WGS on Au29, TiO2(110) and

Au10/TiO2(110). The thin bars represent the intermediates; thick
bars correspond to the transition states (TS). Inset: corresponding
structures for the intermediates and TSs involved in the WGS at the
Au/TiO2 interface. Large yellow spheres: Au; large gray spheres: Ti;
small red spheres: O; small white spheres: H; small dark grey spheres: C.
Adsorbed species are denoted by asterisks (*).
The figures are reproduced from ref. 10.
reaction. Our results show that the relatively inert gold nanoparticles can
become very good catalysts when combined with an over-reactive TiO2
surface.
Overall, supports can play an essential role in promoting the catalytic
performance of metal nanoparticles via SMSI. The support is able to stabilize
the small metal nanoparticles, which are catalytically active, by hindering
diusion and coalescence under the reaction conditions. In addition, it can
modify the electronic structure of the supported small particles and therefore promote their catalytic activities. Finally, it can participate in the reaction directly by facilitating the steps that are activated on the supported
particles and therefore facilitate the overall reaction. Such understanding is
the key for the further development of metal/support catalysts.
12.5 Conclusions
The powerful new computing infrastructures are starting to close the gap
between theoretical and experimental studies in the field of nanocatalysis.
Our theoretical studies on unsupported and supported metal nanocatalysts
provide a molecular-scale picture of the mechanisms underlying catalytic
activity. Firstly, the low-coordinated sites at step edges are essential for metal
nanocatalysts, which behave dierently from those on terraces. These lowcoordinated sites can be the only active sites for the reaction and influence
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231
turnover rates and selectivity of catalytic reactions. Secondly, for small

nanoparticles (o5 nm), tremendous surface contractions are introduced
depending on particle size and shape, which have a significant eect on the
stability and activity of the metal nanocatalysts. Finally, supports can play an
essential role for promoting the catalytic performance of metal nanocatalysts
via SMSI by stabilizing the supported particles, modifying the electronic
structure of the supported small particles and/or participating in the reaction directly by facilitating the steps that are activated on the supported
metal particles. Such a fundamental understanding would allow us to accurately predict the performance of a catalyst exclusively based on computer
models, without the need for extensive trial-and-error experimental
screening.
Acknowledgements
The research is supported by the US Department of Energy, Division of
Chemical Sciences, under contract DEAC02-98CH10886.
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CHAPTER 13
Porous Cryptomelane-type
Manganese Oxide Octahedral
Molecular Sieves (OMS-2);
Synthesis, Characterization
and Applications in Catalysis
SAMINDA DHARMARATHNA AND S. L. SUIB*
Department of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, 55, North Eagleville
Road, Storrs, Connecticut, 06269, USA
13.1 Introduction
Manganese oxide octahedral molecular sieves (OMS) have attracted a large
amount of attention from researchers in recent years as they are excellent
catalysts. Natural OMS, or cryptomelane-type manganese oxide, occurs in
deep sea beds as nodules.1 The motivation to synthesize this mineral was
triggered by the synthesis of a todorokite-type 33 manganese oxide molecular sieve by Shen et al. in 1993, which was named OMS-1.2 Then, in 1994,
DeGuzman et al. synthesized a cryptomelane-type material with a 22 tunnel
structure, as shown in Figure 13.1, using MnO4 and Mn21; the material was
highly porous and showed semiconducting properties.3 After this discovery,
many researchers around the world became very interested in this material.
Many new avenues of research have opened up since then. As an example,
235
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Figure 13.1
Chapter 13
Tunnel-type crystal structure of OMS-2 with 22 edge shared MnO6

octahedra (orange) and K1 (black) in the center of the tunnel as the
counter ion. Tunnels have dimensions 4.6 4.6 .
biocompatibility has been tested by implanting OMS-2 in a rat brain, and

when functionalized, these OMS-2 phases can even be used in medical
applications.4 Synthetic cryptomelane-type OMS-2 has a formula of
KMn8O16 nH2O and has an average oxidation state of 3.8. This is an indication of mixed valency in the framework, and it was further proven by
electrochemical experiments that these materials possess mixed Mn41,
Mn31, and Mn21 valencies.5 Flexibility in tuning the particle size, surface
area, morphology, doping the structure with a variety of metals, and easy
regeneration using air or oxygen, are highly advantageous in the area of
catalysis. The porous tunnel-type structure and mixed valency in the
framework play a significant role in controlling the selectivity and conversion
of various dierent types of redox reactions. Recent examples of molecular
tracking inside the tunnels and shape selectivity of the catalyst towards
substrates suggest a general reaction mechanism involving active tunnel
sites.69 This review will emphasize the synthesis of cryptomelane-type OMS-2
materials using dierent techniques and the progress of synthetic routes to
alter the morphology, synthesis time, and particle size. It will also discuss
catalytic applications in dierent types of reactions including oxidation, dehydration, epoxidation, and degradation.
13.2 Synthesis and Morphology Control

Since the initial synthesis of OMS-2, many other synthetic routes were reported in the literature. These novel methods oer control over particle size,
morphology and the amount of defects in the material, by controlling reaction time, temperature, pH, and precursor used. Here, we will discuss
convectional, microwave-assisted methods, solvent free, and ultrasound
routes to synthesize OMS-2 materials.
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Porous Cryptomelane-type Manganese Oxide Octahedral Molecular Sieves (OMS-2) 237
Hydrothermal processing of materials has been used as a facile and environmentally benign synthetic approach for years. This is one of the most
versatile solution-based strategies to synthesize nanomaterials, due to the
ease of control of the reaction time, temperature, precursor, product separation and simple setup.10,11
Typical fabrication of OMS-2 using any synthetic technique involves oxidation of Mn21 with a suitable oxidant such as MnO4 , Cr2O72 , S2O82 ,
H2O2, or ozone.1216 Hydrothermal techniques in particular have been
identified in the literature as an eective way to control the morphology and
particle size of the OMS-2 materials. Figure 13.2 shows field emission
scanning electron micrographs (FESEM) of OMS-2 nanomaterials, fabricated
using hydrothermal techniques. Typical fiber-like morphology was obtained
by using a MnO4 /Mn21 redox couple under acidic conditions
(Figure 13.2(a)).3,12 However, when the oxidant was changed to Cr2O72 ,
a self-assembled three-dimensional dendritic structure was formed
(Figure 13.2(b,c)).13 A spontaneous free-standing membrane was formed
using S2O82 as the oxidant. When the fibers grew to sucient length
(B100 mm), they were arranged in an interlocking fashion, Figure 13.2(d), to
yield a free-standing membrane, which was used in sustainable energy and
environmental applications. A recent study by Yuan et al. showed that these
membranes can be used in oil spill cleanup by selective adsorption of
oil.17,18 Compared to fibers of several hundreds of micrometres obtained
using conventional hydrothermal methods, a microwave-assisted
Figure 13.2
Morphology of OMS-2 synthesized using dierent precursors under

hydrothermal conditions. (a) MnO4 /Mn21,12 (b, c) Cr2O72 /Mn21,13
(d, e) S2O82 /Mn21,14,19 and ozone/Mn21.16
Copyright permission granted by the American Chemical Society and
Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.
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238
Chapter 13
hydrothermal technique was used to obtain shorter fibers (B100200 nm),

Figure 13.2(e). This OMS-2 material showed a higher surface area (129
1 m2 g 1) compared to that of a material synthesized using conventional
hydrothermal techniques (44 1 m2 g 1).17,19 A recent study by Galindo et al.
yielded uniform hollow spheres of OMS-2 when ozone was used as an oxidant (Figure 13.2(f)).16
Further, particle size and surface area were easily controlled by altering
the means of energy supply during the synthesis. For instance, Figure 13.3(a)
shows materials synthesized by conventional reflux methods, with fiber
lengths of B5001000 nm and surface areas of B90 1 m2 g 1.20 A considerable increase in surface area (B156 1 m2 g 1) and decrease in fiber
length (B50100 nm) were obtained by Ding et al. during a solvent-free
synthesis of OMS-2.21 Nyutu et al. successfully used a microwave-assisted
reflux method, coupled with various organic co-solvents, to control the
particle size of OMS-2 and they also obtained a higher surface area
(B227 1 m2 g 1).22 A recent study by Dharmarathna et al. focused on the
use of ultrasound to obtain a self-assembled three-dimensional dendritic
structure without the use of Cr. The materials obtained also showed a very
high surface area (B288 1 m2 g 1) and catalytic activity compared to
commercial MnO2.23
Another unique feature of these OMS-2 materials is that they consist of
edge and vertex shared Mn octahedral units (MnO6x ), which is uncommon
for many oxides.1 This is an advantage, since many transition metal cations
Figure 13.3
Particle size control of OMS-2 using dierent synthetic techniques.

(a) Reflux,23 (b) solvent free,21 (c) microwave-assisted reflux,22 and
(d) ultrasound-assisted synthesis.23
Copyright permission granted by the American Chemical Society.
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can be accommodated in an octahedral environment and various transition

metal cations can be doped into the mixed valent OMS-2 structure as a solid
solution. Many reports in the literature show single and multiple framework
substitutions of transition metal cations such as Ce41, Co21, Cu12, Cr31,
Fe31, In31, Mo61, Ni21, W61, and Zn21.3,2432 Introduction of foreign ions
into the framework causes distortions and stress in the structure. These
imperfections alter the acidity, porosity and adsorption properties of the
material, hence they become more active in catalysis as compared to pristine
materials.3337
This extreme flexibility in starting materials, synthesis technique, and
control over morphology, porosity, particle size, and metal doping oer
OMS-2 a huge advantage in catalysis. The next part of this summary will
focus on the eect of these properties on a wide variety of catalytic reactions,
where OMS-2 was used as the catalyst.
13.3 Catalysis
13.3.1
Selective Oxidation and Fine Chemical Synthesis
Selective catalysis has gained a great deal of research interest due to the
many economical as well as environmental advantages of the process. OMS-2
is an excellent catalyst that has the proven ability to catalyze both product
and substrate selective reactions.6,7,38 OMS-2 has shown the ability to selectively oxidize many organic functional groups including alcohols, alkenes,
thiols, and amines.7,9,3343 Son et al. presented a selective alcohol oxidation
to an aldehyde without any over oxidation to carboxylic acids, Scheme 13.1.38
The mixed valent Mn active sites for the selective oxidation were located
inside the tunnels, due to the lower activity observed towards larger
substrates.
A more elaborate mechanistic study on alcohol oxidation was done using
isotope labeled oxygen (18O) by Makwana et al.9 Selective aerobic benzyl alcohol oxidation was carried out as the model reaction, in which 100%
conversion as well as 100% selectivity was achieved towards the aldehyde.
A further study confirmed the active participation of structural oxygen during oxidation on OMS-2 catalysts, which were later replenished by atmospheric oxygen. The kinetic data also suggested the presence of a redox cycle
between Mn21 and Mn41 that drives the oxidation of the substrate,
Scheme 13.2. All of the above observations led to the conclusion that the
OH
R2
Scheme 13.1
R1
H
(l)
O
OMS-2, Air
R2
R1
(l)
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Chapter 13
23/06/2014 08:15:07.
H 2O2
Mn2+
H2O + 1/2 O2
2e
O
2H+
Mn4+
H
H
O2
Scheme 13.2
OMS-2
OH
R2
R1
OMS-2, Air
R2
R3NH2
R1
OH
R2
R1
NR 3H
R2
R1
NR 3
+ OMS-2 + H 2O
Scheme 13.3
Mars van Krevelen mechanism is active on OMS-2 materials during
oxidations.1,9,20
Sithambaram et al. further utilized this excellent catalytic activity and
selectivity of OMS-2 towards alcohol oxidation in tandem catalysis.20 The
team synthesized imines directly from alcohols and amines. The reaction
progresses through a concerted fashion, Scheme 13.3, where selective oxidation of alcohols to aldehydes through a Mars van Krevelen mechanism
occurs followed by nucleophilic attack from the amine to the carbonyl carbon producing an imine bond. Conversion and selectivity towards the imine
of up to 100% was observed and also the reaction was found to be valid for a
wide variety of alkyl and aryl substrates.
Advancement of this tandem imine formation led to another study by
Sithambaram et al. on the synthesis of quinoxalines, Scheme 13.4, which are
nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compounds, essential intermediates in the
fine chemical industry.44
This reported process was highly ecient (100% yield in 1 h), had good
substrate generality, and used mild reaction conditions. The catalyst, OMS-2,
was also recycled after reaction without major structural changes or
deactivation.
Another transformation important in fine chemical synthesis catalyzed by
OMS-2 is hydrocarbon oxidation, including both alkanes and alkenes. Ghosh
et al. reported the liquid-phase epoxidation of olefins using porous OMS-2
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Scheme 13.4
O
Homolitic
pathway
Oxo-metal
formation
OMS-2 n+2
+
t-butOH
OMS-2
+
t-butOOH
n+
OH
OMS-2 n+2
+
t-butO
Scheme 13.5
and TBHP (tertiary-butyl hydroperoxide), Scheme 13.5.45 The reaction gave
good conversion with up to 100% selectivity towards epoxide at low temperature (60 1C). Significant conversion was obtained at temperatures as low
as room temperature and catalyst amounts as low as 0.3 mol%. In order to
understand the reaction mechanism, the reaction was carried out in the
presence of radical scavengers/inhibitors. Two dierent radical scavengers/
inhibitors were used in two separate reactions. When inhibitor 4-Oxo
TEMPO (4-oxo-2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl) was used, the conversion decreased from 59 to 37% and in the presence of radical inhibitor
IONOL (2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol), the conversion of cyclooctene was
reduced from 59% to 22.5%.
The results confirmed that the epoxidation occurs on OMS-2 surfaces via
two co-operative mechanisms: oxo-metal formation, and a homolytic pathway
due to the presence of Mn21, Mn31, and Mn41 oxidation states
(Scheme 13.5).45 A follow up to this study was done by Ghosh et al. for a deeper
understanding of the involvement of the Lewis and Brnsted acid sites and
also the eect of the preparation method of OMS-2 catalysts, which we discussed previously in this chapter. OMS-2 materials synthesized by five different synthetic techniques were used in the study, namely reflux (OMS-2R),
hydrothermal (OMS-2HY), high temperature (OMS-2HT), solvent free (OMS-2SF),
and microwave (OMS-2MW). The results of this study show that the acidity of the
material together with porosity play essential roles. The mesopore volume of
OMS-2 synthesized using dierent methods ranged from 0.480.027 cm3 g 1.
The results also showed that the optimum mesopore volume for the styrene
epoxidation was 0.29 cm3 g 1, which corresponds to OMS-2R.
13.3.2
CH Activation
The petroleum industry serves as the primary source of raw materials for the
fine chemical industry; functionalization of these raw chemicals, especially
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242
Chapter 13
alkanes, requires very high energy due to the inherent inertness of the CH
bond.46 Hence, a catalytic process for the activation of the CH bond is
highly desirable. There are many examples of OMS-2 materials in the literature for the activation of CH bonds and functionalized compounds such
as 9-fluorene,42 cyclohexane,34 and, in some instances, toxic chemicals such
as BTX (benzene, toluene, and xylene) were totally oxidized to CO2.7 These
functionalized compounds have applications in the energy, medical, and
environmental fields.34,42 Scheme 13.6 shows a study by Opembe et al.,
where 9H-fluorene was oxidized to 9-fluorenone.42
The process developed by Opembe et al. used air as an oxidant, unlike the
other processes, which used peroxide, oxygen, and other activation methods,
which are harmful.4749 Excellent conversions (up to 99%) were observed
with 100% selectivity towards 9-fluorenone. Furthermore, the reaction
mechanism and kinetics were studied by isotope-labeled [D10]-fluorene. The
results show the reaction occurs via a late transition state in which CH
bond cleavage is the rate-determining step. Further, the mechanism was
proposed to be a free radical mechanism, as shown in Scheme 13.6.
Recently, Kumar et al. developed a catalytic route for the oxidation of
cyclohexane using OMS-2 as a catalyst.34 This process is highly important in
industry because the products from cyclohexane oxidationcyclohexanol and
cyclohexanoneare starting materials for Nylon and other value-added
chemicals.5054 In this study, the acidity of the OMS-2 catalyst was altered by
using an ion-exchange procedure involving concentrated nitric acid. The high
Scheme 13.6
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H1 concentration in HNO3 drives the exchange of K1 ions in the tunnels of

OMS-2 with H1 ions in solution. The results show that after four exchange
cycles in concentrated HNO3, 64% of K1 in the structure of OMS-2 was exchanged with H1, and this ion-exchanged catalyst was named as H-K-OMS-2.
The ion-exchanged H-K-OMS-2 showed a remarkable increase in conversion
(59.9%) compared to K-OMS-2 (25.3%). The selectivity towards cyclohexanone
was also increased up to 56.3%, where K-OMS-2 gave only 24.1%.
13.3.3
CO2 Activation
Utilization of CO2the most abundant C source in natureas a raw material for fine chemical synthesis has gained immense research attention.5558 However, due to the high inertness or the stability of CO2
molecules, a great amount of energy input is required to activate CO2 in
order to be utilized in a chemical reaction.56,59
Hu et al. developed a OMS-2 catalyzed electrochemical and thermal hybrid
activation of CO2 (Scheme 13.7) to produce paraformaldehyde, a useful
chemical in the polymer and pesticide industry.56 In this work, OMS-2 was
used as a support for Pt nanoclusters, deposited using chemical vapor deposition (CVD). The metal/metal oxide interface was activated by means of a
DC current, and the reaction proceeds through electron and ionic conduction from metal to metal oxide.
Since OMS-2 is a good conductor for electrons as well as ions and also
possesses mixed valency,1,5,9,60 when OMS-2 was used as a support, the reaction temperature was significantly reduced (350450 1C) as compared to
calcia-stabilized zirconia (600900 1C).
Another catalytic transformation on OMS-2 utilizing CO2 is ethane dehydrogenation to ethylene as reported by Jin et al.61 In this study, OMS-2
yields a higher amount of ethane (up to 66%) compared to a conventional
Cr-ZSM-5-type catalyst (36%). CO2 utilization was also very eective when
O
C
Pt
H
+ O2
Support
O
C H H
O O
O
C
O
H2O
Scheme 13.7
CO2
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using OMS-2 (50%) as compared to chromium catalysts (17%). The reaction

mechanism was proposed to consist of two steps: (1) catalytic dehydrogenation of ethane and (2) a reverse watergas shift reaction (RWGS). Carbon
dioxide gas plays two important roles in the mechanism.
C 2H6(g)
H2(g)
+ CO 2(g)
C 2H6(g) + CO 2(g)
C 2H4(g) + H2(g)
(1)
H2O (g)
(2)
+ CO (g)
C 2H4(g) + CO (g) + H2O (g)
Since CO2(g) utilizes H2(g) produced from reaction (1) in a RWGS reaction,
that prevents further reaction between H2(g) and C2H6(g) to give unwanted
byproduct CH4(g). CO2(g) also prevents catalyst deactivation by coke formation, by acting as an oxidizing agent on the OMS-2 surface.
13.3.4
Environmental and Green Chemistry
Increasing concerns about environmentally friendly and sustainable processes

have driven heterogeneous catalytic research towards improving air, water, and
soil quality in recent years.6267 OMS-2 has shown environmental remediation
ability in many instances, such as removal of organic dyes, phenol, and oil
from water, as well as oxidation of carbon monoxide and toxic VOCs (volatile
organic compounds).7,17,36,68,69 Organic dyes such as methylene blue are highly
toxic to living beings.7073 Therefore, removal of these dyes by means of a green
process is highly desirable in our modern world. Green decomposition of organic dyes by using OMS-2 as a catalyst has been reported by Sriskandakumar
et al.36 This study shows that OMS-2 and metal-doped OMS-2 are highly active
in degrading methylene blue (MB), an organic dye. Among metal-doped OMS-2
materials, Mo-doped catalysts showed the highest decomposition activity
(98%). Lower pH and higher temperatures favored the decomposition reaction.
Another recent advancement in wastewater treatment using OMS-2 is
adsorption and removal of phenol as reported by Hu et al.68 Phenol is a polar
compound that is highly miscible with water, and is a byproduct mostly from
the petroleum, pharmaceutical, pesticide, and paper industries.68,7479 Hu
et al. used Cu21, Co31 and, Ce41 doped OMS-2 materials in this study.
During the phenol removal, phenol was first adsorbed onto the catalyst to
form a phenolic polymer; this phenolic polymer then underwent oxidation to
CO2(g). The results show that the Co, Ce, and Cu doped OMS-2 materials gave
99.8, 98.9, and 97.9% conversion of phenol respectively. Co-OMS-2 showed
higher removal eciency 3.7 kg phenol/h.kg catalyst, than the conventional
activated carbon (AC) 0.002 kg phenol/h.kg AC.
The recent British Petroleum Deepwater Horizon explosion and oil spill in
the Gulf of Mexico triggered researchers to develop porous materials that can
be used in oil spill cleanup.80 Due to the adverse eects of oil on aquatic life
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and ecology, spillage of any extent needs immediate attention and cleanup.
Yuan et al. have reported oil removal via adsorption onto a modified super
hydrophobic OMS-2 membrane.17 A porous OMS-2 membrane was synthesized according to literature reported methods81 and then the membrane
was further modified using a polydimethyl siloxane (PDMS) polymer.
The resulting material showed an exceptional wettability profile, which
can be altered to be super hydrophobic or super hydrophilic by changing
the temperature. The removal eciency of OMS-2 was 20 the weight of the
membrane, which is much higher than the conventional adsorbents
(Figure 13.4). This OMS-2 membrane can be produced easily to treat a
Figure 13.4
(a) Absorption capacity of polymer-modified OMS-2 membrane.

(b) Colored gasoline on water before adsorption. (c) After removal of
gasoline by adsorption onto OMS-2 membrane.
Copyright permission granted by the Nature Publishing Group.
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246
Chapter 13
large-scale oil spill and also easily recovered. Therefore, OMS-2 materials
are highly desirable in large-scale industrial applications for wastewater
treatment.
Air quality has declined at a rapid rate in recent years as a result of heavy
use of fossil fuels, petroleum-based chemicals, and global industrialization.82,83 VOCs (volatile organic compounds), carbon monoxide, nitrogen
oxides, and particulate matter generation in the lower atmosphere are the
primary cause of smog, which relates to high rates in cardiovascular disease
in human beings.8284 Genuino et al.7 have reported a catalytic route to
oxidize BTX (benzene, toluene, and xylene), a group of VOCs that are highly
toxic, to CO2.7 The reactivity of the substrates studied was xyleneso
ethylbenzeneobenzeneotoluene. The process developed was highly selective;
other byproducts, such as CO or partially oxidized VOC, were not observed.
OMS-2 showed higher activity than commercial MnO2. Temperature programed desorption (TPD) studies of xylenes (ortho, meta, and para-xylene)
showed peak maxima in temperature in the order of paraometaoortho-xylene
suggesting a shape selectivity in the OMS-2 catalysts. The higher catalytic
activity of the OMS-2 catalyst was due to the higher hydrophobicity (0.91),
pore volume (0.46 cm3 g 1), pore diameter (20.1 nm), and higher oxygen
mobility. This study further suggests the potential application of OMS-2 in air
and soil purification from soilvapor extraction, automobile exhaust treatment, and gasoline-stripping of soil. Another example of OMS-2 in air purification is low temperature CO(g) oxidation. Xia et al. reported a catalytic
carbon monoxide oxidation route using Ag1, Co21, and Cu21 doped OMS-2.69
Doped catalysts were very stable under a reducing atmosphere for extended
time on stream.
13.4 Conclusion
This review summarizes the synthesis, structure, morphology, and catalytic
activity of a unique class of OMS materialsOMS-2 systems. From their
initial synthesis in 1993 until now, OMS-2 materials have undergone a large
amount of research throughout the world. Novel synthetic processes have
been developed, which gave this material new perspectives in adsorption
and catalytic applications. The dierent synthetic routes yield similar crystalline phases (cryptomelane) with dierent surface areas, pore volumes,
pore diameters, surface defects, porosity (both micro and mesoporosity),
particle sizes, and catalytic activities. Metal dopants in the structure of
OMS-2 increased the catalytic activities as well as the adsorption capacity.
OMS-2 materials can be fabricated as powders as well as free-standing
membranes for dierent applications such as oil spill cleanup. The OMS-2
catalyst is a non-toxic environmentally benign catalyst for fine chemical
synthesis, oxidation, environmental remediation, and CH and CO2
activation.
Future studies of OMS-2 materials will involve desulfurization, tandem
processes, and their use in more environmental applications such as active
View Online
materials in particulate filters. Research will also continue along the avenues
of formation of novel morphologies in thin OMS-2 films for electrocatalysis.
23/06/2014 08:15:07.
Acknowledgments
We acknowledge the Geosciences and Biosciences Division, Oce of the
Basic Energy Sciences, Oce of Science, and U.S. Department of Energy for
support of our research on manganese octahedral molecular sieves and
other porous materials, under grant DE-FG02-86ER13622-A000.
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Subject Index
p-electrons 194
z potential 102
ABA copolymer 197
ABTA (2,2 0 -azinobis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)) 198
Acetobacter xylinum 138
acetonitrilewater solvent 143
acetophenones, brominated 89, 91,
92
4-acetylphenylboronic acid 141,
142
4-acetylphenylchloride 137138
acid chlorides 126
acrylic acid n-butyl ester 144
active site characteristics 7
active supports 161, 162
aerobic oxidation 159, 160, 165
air 207, 242, 246
alcohols 159, 160, 239
aldehydes 7576, 93, 94, 96, 243
aliphatic aldehydes 93, 94, 96
alkenes see olefins (alkenes)
alkenyl halides 134
alkenylboranes 134
alkylamine ligands 19
alloys for templating synthesis 23
alumina membranes in twocompartment reactors 117, 118
alumina supports 7071
aluminium oxides 36, 37,
161, 162
aluminosilicate frameworks 92, 93
HZSM-5 192
ambient pressure X-ray photoelectron

spectroscopy (APXPS) 13
amines
aldehydes amination 9496
amine-borane 6063
amine-rich ionic liquids 129
noble metal nanoparticle
synthesis 5960
OMS-catalysed selective
oxidation 239
aminoalcohol-stabilised ruthenium
nanoparticles 5051
p-aminophenol 23, 35
3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTS)
6063
ammonia 3435
ammonium formate 93, 94
ammonium surfactant-capped
rhodium nanoparticles 99109
asymmetric catalysis 105108
biphasic hydrogenation
catalysis 100105
anastase nanocrystals 19, 20, 34
aniline 211, 213
anisotropic shapes 172
applications of nanocatalysts
clock reactions 216217
industrial catalysis 1, 2, 6, 31
oil spill cleanup 237, 244246
overview 173
APTS (3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane)
6063
APXPS (ambient pressure X-ray
photoelectron spectroscopy) 13
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arenes
asymmetric nanocatalysis 105
derivatives biphasic
hydrogenation with
HEA16Cl-capped rhodium
colloids 103, 104
hydrogenation reactions 99
prochiral 107108
aryl halides
palladium-catalysed
carboncarbon coupling
reactions 119, 121, 141
Heck coupling
reaction 147
Stille coupling
reaction 126130, 132,
133
Suzuki coupling
reaction 134, 136, 137,
138, 140, 141, 143
arylboronic acid 143
ascorbic acid 211
assembly-dispersion mechanism 36
asymmetric nanocatalysis see
enantiocontrol/selectivity
atom transfer radical polymerisation
(ATRP) 197
atom-leaching mechanism 116126,
133, 141
ATRP (atom transfer radical
polymerisation) 197
attenuated total reflectance (ATR)
1857
2,2 0 -azinobis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTA)
198
bacterial cellulose (BC) 138
barium salts 159, 167
BE-O (binding energy for oxygen)
225, 226
bead templates 136, 174, 177, 178
BelousovZhabotinsky (BZ)
reaction 205
benzene, biphasic
hydrogenation 103
Subject Index
benzene/toluene/xylene (BTX) 242

benzyl alcohol oxidation 7275,
7678, 239240
Berthollets reversible chemical
reactions 203
bimetallic systems 13, 123
BINAP (2,2 0 -bis(diphenylphosphino)1,1 0 -binaphthyl) 40, 4142
binding energy for oxygen (BE-O)
225, 226
biothiophene 135136
biphasic hydrogenation 99109
biphasic liquidliquid
hydrogenation 54
4-biphenylbenzoic acid 128
4-biphenylcarboxylic acid 126, 127,
128, 132
bisulfite/iodate clock reaction 204
block copolymers 135, 196, 197,
198
blue bottle experiment 207
Bohr exciton radius 14, 15
borane compounds 134
borohydride reduction
eosin Y dye 182, 183, 184, 185
4-nitrophenol 180, 183184,
185
silver nitrate 209, 210
bottom-up approaches 48
see also organometallic
approach
BP Deepwater Horizon oil
spill 244246
brain tissue 217, 236
BrayLiebhafsky reaction 205206
BriggsRauscher reaction 206207
brominated acetophenones 89
1-bromo-2-methylnaphthylene 41
1-bromo-4-nitrobenzene 139
bromobenzene 134135, 140, 142
4-bromobenzoic acid 133
bromotoluene 130, 139, 148
bulk semiconducting titanium
dioxide 31, 32
n-butyl-formylcinnamate 144
n-butyl-p-iodocinnamate 146
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Subject Index
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n-butylacrylate 117, 118, 144, 145,

146
n-butylamine 22
t-butylstyrene 147
cadmium/selenium quantum
dots 15
caesium salts 159, 168
cage eect 17287
active inner/inactive outer
surfaces 180182
assembly on
substrates 176179
hollow nanostructure
characteristics 179185
hollow/solid activities
comparison 182183
optical properties 184185
overview 172174
single shell hollow/double
shell comparison 183184
spectroscopic studies 185187
synthetic approaches 174176
calcium chloride 203
capillary inclusion method 21
capping agents
see also individual capping
agents; stabilising agents
ammonium
surfactants 99109
PVP-capped gold
nanospheres 177, 178
silver nanoparticles 209, 210
carbene-stabilised ruthenium
nanoparticles 5152
carbon dioxide 221223, 228230,
243244
carbon material supports 7578
carbon monoxide
catalyst poison 14
oxidation 7275, 157167
on Au/LaPO3 162163
on gold 1819, 162163
water-gas shift
reaction 221223, 228230
carbon nanotubes 7576, 198199
253
carbonyl compounds hydrogentransfer reduction 8894

carboncarbon coupling reactions
applications 112
bimetallic palladiumgold
nanoparticle system 123
colloidal catalysts 6367
greener methods 112
Heck reaction 144148
mechanisms 116126
overview 3
palladium catalysed 112149
Stille reaction 126134
Suzuki reaction 134144
carbonhydrogen bond
activation 241243
CASTEP numerical basis sets 220
catalysis definition 2
catalytic eciency 179185
colloidal metallic hollow
nanostructures
determining factors 179
hollow/solid similar shape
comparisons 182183
inner active/outer inactive
surafces 180182
metalorganic
frameworks 180
optical
properties 184185
single shell hollow/
double shell
comparisons 183184
spherical shape
eciency 180
cellobiose 168
ceria-supported platinum 229
cerium oxide 228230
cerium(IV) sulfate 205
cetyl trimethylammonium bromide
(CTAB)-Pt nanocrystals 21
N-cetyl-ammonium derivatives 101
cetyltrimethylammonium chloride
(CTACI) 198
chain length 59, 100
channel proteins 198
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254
charge transfer excited states 32

charge trapping centres 2021
Chaudrets decomposition of
metalloorganic complexes 48
chemical reduction approach 115
chemical vapour deposition
(CVD) 243
chiral nanocatalysis see
1-chloro-4-nitrobenzene 139, 148
chloroanisole 104
4-chlorophenol 137
4-chloropyridine 137
cinchona derivatives 105, 106
cinnamaldehyde 7576
cinnamate 146, 147
cinnamyl methyl carbonate 146
circular dichroism (CD) 41
citric acid 205
citronellal 166, 167
click chemistry 140
BelousovZhabotinsky
reaction 205
BrayLiebhafsky
reaction 205206
BriggsRauscher
reaction 206207
definition 204
history 204207
iodine clock reaction 204
mechanistic
approach 215216
methylene blue 210215
CMC (critical micellar
concentration) 101
colloidal catalysis
reactions 6367
hydroformylation
reactions 6769
metallic hollow
nanostructures 172187
assembly on
substrates 176179
Subject Index
behaviour in
catalysis 179185
catalytically active inner
surface 180182
hollow/solid
nanocatalysts
comparison 182183
optical properties of
plasmonic
nanocatalysts 184185
proposed mechanism for
nanocatalysis
185187
single/double shell
hollow nanocatalysts
comparison 183184
synthetic
approaches 174176
noble metal nanoparticles
for 4669
packing on crystallographic
faces 23
precursors for size-controlled
metal nanoparticloes
3537
colorimetric oxygen indicators 217
computational approaches
copper nanocatalysts for WGS
reactions 221223
density functional
theory 219231
metal (core)platinum shell
nanocatalysts for ORR in
fuel cells 223227
metal nanocatalysts 220227
method 220
overview 45
shape eects 226227
size eects 224226
supported metal
confinement properties 5760, 182,
183, 184, 185
see also cage eect
coordination numbers (CNs) 124
copolymers 135, 196, 197, 198
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Subject Index
copper
copper oxide nanoparticle
surface restructuring 12
copper/zinc oxide 229
nanocatalysts for water-gas
shift reactions 221223
nanocrystal formation 17
nanoparticles in clock
reactions 207, 209
photo-assisted deposition 35
coreshell nanocatalysts
hydrogen peroxide
formation 4244
magnetic FePt@Ti-SiO2
synthesis 3839
model 224
nanoreactor catalysts 195
corner atoms 9, 174, 179
cost of transition metals 84
Cotton eect 41
Coulombs interaction 209, 210
coupling reactions see
carboncarbon coupling reactions
critical micellar concentration
(CMC) 101
cryptomelane-type manganese oxide
octahedral porous molecular
sieves 235247
crystallinity
copper-29 catalyst crystal
structure 221, 223
domain size/structure
sensitivity 10
exposed planes 173
packing on crystallographic
faces 23
palladium
nanoparticles 119123
surface free energy of facets 11
CTAB (cetyl trimethylammonium
bromide)-Pt nanocrystals 21
CTACI (cetyltrimethylammonium
chloride) 198
cubo-octahedron shape
analysis 910, 11
cuprous oxide 212, 213, 214, 215
255
customisability 194, 195, 212

4-cyanophenylbenzoic acid 138
cyclodextrin (CD) 3941, 143
1,3-cyclohexadiene (CYD) 60
cyclohexane 7172, 165, 242, 243
cyclohexanone formation 104
cyclohexyl compounds 107
cyclooctene 39, 241
Cylindrotheca fusiformis R5
peptide 130, 131, 132
data reporting standards 89
decanoyl chloride 145
Deepwater Horizon oil spill 244246
definition of nanocatalysis 6
dehydrogenation reactions 6063,
243, 244
dendrimer-encapsulated nanoparticles
(DENS) 126, 127, 128, 139
dendrimer-stabilised nanoparticles
(DSN) 128, 140, 144145
dendrimers 23, 193194
dendritic bromobenzene 142
dendritic cages 141
dendritic structures 237, 238
dendritic-phosphine-based
palladium nanoparticles 128
DENS see dendrimer-encapsulated
nanoparticles (DENS)
density functional theory
(DFT) 219231
deposition-precipitation 160
deuteration experiments 89
2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol
(IONOL) 241
4,4 0 -di-tert-butylbiphenyl (DTBB) 85,
86
2,6-dichloropyridine 137
diusion flow 174
1,4-difluorobenzene 137
dihydride-type transfer
hydrogenation mechanism 90
p-diiodobenzene 146
diisopropylamine 148
2,4-dimethoxyphenylboronic
acid 137
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N,N-dimethyl-N-alkyl-N(hydroxyalkyl)ammonium
salts 100, 101, 103
N,N-dimethyl-N-cetyl-N-(3hydroxypropyl)ammonium
chloride (HPA16Cl) 100
dimethylamine-borane
(DMAB) 6063
dimethylphenylsilane 165
4-diphenylphosphinobenzoic
acid 145
diphosphate-stabilised noble metal
nanoparticles 51
diphosphines 5457
dipping method of LB film
transfer 178
dissolution potential 226
2,4-di(trifluoromethyl)phenylboronic
acid 137
DMAB (dimethylamineborane) 6063
DMF (dimethylformamide)
solvent 117, 118, 119
DMol3 numerical basis sets 220
double shell nanoparticles 180,
183184
DSN (dendrimer-stabilised
nanoparticles) 128, 140, 144145
DTBB (4,4 0 -di-tert-butylbiphenyl) 85,
86
dual hydrogenationoxidation
reactions 78
dyes 180, 181, 203217, 244
edge atoms 9, 174, 179
EDX-SEM (energy-dispersive X-ray
spectroscopy-scanning electron
microscopy) mapping 175, 176
electrochemical nanoparticle
synthesis method 144
electron beam lithography (EBL) 177
electron microscopy 8, 175, 176, 237
electronic structure 1415, 198199
electrostatic stabilisation 210
EleyRideal mechanism 162,
215216
Subject Index
emulsions 195198
rhodium nanoparticles for
biphasic
hydrogenation 105108
chiral diphosphite
ligands 6365, 68
cis/trans isomerism 22, 23,
146, 147
hydrogenation
reactions 5051, 8889, 90,
106107
optically-active ammonium
salts 106, 107, 108
plasmonic
roll-over trans diastereoisomer
formation 104
stereoselective arylated alkene
products 134
steric hindrance 106, 107, 108,
141
encapsulation 21, 196
endocrine disruptors 104
energy-dispersive X-ray
spectroscopy-scanning electron
microscopy (EDX-SEM)
mapping 175, 176
environmentally-friendly processes
reactions 112
environmental
remediation 244246
green solvents 99
enzymes 7, 194, 195, 197198
eosin Y 180, 182, 183, 184, 185
epoxidation 39
equilibrium constant K 203204
equilibrium shapes of
nanocrystals 11
Et3N (triethylamine) base 144
ethane 1516, 2122, 243, 244
ethyl-4-iodobenzoate 140
ethylene 14, 22, 243
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Subject Index
ethylpyruvate
europium (Eu) 161, 162, 163
ex situ conditions 12
excitons 14, 15
extended X-ray absorption fine
structure (EXAFS) 124
Fehling test 212
Fermi energy levels 173, 210
field emission scanning electron
micrographs (FESEM) 237
finely-divided material structure
sensitivity factors 916
Fisher carbene complexes 129
flavylium cations 37
9-fluorene 242
9-fluorenone 242
fluorine removal 19
fluorocarbon-hydrocarbon
solvent 145
fluorohydrocarbon solvent 144
Fourier transform infrared (FTIR)
spectra 185187
free radical dye photodegradation
mechanism 180181
free-standing membranes 237
fuel cells 223227
functional group transfer
hydrogenation 8396
aldehydes reductive
amination 9496
alkenes 8688
carbonyl compounds 8894
history 8486
functionalised silica materials 125
furfural hydrogenation 78
galvanic replacement
approach 174175, 176
Gibbs law 101
gluconic acid 168, 169
glucose 168, 207
glucose oxidase 195
GnDenP-Pd nanoparticles 140, 141,
142, 143
257
gold (Au) nanocatalysts

bimetallic palladiumgold
carbon monoxide
oxidation 1819
clock reactions 207, 209
cost 84
eosin Y dye reduction by
borohydride 182, 183, 184,
185
heteropolyacid saltbased 168169
hydroxyapatite-based 164166
hydroxylated fluoridebased 166167
metal salt-based 157169
metal carbonatebased 158160
metal phosphatebased 160163
metal sulfate-based 167
micelle-based
synthesis 196197
nanocages 175, 176, 178, 179,
184185
nanocrystals
formation 17
nitrobenzene reduction
to aniline 211, 213
overview 34
PAD-PdAu/TS-1 33
water-gas shift reaction 221,
222, 229
Grignard transmetalation
reagents 114
halogenoanisoles 104
Hamiltonians 220
HAP (hydroxyapatite)-based gold
catalysts 164166
HEA (hydroxyethylammonium) 100,
101, 103
Heck coupling reaction
palladium nanoparticles
arylation of olefins 113
dendrimer-based 144145
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Heck coupling reaction (continued)

ionic polymer-ionic
liquidstabilised 147148
n-butyl acrylate/
iodobenzene
reaction 117, 118
poly(propylene imine)stabilised 145, 146, 147
helium 164
heterocoagulation technique 177
heterogeneous catalysis 1, 123124,
125
see also homogeneous/
heterogeneous catalysis
heteropolyacid salt-based gold
catalysts 168169
hexacyanoferrate(III) 21, 185187
N-hexadecyl-quicoridinium
(QCD16)+ salt 105
hexadecylamine (HDA) 5960
history of catalysis 78
palladium-catalysed
reactions 112114
transfer hydrogenation of
functional groups 8486
hollow metallic nanostructures
colloidal 172187
assembly on
substrates 176179
catalytic proposed
mechanism 185187
characteristic catalytic
behaviour 179185
synthetic
approaches 174176
holmium (Ho) 161, 162, 163
homogeneous/heterogeneous
catalysis
carboncarbon coupling using
palladium
colloidal nanocatalysis
question 173, 185
Subject Index
customised dendrimers
housing metallic
nanocatalysts 193
palladium nanoparticle
catalysis mechanism 125
homolytic pathways 241
horseradish peroxidase (HRP) 198
HPA (hydroxypropylammonium)
100, 101, 103
hybrid nanocrystal catalysis
2324
hydroformylation reactions 6769
hydrogen
see also hydrogenation
reactions
adsorption on platinum or
rhodium 14
hydrogenolysis, ethane on
rhodium 1516
production
semi-conducting
anastase-type titanium
dioxide
photocatalysis 345
watergas shift
reaction 221223,
228230
transfer reduction
aldehydes 9496
alkenes 8688
carbonyl
compounds 8894
hydrogen peroxide
BrayLiebhafsky
reaction 205206
BriggsRauscher
reaction 206207
formation
coreshell
nanostructured
catalyst 4244
cyclooctene
epoxidation 39
PAD-PdAu/TS-1 33
hydrogenation reactions 5060
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Subject Index
biphasic
hydrogenation 99109
carbon materials as
supports 7576
reactions 78
ethylpyruvate asymmetric
ligand-stabilised nanoparticles
as colloidal catalysts 5052
peptide-capped palladium
silica supports 7172
surfactant-supported
nanoreactor structures 196
transfer hydrogenation of
functional groups 8396
hydrophobichydrophilic
structures 195198
hydrothermal synthesis 19, 237238
hydroxyapatite-based gold
catalysts 164166
2-hydroxychalcon derivatives 37
hydroxyethylammonium (HEA) 100,
101, 103
hydroxyl-terminated PAMAM
dendrimers 126, 127, 139140,
147
hydroxylated fluoride-based gold
catalysts 166167
4-hydroxyphenyl iodide 141
hydroxypropylammonium
(HPA) 100, 101, 103
ICP-AES (inductively coupled
plasma-atomic emission
spectroscopy) 138
imidazolinium-based ionic
polymers 129, 136
imines 95, 165, 240
immobilisation inside
dendrimers 145, 146
in situ conditions 12, 193
inactive outer surfaces 180182
259
inactive supports 161, 162

incipient wetness technique 31
inductively coupled plasma-atomic
emission spectroscopy (ICPAES) 138
industrial catalysis 1, 2, 6, 31
inner walls of hollow
iodate/iodine clock reactions 204,
205207
4-iodoacetophenone 128
iodoanisole 120, 121, 122, 123
iodobenzene
n-butyl acrylate Heck coupling
reaction 117, 118, 145
methylacrylate Heck coupling
reaction 146
phenylboronic acid Suzuki
coupling reaction 134, 135,
139140
4-iodobenzoic acid
Stille coupling reaction 126,
127
4-biphenylbenzoic acid
conversion 128
phenyltin
trichloride 131, 133
iodoferrocene 143
4-iodophenol 127
2-iodothiophene 135
p-iodotoluene 118
ion-exchange method 31
ionic bonds 1456
ionic liquids (ILs) 5760, 129, 136
ionic polymer-ionic liquid stabilised
palladium nanoparticle (Pd-IPIL) 147148
IONOL (2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol) 241
iridium (Ir)
cost 84
diphosphate-stabilised
nanoparticles 51
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iron (Fe)
active supports for gold
nanocatalysts 161, 162
cost 84
cyclodextrin-stabilised metal
nanoparticles 3941
FePd magnetic nanoparticle
modified with chiral BINAP
ligand 4142
FePt@Ti-SiO2 synthesis 3839
metal salt-based gold
catalysts 162
single crystal surfaces 11
isopropanol 89
isopulegol 166, 167
isotropic shapes 172
Keggin-type polyoxometallates 130,
138139, 148
ketones 93, 9496, 126
kinetics of nanocrystal formation 17
Kirkendall eect 174
Kumada reactions 113, 114
Landolt clock reaction 204
Langmuir isotherm 216
LangmuirBlodgett (LB)
technique 173, 178179
LangmuirHinshelwood
mechanism 162, 216
lanthanides (Ln) 161, 162, 163
lanthanum (La) 160, 161, 162, 163
leaching mechanisms 116126, 133,
141
lead dioxide 20
leucomethylene blue (LMB) 210,
211, 213, 214
Lewis acid sites 241
ligand stabilisers 5052, 115, 116,
144
see also individual ligand
stabilisers
limonene hydrogenation 60
lipophilic chain lengths 100, 101
liposomes 195198
lithography techniques 177
Subject Index
localised surface plasmon resonance

(LSPR) spectrum 184, 185
low-coordinated sites 221223
magnetic nanoparticle-based
multifunctional catalysts 3844
manganese oxidation 237
manganese oxide octahedral
molecular sieves 5, 235247
Mars van Krevelen mechanism
240
melting points of nanomaterials 12
membranes 117, 118, 237
memory facilitation, brain
oxygen 217
menthol 166, 167
mercury (Hg) 125
mesoporous aluminosilicate
frameworks 92, 93
mesoporous silica supports 2122
metal carbonate-based gold
catalysts 158160
nanocatalysts for oxygen
reduction reactions 223227
metal nanoparticles (MNPs)
see also individual metal
nanoparticles; noble metal
nanoparticles
organometallic
approach 4779
supported metal nanoparticle
catalysts, new synthesis
method 3137
theoretical aspects 219231
metal phosphate-based gold
catalysts 160163
heteropolyacid saltbased 168169
hydroxyapatite-based 164166
hydroxylated fluoridebased 166167
metal carbonatebased 158160
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Subject Index
metal phosphate-based 160163

metal sulfate-based 167
metal sulfate-based gold
catalysts 167
metallic hollow nanostructures,
colloidal 172187
metalloorganic complexes 4849
metalorganic frameworks
(MOFs) 180
metalsemiconductor hybrid
nanocrystals 24
3-methoxyphenylboronic acid 138
methyl orange (MO) dye 180, 181
methyl phenyl sulfide oxidation 44
methyl-2-phenylacrylate 146, 147
methyl-4-bromobenzoate 128, 129
methylacrylate 146
3-methylanisole 107, 108
4-methylbiphenyl compounds 130
methylene blue
ascorbate ion redox
reaction 211, 212
brain oxygen 217
clock reaction 210215
OMS-2 degradation 244
N-methylephedrine 105
N-methylprolinol 105
micelles
cationic/anionic/neutral 212
emulsion interfaces 198
formation 101
nanoreactors 103, 195198
MichaelisMenton kinetics 198
microgels 194195
microwave-assisted deposition
method 3435
mobility of surface adsorbates 14
molecular brush structure 195
molybdenum-doped catalysts 244
montmorillonite K10 87, 88, 92
morphology see shape
multifunctional magnetic
nanoparticle-based catalysts 3844
myrcene 7172
261
N-heterocyclic carbenes (NHC) 5152

nanocluster exclusion process 117,
118, 119
nanocrystals 11, 1617, 18
see also crystallinity
nanogels 197
nanoparticle networks (NPNs) 130,
131
nanoparticle-mediated clock
reactions 203217
nanoreactor catalysis 192199
absorbing nanocatalyst surface
type 198199
block copolymers 196, 197, 198
cage eect 172187
carbon nanotubes 198199
dendrimers 193194
emulsions 198
micelles 198
microgels 194195
polymer coreshell
structures 195
steric/structural
eects 193198
surfactant-supported
structures 195198
nanosphere lithography (NSL) 177
naphthylboronic acid 41
natural catalysts 7
Negishi reactions 113, 114
NEt3 base 135136, 140
NHC (N-heterocyclic carbenes) 5152
nickel hydride 85
nickel (Ni) nanocatalysts
aldehyde hydrogen-transfer
amination 9496
alkene hydrogen-transfer
reduction 8688
carbonyl compound hydrogentransfer reduction 8894
cores in silica shells 91, 92
cost 84
functional group transfer
hydrogenation 8396
Ni@SiO2 yolkshell
nanocatalysts 9192
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262
nickel (Ni) nanocatalysts (continued)

NiCl2-Li-DTBB 85
NiCl2.2H2O-Li-arene 84, 85
PAD-PdNi/Ti-HMS catalyst 343
para-nitro-substituted aryl
bromides 145
nitrobenzene 211, 213
nitrogen 3435
p-nitrophenol 23, 35
4-nitrophenol 180, 183184, 185
p-nitrophenyl diphenyl
phosphate 198
nobility of metals 207
noble metal nanoparticles
see also individual noble metals
organometallic synthetic
approach 4779
overview 3
for supported catalysis 6978
transfer hydrogenation 8396
tunability 172
NSL (nanosphere lithography) 177
numerical basis sets 220
octahedral molecular sieves (OMS-2)
23547
octylamine 5960
olefins (alkenes)
cistrans isomerism in
platinum catalysts
studies 22, 23
hydrogen-transfer
reduction 8688
hydrogenation using silicasupported noble metal
nanoparticles 7172
palladium-catalysed
arylation 113
selective oxidation 239241
oleic acid 40, 41, 42
oleylamine 40, 41, 42
OMS-2 (octahedral molecular
sieves) 235427
one-pot hydrogen peroxide
formation 4244
Subject Index
optical activity see enantiocontrol/

selectivity
organic functional groups transfer
hydrogenation 8396
organic ligands for supported metal
nanoparticle catalysts 31
organoboranes 134
organomagnesium 113
organometallic approach
synthesis 4779
colloidal catalysis 4969
supported
catalysis 6978
organostannane reagents 126
organozinc 113
ORRs (oxidation reduction
reactions) 183184
oscillating chemical
reactions 203217
outer walls of hollow
oxazoline-stabilised ruthenium
nanoparticles 5051
oxidation reactions
carbon materials as
supports 7678
carbon monoxide 157167
oxidation on Au/LaPO3 162
cyclohexane aerobic
oxidation 165
reactions 78
glucose 168
selective with OMS-2 23941
silica supports 715
oxidative addition 121, 122, 123
oxide binary catalytic
compounds 212
oxide layer formation in surface
restructuring 12
oxime tandem synthesis with
imines 165
4-oxo-2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine1-oxyl (TEMPO) 241
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Subject Index
oxo-metal formation 241

oxygen
binding energy for 225, 226
colorimetric indicator 217
consumption during memory
formation 217
palladium (Pd) nanocatalysts
benzyl alcohol oxidation 7678
reactions 3, 112149
Heck reaction 144148
overview 112115
reaction
mechanism 116126
Stille reaction 126134
Suzuki reaction 134144
chiral diphosphite ligands 6365
coreshell structures 4244,
195, 223227
cost 84
crystal structure 119123
fabrication methods 115116
FePd magnetic nanoparticle
modified with chiral BINAP
ligand 4142
nanocages 175, 176
Pd/SiO2@TiMSS 43, 44
Pd(core)Pt(shell) NPs 223227
Pd(OAc)2 124125, 128
PdPt alloy 183184
polymer coreshell
structures 195
polymer nanotubes with PdRh
nanoparticles 196
PVP-stabilised 21, 22, 134
pyrazole ligands 6567
reversible redox reactions 207
silica-supported for myrcene
hydrogenation 7172
supported 32, 33, 7172
263
PAMAM (poly(amido amine))

dendrimers 126, 127, 139140,
147
PANI (polyaniline)
nanofibres 136137, 138
paraformaldehyde 243
PC (propylene carbonate) 144
Pd-IP-IL (ionic polymer-ionic liquid
stabilised palladium
nanoparticle) 147148
Pd4(TSNAVHPTLRHL) 12-mer
peptide 132133
PDMS (polydimethyl siloxane)
polymer 245
PEG (polyethylene glycol) 129,
135136, 147
peptide-capped palladium
perfluorinated polyether-derivatised
PPI DENs 144
perfluoro-2,5,8,11-tetramethyl3,6,9,12-tetraoxapentadecanoyl
perfluoropolyether 146
perthiolated cyclodextrin (b-SH-CD)
143
petroleum industry 237, 2413, 2446
pH 36, 197
phage display 132
phenol removal from
wastewater 244
phenylboronic acid
reactions 134135, 136, 138,
139, 140, 141
iodoanisole reaction 120, 121,
123
p-iodotoluene reaction 118
4-phenylnitrobenzene 139
4-phenylphenol 127
2-phenylthiophene 135
phenyltin trichloride 126, 127, 131,
132, 133
4-phenyltoluene 139
phenyltributylstannane 128, 129
phosphine-based dendrimers 140,
141
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264
photo-assisted deposition (PAD)

method 3134, 343
photo-induced assembly-dispersion
control 37
photocatalytic reactions 3134,
180181
photodegradation, dyes 180181
pi-electrons 194
plane-wave basis sets 220
plasma jets 216
plasmon absorption 208
plasmonic nanocatalysts 184185
platinum alloys 183184
platinum dioxide layers 13
platinum fuel cells 223227
platinum (Pt) nanocatalysts
nanocages 175, 176
nanoclusters 243
nanocrystals
cyclodextrinstabilised 3941
FePt@Ti-SiO2
synthesis 3839
formation 17
shape control 2123
titanium dioxide 20
nanocubes 178
nanoparticles
nanostructures
mechanism 185187
Pd(core)Pt(shell) 223227
PTA-stabilised 5254
titanium-containing
mesoporous silica
platform 34
Pt/CeO2 catalysed 228230
Pt(110) single crystals 1213
PNIPA (poly(Nisopropylacrylamide)) 195
PNIPA-b-P4VP (poly(Nisopropylacrylamide)-b-poly(4vinyl pyridine)) 196197
polar carbon nanotube walls 199
polar heads 100
Subject Index
poly(amido amine) (PAMAM)

dendrimers 126, 127, 139140,
147
polyaniline (PANI)
nanofibres 136137, 138
polydimethyl siloxane (PDMS)
polymer 245
polyethylene glycol (PEG) 129,
135136, 147
polyhedra crystals 910
polymers
see also dendrimers; individual
polymers
block copolymers 135, 196,
197, 198
microgels 194195
polymer coreshell
structures 195
polymer templates 177
polymer-stabilised palladium
nanoparticles 123, 136
polymersomes 197198
poly(N-isopropylacrylamide)
(PNIPA) 195
poly(N-isopropylacrylamide)-bpoly(4-vinyl pyridine) (PNIPA-bP4VP) 196197
poly(N-isopropylacrylamide-co-1vinylimidazole) 198
poly(N-vinylcaprolactam-co-1vinylimidazole) 198
polyoxometallates 130, 138139
poly(propylene imine) (PPI)
dendrimers 144145, 146, 147
polystyrene polymer bead
support 177, 178
polystyrene-b-poly(sodium acrylate)
(PS-b-PANa) 135
polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) 21, 22,
134, 177, 178
pore sizes 181, 194
porous cryptomelane-type
manganese oxide octahedral
porous metal nanocatalysts see
hollow metallic nanostructures
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Subject Index
potassium bisulfate 167

potassium bromate 205
PPI (poly(propylene imine))
dendrimers 144145, 146, 147
precatalysts for Stille coupling
reaction 127128
prices of transition metals 84
prismatic templates 177
prochiral arenes 107108
2-propanol 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 95
propylene carbonate (PC) 144
protected catalytic environments see
nanoreactor catalysis
protective agents see stabilising
agents
proton pumps 198
PTA (1,3,5-triaza-7-phosphaadamantane) 5254
pushpull reduction method 208
PVP (polyvinylpyrrolidone) 21, 22,
134, 177, 178
pyrazole ligands 6567
pyridine N-oxides 165
pyridyl chloride 137
pyrrole hydrogenation 22
quantum confinement 14, 15
quantum dots 15
quantum mechanical methods 220
quaternary hydroxylated ammonium
salts 105
quinoxalines 240
R5 peptide (Cylindrotheca
fusiformis) 130, 131, 132
Raney nickel 86, 88, 95
rate/mass of catalyst relationship 7
reaction mechanisms
carbon monoxide oxidation on
Au/LaPO3 162
micelle-based 196197
reactive crystal facets 1921
265
recyclability
bacterial cellulose-stabilised
challenge 176177
dendrimer-based
materials 127, 140, 141, 145
imidazolinium-based ionic
polymer-stabilised
palladium
nanoparticles 130
palladium-PANI
redox reactions 203217
reducing agents 203217
reduction pathways 182183, 184,
185
reductive amination of
aldehydes 9496
reporting standards 89
reverse micelles 93, 197
reverse water-gas shift reaction
(RWGS) 244
rhodium (Rh) nanocatalysts
for biphasic
hydrogenation 99109
cost 84
nanoparticles 51
ethane hydrogenolysis 1516
hydroformylation
reactions 6769
particle atomic
restructuring 14
polymer nanotubes with PdRh
nanoparticles 196
protective agents 100, 101, 103
Rh/TPPTS catalyst 196
rhodium/palladium
systems 13, 196
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266
rhodium (Rh) nanocatalysts

(continued)
rhodium/silicon dioxide
catalyst for ethane
hydrogenolysis 1516
roll-over trans diastereoisomer
formation 104
roughened surfaces 16, 179
ruthenium (Ru) nanocatalysts
alumina as support for
hydrogenation/oxidation
reactions 7071
benzyl alcohol oxidation 7678
carbene-stabilised ruthenium
nanoparticles 5152
carbon monoxide/benzyl
alcohol oxidation 7275
carbonyl compounds
hydrogen-transfer
reduction 88
confinement properties of
ionic liquids 5760
cost 84
nanoparticles 51
nanocrystals
alkylamine ligands 18
formation 17
oxazoline-stabilised
nanoparticles 5051
PTA-stabilised 5254
Ru/APTS 6063
sulfonated diphosphinestabilised 5457
rutile nanocrystals 20
RWGS (reverse water-gas shift
reaction) 244
SAED (selected area electron
diraction) experiments 121, 122
salts see individual metal salts; metal
salt-based gold catalysts
scaold-like nature of
biomolecules 130, 131, 132
dinger equation 220
Scro
SDBS (sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate) 167
Subject Index
seed-mediated techniques 136, 174

seedless methods 174
selected area electron diraction
(SAED) experiments 121, 122
selenium nanowires 214, 215
semiconductors 2, 24
see also individual
semiconductors
shape
analysis for catalyst
development 78
control/tuning
advances 23
nanostructures
172187
nanocrystal
formation 1718
OMS-2 236239
platinum
nanocrystals 2123
eects on nanoparticle catalyst
properties 220, 226227
polyhedra crystals 910
silan proteins 130
silanes 165
silica (silicon dioxide)
magnetic nanoparticles 3839,
43, 44
oxidation reactions 7275
catalysis mechanism 125
shells with nickel cores 91, 92
supports for hydrogenation
reactions 7172
titanium-containing 3134
silver (Ag) nanocatalysts
nanocubes 175, 176, 177, 178
nanoparticles
clock reactions 207, 208,
209, 210, 211
reversible formation/
dissolution 209, 210,
211
size-controlled
deposition 3537
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Subject Index
silver nitrate reduction by sodium

borohydride 209, 210
silver oxide 181, 182
single metal shelled hollow
nanoparticles 176, 183184
single-site photocatalysts 3134
size of particles 16, 220,
224226
size of pores 181, 194
size-controlled metal nanoparticles
advances 2
deposition as colloidal
precursors 3537
OMS-2 particles 238
palladium nanoparticles by
dendrimer
encapsulation 127
sodium borohydride 209, 210, 214
sodium carbonate 203
sodium dodecyl-benzenesulfonate
(SDBS) 167
sodium hydroxide 207
soil clean-up 244, 245, 246
solgel method 92
solids
electronic structure
change 1415
solid supports
gold nanocatalysts 158
immobilisation 116
solid/hollow nanocatalysts
comparison 182183
solvent-controlled swelling/
heterocoagulation technique 177
Sonogashira reactions 113, 114
spectroscopic studies
ambient pressure X-ray
photoelectron
spectroscopy 13
cage eect 185187
energy-dispersive X-ray
spectroscopy-scanning
electron microscopy
mapping 175, 176
Fourier transform infrared
spectra 185187
267
inductively coupled plasmaatomic emission

spectroscopy 138
localised surface plasmon
resonance spectrum 184,
185
X-ray diraction 8
stabilising agents
3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane
6063
biphasic hydrogenation 100
chiral diphosphite
ligands 6365
electrostatic stabilisation 210
synthesis 49, 5960
palladium
synthesis 115, 116
problem-solving 173
steric stabilisation 209
sulfonated diphosphine
5457
1,3,5,-triaza-7-phosphaadamantane 5254
standards, data reporting 89
stereoselectivity see enantiocontrol/
selectivity
steric eects
hindrance 106, 107, 108, 141
nanoreactor catalysis
193198
stabilisation 209
Stille coupling reaction
Cylindrotheca fusiformis
R5 peptide-templated
synthesis 130, 131, 132
dendrimerencapsulated 126, 127
dendrimerstabilised 128129
imidazolinium-based
ionic polymerstabilised 129130
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268
Stille coupling reaction (continued)

Keggin-type
polyoxometallates 130
Pd4 peptidecapped 132133
strong metal/support
interaction 228
structural eects 3, 193198
structure-sensitive/insensitive
reactions 816
styrene
bromotoluene reaction 148
derivatives transferhydrogenation 8687
hydroformylation with
diphosphite-stabilised
rhodium nanoparticles 69
hydrogenation 60
ruthenium/sulfonated
diphosphine aqueous
colloidal solutions 56
selective epoxidation 165
substrates for assembly of colloidal
metallic hollow
sulfate sources 167
sulfite 204
sulfonated diphosphines 52, 5457
sulfoxides 165
sulfuric acid 211
supercritical carbon dioxide
(scCO2) 146
supported catalysis
active supports 161, 162
carbon material
supports 7678
organometallic approach to
metal nanoparticle
synthesis 48, 6978
theoretical aspects 227230
surface aspects
adsorbate mobility 14
crystal facets
atom arrangements 11
free energy 11
Subject Index
plane orientation in cubooctahedron 11

plasmon absorption 207, 208
restructuring 1214
sites in platinum catalyst
studies 22
surface area in cage eect 181
surface-to-volume ratio 179
surfactants 18, 99109, 195198
Suzuki coupling reaction
atom-leaching
mechanism 123, 124
bacterial cellulosestabilised 138
block copolymerstabilised 135
bromobenzene/
phenylboronic
acid 134, 135
dendrimerencapsulated 139
dendrimerstabilised 140143
imidazolium-based ionic
polymer-stabilised 136
iodoanisole/phenylboronic
acid 120, 121, 123
iodoferrocene/
phenylboronic acid
stable inclusion
complexes 143
Keggin-type
polyoxometallates
138139
PANI-stabilised 136, 137
PEG-stabilised 135136
perthiolated cyclodextrin
as surface passivant 143
phenylboronic acid/piodotoluene
reaction 118
PVP-stabilised 134
reaction
mechanism 123124
seed-mediated nanoparticle
synthesis methods 136
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Subject Index
polymer coreshell
structures 195
single/double shell hollow
nanocatalysts
comparison 183184
SuzukiMiyaura coupling
reaction 41, 65
SXRD (UHV-high-pressure surface
X-ray diraction) 13
synthesis methods
micelle-based 196197
multifunctional magnetic
nanoparticle-based
catalysts 3844
noble metal nanoparticles,
organometallic
approach 4779
overview 3
porous cryptomelane-type
manganese oxide
octahedral molecular
sieves 236239
supported gold
nanocatalysts 158
supported metal nanoparticle
catalysts 3137
templating methods 23
titanium dioxide nanocrystals
with reactive facets 19
well-defined
nanocrystals 1618
templating methods
hollow metallic nanocatalyst
synthesis 174
nanocrystal synthesis 23
R5 peptide (Cylindrotheca
fusiformis) 130, 131, 132
TEMPO (4-oxo-2,2,6,6tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl) 241
tetraalkylammonium salts 144
tetrabutylammonium salts 129, 134
tetrabutylphenylstannane 130
tetraheptylammonium bromide 130
tetrahydrofuran solution 49
269
tetrakis(triphenylphosphine) 134
tetraphenyltin 130
THEA (trishydroxyethylammonium)
100, 101, 103
theoretical aspects of metal
computational
method 219231
copper nanocatalysts for
water-gas shift
reactions 221223
nanocatalysts for oxygen
supported
types of metal
thermolysis 144
thiazine groupd 210
thiols 239
2-thiopheneboronic acid 135, 139
thiosulfate 21, 185187
time-of-flight (TOF) 1516
tin reagents
CC coupling reactions 113,
114
organostannane
reagents 126
phenyltin
trichloride 126, 127,
131, 132, 133
tetrabutylphenylstannane
130
tetraphenyltin 130
tributyl(phenyl)stannane
128, 129
titanium (Ti)
FePt@Ti-SiO2 synthesis 3839
mesoporous silicas 3134
Pd/SiO2@TiMSS 43, 44
titanium dioxide 1921, 31, 32,
22930
zeolites 3134
toluene 5960, 145, 159
p-tolylboronic acid 139140
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270
transfer hydrogenation
aldehydes 9496
alkenes 8688
carbonyl compounds 8894
overview 3
transition metals 84
see also individual transition
metals
transmission electron microscopy
(TEM) 102, 118, 175, 176
trapped holes 2021, 32
1,3,5-triaza-7-phosphaadamantane
(PTA) 5254
1,2,3-triazolylsulfonate
dendrimers 140
tributyl(phenyl)stannane 128, 129
3,4,5-triethoxybenzoyl chloride 145
triethylamine (Et3N) base 144
trimethyltetradecylammonium
bromide (TTAB) 177
trishydroxyethylammonium
(THEA) 100, 101, 103
TTAB (trimethyltetradecylammonium
bromide) 177
tuning 194, 195, 212
turnover frequency (TOF)
anomalous behaviour of
ethane hydrogenolysis on
rhodium 1516
carboncarbon coupling using
dendrimer-stabilised palladium
palladium nanoparticlecatalysed Suzuki reaction 124
Pd(core)Pt(shell)
nanoparticles 225
reporting standards 89
turnover number (TON) 147
two-compartment reactors 117126
two-electron reduction 182, 183,
184, 185
Subject Index
UHV-high-pressure surface X-ray

diraction (SXRD) 13
ultraviolet (UV)-activated
colorimetric oxygen indicator 217
VASP plane-wave basis sets 220
voids in hollow nanostructures
180
wastewater treatment 244
water dissocation 229
water purification using clock
reactions 216
water-based synthesis
biphasic
hydrogenation 99109
microgels 194195
catalysts 129
watergas shift (WGS) reactions 164,
221223, 228230
water-soluble nanoparticles 3941,
52
waterethanol solvent 140, 148
well-defined nanocrystal synthesis/
properties 1618
wetness impregnation 16
Wul construction 11
X-ray diraction 8
yolkshell nanocatalysts 9192,
180182
zeolites 314, 192193
zeta potential (z) 102
zinc 161, 162, 229
zirconium phosphate 160

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Published on 12 June 2014 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781782621034-FP001

Metal Nanoparticles for Catalysis

Advances and Applications

RSC Catalysis Series

Professor James J Spivey, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, USA

Titles in the Series:

Carbons and Carbon Supported Catalysts in Hydroprocessing

How to obtain future titles on publication:

For further information please contact:

Metal Nanoparticles for

RSC Catalysis Series No. 17

RSC Catalysis Series No. 17

RSC Catalysis Series No. 17

Advanced Templating Methods for

Chapter 3 New Strategies to Fabricate Nanostructured Colloidal and

Ionic Liquid Stabilized

Asymmetric Nanocatalysis: a Great Challenge

Chapter 7 Pd Nanoparticles in CC Coupling Reactions

Comparing the Activity of Hollow and Solid

Chapter 11 Nanoparticle Mediated Clock Reaction: a Redox

11.4.3 Novel UV-activated Colorimetric Oxygen

Chapter 13 Porous Cryptomelane-type Manganese Oxide Octahedral

Introduction: Synthesis and

Heterogeneous catalysis is critical for chemical and energy transformations.

RSC Catalysis Series No. 17

and ex situ conditions and the heterogeneity of an industrial catalyst in

Introduction: Synthesis and Catalysis on Metal Nanoparticles

Introduction: Synthesis and Catalysis on Metal Nanoparticles

spectacular achievements have been obtained. Theoretical studies are able

Nanocatalysis: Definition and

Nanocatalysis: Definition and Case Studies

Most catalysis occurs between a substrate and a catalyst in which the

Flash Synopsis of the History of Catalysis3

The utility of catalysts should be instantly recognizable, and should motivate

dierent activities. The use of electron microscopy and X-ray diraction

Reporting Turnover Frequency: the Common

The activity of a catalyst should be defined in a way that allows comparison

Nanocatalysis: Definition and Case Studies

and turnover frequency of a structure-insensitive reaction. If electron

2.2 Factors Contributing to Structure Sensitivity in

Statistical Shape Analysis of Polyhedra Crystals and

It is rather intuitive to suppose that a nanocrystal with a cubic shape always

Statistical shape analysis of particles with cubo-octahedron shape.

Nanocatalysis: Definition and Case Studies

Equilibrium Shapes of Nanocrystals

Nanocatalysis: Definition and Case Studies

reconstruction in which random rows of apex atoms were missing, resulting

Atomic restructuring was found to occur within a sample of 1.3 nm Rh

Mobility of Surface Adsorbates

Platinum and rhodium catalyze ethylene hydrogenation with high TOF;

Change in the Electronic Structure of Solids at the

The interaction between light and matter (spectroscopy) is fundamentally

Nanocatalysis: Definition and Case Studies

Example to Illustrate Anomalous TOF Behavior: Ethane

were observed, when reduction temperatures of 400 1C and 500 1C were

2.3 Synthesis and Properties of Well-defined

Nanocatalysis: Definition and Case Studies

concentration should be kept low, but non-zero, to achieve size-focusing;