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3.1Newton'sBinomialTheorem
HomeGeneratingFunctionsNewton'sBinomialTheorem
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1Fundamentals
2InclusionExclusion
3GeneratingFunctions
1.Newton'sBinomialTheorem
2.ExponentialGenerating
Functions
3.PartitionsofIntegers
4.RecurrenceRelations
5.CatalanNumbers
3.1Newton'sBinomialTheorem
[Jumptoexercises]
Recallthat
n
4SystemsofDistinct
Representatives
5GraphTheory
6PlyaRedfieldCounting
n(n 1)(n 2) (n k + 1)
n!
) =
k! (n k)!
k!
Theexpressionontherightmakessenseevenifn isnotanonnegativeinteger,solongask
isanonnegativeinteger,andwethereforedefine
r(r 1)(r 2) (r k + 1)
r
(
) =
k
k!
whenrisarealnumber.Forexample,
(
1/2
) =
4
(1/2)(1/2)(3/2)(5/2)
5
=
and
128
4!
(2)(3)(4)
2
(
) =
3
3!
= 4.
Thesegeneralizedbinomialcoefficientssharesomeimportantpropertiesoftheusual
binomialcoefficients,mostnotablythat
r
(
r 1
r 1
) = (
) + (
).
k
k 1
k
(3.1.1)
Thenremarkably:
Theorem3.1.1 (Newton'sBinomialTheorem)Foranyrealnumberrthatisnotanon
negativeinteger,
(x + 1)
r
i
= ( )x
i
i=0
when1 < x < 1.
Proof.
ItisnothardtoseethattheseriesistheMaclaurinseriesfor(x + 1) ,andthattheseries
convergeswhen1 < x < 1.Itisrathermoredifficulttoprovethattheseriesisequalto
(x + 1) theproofmaybefoundinmanyintroductoryrealanalysisbooks.
r
Example3.1.2 Expandthefunction(1 x)
Wefirstconsider(x + 1)
whenn isapositiveinteger.
wecansimplifythebinomialcoefficients:
(n)(n 1)(n 2) (n
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i + 1)
(n)(n + 1) (n + i 1)
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3.1Newton'sBinomialTheorem
(n)(n 1)(n 2) (n i + 1)
(n)(n + 1) (n + i 1)
= (1)
i!
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1Fundamentals
(n + i 1)!
= (1)
i! (n 1)!
2InclusionExclusion
3GeneratingFunctions
1.Newton'sBinomialTheorem
2.ExponentialGenerating
Functions
3.PartitionsofIntegers
4.RecurrenceRelations
5.CatalanNumbers
4SystemsofDistinct
Representatives
5GraphTheory
i!
n + i 1
= (1) (
n + i 1
) = (1) (
).
n 1
Thus
n + i 1
= (1) (
(x + 1)
)x
n 1
i=0
n + i 1
= (
)(x) .
n 1
i=0
Nowreplacingxbyxgives
6PlyaRedfieldCounting
n + i 1
= (
(1 x)
i=0
So(1 x)
isthegeneratingfunctionfor(
{ 1, 2, , n} ofsizei.
n
)x .
n 1
n+i1
n1
,thenumberofsubmultisetsof
Inmanycasesitispossibletodirectlyconstructthegeneratingfunctionwhosecoefficients
solveacountingproblem.
Example3.1.3 Findthenumberofsolutionstox + x
0 x 2 ,0 x 5 ,0 x 5 ,2 x 6 .
1
+ x3 + x4 = 17
,where
Wecanofcoursesolvethisproblemusingtheinclusionexclusionformula,butweuse
generatingfunctions.Considerthefunction
2
(1 + x + x )(1 + x + x
+ x
+ x
+ x )(1 + x + x
+ x
+ x
+ x )(x
+ x
+ x
+ x
+ x ).
Wecanmultiplythisoutbychoosingonetermfromeachfactorinallpossibleways.Ifwe
thencollectliketerms,thecoefficientofx willbethenumberofwaystochooseoneterm
fromeachfactorsothattheexponentsofthetermsadduptok .Thisispreciselythenumber
ofsolutionstox + x + x + x = k,where0 x 2 ,0 x 5 ,0 x 5 ,
2 x 6 .Thus,theanswertotheproblemisthecoefficientofx
.Withthehelpofa
computeralgebrasystemweget
k
17
(1 + x + x )(1 +x + x
=
18
+ x
17
+ 4x
9
+67x
+ x
16
+ 10x
8
15
+ 19x
7
+ 58x
+ x ) (x
+ 45x
+ x
+ x
14
13
+ 31x
6
+ 31x
+ x
+ 45x
5
+ 19x
+ 10x
+ x )
12
+ 58x
3
11
+ 67x
10
+ 70x
+ 4x
+ x ,
sotheansweris4.
Example3.1.4 Findthegeneratingfunctionforthenumberofsolutionsto
x + x + x + x = k,where0 x ,0 x 5 ,0 x 5 ,2
1
x4 6
Thisisjustlikethepreviousexampleexceptthatx isnotboundedabove.Thegenerating
functionisthus
1
f (x) = (1 + x + x
1
= (1 x)
+ )(1 + x + x
2
(1 + x + x
2
(1 + x + x
+ x
+ x
4
+ x
+ x
4
+ x
5
+ x
+ x ) (x
2
+ x ) (x
+ x ) (x
+ x
+ x
4
+ x
+ x
+ x
5
+ x
+ x
5
+ x
+ x
+ x )
+ x )
+ x )
.
1 x
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3.1Newton'sBinomialTheorem
Notethat(1 x)
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1Fundamentals
= (1 + x + x
+ )
isthefamiliargeometricseriesfromcalculus
alternately,wecoulduseexample3.1.2.Unlikethefunctioninthepreviousexample,this
functionhasaninfiniteexpansion:
2InclusionExclusion
2
f (x) = x
3GeneratingFunctions
1.Newton'sBinomialTheorem
2.ExponentialGenerating
Functions
3.PartitionsofIntegers
4.RecurrenceRelations
5.CatalanNumbers
4SystemsofDistinct
Representatives
5GraphTheory
6PlyaRedfieldCounting
+ 4x
9
+102x
10
+ 125x
15
+179x
+ 10x
+ 20x
11
+ 145x
16
+ 35x
12
+ 160x
17
+ 180x
+ 180x
+ 55x
+ 78x
13
+ 170x
18
+ 180x
19
+ 180x
14
+ 176x
20
+ 180x
+ .
HereishowtodothisinSage.
Example3.1.5 Findageneratingfunctionforthenumberofsubmultisetsof
{ a, b, c} inwhichthereareanoddnumberofa s,anevennumberofbs,and
anynumberofcs.Aswehaveseen,thisisthesameasthenumberofsolutionsto
x + x + x = ninwhichx isodd,x iseven,andx isunrestricted.Thegenerating
functionistherefore
1
(x + x
+ x
+ )(1 + x
+ x
+ )(1 + x + x
= x(1 + (x ) + (x )
+ (x )
+ x
+ )
2
+ )(1 + (x ) + (x )
+ (x )
1
+ )
1 x
x
=
(1 x ) (1 x)
Exercises3.1
Forsomeoftheseexercises,youmaywanttousethesageappletabove,inexample3.1.4,or
yourfavoritecomputeralgebrasystem.
Ex3.1.1Provethat(
) = (
r1
) + (
k1
r1
k
Ex3.1.2ShowthattheMaclaurinseriesfor(x + 1) is
i=0
( )x
i
Ex3.1.3Concerningexample3.1.4,showthatallcoefficientsbeginningwithx are180.
16
Ex3.1.4Useageneratingfunctiontofindthenumberofsolutionsto
x + x + x + x = 14,where0 x 3 ,2 x 5 ,0 x 5 ,4
1
Ex3.1.5Findthegeneratingfunctionforthenumberofsolutionsto
x + x + x + x = k,where0 x ,3 x ,2 x
1
x4 6
,1
x4 5
Ex3.1.6Findageneratingfunctionforthenumberofnonnegativeintegersolutionsto
3x + 2y + 7z = n.
Ex3.1.7Supposewehavealargesupplyofred,white,andblueballoons.Howmany
differentbunchesof10balloonsarethere,ifeachbunchmusthaveatleastoneballoonof
eachcolorandthenumberofwhiteballsmustbeeven?
Ex3.1.8Usegeneratingfunctionstoshowthateverypositiveintegercanbewrittenin
exactlyonewayasasumofdistinctpowersof2.
Ex3.1.9Supposewehavealargesupplyofblueandgreencandles,andonegoldcandle.
Howmanycollectionsofn candlesarethereinwhichthenumberofbluecandlesiseven,
thenumberofgreencandlesisanynumber,andthenumberofgoldcandlesisatmostone?
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